\\n\\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\\n\\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"Highly Cited",originalUrl:"/media/original/117"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'IntechOpen is proud to announce that 191 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nThroughout the years, the list has named a total of 261 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\nReleased this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
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The contents of the book will be written by multiple authors and edited by experts in the field.",isbn:null,printIsbn:null,pdfIsbn:null,doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"a9489219325325fc74e75df4e25d4fbd",bookSignature:"",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10461.jpg",keywords:null,numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"April 14th 2020",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"May 5th 2020",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"July 4th 2020",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"September 22nd 2020",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"November 21st 2020",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"2 years",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:1,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:null,coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"20",title:"Physics",slug:"physics"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"8356",title:"Metastable, Spintronics Materials and Mechanics of Deformable Bodies",subtitle:"Recent Progress",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"1550f1986ce9bcc0db87d407a8b47078",slug:"solid-state-physics-metastable-spintronics-materials-and-mechanics-of-deformable-bodies-recent-progress",bookSignature:"Subbarayan Sivasankaran, Pramoda Kumar Nayak and Ezgi Günay",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8356.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"190989",title:"Dr.",name:"Subbarayan",surname:"Sivasankaran",slug:"subbarayan-sivasankaran",fullName:"Subbarayan Sivasankaran"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophile",surname:"Theophanides",slug:"theophile-theophanides",fullName:"Theophile Theophanides"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"371",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",subtitle:"Mechanisms and Adaptations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"588466f487e307619849d72389178a74",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-mechanisms-and-adaptations",bookSignature:"Arun Shanker and B. Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"314",title:"Regenerative Medicine and Tissue Engineering",subtitle:"Cells and Biomaterials",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"bb67e80e480c86bb8315458012d65686",slug:"regenerative-medicine-and-tissue-engineering-cells-and-biomaterials",bookSignature:"Daniel Eberli",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/314.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"6495",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniel",surname:"Eberli",slug:"daniel-eberli",fullName:"Daniel Eberli"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"57",title:"Physics and Applications of Graphene",subtitle:"Experiments",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0e6622a71cf4f02f45bfdd5691e1189a",slug:"physics-and-applications-of-graphene-experiments",bookSignature:"Sergey Mikhailov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/57.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"16042",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergey",surname:"Mikhailov",slug:"sergey-mikhailov",fullName:"Sergey Mikhailov"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1373",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Applications and Perspectives",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5e9ae5ae9167cde4b344e499a792c41c",slug:"ionic-liquids-applications-and-perspectives",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1373.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"2270",title:"Fourier Transform",subtitle:"Materials Analysis",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5e094b066da527193e878e160b4772af",slug:"fourier-transform-materials-analysis",bookSignature:"Salih Mohammed Salih",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2270.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"111691",title:"Dr.Ing.",name:"Salih",surname:"Salih",slug:"salih-salih",fullName:"Salih Salih"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"72214",title:"Diffusion Theory for Cell Membrane Fluorescence Microscopy",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.91845",slug:"diffusion-theory-for-cell-membrane-fluorescence-microscopy",body:'Diffusion is an idealization of the random motion of one or more particles in space. Since diffusion is a dominant way for biological organisms to transport various molecules to desirable locations for cell signaling, the role of diffusion within biological systems is critical [1, 2, 3]. Therefore, to quantify the diffusion coefficient, a measure of diffusion rates, is essential to understand both the physiology and pathology of cells in terms of cell signaling time scales [1, 2, 3]. Moreover, the diffusion coefficients of proteins may also provide information on the landscape of the membrane environment where diffusion occurs [4, 5, 6]. However, quantifying the diffusion especially in live cell membranes is still challenging although a couple of tools are available including fluorescence recovery after photobleaching (FRAP) and fluorescence correlation spectroscopy (FCS) [7, 8]. Diffusion is quantified by a diffusion coefficient,
In 1855, Fick [11] published two cornerstone papers on diffusion, in which he proposed the fundamental laws describing the transport of mass due to the concentration gradient and an associated mathematical model. According to Fick’s first law, the diffusive flux (
where
where
where
The change in the number of molecules in an intestinal interval due to diffusion.
By combining Eqs. (1) and (3) and by taking the limit in
Eq. (4) is often referred to as the one-dimensional diffusion equation or heat equation. Similarly, two-dimensional (
In a more compact form, the diffusion equations are written using the Laplace operator,
where
Importantly, the diffusion equation satisfies the following important properties:
Based on these properties, we are now ready to solve the following initial value problem on
where
By
which reduces to an ordinary differential equation
for arbitrary constants
where we used a well-known identity (the error function integral):
On the other hand, since as
which implies that
Define
By
The heat kernel graphs for different
From Figure 2, we can see that the heat kernel
Also, from the error function integration (Eq. (14))
Furthermore, it follows that (i)
From the definition (
Even though
where
The third integration property is sometimes called the
To show
In other words, this result (Eq. (19)) indicates that for any initial value problem, the solution can easily be found as a convolution of the heat kernel and initial data.
In many biological systems, passive transports are often described by Brownian motion or diffusion that is observed in random drifting of pollen grains suspended in a fluid. Suppose a Brownian particle located at the position
If we let
assuming the initial location is the origin (
where
If
which has the solution
as in Eq. (19).
The spreading rate of diffusing particles is quantified by a diffusion coefficient,
For a diffusion process, MSD increases linearly in time with the rate of the diffusion coefficient:
where
where we used Eq. (17). Notice that by the product rule
By solving for
Next, by integration by parts
Finally, by putting all together
for
Fluorescence recovery after photobleaching is a fluorescence-based biophysical tool developed in the 1970s to investigate the diffusion process in membranes of live cells. Discovery of the green fluorescent protein (GFP) and the invention of commercial confocal laser scanning microscopes (CLSMs) have broadened the accessibility of FRAP for many researchers in the field, and the applications of FRAP have become widely extended to the study of intracellular protein dynamics [15, 16, 17, 18]. Over the four decades, there have been considerable advances in microscope technology. However, the basic principle of FRAP remains the same. In FRAP, fluorescently tagged molecules in a small region of interest (ROI) are irreversibly photobleached using a high-intensity laser source for a short period of time, and then the exchange of fluorescence and photobleached molecules in and out of the bleached region is monitored using low-intensity laser excitation to track fluorescence recovery (Figure 3A). Due to the artifacts such as the diffusion during the photobleaching step (Figure 3B) and the photofading during the imaging step, FRAP data requires some corrections (Figure 3C). The diffusion during the photobleaching step can be corrected by using the experimentally measured postbleach profile as an initial condition for the FRAP model [19, 20, 21]. On the other hand, the photofading during the imaging step can be corrected by diving the raw FRAP data (
Example of FRAP data. (A) Representative images from a FRAP experiment on Alexa488-CTxB. (B) A postbleach profile from the image for
Quantitative FRAP analysis requires a mathematical description of fluorescence recovery for a given underlying transport/reaction kinetics through two different modes of CLSMs: photobleaching and photo-illumination. Although CLSMs use scanning laser for both photobleaching and photo-illumination, it has been reported for small bleaching spot size (we call this as the nominal radius of the laser); the scanning profile of CLSMs on a confocal plane is well approximated by a Gaussian function:
where
where the proportionality constant,
where
Note that different underlying kinetics for
where
by Eq. (11) (error function integration).
The total fluorescence intensity from the region of interest can be found by integrating this local fluorescence intensity over the ROI:
which is called a FRAP equation. To simplify Eq. (38) by using Eq. (37)
where
Therefore
where
for the mobile fraction,
where
Fluorescence correlation spectroscopy is a standard bioengineering and biophysics technique for the study of molecular movements and interactions [23, 24, 25]. For FCS experiments, a laser beam is focused and stationed at a region of interest in the specimen (usually live cells). The illumination region formed by the focused laser is called a confocal volume, which is generally in the femtoliter range. As fluorescence molecules cross the confocal volume by diffusion or other transporting mechanisms, they emit fluorescence photons responding to the illumination laser (Figure 4A), and the fluctuations in the fluorescence signal,
Principles of fluorescence correlation spectroscopy analysis. (A) For FCS analysis for free diffusion, a static laser beam is focused on a specific region of interest. As the fluorescence molecules diffuse in and out of a certain domain, commonly called confocal volume (∼1 femtoliter), fluorescence intensities from the confocal volume fluctuate, yielding fluorescence time series. (B) The fluorescence time series data are processed into an autocorrelation curve by taking the average of the original time series data and the shifted time series data by
where
Notice that the autocorrelation has the maximum when
An autocorrelation curve carries two crucial information. Since a large molecule will move slower than a light molecule, therefore the correlation decays at a longer time scale. On the other hand, the correlation amplitude is inversely proportional to the concentration of fluorophores due to the denominator for standardization. The information on the diffusion coefficient and concentration of fluorophores can be determined, once a mathematical model for
Stationarity and ergodicity of the diffusion process play a pivotal role to derive an FCS equation in a closed, yet simple, form. A continuous-time dynamical system such as Brownian motion is called ergodic when all the accessible microstates such as the locations of a Brownian particle are equally probable over a long period, i.e., the statistical properties from the time average at a position are same as the ensemble (spatial) average at any moment. On the other hand, a stationary process is a stochastic process whose probability distribution and parameters are invariant by shifts in time. Stationary and ergodic properties of a diffusion process were proven mathematically [26].
If we let
Under stationarity and ergodicity of a diffusion process, we assume
where
For the fluorescence molecule density per unit area,
where
where
A bell-shaped profile of
where we used the fact that the Gaussian laser profile defines the confocal volume in the last equality to switch the integration domain from
Lastly, we will also assume the spatial and temporal independence of fluorescence intensities:
This assumption hypothesizes that fluorescence intensities from different locations are not correlated but independent.
In FCS, to analyze the fluorescence fluctuations from the confocal volume (
where
Next, the autocorrelation function of the standardized fluorescence fluctuations,
where we used Eq. (50).
Notice that
Consequently, the solution
Next, we use the ergodicity of a diffusion process to derive some essential properties of the double integral. Because diffusion is an ergodic process, the time average can be replaced by the ensemble average.
where
By plugging Eq. (58) back into Eq. (55)
If we substitute
where we used the fact
Now, we can evaluate the inner integral in Eq. (46) using a substitution
where we used Eq. (11). Back to Eq. (61)
by the error function integration (Eq. (11)), where
If fluorescence molecules undergo Brownian motion, then the number of photons in a confocal volume changes in time due to random movements of fluorescence molecules in and out of the confocal volume. In FCS analysis, the number of photons (or fluorescence molecules) from a confocal volume at any moment
where
Since we assumed that
by Eq. (66). On the other hand, by Eq. (64)
which indicates that
By replacing the bulk parameters in Eq. (47) with
As we saw, with a Poisson distribution assumption on
where
Diffusion plays a crucial role within biological systems in many different temporal and spatial scales from various perspectives. It is a dominant way for biological organisms to transport multiple molecules to desirable locations for cell signaling. However, to quantify the molecular diffusion, especially in live cells, is still challenging although a couple of tools are available, including fluorescence recovery after photobleaching and fluorescence correlation spectroscopy. Although FRAP and FCS were originally developed to study biological diffusion processes, they are now being applied not only to a diffusion process but also to a broad range of biochemical processes, including binding kinetics and anomalous diffusion. Since the derivation of FRAP and FCS equations for many biochemical processes shares many common steps with the diffusion FRAP and FCS equations, it is essential to understand the mathematical theory behind the diffusion FRAP /FCS equation [18, 22, 25, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32]. In this study, we provide a simple and straightforward derivation of FRAP/FCS equation for free diffusion based on calculus-level mathematics, so that FRAP/FCS equations and its applications are accessible to a broad audience. Although the applications of these FRAP and FCS equations to cell membrane biophysics from experimental perspectives can be a very important topic, it is beyond the scope of this chapter and therefore will not be covered here. These topics are well documented in various references, and interested readers are referred to [20, 31, 33], and references therein. We hope that this tutorial is understandable as well as gives readers a solid theoretical foundation for FRAP and FCS, bridging the gap between experimental and theoretical aspects of FRAP and FCS.
Particle accelerators and colliders are widespread ranging from radioisotope production for medical subjects to exploration of new particles in the high physics. For this aim, different collider and accelerator systems have been established by research intuitions and organizations across the world based on powerful accelerators. In general, the largest particle accelerators (in TeV) are used for elementary particle physics to research subatomic particles in physics such as Fermilab or Large Hadron Collider (LHC) at CERN. Additionally, investigating the structure of nuclei in GeV and researching isotopes in nuclear physics have been performed by Relativistic Heavy Ion Collider (RHIC) at the Brookhaven National Laboratory and Los Alamos Neutron Science Center (LANSCE) at Los Alamos. At lower energies, accelerators used in medicine have vital importance in terms of treatment of cancer and diagnosis aims of cancer tissues, especially for the production of medical radioisotopes in MeV. That’s why, for an application of particle accelerators, this chapter gives the production of medical iridium-192 used in brachytherapy via particle accelerator.
The iridium-192 that can be used in brachytherapy with interstitial implantation by irradiating malignant tumors is important for therapeutic aims especially for the brain, uterus, head, etc. [1] because the radioisotope Ir-192 with low-energy and high-intensity beta radiation has effective decay properties, which are T1/2 = 78.83 d, EC = 5%, Iβ− = 95%, and E β− = 7 MeV, for using in medical applications [2]. Therefore, the production of such a radioisotope is fairly attractive, and there are some production studies of Ir-192 in literature by Langille et al. [3], Szelecsényi et al. [4], Tarkanyi et al. [5], and Hilger et al. [2]. These studies mainly intensify the production of Ir-192 on enriched Os-192 targets via (p, n) reaction processes, and the measurement by Tarkanyi et al. [5] only was a different reaction process, including 192Os(d,2n)192Ir together with isomeric states, 192m1 + gIr. The production of Ir-192 is also available for different methods such as the (neutron, gamma) reaction process in nuclear reactors [2, 5, 6, 7]. However, there are six stable isotopes of Os in nature, namely, Os-184 (0.02%), Os-187 (1.96%), Os-188 (13.24%), Os-189 (16.15%), Os-190 (26.26%), and Os-192 (40.78%) [8].
Therefore, in addition to 192Os(p, n)192Ir reaction, we take into account induced reactions with deuteron, triton, helium-3, and alpha particles in the energy range between 1 MeV and 100 MeV [9, 10, 11, 12, 13]. Furthermore, we calculated and simulated the production of Ir-192 on Os-192, Os-189, and Os-190 targets for each charged particle. The cross-section and the integral yield calculations were performed by TALYS 1.9 code [14] and X-PMSP 2.0 program [12, 15, 16, 17, 18], which is used to obtain the mass stopping power results of Os for the charged particles. The activities and the yield of products of reaction processes were carried out under certain circumstances, such as current beam of 1 μA and irradiation time of 1 h. The calculated results were compared with the experimental data obtained from Exfor database [19] and other works in the literature. It is obvious that the obtained data are important to determine the production of Ir-192 in terms of other targets and the charged particle-induced reactions due to providing new nuclear data for its production.
Here, we have investigated the production of radioisotope Ir-192 used in brachytherapy through nuclear reaction processes on enriched stable Os target isotopes. For this aim, we calculated the cross-section and the integral yield curves in Eparticle = 100 → 1 MeV energy region for each reaction process. Moreover, the activities and yields of product of reaction processes as a function of irradiation time are simulated under certain conditions via TALYS 1.9 code. Besides proton-induced reaction, the radioisotope Ir-192 can be produced by deuteron, triton, helium-3, and alpha particles accelerated by particle accelerators on natural Os targets in 1–100 MeV energy range.
To produce Ir-192 on osmium targets (189,190,192Os), we followed out all reaction processes under certain situations to estimate integral yield, activity, and yield of product curves for the charged particle-induced reactions based on incident particle energy region between 1 MeV and 100 MeV. We assumed the purity of osmium targets as being above 99%, the target areas are about 1 cm2, and the target thicknesses are of uniform density during the irradiation processes in reactions. Moreover, the effective thicknesses of targets can change from 0.065 (189Os for alpha-induced reaction) cm to 0.704 (192Os for proton-induced reaction) as dependent on reaction process. For each reaction process, the produced heat in targets is about 0.099 kW, and the density of target materials is 22.600 g/cm3.
Furthermore, the target materials are bombarded by charged particles accelerated in particle accelerator with beam current of 1 μA during irradiation time of 1 h in energy region Eparticle = 100 → 1 MeV, and the cooling time is in 24 h. All the reaction processes never involve loss in activity and yield during irradiation time. The activities, yields of product, and integral yields are performed by conditions mentioned above.
The process shows that when the Os targets are bombarded by the charged particles accelerated in particle accelerators, the residual nuclei are made up, and it turns into Pt* and Ir*(* means compound nucleus) isotopes by emitting different particles in very small time interval, and afterwards, the radioisotope Ir-192 is formed. Therefore, the nuclear structure properties of Pt and Ir isotopes in nuclear reaction process are also calculated such as proton, deuteron, and triton separation energies. To determine neutron (
Based on reaction processes used in this work, PEQ reaction mechanism can be suitably explained by two-component exciton model which can make distinction of particle (p) and hole (h) pairs in reaction flow, besides neutron (
where
where
where
Eq. (4) is valid if
where
Based on charged particle-induced reaction processes, the production of Ir-192 on 189,190,192Os target materials via particle accelerator in energy region between 1 MeV and 100 MeV, we investigated the cross-section calculations (Figure 1), the activity (Figure 2), and the yield of product (Figure 3) curves for all the reaction processes, as well as the separation energies (Figure 4). Additionally, the integral yield results are calculated by data of the cross-section calculations in Figure 1 and mass stopping power results in Figure 5 obtained from X-PMSP 2.0 program. The separation energies in Figure 4 are calculated to understand particle emissions that divide from residual nuclei (191,192,193,194,195Ir* and 192,193,194,195,196Pt*), which is composed of bombardment of Os target.
Cross-section curves for the production of Ir-192.
Activity curves for the production of Ir-192 as a function of irradiation time.
Yield of product curves for the production of Ir-192 as a function of irradiation time.
Calculation of separation energies for some Ir and Pt isotopes in reaction process.
To produce Ir-192, the cross-section curves with proton-, deuteron-, triton-, he-3-, and alpha-induced reactions on 189,190,192Os targets are presented by Figure 1 in 1–100 MeV energy range together with experimental data by Szelecsényi et al. [4], Tarkanyi et al. [5], and Hilgers et al. [2]. The measurements by Szelecsényi et al. [4] and Hilgers et al. [2] were only performed by proton-induced reaction on Os-192 target up to 66 MeV. On the other hand, the data reported by Tarkanyi et al. [5] reaches 20 MeV deuteron incident energy only on Os-192 target. It is obvious that the production of Ir-192 for the triton-, he-3-, and alpha-induced reactions Os-192 target does not involve any experimental result or theoretical result. In addition to Os-192 target, for Os-190 and Os-189 targets, unfortunately, the cross-section results for the production of Ir-192 are not come across different works. In comparisons of the calculated cross-section and the experimental data for Os-192 target, the theoretical result for proton-induced reaction is consistent with that of Szelecsényi et al. [4] and Hilgers et al. [2] from threshold energy to the maximum cross-section value. Thus, we can conclude that the theoretical cross-section curves are consistent with the experimental data up to the highest value of cross-section curves. Moreover, the data reported by Tarkanyi et al. [5] are generally in good agreement with theoretical result up to 11 MeV deuteron incident energy. Besides proton- and deuteron-induced reaction on Os-192 target, it is important to note here that the cross-section values of the other induced reactions are suitable to obtain the radioisotope because while the maximum cross-section values for proton- and deuteron-induced reactions reach ∼54 mb and ∼371 mb at 9 MeV and 14 MeV, the cross-section values of the triton-, he-3-, and alpha-induced reactions ramp up to ∼1100 mb, ∼383 mb, and ∼40 mb at 19 MeV, 29 MeV, and 59 MeV, respectively. Furthermore, for Os-189 and Os-190 targets, alpha-induced reactions are clearly suitable compared to the other reaction types.
The results show that the production of the radioisotope Ir-192 can be produced by triton-, he-3-, and alpha-induced reactions, in addition to proton- and deuteron-induced reactions, and such productions are valid in less energy than that of 100 MeV. Therefore, to well understand the production of Ir-192 for each reaction process, we estimated activity and yield curves as a function of irradiation time by simulating under certain conditions.
The calculated cross-section results are in good agreement with the available experimental data in the literature. The reaction processes are simulated to determine the activity and yield of product curves for the production of Ir-192 as shown in Figures 2 and 3. When compared with the cross-section curves, the activity and yield of product results are consistent with the cross-section curves. For Os-192 target, at end of irradiation time, the triton-induced reaction has the highest activity value of 3690 MBq. The deuteron- and proton-induced reaction reach almost the same activity values, such as 2390 MBq and 2190 MBq, respectively. On the other hand, helium-3- and alpha-induced reaction processes also have high activity values, 803 MBq and 130 MBq.
It is clear that the proton- and deuteron-induced reactions have higher activity and yield values than those of alpha- and he-3-induced reactions; however, this can be an advantage rather than disadvantage. Ir-192 is a radioisotope for brachytherapy especially for vitals, and it is used inside the capsule which is settled next to the tumor region to burn out cancerous tissues, and the radioisotope with Ir-192 high activity can bring about harm for healthy tissues. Therefore, the reaction processes with the alpha and he-3 particles can be more suitable in terms of application to patients compared to the production of Ir-192 with proton- and deuteron-induced reactions.
In addition to the production of Ir-192 on Os-192 target via the charged particle-induced reactions, when considered Os-190 and Os-189 targets, the alpha-induced reactions for both targets give suitable activity values, 35.9 MBq and 4.92 MBq, respectively. Moreover, the activity value of triton-induced reaction on Os-190 target also reaches 66.2 MBq; however, it is obvious that the triton-induced reaction on Os-189 target is insufficient. Unfortunately, it is important to say that we do not recommend the radioisotope production with triton-induced reactions due to expensive obtaining of triton. Therefore, for the production of Ir-192 on Os-190 and Os-189 targets, we can dependably propose the alpha-induced reaction process.
When the 189,190,192Os targets are bombarded by proton, deuteron, triton, helium-3, and alpha particles accelerated by particle accelerator, new excited compound nuclei, 191,192,193,194,195Ir and 192,193,194,195,196Pt may be made up, and after then too very while, these excited nuclei turn into new residual nuclei by emitting particles such as proton, neutron, deuteron, etc.
One of the residual nuclei also is the radioisotope Ir-192; however, there are different ways to produce Ir-192, for example, the compound nucleus Ir-193 changes to Ir-192 by emitting a neutron, and if the compound nucleus Pt-193 spreads out a proton or the Pt-194 emits a deuteron, then the radioisotope Ir-192 may be produced. Therefore, to form Ir-192 on 189,190,192Os targets, we calculated the separation energies of possible compound nuclei as shown in Figure 4. When considering the calculated separation energies for isotopes of Pt, they are higher than those of the isotopes of Ir. The he-3 and alpha separation energies are not added due to the formation of Pt and Ir isotopes in reaction processes via the charged particles. Moreover, it is obvious that the neutron separation and proton separation energies are lower than those of the other separation energies.
To peruse the production of Ir-192 on 189,190,192Os targets for the charged particle-induced reactions in energy region between 1 MeV and 100 MeV, we calculated the integral yield results of each reaction process via the calculated cross-section results in Figure 1 and the stopping powers of Os for the charged particles obtained from X-PMSP 2.0 program (Figure 5); the obtained integral yield curves are presented in Figure 6 as a function of particle energy. Based on the simulation conditions of activity and yield of product of reaction processes, the integral yield calculations were carried through in irradiation time of 1 h and a constant beam current of 1 μA. The calculated integral yield curves were taken by the optimization of a production route into account by providing high radionuclidic purity of the Ir-192, including minimum impurity level and maximum yield value of the product.
Mass stopping power for the charged particles on Os target.
Integral yield curves for the production of Ir-192 as a function of incident particle energy.
When taking into account the nuclear reaction processes on Os-192 target, it is clearly stated that the proton-induced reaction has only experimental yield data reported by Szelecsényi et al. [4] up to 30 MeV incident proton energy. The calculated integral yield curve for proton-induced reaction is generally consistent with measurement by Szelecsényi et al. [4], up to ∼15 MeV; however, beyond 15 MeV, there is a little bit of difference when compared to the theoretical result. The reason of such a distinction is why there is difference of both theoretical and experimental cross-section curves in Figure 1 and the error rates in the theoretical calculations and the experimental processes. Even the theoretical integral yield curve is close to the experimental data, and in terms of analyzing accuracy of the integral yield curves, it can clearly be said that the results are believable and dependable. On the other hand, the other induced reactions to produce Ir-192 are suitable, especially for deuteron- and triton-induced reactions which are of higher integral yield values (2 MBq/μAh and 4 MBq/μAh) than the proton-induced reaction (1 MBq/μAh) behind 30 MeV. Moreover, the He-3 induced reaction process gives good results; however, its appropriate energy range reaches to higher energy compared to the other induced reactions, and the alpha-induced reaction has the highest energy range to produce Ir-192.
Furthermore, based on the theoretical results, it is important to note here that while the energy range for the production of Ir-192 through proton-induced reaction can be determined as 20 → 8 MeV, the appropriate energy ranges of triton- and deuteron-induced reactions are 22 → 12 MeV and 21 → 9 MeV, respectively. These energy ranges can be formed higher than 70% of the radioisotope Ir-192; however, in these energy ranges, the contaminations in the production of Ir-192 would be brought about. The production of Ir-192 in proton-induced reactions can include the contamination of the radioisotope Ir-190 higher than 16 MeV incident proton energy. From the point of view of Szelecsényi et al. [4], such as a circumstance is valid, they pointed out that the contamination of Ir-190 for proton-induced reaction reaches 70% at 17 MeV, and unfortunately, the 190Ir/192Ir activity ratio keeps up fairly high [4].On the other hand, the production of Ir-192 on Os-190 and Os-189 targets are also presented in Figure 6 as a function of particle energy. For Os-190 target, the triton reaction and alpha-induced reactions are more suitable than those of the other reactions. The alpha reaction process gives the best integral yield result for Os-189 target.
This paper mainly investigated the production of Ir-192 used in brachytherapy via 189,190,192Os targets bombarded by proton, deuteron, triton, helium-3, and alpha particles accelerated in particle accelerators, instead of its production in nuclear reactors. Therefore, we calculated the cross-section curves and simulated activities and yields of product of all reaction processes. Additionally, to determine the energy ranges for the formation of Ir-192 in nuclear reaction processes, we estimated the integral yield results for each reaction process in energy region between 1 MeV and 100 MeV.
The calculated data were compared with the experimental data in the literature, and the obtained results for proton-induced reaction on Os-192 target showed that the theoretical results were in good agreement with available experimental data based on the cross-section and the integral yield results. When taking conformity of proton-induced reaction results into account, it is important to note here that the obtained data in this work put dependable results for the production of Ir-192 forward the literature. Because, in addition to proton-induced reaction, the obtained data for the production of Ir-192 contributes to the literature in terms of deuteron-, triton-, helium-3-, and alpha-induced reaction processes. Moreover, the calculations and simulations were also performed by charged induced reaction processes on Os-190 and Os-189 targets besides Os-192 target.
Based on the obtained results, in addition to the production of proton-induced reaction on Os-192 target, it can be said that deuteron-, triton-, helium-3-, and alpha-induced reaction on Os-192 target are suitable to produce Ir-192 in energy region between 1 MeV and 100 MeV. These energy ranges for the production of Ir-192 irrespective of contamination of the other product in the reaction processes can be given for proton-, deuteron-, triton-, he-3-, and alpha-induced reactions: 20 → 8 MeV, 21 → 9 MeV, 22 → 12 MeV, 35 → 19 MeV, and 65 → 34 MeV, respectively. Furthermore, in the case of Os-190 target, the triton reaction and alpha-induced reactions are suitable compared to the other reactions, and the energy ranges are given as 20 → 7 MeV and 55 → 25 MeV. For Os-189 target, the alpha-induced reaction process can be proposed for the production of Ir-192 in energy range 50 → 21 MeV.
"Open access contributes to scientific excellence and integrity. It opens up research results to wider analysis. It allows research results to be reused for new discoveries. And it enables the multi-disciplinary research that is needed to solve global 21st century problems. Open access connects science with society. It allows the public to engage with research. To go behind the headlines. And look at the scientific evidence. And it enables policy makers to draw on innovative solutions to societal challenges".
\n\nCarlos Moedas, the European Commissioner for Research Science and Innovation at the STM Annual Frankfurt Conference, October 2016.
",metaTitle:"About Open Access",metaDescription:"Open access contributes to scientific excellence and integrity. It opens up research results to wider analysis. It allows research results to be reused for new discoveries. And it enables the multi-disciplinary research that is needed to solve global 21st century problems. Open access connects science with society. It allows the public to engage with research. To go behind the headlines. And look at the scientific evidence. And it enables policy makers to draw on innovative solutions to societal challenges.\n\nCarlos Moedas, the European Commissioner for Research Science and Innovation at the STM Annual Frankfurt Conference, October 2016.",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"about-open-access",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"The Open Access publishing movement started in the early 2000s when academic leaders from around the world participated in the formation of the Budapest Initiative. They developed recommendations for an Open Access publishing process, “which has worked for the past decade to provide the public with unrestricted, free access to scholarly research—much of which is publicly funded. Making the research publicly available to everyone—free of charge and without most copyright and licensing restrictions—will accelerate scientific research efforts and allow authors to reach a larger number of readers” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
\\n\\nIntechOpen’s co-founders, both scientists themselves, created the company while undertaking research in robotics at Vienna University. Their goal was to spread research freely “for scientists, by scientists’ to the rest of the world via the Open Access publishing model. The company soon became a signatory of the Budapest Initiative, which currently has more than 1000 supporting organizations worldwide, ranging from universities to funders.
\\n\\nAt IntechOpen today, we are still as committed to working with organizations and people who care about scientific discovery, to putting the academic needs of the scientific community first, and to providing an Open Access environment where scientists can maximize their contribution to scientific advancement. By opening up access to the world’s scientific research articles and book chapters, we aim to facilitate greater opportunity for collaboration, scientific discovery and progress. We subscribe wholeheartedly to the Open Access definition:
\\n\\n“By “open access” to [peer-reviewed research literature], we mean its free availability on the public internet, permitting any users to read, download, copy, distribute, print, search, or link to the full texts of these articles, crawl them for indexing, pass them as data to software, or use them for any other lawful purpose, without financial, legal, or technical barriers other than those inseparable from gaining access to the internet itself. The only constraint on reproduction and distribution, and the only role for copyright in this domain, should be to give authors control over the integrity of their work and the right to be properly acknowledged and cited” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
\\n\\nOAI-PMH
\\n\\nAs a firm believer in the wider dissemination of knowledge, IntechOpen supports the Open Access Initiative Protocol for Metadata Harvesting (OAI-PMH Version 2.0). Read more
\\n\\nLicense
\\n\\nBook chapters published in edited volumes are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License (CC BY 3.0). IntechOpen upholds a very flexible Copyright Policy. There is no copyright transfer to the publisher and Authors retain exclusive copyright to their work. All Monographs/Compacts are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0). Read more
\\n\\nPeer Review Policies
\\n\\nAll scientific works are Peer Reviewed prior to publishing. Read more
\\n\\nOA Publishing Fees
\\n\\nThe Open Access publishing model employed by IntechOpen eliminates subscription charges and pay-per-view fees, enabling readers to access research at no cost. In order to sustain operations and keep our publications freely accessible we levy an Open Access Publishing Fee for manuscripts, which helps us cover the costs of editorial work and the production of books. Read more
\\n\\nDigital Archiving Policy
\\n\\nIntechOpen is committed to ensuring the long-term preservation and the availability of all scholarly research we publish. We employ a variety of means to enable us to deliver on our commitments to the scientific community. Apart from preservation by the Croatian National Library (for publications prior to April 18, 2018) and the British Library (for publications after April 18, 2018), our entire catalogue is preserved in the CLOCKSS archive.
\\n\\nOpen Science is transparent and accessible knowledge that is shared and developed through collaborative networks.
\\n\\nOpen Science is about increased rigour, accountability, and reproducibility for research. It is based on the principles of inclusion, fairness, equity, and sharing, and ultimately seeks to change the way research is done, who is involved and how it is valued. It aims to make research more open to participation, review/refutation, improvement and (re)use for the world to benefit.
\\n\\nOpen Science refers to doing traditional science with more transparency involved at various stages, for example by openly sharing code and data. It implies a growing set of practices - within different disciplines - aiming at:
\\n\\nWe aim at improving the quality and availability of scholarly communication by promoting and practicing:
\\n\\n\\n"}]'},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
The Open Access publishing movement started in the early 2000s when academic leaders from around the world participated in the formation of the Budapest Initiative. They developed recommendations for an Open Access publishing process, “which has worked for the past decade to provide the public with unrestricted, free access to scholarly research—much of which is publicly funded. Making the research publicly available to everyone—free of charge and without most copyright and licensing restrictions—will accelerate scientific research efforts and allow authors to reach a larger number of readers” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
\n\nIntechOpen’s co-founders, both scientists themselves, created the company while undertaking research in robotics at Vienna University. Their goal was to spread research freely “for scientists, by scientists’ to the rest of the world via the Open Access publishing model. The company soon became a signatory of the Budapest Initiative, which currently has more than 1000 supporting organizations worldwide, ranging from universities to funders.
\n\nAt IntechOpen today, we are still as committed to working with organizations and people who care about scientific discovery, to putting the academic needs of the scientific community first, and to providing an Open Access environment where scientists can maximize their contribution to scientific advancement. By opening up access to the world’s scientific research articles and book chapters, we aim to facilitate greater opportunity for collaboration, scientific discovery and progress. We subscribe wholeheartedly to the Open Access definition:
\n\n“By “open access” to [peer-reviewed research literature], we mean its free availability on the public internet, permitting any users to read, download, copy, distribute, print, search, or link to the full texts of these articles, crawl them for indexing, pass them as data to software, or use them for any other lawful purpose, without financial, legal, or technical barriers other than those inseparable from gaining access to the internet itself. The only constraint on reproduction and distribution, and the only role for copyright in this domain, should be to give authors control over the integrity of their work and the right to be properly acknowledged and cited” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
\n\nOAI-PMH
\n\nAs a firm believer in the wider dissemination of knowledge, IntechOpen supports the Open Access Initiative Protocol for Metadata Harvesting (OAI-PMH Version 2.0). Read more
\n\nLicense
\n\nBook chapters published in edited volumes are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License (CC BY 3.0). IntechOpen upholds a very flexible Copyright Policy. There is no copyright transfer to the publisher and Authors retain exclusive copyright to their work. All Monographs/Compacts are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0). Read more
\n\nPeer Review Policies
\n\nAll scientific works are Peer Reviewed prior to publishing. Read more
\n\nOA Publishing Fees
\n\nThe Open Access publishing model employed by IntechOpen eliminates subscription charges and pay-per-view fees, enabling readers to access research at no cost. In order to sustain operations and keep our publications freely accessible we levy an Open Access Publishing Fee for manuscripts, which helps us cover the costs of editorial work and the production of books. Read more
\n\nDigital Archiving Policy
\n\nIntechOpen is committed to ensuring the long-term preservation and the availability of all scholarly research we publish. We employ a variety of means to enable us to deliver on our commitments to the scientific community. Apart from preservation by the Croatian National Library (for publications prior to April 18, 2018) and the British Library (for publications after April 18, 2018), our entire catalogue is preserved in the CLOCKSS archive.
\n\nOpen Science is transparent and accessible knowledge that is shared and developed through collaborative networks.
\n\nOpen Science is about increased rigour, accountability, and reproducibility for research. It is based on the principles of inclusion, fairness, equity, and sharing, and ultimately seeks to change the way research is done, who is involved and how it is valued. It aims to make research more open to participation, review/refutation, improvement and (re)use for the world to benefit.
\n\nOpen Science refers to doing traditional science with more transparency involved at various stages, for example by openly sharing code and data. It implies a growing set of practices - within different disciplines - aiming at:
\n\nWe aim at improving the quality and availability of scholarly communication by promoting and practicing:
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His studies in robotics lead him not only to a PhD degree but also inspired him to co-found and build the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems - world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"441",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Jaekyu",middleName:null,surname:"Park",slug:"jaekyu-park",fullName:"Jaekyu Park",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/441/images/1881_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"LG Corporation (South Korea)",country:{name:"Korea, South"}}},{id:"465",title:"Dr",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Martens",slug:"christian-martens",fullName:"Christian Martens",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"479",title:"Dr.",name:"Valentina",middleName:null,surname:"Colla",slug:"valentina-colla",fullName:"Valentina Colla",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/479/images/358_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sant'Anna School of Advanced Studies",country:{name:"Italy"}}},{id:"494",title:"PhD",name:"Loris",middleName:null,surname:"Nanni",slug:"loris-nanni",fullName:"Loris Nanni",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/494/images/system/494.jpg",biography:"Loris Nanni received his Master Degree cum laude on June-2002 from the University of Bologna, and the April 26th 2006 he received his Ph.D. in Computer Engineering at DEIS, University of Bologna. 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After finishing his P. hD degree in 1992, he served in the Industry as a Scientific Officer and continued his academic career as a visiting scholar for a number of educational institutions. In 1996 he joined National University of Science & Technology Pakistan (NUST) as an Associate Professor; NUST is one of the top few universities in Pakistan. In 1999 he joined an International Company Lineo Inc, Canada as Manager Compiler Group, where he headed the group for developing Compiler Tool Chain and Porting of Operating Systems for the BLACKfin processor. The processor development was a joint venture by Intel and Analog Devices. In 2002 Lineo Inc., was taken over by another company, so he joined Aalborg University Denmark as an Assistant Professor.\nProfessor Akbar has truly a multi-disciplined career and he continued his legacy and making progress in many areas of his interests both in teaching and research. 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He worked as a post-doctoral fellow at the Public Health Research Institute (PHRI), Newark, NJ for four years before accepting a three-year faculty position at Brigham Young University-Hawaii. Dr. Engohang-Ndong is a tenured faculty member with the academic rank of Full Professor at Kent State University, Ohio, where he teaches a wide range of biological science courses and pursues his research in medical and environmental microbiology. 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He has an excellent track record in the herpesvirus field, and his group is engaged in clinical research in the field of Epstein-Barr virus diseases. He is the editor of the online Encyclopedia of Environment and he coordinates the Universal Health Coverage education program for the BioHealth Computing Schools of the European Institute of Science.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Grenoble Alpes University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",biography:"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (especially arboviral diseases). He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},{id:"332819",title:"Dr.",name:"Chukwudi Michael",middleName:"Michael",surname:"Egbuche",slug:"chukwudi-michael-egbuche",fullName:"Chukwudi Michael Egbuche",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/332819/images/14624_n.jpg",biography:"I an Dr. Chukwudi Michael Egbuche. I am a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Parasitology and Entomology, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nnamdi Azikiwe University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"284232",title:"Mr.",name:"Nikunj",middleName:"U",surname:"Tandel",slug:"nikunj-tandel",fullName:"Nikunj Tandel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/284232/images/8275_n.jpg",biography:'Mr. Nikunj Tandel has completed his Master\'s degree in Biotechnology from VIT University, India in the year of 2012. He is having 8 years of research experience especially in the field of malaria epidemiology, immunology, and nanoparticle-based drug delivery system against the infectious diseases, autoimmune disorders and cancer. He has worked for the NIH funded-International Center of Excellence in Malaria Research project "Center for the study of complex malaria in India (CSCMi)" in collaboration with New York University. The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. 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She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. 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Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). He was also awarded 'Outstanding Clinician in General Medicine” by Venus International Foundation for his extensive research expertise and services, perform over and above the standard expected in the advancement of healthcare, patient safety and quality of care.",institutionString:"Interfaith Medical Center",institution:{name:"Interfaith Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"93517",title:"Dr.",name:"Clement",middleName:"Adebajo",surname:"Meseko",slug:"clement-meseko",fullName:"Clement Meseko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/93517/images/system/93517.jpg",biography:"Dr. Clement Meseko obtained DVM and PhD degree in Veterinary Medicine and Virology respectively. He has worked for over 20 years in both private and public sectors including the academia, contributing to knowledge and control of infectious disease. Through the application of epidemiological skill, classical and molecular virological skills, he investigates viruses of economic and public health importance for the mitigation of the negative impact on people, animal and the environment in the context of Onehealth. \r\nDr. Meseko’s field experience on animal and zoonotic diseases and pathogen dynamics at the human-animal interface over the years shaped his carrier in research and scientific inquiries. He has been part of the investigation of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza incursions in sub Saharan Africa and monitors swine Influenza (Pandemic influenza Virus) agro-ecology and potential for interspecies transmission. He has authored and reviewed a number of journal articles and book chapters.",institutionString:"National Veterinary Research Institute",institution:{name:"National Veterinary Research Institute",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"94928",title:"Dr.",name:"Takuo",middleName:null,surname:"Mizukami",slug:"takuo-mizukami",fullName:"Takuo Mizukami",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94928/images/6402_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Institute of Infectious Diseases",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"233433",title:"Dr.",name:"Yulia",middleName:null,surname:"Desheva",slug:"yulia-desheva",fullName:"Yulia Desheva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/233433/images/system/233433.png",biography:"Dr. Yulia Desheva is a leading researcher at the Institute of Experimental Medicine, St. Petersburg, Russia. She is a professor in the Stomatology Faculty, St. Petersburg State University. She has expertise in the development and evaluation of a wide range of live mucosal vaccines against influenza and bacterial complications. Her research interests include immunity against influenza and COVID-19 and the development of immunization schemes for high-risk individuals.",institutionString:'Federal State Budgetary Scientific Institution "Institute of Experimental Medicine"',institution:null},{id:"238958",title:"Mr.",name:"Atamjit",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"atamjit-singh",fullName:"Atamjit Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/238958/images/6575_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"333753",title:"Dr.",name:"Rais",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"rais-ahmed",fullName:"Rais Ahmed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333753/images/20168_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"252058",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"Sulca",slug:"juan-sulca",fullName:"Juan Sulca",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252058/images/12834_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"191392",title:"Dr.",name:"Marimuthu",middleName:null,surname:"Govindarajan",slug:"marimuthu-govindarajan",fullName:"Marimuthu Govindarajan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/191392/images/5828_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. M. Govindarajan completed his BSc degree in Zoology at Government Arts College (Autonomous), Kumbakonam, and MSc, MPhil, and PhD degrees at Annamalai University, Annamalai Nagar, Tamil Nadu, India. He is serving as an assistant professor at the Department of Zoology, Annamalai University. His research interests include isolation, identification, and characterization of biologically active molecules from plants and microbes. He has identified more than 20 pure compounds with high mosquitocidal activity and also conducted high-quality research on photochemistry and nanosynthesis. He has published more than 150 studies in journals with impact factor and 2 books in Lambert Academic Publishing, Germany. He serves as an editorial board member in various national and international scientific journals.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"274660",title:"Dr.",name:"Damodar",middleName:null,surname:"Paudel",slug:"damodar-paudel",fullName:"Damodar Paudel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/274660/images/8176_n.jpg",biography:"I am DrDamodar Paudel,currently working as consultant Physician in Nepal police Hospital.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"241562",title:"Dr.",name:"Melvin",middleName:null,surname:"Sanicas",slug:"melvin-sanicas",fullName:"Melvin Sanicas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241562/images/6699_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"337446",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Zavala-Colon",slug:"maria-zavala-colon",fullName:"Maria Zavala-Colon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Puerto Rico, Medical Sciences Campus",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"338856",title:"Mrs.",name:"Nur Alvira",middleName:null,surname:"Pascawati",slug:"nur-alvira-pascawati",fullName:"Nur Alvira Pascawati",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universitas Respati Yogyakarta",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"441116",title:"Dr.",name:"Jovanka M.",middleName:null,surname:"Voyich",slug:"jovanka-m.-voyich",fullName:"Jovanka M. Voyich",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Montana State University",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"330412",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Farhab",slug:"muhammad-farhab",fullName:"Muhammad Farhab",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"349495",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Ijaz",slug:"muhammad-ijaz",fullName:"Muhammad Ijaz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"20",type:"subseries",title:"Animal Nutrition",keywords:"Sustainable Animal Diets, Carbon Footprint, Meta Analyses",scope:"An essential part of animal production is nutrition. Animals need to receive a properly balanced diet. One of the new challenges we are now faced with is sustainable animal diets (STAND) that involve the 3 P’s (People, Planet, and Profitability). We must develop animal feed that does not compete with human food, use antibiotics, and explore new growth promoters options, such as plant extracts or compounds that promote feed efficiency (e.g., monensin, oils, enzymes, probiotics). These new feed options must also be environmentally friendly, reducing the Carbon footprint, CH4, N, and P emissions to the environment, with an adequate formulation of nutrients.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/20.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!0,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11416,editor:{id:"175967",title:"Dr.",name:"Manuel",middleName:null,surname:"Gonzalez Ronquillo",slug:"manuel-gonzalez-ronquillo",fullName:"Manuel Gonzalez Ronquillo",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/175967/images/system/175967.png",biography:"Dr. Manuel González Ronquillo obtained his doctorate degree from the University of Zaragoza, Spain, in 2001. He is a research professor at the Faculty of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Husbandry, Autonomous University of the State of Mexico. He is also a level-2 researcher. He received a Fulbright-Garcia Robles fellowship for a postdoctoral stay at the US Dairy Forage Research Center, Madison, Wisconsin, USA in 2008–2009. He received grants from Alianza del Pacifico for a stay at the University of Magallanes, Chile, in 2014, and from Consejo Nacional de Ciencia y Tecnología (CONACyT) to work in the Food and Agriculture Organization’s Animal Production and Health Division (AGA), Rome, Italy, in 2014–2015. He has collaborated with researchers from different countries and published ninety-eight journal articles. He teaches various degree courses in zootechnics, sheep production, and agricultural sciences and natural resources.\n\nDr. Ronquillo’s research focuses on the evaluation of sustainable animal diets (StAnD), using native resources of the region, decreasing carbon footprint, and applying meta-analysis and mathematical models for a better understanding of animal production.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma del Estado de México",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,series:{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",issn:"2632-0517"},editorialBoard:[{id:"175762",title:"Dr.",name:"Alfredo J.",middleName:null,surname:"Escribano",slug:"alfredo-j.-escribano",fullName:"Alfredo J. 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