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1. Introduction
Oil palm tree is one of the perennial oil crops that generate economic growth in Malaysia. It belongs in the species Elaeis guineensis under Palmacea family that comes from the tropical forests of West Africa. Palm oil production has almost doubled in the past decade. It is produced in 42 countries around the world at about 27 million hectares [1]. Oil palm cultivation has also become the first fruits of the world in terms of production for nearly 20 years.
Currently, Malaysia is the regional leader in biodiesel production with an output of 540 million liters per annum as of 2009 [2]. Meanwhile, Indonesia is second with the production of 400 million liters in 2010 [3]. During the process of replanting in Malaysia, large quantities of oil palm trunks (OPT) and oil palm fronds (OPF) waste are produced in oil palm plantations. The trunks are normally left in the field without any utilization thereafter. They are usually cut into pieces and burnt down to avoid insect and incidences [4].
Oil palm trunks have such special characteristics as high moisture content (1.5 to 2.5 times the weight of the dry matter), low cellulose and lignin content and high content of water soluble and NaOH soluble in comparison with rubberwood and bagasse. Physical properties of trunks showed heterogeneity and varied depending on both radial and vertical directions. Some difficulties in utilizing oil palm trunks also lie in extremely tough outer bark and high content of decay able parenchyma cells [5].
From the previous study [1, 6], found that the sugar content in the sap of felled palm trunks increased during storage after logging. This suggests that oil palm trunk can be a promising source of sugar as proper treatment after logging. Sap analysis can be an efficient raw material for bioethanol [6, 7]. In addition, oil palm trunk was considered as a useful material for pulp and paper properties which have been studied [5, 8, 9]. However, the physical, morphological properties and chemical compositions of individual cell of oil palm trunk such as parenchyma and vascular bundle have not been well studied [10].
The aim of this study therefore was to examine the chemical composition of parenchyma and vascular bundle of oil palm trunk that were separated based on storage time [11]. Fibers useful for materials occur in vascular bundle, while living cells containing sugars and starch useful for energy and livestock foods mainly exists in parenchyma. The outcome of this study forms the basis in realization of the full potential of the chemical compositions and it can guide us for particular applications and uses.
2. Overview of Elaeis guineensis
In Malaysia, the production of palm oil has tremendously increased since the 1970s. Government policy on crop diversity has led to an increase in hectares of oil palm trees as shown in Figure 1. In 1996, 2.6 million hectares were used for the cultivation of oil palm and this figure is staggering. In 2005 and 2010 the percentage changes in the areas of oil palm tree is about 20% for each of the next five years. The year 2011 has reached 5 million hectares but only three percent different from 2010. The rapid growth in oil palm cultivation has seen in five years of 1965–1970, 1970–1975, and also in 1975–1980. This is due to the crop diversification program [12].
Figure 1.
Oil palm plantation in Pahang, Malaysia.
2.1 Botanical description of Elaeis guineensis
The classification of the botanical description of oil palms has presented some problems; the rules of plant taxonomy demand that the name first correctly applied to a species must be used (though the generic name can be changed if research indicates that a species has been placed in the wrong genus). The African oil palm was named Elaeis guineensis by [13] and this name is not questioned. According to [14] the first valid name for the American species is Corozo oleifera, but [15] considered that the American and African species are so closely related that separation in different genera is not justified. This is supported by the production of viable seeds in controlled pollination trials between the two species [16]. The correct name for the American oil palm is therefore Elaeis oleifera (H.B.K.) Cortes. In the hybrids, Elaeis oleifera shows dominance over Elaeis guineensis for several characters, suggesting that Elaeis oleifera is more primitive and Elaeis guineensis represents a derived species [17]. Figure 2 present the oil palm profile according to the Plant, United State Department of Agriculture USDA [18].
Figure 2.
Botanical description of oil palm.
2.2 Anatomy structure of Elaeis guineensis
Nonwood fibers are derived from selected tissues of various mono- or dicotyledonous plants [19] and are categorized botanically as grass, bast, leaf, or fruit fibers as can be seen in Figure 3. Nonwood fibers are classified as fibers such as sugar cane bagasse, wheat straw and corn stalks are byproducts. Other non-wood fibers are grouped as fiber plants which are plants with high cellulose content that are cultivated primarily for the sake of their fibers such as jute, kenaf, flax, cotton and ramie [20].
Figure 3.
Structure of non-wood.
There are several types of nonwood produce useful byproducts, for example, oil of kenaf and flax seed. From nonwood fibers can also be used to make paper, although the quality varies as it depends on the fiber source [21]. The combination of wood and nonwood fiber can reduce the amount of chemicals needed for pulp. It also shortens the time the pulp, thus saving energy. High cellulose content of cotton linters (85–90%) compared to wood (35–49% cellulose), and low lignin content of hemp (3%) make valuable nonwood fibers for paper making [5].
In this study oil palm trunk was used and categorized in non-wood tree. Oil palm tree does not have cambium, secondary growth, growth ring, ray cell, sapwood, and heartwood or branches and knots. The anatomical structure of oil palm consists of parenchyma and vascular bundle, in contrast to hardwood and softwood which the cells consist of mostly fibers, trachieds, vessel parenchyma and ray parenchyma cells. In this study focused on chemical compositions of separated sample of oil palm trunk which are parenchyma and vascular bundle as shown in Figure 4.
Figure 4.
Separation of oil palm trunk into parenchyma and vascular bundle.
2.2.1 Parenchyma and vascular bundle from Elaeis guineensis
Parenchyma cells are the oldest type of eukaryotic cells that have been the first cell a grow. There is only a thin primary wall and lack of a secondary wall in the cell. Vascular bundle cells are called as a transportation tissue and grouped together with vascular tissue. Vascular tissue is made up from different types of plant cells and also called as a transportation system. The function of this tissue is to transfer the water, organic and inorganic molecules from synthesized or absorbed in the plant, to be used or stored by plant. The arrangement of the vascular tissue in a plant stem differs in dicotyledonous and monocotyledonous plants [22]. In this study we only focus on monocotyledon plants, which are oil palm trunk that was used in this study is one of the monocotyledon plant.
2.3 Utilization of biomass Elaeis guineensis to renewable energy
Biomass waste from palm oil is one of the solutions to the renewable energy because is believed to have availability and continuity. In the present situation, the oil palm biomass is one of the problems that have yet to be exploited. There are many considerations such as the economy, energy balance, environmental technology and the best solutions to meet the oil palm biomass utilization. All economic activity begins with physical materials and energy carriers (fuel and electricity). In the present era of transformation, we need a reliable source for sufficient sustainable energy requirements [23]. Otherwise have the materials, food, shelter technology will lead to no energy, no work and no economic activity [24].
The income and population growth have increased demand for energy. Energy is needed in almost all aspects of life, including agriculture, health care, drinking water, lighting, telecommunications and industrial activities. At this time, the demand for energy is fulfilled by fossil fuels (ie, coal, petroleum and natural gas). The world’s current production rate of liquid fossil fuels (petroleum and natural gas) decrease in 2012 [25].
According to [26] due to high energy consumption and greenhouse gas emissions also cause a huge impact on global climate change. Based on existing scientific evaluation, observation records show that from the industrial era to the present day global average temperature has increased by between 0.3 and 0.6°C since the late 19th century, whereas sea levels have risen between 10 and 25 cm over the same period.
Biomass contributes about 12% on a worldwide scale. This causes the main energy supply increased to 40% and 50% of the country’s most developed nations. In Malaysia, there are some examples of energy derived from biomass, including crop production resulting in starch, such as sorghum, or cane sugar as artichoke. Cellulose such as poplar, eucalyptus trees or other wood treelike form and sunflower oil is included in the energy-producing plants. There is a plentiful supply of palm oil waste and gives the reasons to choose the first biomass as a renewable and will be developed for large-scale applications, mainly in the palm oil industry [27]. In addition, palm oil waste can be considered as energy crops. This is because the palm oil industry has more than 40 years of experience in biomass power generation system operations and has working experience in use of palm oil waste to heat and power generation in the country [28].
3. Chemical composition of Elaeis guineensis
Chemical composition varies from species to species and within different parts of the same wood species. Chemical composition also varies within woods from different geographic locations, ages, climates and soil conditions [29].
Based on previous study, oil palm is a lignocelluloses material that contains a high level of carbohydrates [30]. These carbohydrates are mainly in the form of sugar containing cellulose, starch, hemicelluloses, and lignin [30] also found that the chemical compositions of oil palm biomass consists of high holocellulose, lignin, starch, and sugar contents that have been found to aid in the production of binderless panels.
According to [30] starch content is high in parenchyma cells. It is due to the starch of the oil palm trunk is stored inside the parenchyma cells of the coarse vascular bundles, which contain a high percentage of lignin. However, the data about the individual cell of parenchyma and vascular bundle are still limited and need future investigating. In this study, the chemical compositions are focused on starch and sugar of oil palm trunk during storage time.
3.1 Sugar content of parenchyma and vascular bundle at different part of oil palm trunk by HLPC
The Figure 5 shows the results of the sugar content for separated samples (parenchyma and vascular bundle) and a non-separated sample of oil palm trunk at different part during storage time. From the figure showed that the parenchyma gave the most concentration of sugar compared to the vascular bundle. Non-separated sample at the bottom part of oil palm trunk showed a slightly highest of sugar content compared to the non-separated samples on the top part. Different parts such as inner, middle and outer part showed that the parenchyma in the middle contains the highest sugar content compared to others.
Figure 5.
Amount of sugar content of bottom and top part oil palm trunk during storage time. P-B, parenchyma-bottom; VB-B, vascular bundle-bottom; P–T, parenchyma-top; VB-T, vascular bundle-top; X, bottom non-separated; Y, top non-separated; I, inner; M, middle; O, outer.
Based on this study, the highest sugar content was found in the parenchyma and bottom part of the oil palm trunk for the non-separated sample at the different part during storage time which contains more parenchyma compared to the top part of the non-separated samples. The difference between these is probably due to the function of parenchyma as a storage organ and contain abundant amount of sap and nutrients which is rich in oligosacchides compare to vascular bundle that function as a mechanical support of the oil palm trunk [31].
The studies of 0, 45 and 60 day had been chosen to observe the potential sugar increase to optimum yield of storage time that was obtained. This storage time was chosen based on previous studies which 0, 45 and 60 days. From the Figure 5 also showed the sugar content with the average at 0 days was 8–10 mg/ml and slightly increases at 45 days with the sugar content average at 10–17 mg/ml. At the 60 day, the sugar content decrease to 8 mg/ml and this pattern is similar to the separated sample and non-separated sample of oil palm trunk. The figure also showed that the bottom part of the middle part of the oil palm trunk of individual parenchyma and non-separated has the highest sugar content at 45 days compared to others. Amount of sugar in the individual parenchyma at the middle part is 16.0 mg/ml at the bottom part whereas non-separated sample of the bottom part of oil palm trunk at the middle part is 17.3 mg/ml. The lowest sugar content at 45 days are shown in the individual vascular bundle at the top part of the outer part of the oil palm trunk with the amount of sugar content is 6.5 mg/ml whereas for the non-separated sample show that the top part of the outer part of the oil palm trunk contain 8.73 mg/ml of sugar content.
Based on the results it was observed that the pattern results of sugar content for all samples increased as the duration of storage increased. Based on the findings of this study, the sugar content at day 0 initially increased and decreased rapidly around day 45 to 60. This changing pattern may happened because of the starch in the oil palm trunk probably was being converted to glucose and other fermentable sugar by enzyme activities. These activities probably involved degrading enzyme and sucrose metabolism enzymes [7]. The error bars in the Figure 5 represent the differences were statistically significant for parenchyma and vascular bundle of oil palm trunk based on storage time.
3.2 Starch analysis of parenchyma and vascular bundle of oil palm trunk
Figure 6 showed the percentage of starch content for separated sample (parenchyma and vascular bundle) and non-separated (mixture parenchyma and vascular bundle) sample from inner to outer of oil palm disks. The duration of the storage time was determined between 0, 45 and 60 days were used similar as the determination of sugar content of oil palm trunk.
Figure 6.
Amount of starch content at different part of the oil palm trunk during storage time. P-B, parenchyma-bottom; VB-B, vascular bundle-bottom; P–T, parenchyma-top; VB-T, vascular bundle-top; X, bottom non-separated; Y, top non-separated.
Based on this study, the middle part of the oil palm trunk had the highest starch content compared to the outer and the inner part. The amount of the starch content in the middle part showed with a range 3–5%, whereas in the inner part in a range 2–4% and in the outer part around 3–4% in the 0 days. Parenchyma at the bottom part in the middle part showed the highest starch content compared to others which is 4.54% at 0 days whereas parenchyma at the top part in the inner part showed the highest starch content which is 3.5% at 45 days. Referring to previous studies on the starch content for a 0 day, as indicated by Tomimura (1992), the starch content for separated sample of vascular bundle and parenchyma was 2.4% while in parenchyma was 55.5% respectively.
The pattern results of starch content for all samples were reduced as the duration of storage increased. Based on the findings of this study, the starch content at day 0 initially to increase and decrease rapidly around day 45 to 60 and became almost negligible after 60 days. This changing pattern may happened because of the starch probably been converted to glucose and other fermentable sugar by enzyme activities. These activities probably involve degrading enzyme and sucrose metabolism enzymes [10]. In this study we only focused on 0, 45 and 60 day because it is the optimal day according to the previous study.
This research showed that the higher starch content had been found in the parenchyma comparatively to vascular bundle. Abundant amount of parenchymatous tissue which is rich in starch content accumulates in these parts [32]. According to [32] study, the carbohydrate content in oil palm trunks reported that peripheral cortex contains high starch level. This study showed that the middle part contained the highest starch content which is being different from the previous study. This may be due to the different types of cultivar has been used.
According [32] found that high level of starch content was located dominantly in the top part of oil palm trunk. This phenomenon relates to an older cells distribute in basal part of the oil palm trunk compared to top part that contain young cells. As young cells, it needs a lot of carbohydrates which is consisting of the abundant amount of starch content, reserved for the growing process [33]. This statement was supported by [31] in his report that starch stored in the upper part of the tree is purposely used for flowering process.
4. Conclusions
The chemical compositions that were determined in this study consisted of starch, and sugar of parenchyma and vascular bundle of oil palm trunk. Regarding in this study, parenchyma showed higher extractive content compared to the vascular bundle during the storage time while, parenchyma on the top parts showed slightly higher instructive compared to the parenchyma bottom. Vascular bundle on the bottom and top part of the trunk have the highest percentage of holocellulose which are range 80–85% compared to the parenchyma on the bottom and top part that around 65–75%.
Acknowledgments
The authors would like to express their gratitude for the USM-RU-PRGS grant (1001/PTEKIND/844063) for sponsoring this research. The authors gratefully appreciate the Japan International Research Center for Agricultural Sciences for partially sponsoring this research (304/PTEKIND/650481/J122). Last but not least, to the Faculty of Bioengineering and Technology, Universiti Malaysia Kelantan, to support my research indirectly from the beginning until the end.
Conflict of interest
I declare that this chapter entitled “Chemical composition of parenchyma and vascular bundle from Elaeis guineensis” is the results of my own research except as cited in the references.
Notes/thanks/other declarations
Special thanks to my husband, my children, my mom, my grandfather, and my in-laws; it is impossible to acknowledge inappropriate language the sacrifices you had made to support and encourage me to keep me devoted to my research.
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In this context, oil palm trunks were separated into individual cell that are parenchyma and vascular bundle to investigate the fundamental research about oil palm trunk. The aim of this study was to examine the chemical composition of parenchyma and vascular bundle of oil palm trunk. The oil palm trunk was kept under shade at room temperature of 28–30°C for 0, 45, and 60 days. The chemical composition analysis was carried out according to TAPPI methods. Based on storage time and different part of oil palm trunk, the result has shown that the sugar content was higher in parenchyma compared to vascular bundle and increase at the storage time of 0, 45, and 60 days while amount of starch showed decrease at the same storage time. It shows that conversion or fermentation of starch to sugar occur in oil palm trunk during storage times of 0, 45, and 60 days, respectively.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/79251",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/79251",signatures:"Sitti Fatimah Mhd. 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Ramle",slug:"sitti-fatimah-mhd.-ramle",email:"fatimah.m@umk.edu.my",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"418194",title:"Dr.",name:"Zubaidah Aimi",middleName:null,surname:"Abdul Hamid",fullName:"Zubaidah Aimi Abdul Hamid",slug:"zubaidah-aimi-abdul-hamid",email:"zubaidahaimi.ah@umk.edu.my",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"Universiti Malaysia Kelantan",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Malaysia"}}}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Overview of Elaeis guineensis",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"2.1 Botanical description of Elaeis guineensis",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"2.2 Anatomy structure of Elaeis guineensis",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_3",title:"2.2.1 Parenchyma and vascular bundle from Elaeis guineensis",level:"3"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"2.3 Utilization of biomass Elaeis guineensis to renewable energy",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7",title:"3. Chemical composition of Elaeis guineensis",level:"1"},{id:"sec_7_2",title:"3.1 Sugar content of parenchyma and vascular bundle at different part of oil palm trunk by HLPC",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8_2",title:"3.2 Starch analysis of parenchyma and vascular bundle of oil palm trunk",level:"2"},{id:"sec_10",title:"4. Conclusions",level:"1"},{id:"sec_11",title:"Acknowledgments",level:"1"},{id:"sec_14",title:"Conflict of interest",level:"1"},{id:"sec_11",title:"Notes/thanks/other declarations",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Ramle, S. F. M., Sulaiman, O., Hashim, R., Hamid, Z. A. A., Arai, T., Kosugi, A., Murata, Y. Chemical characterization from parenchyma and vascular bundle at different parts of oil palm trunk. AIP Proceeding. 2019: 020039. DOI:10.1063/1.5089338'},{id:"B2",body:'Teoh, Cheng Hai. 2010. “Key Sustainability Issues in the Palm Oil Sector,” Discussion Paper for Multi-stakeholder Consultations commissioned by the World Bank Group'},{id:"B3",body:'Slette, J., and Wiyono, I. E. (2011). Indonesia Biofuels Annual: 2011. Global Agricultural Information Network (GAIN), US Department of Agriculture'},{id:"B4",body:'Husin, M. (1985). Potentials of oil palm by-products as raw materials for agro-based industries, proceed. Nat. Symp. On oil Palm by-products for agro-based industries, Kuala Lumpur. Palm oil res. Inst. Malaysia Bull. 11, 7-11'},{id:"B5",body:'Tomimura, Y. (1992). Chemical characteristics and utilization of oil palm trunks. JARQ. 25, 283-288'},{id:"B6",body:'Yamada, H., Tanaka, R., Sulaiman, O., Hashim, R., Hamid, Z. A. A., Yahya, M. K. A., Kosugi, A., Arai, T., Murata, Y., Mirasawa, S., Yamamoto, K., Ohara, S., Mohd Nor Mohd Yusof, Ibrahim, W. A., and Mori, Y. (2010). Old oil palm trunk: A promising source of sugars for bioethanol production. Biomass and Bioenergy. 34, 1608-1613'},{id:"B7",body:'Kosugi, A., Tanaka, R., Magara, K., Murata, Y., Arai, T., Sulaiman, O., Hashim, R., Hamid, Z. A. A., Yahya, M. K. A., Yusof, M. N. M., Ibrahim, W. A., and Mori, Y. (2010). Ethanol and lactic acid production using sap squeezed from old oil palm trunks felled for replanting. Journal Bioscience and Bioengineering. 4, 4C'},{id:"B8",body:'Abdul Khalil, H. P. S., Siti Alwani, M., Ridzuan, R., Kamarudin, H., and Khairul, A. (2008) Chemical composition, morphological characteristics, and cell wall structure of malaysian oil palm fibers. Polym-Plast Techno. 1(47), 273-280'},{id:"B9",body:'Wan Rosli, W. D., and Law, K. N. (2011). Oil palm fibre as papermaking materials: Potential and challenges. BioResources 6(1), 901-917'},{id:"B10",body:'Abe, H., Murata, Y., Kubo, S., Watanabe, K., Tanaka, R., Sulaiman, O., Hashim, R., Sitti Fatimah, M. R., Zhang, C., Noshiro, S. and Mori, Y. (2013). Estimation of the ratio of vascular bundle to parenchyma tissue in oil palm trunks using NIR spectroscopy. BioResources 8(2), 1578-1581'},{id:"B11",body:'Baker, E. S., Sahri, M. H., and H’ng, P. S. (2008). “Anatomical characteristics and utilization of oil palm wood,” In: The Formation of Wood in Tropical Forest Trees – A Challenge from the Perspective of Functional Wood Anatomy. T. Nobuchi and M. H. Sahari (eds.). Penerbit Universiti Putra Malaysia, Serdang, 161-178'},{id:"B12",body:'MPOB. Malaysia Palm Oil Board, Retrieved May 06, 2021, from (http://www.mpob.gov.my)'},{id:"B13",body:'Jacquin (1763). Elaeis Guineensis Select. Stirp. Amer. Hist. 280, t. 172'},{id:"B14",body:'Bailey, L. H. (1940). The great carossier. Gentes Herbarium, 4, 262-265'},{id:"B15",body:'Wessels-Boer, J. G. (1965). Flora of Suriname 5(1). Palmae. E. J. Brill, Leiden'},{id:"B16",body:'Hardon, J. J., Corley, R. H. V., and Lee, C. H. (1987). Breeding and selection for vegetative propagation in oil palm. Improvement of Vegetatively Propagated Crops (Abbott, A. J., and Atkin, R. K., eds.). Academic Press. p. 64-81'},{id:"B17",body:'Hardon, J. J., Williams, C. N., and Watson, I. (1969). Leaf area and yield in the oil palm in Malaya. Experimental Agriculture 5:25-32'},{id:"B18",body:'Wunderlin, R. P., and B. F. Hansen (2002). Atlas of Florida Vascular Plants. University of South Florida, Tampa'},{id:"B19",body:'Parham, R. A., and Kausftinen, H. M. (1974). Papermaking Materials. An Atlas of Electron Micrographs. The Institute of Paper Chemistry, Appleton, WI'},{id:"B20",body:'Palma, M. T., Bocchio, L., Capretti, G., Gastaldi, G., Orlandini, S., Focher, B. (1996). Fourth European Workshop on Lignocellulosics and Pulps: Advances in Characterization and Processing of Wood, Non-Woody and Secondary Fibers. Stresa, Italy. September 8-11, pp. 273-278 (abstracts)'},{id:"B21",body:'Rowell, R. M. (1975). Chemical Modification of Wood: Specialty Treatments. 19, 5-10'},{id:"B22",body:'Smith, A. G. (2001). Embryonic stem cells. In: Stem Cells, ed. D. Marshak, R. L. Ardner, D. Got-Tlieb, Pp. 205-30. New York: Cold Spring Harbor Lab. Press'},{id:"B23",body:'Cheng, C. K., Hani, H. H., and Ismail, K. S. K. (2007). Bioethanol Glucose Biomass Fermentation: Palm Oil Biomass Energy Alcohol as Fuel. Oil Palm 1st Conference on Sustainable Materials (IcoSM) 9th 12th June, 2007. Universiti Malaysia Perlis: 69'},{id:"B24",body:'Alam, M. Z., Kabbashi, A. A., Nahdatul, S., and Hussin, I. S. (2009). Production of bio-ethanol by direct bioconversion of oil-palm industrial effluent in a stirred-tank bioreactor. Journal of Industrial Microbiology and Biotechnology. 36, 801-808'},{id:"B25",body:'Dunagani, R., Jawaid, M., Abdul Khalil, H. P. S., Jasni., Sri Aprila., Hakeem, K. R., Hartati, S., and Islam. A Review on Quality Enhancement of Oil Plam Trunk Waste by Resin Impregnation: Future Materials. Bioresources.com, Peer Review Article. 2013'},{id:"B26",body:'Esther, O. U. (1997). Anaerobic digestion of palm oil mill effluent and its utilization as fertilizer for environmental protection. Renewable Energy 10(213): 291-294'},{id:"B27",body:'H’ng, P. S., Wong, L. J., Chin, K. L., Tor, E. S., Tan, S. E., Tey, B. T., and Maminski, M. (2011). Oil palm (Elaeis guineensis) trunk as a resource of starch and other sugars. Journal of Applied Polymer Science 11, 3053-3057'},{id:"B28",body:'Shuit et al., 2009'},{id:"B29",body:'Cai, L., Han, S., and Deng, W. (1992). Chemical and physical changes of steam treated wood chip. Journal of Northeast Agricultural University 4(1), 48-52'},{id:"B30",body:'Sulaiman, O., Salim, N., Nordin, N. A., Hashim, R., Ibrahim, M., and Sato (2012). The potential of oil palm trunk biomass as an alternative source for compressed wood. Bioresources 7(2), 2688-2706'},{id:"B31",body:'Corley, R. H. V. (1996). What is the upper limit to oil extraction ratio? Proc. of the International Conference on Oil and Kernel Production in Oil Palm ñ a Global Perspective (N. Rajanaidu; Henson, I. E. and Jalani, B. Seds.). ISOPB and PORIM. p. 256-269'},{id:"B32",body:'Henson, I. E. (1999). Notes on oil palm productivity. IV. Carbon dioxide gradients and fluxes and evapotranspiration, above and below the canopy. J. Oil Palm Research Vol. 11 No. 1: 33-40'},{id:"B33",body:'Husin, M. (2000). Utilization of oil palm biomass for various wood-based and other products, edited by Basiron, Y., Jalani, B. S., and Chan, K. W. In: Advance in oil Palm research. Malaysian Palm Oil Board. 2(32): 1346-1354'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Sitti Fatimah Mhd. Ramle",address:"fatimah.m@umk.edu.my",affiliation:'
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In-service vehicles equipped with sensors and GPS systems can act as probes to detect and analyse real-time vehicle vibration. Recently, a compact on-board sensing device has been developed. This chapter describes the track condition monitoring system that uses a compact on-board sensing device and diagnosis software. The diagnosis software provides the function of detecting track faults using the root mean square (RMS) of the car-body acceleration. It also allows analysis in the time-frequency domain using wavelet transform. A monitoring experiment in a local railway line showed that the system is effective for practical application.",book:{id:"4789",slug:"railway-research-selected-topics-on-development-safety-and-technology",title:"Railway Research",fullTitle:"Railway Research - Selected Topics on Development, Safety and Technology"},signatures:"Hitoshi Tsunashima, Hirotaka Mori, Masayuki Ogino and Akira\nAsano",authors:[{id:"49517",title:"Prof.",name:"Hitoshi",middleName:null,surname:"Tsunashima",slug:"hitoshi-tsunashima",fullName:"Hitoshi Tsunashima"}]},{id:"59302",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.74277",title:"Model-Based Fault Analysis for Railway Traction Systems",slug:"model-based-fault-analysis-for-railway-traction-systems",totalDownloads:1384,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:5,abstract:"Fault analysis in industrial equipment has been usually performed using classical techniques such as failure modes and effects analysis (FMEA) and fault tree analysis (FTA). Model-based fault analysis has been used during the last several years in order to overcome the limitations of classical methods when complex industrial equipment has to be analyzed. In railway and automotive sectors, the development and validation of new products are based on hardware-in-the-loop (HIL) platforms. In this chapter, a methodology to enhance classical FMEAs is presented. Based on HIL simulations, the objective is to improve the results of the fault analysis with quantitative information about the effects of each fault mode. In this way, the impact of the fault analysis in the design of the traction system, the development of new diagnostic functionalities and in the maintenance tasks will increase.",book:{id:"6065",slug:"modern-railway-engineering",title:"Modern Railway Engineering",fullTitle:"Modern Railway Engineering"},signatures:"Jon del Olmo, Fernando Garramiola, Javier Poza and Gaizka\nAlmandoz",authors:[{id:"149511",title:"Dr.",name:"Gaizka",middleName:null,surname:"Almandoz",slug:"gaizka-almandoz",fullName:"Gaizka Almandoz"},{id:"149644",title:"Dr.",name:"Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Poza",slug:"javier-poza",fullName:"Javier Poza"},{id:"235660",title:"Dr.",name:"Jon",middleName:null,surname:"Del Olmo",slug:"jon-del-olmo",fullName:"Jon Del Olmo"},{id:"241062",title:"Mr.",name:"Fernando",middleName:null,surname:"Garramiola",slug:"fernando-garramiola",fullName:"Fernando Garramiola"}]},{id:"49375",doi:"10.5772/61517",title:"Experimental and Simulation Study of the Superstructure and Its Components",slug:"experimental-and-simulation-study-of-the-superstructure-and-its-components",totalDownloads:2553,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"The issues discussed in this chapter are of interest of both the manufacturers and the experts responsible for condition of the track superstructure. In general, stress in steel elements may affect the energy state, phase changes, and corrosion. It may reduce fatigue strength and cause damage and cracks of the rails. It is one of the causes of accelerated development of standard railhead defects. Proper selection of, e.g., bending process parameters provides uniform distribution and acceptable level of residual stresses in the bent components. Residual stresses that develop during manufacturing process in the railway turnout steel components can change their strength properties. The first part of this chapter presents ultrasonic measurement method and computer simulation that allowed to develop a method to diagnose state and distribution of residual stresses in steel components of the railway turnout (wing rails and switch blades) in the production process. The second part of this chapter includes experimental and simulation studies of superstructure in operational conditions. A track substructure with a crashed stone composite is a solution of reinforced standard track substructure. The results are used to draw conclusions concerning further development and possible modifications of a proposed solution. A significant number of simulation calculations also allow to determine the duration of guaranteed functionality of a reinforced track substructure.",book:{id:"4789",slug:"railway-research-selected-topics-on-development-safety-and-technology",title:"Railway Research",fullTitle:"Railway Research - Selected Topics on Development, Safety and Technology"},signatures:"Jacek Kukulski",authors:[{id:"175842",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Jacek",middleName:null,surname:"Kukulski",slug:"jacek-kukulski",fullName:"Jacek Kukulski"}]},{id:"49716",doi:"10.5772/62080",title:"A Systems View of Railway Safety and Security",slug:"a-systems-view-of-railway-safety-and-security",totalDownloads:4110,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"This chapter approaches the concerns over safety and security of modern mainline and light railways from a systems perspective. It addresses the two key concerns from the view point of systemic emergence arising from the interaction between all the principal constituents of the railway system, namely infrastructure, rolling stock, energy and human element comprising workers, passengers and the neighbours of the railways.",book:{id:"4789",slug:"railway-research-selected-topics-on-development-safety-and-technology",title:"Railway Research",fullTitle:"Railway Research - Selected Topics on Development, Safety and Technology"},signatures:"Ali G. Hessami",authors:[{id:"108303",title:"Prof.",name:"Ali G.",middleName:null,surname:"Hessami",slug:"ali-g.-hessami",fullName:"Ali G. Hessami"}]},{id:"57840",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71768",title:"Advanced Train Positioning/Communication System",slug:"advanced-train-positioning-communication-system",totalDownloads:1660,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"In the past, in order to ensure train positioning as well as ground-to-train information exchange, railways have adopted various technologies. Over time, each new generation of equipment enriched the global information exchange but, as a consequence, necessitated higher data rate transfers. For the positioning functionality, the existing localisation systems are still limited, since most of them require an infrastructure installation with constraints such as laying equipment between the rails or having high database maintenance requirements and computational costs. Moreover, some of them accumulate errors (odometers and inertial sensors) or offer limited coverage in shadowed areas (GNSS, etc.). Currently, in railway applications, a widely used localization system is based on proprioceptive sensors embarked in the train. This on-board system is coupled to the use of balises located at ground between the rails. These balises are kilometre markers. They are used to compensate for the drift of the localization information computed using the proprioceptive sensors alone, when the train moves. The balises provide absolute localization information whenever the train passes over them. They can also provide spot communication during the short period of time when trains are passing over them. In the first part of this chapter, techniques for achieving train positioning and data exchanges between trains and infrastructure are introduced. In the second part, a new balise is proposed. Particular attention is paid to the contribution of this new solution in terms of localization error and communication performances.",book:{id:"6065",slug:"modern-railway-engineering",title:"Modern Railway Engineering",fullTitle:"Modern Railway Engineering"},signatures:"Fouzia Elbahhar and Marc Heddebaut",authors:[{id:"140822",title:"Dr.",name:"Fouzia",middleName:null,surname:"Elbahhar",slug:"fouzia-elbahhar",fullName:"Fouzia Elbahhar"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"57056",title:"Transmission-Based Signaling Systems",slug:"transmission-based-signaling-systems",totalDownloads:3049,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"In this chapter, we describe the principal communication systems applied to the transmission-based signaling (TBS) systems for railways. Typical examples are communication-based train control (CBTC), European Rail Traffic Management System (ERTMS), and distance to go (DTG). Moreover, to properly address some of the challenges that need to face these systems, we will provide a deep insight on propagation issues related to all the environments (urban, suburban, rural, tunnel, etc.). We will highlight all the communication-related issues and the operational as well. Finally, a detailed survey on the directions of research on all these topics is provided, in order to properly cover this interesting subject. In this research, hot topics like virtual coupling are explained as well.",book:{id:"6065",slug:"modern-railway-engineering",title:"Modern Railway Engineering",fullTitle:"Modern Railway Engineering"},signatures:"Cesar Briso-Rodríguez, Juan Moreno García-Loygorri and Lei Zhang",authors:[{id:"171013",title:"Dr.",name:"Cesar",middleName:null,surname:"Briso",slug:"cesar-briso",fullName:"Cesar Briso"},{id:"216915",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"Moreno Garcia-Loygorri",slug:"juan-moreno-garcia-loygorri",fullName:"Juan Moreno Garcia-Loygorri"},{id:"216916",title:"Dr.",name:"Lei",middleName:null,surname:"Zhang",slug:"lei-zhang",fullName:"Lei Zhang"}]},{id:"49375",title:"Experimental and Simulation Study of the Superstructure and Its Components",slug:"experimental-and-simulation-study-of-the-superstructure-and-its-components",totalDownloads:2553,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"The issues discussed in this chapter are of interest of both the manufacturers and the experts responsible for condition of the track superstructure. In general, stress in steel elements may affect the energy state, phase changes, and corrosion. It may reduce fatigue strength and cause damage and cracks of the rails. It is one of the causes of accelerated development of standard railhead defects. Proper selection of, e.g., bending process parameters provides uniform distribution and acceptable level of residual stresses in the bent components. Residual stresses that develop during manufacturing process in the railway turnout steel components can change their strength properties. The first part of this chapter presents ultrasonic measurement method and computer simulation that allowed to develop a method to diagnose state and distribution of residual stresses in steel components of the railway turnout (wing rails and switch blades) in the production process. The second part of this chapter includes experimental and simulation studies of superstructure in operational conditions. A track substructure with a crashed stone composite is a solution of reinforced standard track substructure. The results are used to draw conclusions concerning further development and possible modifications of a proposed solution. A significant number of simulation calculations also allow to determine the duration of guaranteed functionality of a reinforced track substructure.",book:{id:"4789",slug:"railway-research-selected-topics-on-development-safety-and-technology",title:"Railway Research",fullTitle:"Railway Research - Selected Topics on Development, Safety and Technology"},signatures:"Jacek Kukulski",authors:[{id:"175842",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Jacek",middleName:null,surname:"Kukulski",slug:"jacek-kukulski",fullName:"Jacek Kukulski"}]},{id:"59304",title:"Improving Feasibility of High-Speed Train Project: Creating Added Value",slug:"improving-feasibility-of-high-speed-train-project-creating-added-value",totalDownloads:1471,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"Infrastructure plays a significant role in increasing economic development by providing access of transportation and improving connectivity. High-speed train (HST), one of mega infrastructure projects, has a positive impact on economic development of a nation. However, the project feasibility requires the maximum value for money and an acceptable risk to attract private investors. This study aims to improve the feasibility of the project by producing a conceptual design of Jakarta-Surabaya high-speed train in Indonesia. Value engineering will be used to evaluate both technical and financial aspects of the project. The methodology uses both qualitative and quantitative approaches through a case study, in-depth interviews, and life-cycle cost analysis. The result shows an optimum route sketching for the project and potential added value to the project. It consists of the solar cell, fiber optic, tourism, and transit-oriented development. The output also generates the division of responsibility between the government and business entity during the project lifecycle regarding the project financing. The institutional scheme will regulate the position and roles for each related stakeholder that was involved in the HST project development.",book:{id:"6065",slug:"modern-railway-engineering",title:"Modern Railway Engineering",fullTitle:"Modern Railway Engineering"},signatures:"Mohammed Ali Berawi",authors:[{id:"207251",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohammed Ali",middleName:null,surname:"Berawi",slug:"mohammed-ali-berawi",fullName:"Mohammed Ali Berawi"}]},{id:"57840",title:"Advanced Train Positioning/Communication System",slug:"advanced-train-positioning-communication-system",totalDownloads:1660,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"In the past, in order to ensure train positioning as well as ground-to-train information exchange, railways have adopted various technologies. Over time, each new generation of equipment enriched the global information exchange but, as a consequence, necessitated higher data rate transfers. 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He also obtained an MSc in Molecular and Genetic Medicine, and a Ph.D. in Clinical Immunology and Human Genetics from the University of Sheffield, UK. He also completed a short-term fellowship in Pediatric Clinical Immunology and Bone Marrow Transplantation at Newcastle General Hospital, England. Dr. Rezaei is a Full Professor of Immunology and Vice Dean of International Affairs and Research, at the School of Medicine, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, and the co-founder and head of the Research Center for Immunodeficiencies. He is also the founding president of the Universal Scientific Education and Research Network (USERN). Dr. Rezaei has directed more than 100 research projects and has designed and participated in several international collaborative projects. He is an editor, editorial assistant, or editorial board member of more than forty international journals. He has edited more than 50 international books, presented more than 500 lectures/posters in congresses/meetings, and published more than 1,100 scientific papers in international journals.",institutionString:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",institution:{name:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"180733",title:"Dr.",name:"Jean",middleName:null,surname:"Engohang-Ndong",slug:"jean-engohang-ndong",fullName:"Jean Engohang-Ndong",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180733/images/system/180733.png",biography:"Dr. Jean Engohang-Ndong was born and raised in Gabon. After obtaining his Associate Degree of Science at the University of Science and Technology of Masuku, Gabon, he continued his education in France where he obtained his BS, MS, and Ph.D. in Medical Microbiology. He worked as a post-doctoral fellow at the Public Health Research Institute (PHRI), Newark, NJ for four years before accepting a three-year faculty position at Brigham Young University-Hawaii. Dr. Engohang-Ndong is a tenured faculty member with the academic rank of Full Professor at Kent State University, Ohio, where he teaches a wide range of biological science courses and pursues his research in medical and environmental microbiology. Recently, he expanded his research interest to epidemiology and biostatistics of chronic diseases in Gabon.",institutionString:"Kent State University",institution:{name:"Kent State University",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"188773",title:"Prof.",name:"Emmanuel",middleName:null,surname:"Drouet",slug:"emmanuel-drouet",fullName:"Emmanuel Drouet",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/188773/images/system/188773.png",biography:"Emmanuel Drouet, PharmD, is a Professor of Virology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, the University Grenoble-Alpes, France. As a head scientist at the Institute of Structural Biology in Grenoble, Dr. Drouet’s research investigates persisting viruses in humans (RNA and DNA viruses) and the balance with our host immune system. He focuses on these viruses’ effects on humans (both their impact on pathology and their symbiotic relationships in humans). He has an excellent track record in the herpesvirus field, and his group is engaged in clinical research in the field of Epstein-Barr virus diseases. He is the editor of the online Encyclopedia of Environment and he coordinates the Universal Health Coverage education program for the BioHealth Computing Schools of the European Institute of Science.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Grenoble Alpes University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",biography:"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (especially arboviral diseases). He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},{id:"332819",title:"Dr.",name:"Chukwudi Michael",middleName:"Michael",surname:"Egbuche",slug:"chukwudi-michael-egbuche",fullName:"Chukwudi Michael Egbuche",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/332819/images/14624_n.jpg",biography:"I an Dr. Chukwudi Michael Egbuche. I am a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Parasitology and Entomology, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nnamdi Azikiwe University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"284232",title:"Mr.",name:"Nikunj",middleName:"U",surname:"Tandel",slug:"nikunj-tandel",fullName:"Nikunj Tandel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/284232/images/8275_n.jpg",biography:'Mr. Nikunj Tandel has completed his Master\'s degree in Biotechnology from VIT University, India in the year of 2012. He is having 8 years of research experience especially in the field of malaria epidemiology, immunology, and nanoparticle-based drug delivery system against the infectious diseases, autoimmune disorders and cancer. He has worked for the NIH funded-International Center of Excellence in Malaria Research project "Center for the study of complex malaria in India (CSCMi)" in collaboration with New York University. The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. Received the CSIR-SRF (Senior Research Fellow) award-2018, FIMSA (Federation of Immunological Societies of Asia-Oceania) Travel Bursary award to attend the IUIS-IIS-FIMSA Immunology course-2019',institutionString:"Nirma University",institution:{name:"Nirma University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334383",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Simone",middleName:"Ulrich",surname:"Ulrich Picoli",slug:"simone-ulrich-picoli",fullName:"Simone Ulrich Picoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334383/images/15919_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from Universidade Luterana do Brasil (1999), Master in Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology from Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (2002), Specialization in Clinical Microbiology from Universidade de São Paulo, USP (2007) and PhD in Sciences in Gastroenterology and Hepatology (2012). She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:null},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). He was also awarded 'Outstanding Clinician in General Medicine” by Venus International Foundation for his extensive research expertise and services, perform over and above the standard expected in the advancement of healthcare, patient safety and quality of care.",institutionString:"Interfaith Medical Center",institution:{name:"Interfaith Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"93517",title:"Dr.",name:"Clement",middleName:"Adebajo",surname:"Meseko",slug:"clement-meseko",fullName:"Clement Meseko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/93517/images/system/93517.jpg",biography:"Dr. Clement Meseko obtained DVM and PhD degree in Veterinary Medicine and Virology respectively. He has worked for over 20 years in both private and public sectors including the academia, contributing to knowledge and control of infectious disease. Through the application of epidemiological skill, classical and molecular virological skills, he investigates viruses of economic and public health importance for the mitigation of the negative impact on people, animal and the environment in the context of Onehealth. \r\nDr. Meseko’s field experience on animal and zoonotic diseases and pathogen dynamics at the human-animal interface over the years shaped his carrier in research and scientific inquiries. He has been part of the investigation of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza incursions in sub Saharan Africa and monitors swine Influenza (Pandemic influenza Virus) agro-ecology and potential for interspecies transmission. He has authored and reviewed a number of journal articles and book chapters.",institutionString:"National Veterinary Research Institute",institution:{name:"National Veterinary Research Institute",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"94928",title:"Dr.",name:"Takuo",middleName:null,surname:"Mizukami",slug:"takuo-mizukami",fullName:"Takuo Mizukami",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94928/images/6402_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Institute of Infectious Diseases",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"233433",title:"Dr.",name:"Yulia",middleName:null,surname:"Desheva",slug:"yulia-desheva",fullName:"Yulia Desheva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/233433/images/system/233433.png",biography:"Dr. Yulia Desheva is a leading researcher at the Institute of Experimental Medicine, St. Petersburg, Russia. 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This topic will closely deal with all emerging trends in this discipline.",annualVolume:11411,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",editor:{id:"441442",title:"Dr.",name:"Şükrü",middleName:null,surname:"Beydemir",fullName:"Şükrü Beydemir",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003GsUoIQAV/Profile_Picture_1634557147521",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Anadolu University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorTwo:{id:"13652",title:"Prof.",name:"Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Ekinci",fullName:"Deniz Ekinci",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYLT1QAO/Profile_Picture_1634557223079",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ondokuz Mayıs University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"219081",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdulsamed",middleName:null,surname:"Kükürt",fullName:"Abdulsamed Kükürt",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/219081/images/system/219081.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Kafkas University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"241413",title:"Dr.",name:"Azhar",middleName:null,surname:"Rasul",fullName:"Azhar Rasul",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRT1oQAG/Profile_Picture_1635251978933",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Government College University, Faisalabad",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"178316",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sergey",middleName:null,surname:"Sedykh",fullName:"Sergey Sedykh",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178316/images/system/178316.jfif",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Novosibirsk State University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Russia"}}}]},{id:"17",title:"Metabolism",keywords:"Biomolecules Metabolism, Energy Metabolism, Metabolic Pathways, Key Metabolic Enzymes, Metabolic Adaptation",scope:"Metabolism is frequently defined in biochemistry textbooks as the overall process that allows living systems to acquire and use the free energy they need for their vital functions or the chemical processes that occur within a living organism to maintain life. Behind these definitions are hidden all the aspects of normal and pathological functioning of all processes that the topic ‘Metabolism’ will cover within the Biochemistry Series. Thus all studies on metabolism will be considered for publication.",annualVolume:11413,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/17.jpg",editor:{id:"138626",title:"Dr.",name:"Yannis",middleName:null,surname:"Karamanos",fullName:"Yannis Karamanos",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002g6Jv2QAE/Profile_Picture_1629356660984",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Artois University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"France"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"243049",title:"Dr.",name:"Anca",middleName:null,surname:"Pantea Stoian",fullName:"Anca Pantea Stoian",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243049/images/system/243049.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Carol Davila University of Medicine and Pharmacy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"203824",title:"Dr.",name:"Attilio",middleName:null,surname:"Rigotti",fullName:"Attilio Rigotti",profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Pontifical Catholic University of Chile",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Chile"}}},{id:"300470",title:"Dr.",name:"Yanfei (Jacob)",middleName:null,surname:"Qi",fullName:"Yanfei (Jacob) Qi",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300470/images/system/300470.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Centenary Institute of Cancer Medicine and Cell Biology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Australia"}}}]},{id:"18",title:"Proteomics",keywords:"Mono- and Two-Dimensional Gel Electrophoresis (1-and 2-DE), Liquid Chromatography (LC), Mass Spectrometry/Tandem Mass Spectrometry (MS; MS/MS), Proteins",scope:"With the recognition that the human genome cannot provide answers to the etiology of a disorder, changes in the proteins expressed by a genome became a focus in research. Thus proteomics, an area of research that detects all protein forms expressed in an organism, including splice isoforms and post-translational modifications, is more suitable than genomics for a comprehensive understanding of the biochemical processes that govern life. The most common proteomics applications are currently in the clinical field for the identification, in a variety of biological matrices, of biomarkers for diagnosis and therapeutic intervention of disorders. From the comparison of proteomic profiles of control and disease or different physiological states, which may emerge, changes in protein expression can provide new insights into the roles played by some proteins in human pathologies. Understanding how proteins function and interact with each other is another goal of proteomics that makes this approach even more intriguing. Specialized technology and expertise are required to assess the proteome of any biological sample. Currently, proteomics relies mainly on mass spectrometry (MS) combined with electrophoretic (1 or 2-DE-MS) and/or chromatographic techniques (LC-MS/MS). MS is an excellent tool that has gained popularity in proteomics because of its ability to gather a complex body of information such as cataloging protein expression, identifying protein modification sites, and defining protein interactions. The Proteomics topic aims to attract contributions on all aspects of MS-based proteomics that, by pushing the boundaries of MS capabilities, may address biological problems that have not been resolved yet.",annualVolume:11414,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/18.jpg",editor:{id:"200689",title:"Prof.",name:"Paolo",middleName:null,surname:"Iadarola",fullName:"Paolo Iadarola",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSCl8QAG/Profile_Picture_1623568118342",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorTwo:{id:"201414",title:"Dr.",name:"Simona",middleName:null,surname:"Viglio",fullName:"Simona Viglio",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRKDHQA4/Profile_Picture_1630402531487",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"72288",title:"Dr.",name:"Arli Aditya",middleName:null,surname:"Parikesit",fullName:"Arli Aditya Parikesit",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/72288/images/system/72288.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indonesia International Institute for Life Sciences",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"40928",title:"Dr.",name:"Cesar",middleName:null,surname:"Lopez-Camarillo",fullName:"Cesar Lopez-Camarillo",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/40928/images/3884_n.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma de la Ciudad de México",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"81926",title:"Dr.",name:"Shymaa",middleName:null,surname:"Enany",fullName:"Shymaa Enany",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/81926/images/system/81926.png",institutionString:"Suez Canal University",institution:{name:"Suez Canal University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}}]}]}},libraryRecommendation:{success:null,errors:{},institutions:[]},route:{name:"profile.detail",path:"/profiles/15550",hash:"",query:{},params:{id:"15550"},fullPath:"/profiles/15550",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var e;(e=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(e)}()