Nanoparticles and its mode of action.
\\n\\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\\n\\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"Highly Cited",originalUrl:"/media/original/117"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'IntechOpen is proud to announce that 191 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nThroughout the years, the list has named a total of 261 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\nReleased this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"1366",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Biodiversity Loss in a Changing Planet",title:"Biodiversity Loss in a Changing Planet",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Every ecosystem is a complex organization of carefully mixed life forms; a dynamic and particularly sensible system. Consequently, their progressive decline may accelerate climate change and vice versa, influencing flora and fauna composition and distribution, resulting in the loss of biodiversity. Climate changes effects are the principal topics of this volume. 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Triad?",doi:null,correctionPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/60025.pdf",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/60025",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/60025",totalDownloads:null,totalCrossrefCites:null,bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/60025",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/60025",chapter:{id:"56597",slug:"metallothioneins-saccharomyces-cerevisiae-and-heavy-metals-a-biotechnology-triad-",signatures:"Ileana Cornelia Farcasanu and Lavinia Liliana Ruta",dateSubmitted:"December 11th 2016",dateReviewed:"July 7th 2017",datePrePublished:null,datePublished:"December 13th 2017",book:{id:"6007",title:"Old Yeasts",subtitle:"New Questions",fullTitle:"Old Yeasts - New Questions",slug:"old-yeasts-new-questions",publishedDate:"December 13th 2017",bookSignature:"Candida Lucas and Celia Pais",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6007.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"95655",title:"Prof.",name:"Cândida",middleName:null,surname:"Lucas",slug:"candida-lucas",fullName:"Cândida Lucas"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"203734",title:"Dr.",name:"Ileana",middleName:"Cornelia",surname:"Farcasanu",fullName:"Ileana Farcasanu",slug:"ileana-farcasanu",email:"ileana.farcasanu@chimie.unibuc.ro",position:null,institution:{name:"University of Bucharest",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"203865",title:"Dr.",name:"Lavinia",middleName:null,surname:"Ruta",fullName:"Lavinia Ruta",slug:"lavinia-ruta",email:"lavinia.ruta@chimie.unibuc.ro",position:null,institution:null}]}},chapter:{id:"56597",slug:"metallothioneins-saccharomyces-cerevisiae-and-heavy-metals-a-biotechnology-triad-",signatures:"Ileana Cornelia Farcasanu and Lavinia Liliana Ruta",dateSubmitted:"December 11th 2016",dateReviewed:"July 7th 2017",datePrePublished:null,datePublished:"December 13th 2017",book:{id:"6007",title:"Old Yeasts",subtitle:"New Questions",fullTitle:"Old Yeasts - New Questions",slug:"old-yeasts-new-questions",publishedDate:"December 13th 2017",bookSignature:"Candida Lucas and Celia Pais",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6007.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"95655",title:"Prof.",name:"Cândida",middleName:null,surname:"Lucas",slug:"candida-lucas",fullName:"Cândida Lucas"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"203734",title:"Dr.",name:"Ileana",middleName:"Cornelia",surname:"Farcasanu",fullName:"Ileana Farcasanu",slug:"ileana-farcasanu",email:"ileana.farcasanu@chimie.unibuc.ro",position:null,institution:{name:"University of Bucharest",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"203865",title:"Dr.",name:"Lavinia",middleName:null,surname:"Ruta",fullName:"Lavinia Ruta",slug:"lavinia-ruta",email:"lavinia.ruta@chimie.unibuc.ro",position:null,institution:null}]},book:{id:"6007",title:"Old Yeasts",subtitle:"New Questions",fullTitle:"Old Yeasts - New Questions",slug:"old-yeasts-new-questions",publishedDate:"December 13th 2017",bookSignature:"Candida Lucas and Celia Pais",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6007.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"95655",title:"Prof.",name:"Cândida",middleName:null,surname:"Lucas",slug:"candida-lucas",fullName:"Cândida Lucas"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}},ofsBook:{item:{type:"book",id:"11275",leadTitle:null,title:"Interferon - Immune Metabolism",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"\r\n\tThe immune system is one of the plastic systems of the body and is heavily engaged in managing an equilibrium in all systems. Interferon (IFN) is the key soluble component of the immune system, a potent inducer of TNF and the interleukin network, and, by and large, sufficient to control various infections, cancer, and immune deficiencies.
\r\n\r\n\tA double-edged IFN signaling network largely dictates the plasticity in the immune system which can tune up and down the functioning of the immune system for orchestrating immunity against invaders and cancers while maintaining homeostasis. Apart from managing infections and cancer, the IFN system has the potential for managing a large variety of infectious diseases including COVID-19 where Type I IFN/Gamma IFN rheostat can limit the spread of the infection in the host while adjusting the host immunity in its favor.
\r\n\r\n\tSeveral recent studies have demonstrated the impact of IFN signaling on the immune-related metabolism for which underlying molecular/immune mechanisms are not clear. In view of this, the main aim of this book is to discuss interferon biology, chemistry, and physiological aspects which are important for the immune-related metabolism in the host.
\r\n\r\n\tThe second aim of the book is to emphasize how IFN can assist various targeted interventions, harness their therapeutic potential and benefit the health sector. The book will discuss various aspects of how IFN controls the STAT 3 / HIF -1/2α / mTOR-based immune metabolic programming of target cells. Within this frame, the book would also focus on the plausible impact of GAS and/or IRES elements with miRNA / lncRNA components for controlling the immune-related metabolism of host cells.
\r\n\r\n\tThe book particularly invites submissions from those authors who are working on the impact of the IFN system (Type I IFN –IRF 4/9 factors) in the evasion strategy of pathogens and/or tumors in the host.
",isbn:"978-1-80355-886-8",printIsbn:"978-1-80355-885-1",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80355-887-5",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"3a6c614f66ad2a35297a8f00b590da7c",bookSignature:"Dr. Hridayesh Prakash",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11275.jpg",keywords:"NK Cells, LAK Cells, Dendritic Cells, Macrophages, ACE2 Receptor, Latent Bacterial Infections, Gut Microbiome, Payer's Patches, Immune Directed Interventions, Tumor Immunotherapy, Energy Metabolism, Lipid Metabolism",numberOfDownloads:24,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:0,numberOfTotalCitations:0,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"November 5th 2021",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"December 3rd 2021",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"February 1st 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"April 22nd 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"June 21st 2022",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"7 months",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Dr. Prakash's major research areas are immunotherapy of persistent respiratory infections and cancer. He is unraveling the therapeutic potential of macrophages against solid and established tumors and their potential involvement in various cancer-directed interventions like radio and immune therapies. He is a fellow of the Royal Society of Biology (London, UK), a member of the International Union of Immunological Society, and a life member of the Indian and German immunology societies.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"287184",title:"Dr.",name:"Hridayesh",middleName:null,surname:"Prakash",slug:"hridayesh-prakash",fullName:"Hridayesh Prakash",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/287184/images/system/287184.jpg",biography:"Dr. Hridayesh Prakash is a fellow of the Royal Society of Biology, London. Currently, he is an associate professor at the Institute of Virology and Immunology, Amity University, NOIDA. He has expertise in innate immunity with a special interest in macrophage immunobiology, tumor immunology/immunotherapy, cell-based immunotherapies, pulmonary infection biology, and radiation biology. \n\nDr. Prakash conducts research to exploit various immunotherapeutics for managing persistent bacterial and viral Infections and gastric cancer. He is unraveling the therapeutic potential of M1 effector macrophages against solid tumors. He is also studying various mechanisms that certain pathogens like Helicobacter pylori, Chlamydia, and Mycobacteria are exploiting for polarizing M1 effector macrophages towards the M2 phenotype during chronic and persistent infections. Under this major objective, he is now validating the therapeutic impact of M1 effector macrophages for the control of persistent infection-driven cancer (adenocarcinoma) progression. \n\nDr. Prakash is also exploring the palliative potential of macrophages against autoimmunity and chronic inflammatory disorders like IBD, radio-pneumonitis, pulmonary fibrosis, and radiation syndrome.",institutionString:"Amity University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Amity University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"16",title:"Medicine",slug:"medicine"}],chapters:[{id:"82032",title:"Interferon-Gamma in Natural Defence and Prevention of Leprosy",slug:"interferon-gamma-in-natural-defence-and-prevention-of-leprosy",totalDownloads:10,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]},{id:"81569",title:"Impact of Interferon Alpha/Beta in the Management of Chronic Myeloproliferative Disorders",slug:"impact-of-interferon-alpha-beta-in-the-management-of-chronic-myeloproliferative-disorders",totalDownloads:14,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"429343",firstName:"Martina",lastName:"Ivancic",middleName:null,title:"Ms.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/429343/images/19998_n.jpg",email:"martina@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager, my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. Whether that be identifying an exceptional author and proposing an editorship collaboration, or contacting researchers who would like the opportunity to work with IntechOpen, I establish and help manage author and editor acquisition and contact."}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"9671",title:"Macrophages",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"03b00fdc5f24b71d1ecdfd75076bfde6",slug:"macrophages",bookSignature:"Hridayesh Prakash",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9671.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"287184",title:"Dr.",name:"Hridayesh",surname:"Prakash",slug:"hridayesh-prakash",fullName:"Hridayesh Prakash"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6550",title:"Cohort Studies in Health Sciences",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"01df5aba4fff1a84b37a2fdafa809660",slug:"cohort-studies-in-health-sciences",bookSignature:"R. Mauricio Barría",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6550.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"88861",title:"Dr.",name:"R. Mauricio",surname:"Barría",slug:"r.-mauricio-barria",fullName:"R. Mauricio Barría"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9500",title:"Recent Advances in Bone Tumours and Osteoarthritis",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ea4ec0d6ee01b88e264178886e3210ed",slug:"recent-advances-in-bone-tumours-and-osteoarthritis",bookSignature:"Hiran Amarasekera",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9500.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"67634",title:"Dr.",name:"Hiran",surname:"Amarasekera",slug:"hiran-amarasekera",fullName:"Hiran Amarasekera"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophile",surname:"Theophanides",slug:"theophile-theophanides",fullName:"Theophile Theophanides"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"371",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",subtitle:"Mechanisms and Adaptations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"588466f487e307619849d72389178a74",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-mechanisms-and-adaptations",bookSignature:"Arun Shanker and B. Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"314",title:"Regenerative Medicine and Tissue Engineering",subtitle:"Cells and Biomaterials",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"bb67e80e480c86bb8315458012d65686",slug:"regenerative-medicine-and-tissue-engineering-cells-and-biomaterials",bookSignature:"Daniel Eberli",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/314.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"6495",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniel",surname:"Eberli",slug:"daniel-eberli",fullName:"Daniel Eberli"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"57",title:"Physics and Applications of Graphene",subtitle:"Experiments",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0e6622a71cf4f02f45bfdd5691e1189a",slug:"physics-and-applications-of-graphene-experiments",bookSignature:"Sergey Mikhailov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/57.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"16042",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergey",surname:"Mikhailov",slug:"sergey-mikhailov",fullName:"Sergey Mikhailov"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"79435",title:"Ventilation Strategies in Obese Patients",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101246",slug:"ventilation-strategies-in-obese-patients",body:'Obesity is a disease with prevalence increasing significantly; about a third of the world’s population is overweight or obese. The number of obese people has doubled in the last 20–30 years, and this trend continues [1]. This is closely related to the increase in the number of obese patients admitted to the intensive care units (ICU) as well as those requiring mechanical ventilation. The specificity of obesity in critically ill patients lies in the increased risk of infections, impaired respiratory drive, respiratory mechanics as well as the presence of sleep-disordered breathing [2]. A frequently mentioned diagnosis linking respiratory failure and obesity is obesity hypoventilation syndrome (OHS), but obesity also affects patients with other diseases, including respiratory and lung diseases. It is necessary to mention patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), where a subset of obese patients benefits from a different approach to diagnosis and treatment compared to low-weight patients. This chapter aims to clarify the issue of respiratory failure in obesity and its treatment using mechanical ventilation in both acute and chronic conditions.
The development of respiratory failure in obesity is a gradual and often long-term process. Although the proportion of individual factors may vary from patient to patient, the disease results from a complex of the following mechanisms [3, 4, 5, 6]:
Reduction of vital capacity and functional residual capacity due to the mass of abdominal and subcutaneous chest fat
Upper airway narrowing and collapse during sleep—obstructive sleep apnea (OSA)
Accumulation of fat deposits in the respiratory system with increased lower airways resistance
Increased work of breathing (increased respiratory load)
Hypoxic pulmonary vasoconstriction
Fluid overload associated with nocturnal rostral fluid shift
Rapid eye movement (REM) associated hypoventilation
Impaired respiratory mechanics—muscle weakness
Central leptin resistance—deterioration of the respiratory drive
Accumulation of serum bicarbonate—reduction of ventilatory response to carbon dioxide (CO2)
All these pathomechanisms affect the development and course of the disease in individual patients and should be considered in the diagnosis and treatment of respiratory failure and the setting of ventilation strategies. Guideline for mechanical ventilation generally distinguishes recommendations for the treatment of patients with obstructive pulmonary disease and restrictive diseases and separately for the diagnosis of obesity hypoventilation syndrome [7, 8, 9]. However, as obesity is present in various diseases and the above-mentioned pathomechanisms contribute to the clinical picture, in the following, we will mention the specifics of the treatment of respiratory failure in multiple diseases.
Obesity hypoventilation syndrome is standardly defined by the combination of:
Obesity with body mass index (BMI) ≥ 30 kg m−2.
Daytime hypercapnia—arterial CO2 tension (PaCO2) ≥ 45 mm Hg.
Sleep-disordered breathing.
The diagnosis of OHS cannot be made if an alternative explanation for hypoventilation (e.g., neuromuscular, mechanical, or metabolic disease) is present [10].
As the development of hypoventilation in OHS is gradual, the diagnosis is in most cases made at a stable stage, when the patient is examined in a sleep laboratory for symptoms of sleep-disordered breathing [10]. Approximately one-third of patients are diagnosed at the point of acute-on-chronic hypercapnic respiratory failure [11], and these patients often require critical care. Comorbidities such as heart failure (usually with preserved ejection fraction), pneumonia, and sepsis contribute to the acute condition. A major problem in the acute and long-term management of these patients is that instead of making a correct diagnosis of OHS, other diseases such as COPD or asthma are misdiagnosed [12, 13]. The misdiagnosis of obstructive pulmonary disease without adequate lung function examination incorrectly directs treatment to the application of bronchodilators instead of adequate respiratory support.
Based on the presence of OSA and hypoventilation, three phenotypes of patients with OHS were observed [14, 15]:
Polysomnographic (PSG) findings for individual phenotypes are shown in Figure 1.
Phenotypes of OHS.
Figure 1 describes the excerpts of polygraphic recordings displaying from the top oxygen saturation, thoracic respiratory effort, airflow, and snoring. The first excerpt of severe OSA is exhibiting short interapneic intervals with oxygen saturation rising above 90%. The second excerpt illustrates low baseline oxygen saturation with further desaturations after apneic events. The third excerpt shows low baseline saturation with no desaturations reflecting isolated hypoventilation.
The classification is based on observations and medical evidence. It is a fact that a significant proportion of patients with OHS have concomitant OSA (near 70% of patients have severe OSA), and its presence should be presumed in treatment, especially in acute situations [14]. In a stable state, it is appropriate to devote time to the precise diagnosis, differential diagnosis, and titration of treatment.
While continuous positive airway pressure (CPAP) treatment may be appropriate for OHS and chronic hypercapnic respiratory failure, noninvasive ventilation (NIV) is the method of choice for acute or acute-on-chronic respiratory failure. It is a better alternative to invasive ventilation because it significantly reduces patient morbidity and mortality and reduces the risk of reintubation [7, 15].
In an obese patient with a known or suspected diagnosis of OHS who meets the criteria for initiating ventilation support, noninvasive ventilation should be considered the first treatment modality.
Acute ventilatory support in OHS patients is indicated if the following criteria are met [16]:
PaCO2 ≥ 45 mm Hg.
Respiratory acidosis with 7.1 < pH < 7.35.
Severe breathlessness, tachypnea (≥23 breaths per min).
Severe respiratory acidosis increases the risk of NIV failure but is not an obstacle to this treatment. It is possible to start a trial with NIV and be prepared for urgent endotracheal intubation.
NIV can also be indicated in some hospitalized obese hypercapnic patients with daytime somnolence, sleep-disordered breathing, and/or right heart failure in the absence of respiratory acidosis [17].
Before starting treatment with NIV, it is necessary (assuming patient safety—no delay of NIV) to perform the following procedures:
Blood collection for arterial blood gas (ABG) analysis. An arterialized capillary blood sample (e.g., by heat) is an alternative
Electrocardiography (12 lead)
Chest radiography
Search for and treatment of reversible causes of respiratory failure
To determine in advance an individual plan for possible escalation of treatment (e.g., for do not intubate patients) [17]
In the case of acute OHS, the NIV should be started immediately. OHS patients with severe daily sleepiness may be so somnolent that they cannot participate in placing their face masks. Treatment should be provided by staff experienced in NIV, and the patient should be placed in a high dependency unit (HDU) or intensive care unit (ICU) for close monitoring [17].
Absolute:
facial burns, severe facial deformity—inability to put on a mask
gastrointestinal bleeding or ileus
significant hemoptysis
undrained pneumothorax
inability to protect the airway, for example, fixed airway obstruction
Relative:
Patients treated with NIV require intensive care and careful monitoring, including:
Monitoring: Respiratory rate, oxygen saturation, end-tidal CO2, blood pressure, transcutaneous measurement of carbon dioxide (TCCO2)
Observation: Dyspnea, paradoxical abdominal movements, mask leaks, asynchrony with ventilator
Measurements: Glasgow coma scale (GSC), acute physiology and chronic health evaluation (APACHE) score
Labs: Blood gas analysis (sampling after 1–2 h of NIV, followed by 6–12 h for the first 24 h)
Waveforms: Analysis of NIV parameters [23]
Despite careful monitoring and proper ventilation, NIV failure may occur in some cases. There is no exact algorithm to determine when to indicate intubation, but it is necessary to know the most common predictors of NIV failure [23, 24, 25]:
excessive unintentional air leaks
high severity score on admission (pH < 7.25, APACHE II score > 29)
excessive respiratory secretions
intolerance and noncompliance with NIV
polymorbidity
severe hypoxemia and low level of PaCO2
pneumonia
low level of bicarbonates (HCO3)—possible link to renal failure
short duration of NIV
minimal or no change in pH after 1–2 h of NIV
no reduction in respiratory rate after 1–2 h of NIV
Data show that patients with a diagnosed or suspected diagnosis of OHS have a higher risk of death if they are discharged from the hospital without home positive airway pressure (PAP) treatment. Therefore, it is appropriate to set these patients for NIV treatment (ideally with pressure settings as in hospitalization or with auto-PAP settings) and to schedule an early examination in the sleep laboratory and titration of PAP treatment (within 3 months) [26]. In patients acutely ventilated invasively, the use of NIV is an appropriate weaning strategy, as it effectively prevents respiratory failure in the first 48 h after extubation [24]. In patients requiring tracheostomy for prolonged invasive ventilation, it is advisable to perform decannulation and adjustment to home NIV after successful weaning instead of indicating long-term mechanical ventilation via tracheostomy.
Initiating treatment of OHS patients in a stable stage allows assessing the ventilation strategy carefully. The choice of appropriate treatment should be based upon the severity of clinical state, the laboratory, functional and polysomnographic findings, reasonable cost-effectiveness, and the physician’s experience. Clinical practice and literature data do not favor treatment by either CPAP or NIV as they are comparable, though some studies acknowledge certain benefits of NIV over CPAP.
In the medium-term treatment, both CPAP and NIV have improved:
Daytime hypercapnia, sleepiness [27]
Health-related quality of life [28]
Polysomnographic measures [29]
Structural and functional echocardiographic measures [30]
NIV was superior to CPAP in terms of:
Lung functions and 6 min walking test
The rapidity of blood gases improvement [28]
In the long-term treatment, both CPAP and NIV have improved:
Number of hospitalization days [31]
Pulmonary hypertension and left ventricular diastolic dysfunction [32]
The concerns about the potentially harmful effect of NIV of hemodynamics due to the application of unphysiological positive pressure have been addressed by utilizing impedance cardiography, but it has not shown any deleterious impact on ventricular function [33].
The one undeniable benefit of CPAP over NIV is its lower cost [34]. The novel guidelines for the management of OHS by the American Thoracic Society [26] propose a switch of treatment from NIV to CPAP once the patient has achieved significant clinical improvement. This switch has been shown to be feasible and even favored by patients [35].
The one defining feature of OHS is its high prevalence of OSA, mainly of severe degree (estimated in around 70% of OHS patients). Thus, in patients with an apnea-hypopnea index (AHI) cut-off ≥30 episodes/h, it is reasonable to start with CPAP, as the primary aim is to alleviate obstruction in the upper airways, which might lead to the eventual resolution of chronic hypercapnia. For the patients without severe OSA, we should aim to improve the mechanics in the respiratory system and depression of the respiratory center; that is why NIV is used as an initial treatment.
The patients initially set on CPAP should be monitored for signs of CPAP failure. In that case, a switch to NIV is warranted. The definition of CPAP failure is inconsistent among different researchers. Some of the criteria used for CPAP failure in OHS patients were:
Insufficient improvement of oxygen saturation on CPAP:
Persistence of apneic and hypopneic episodes [37]
Insufficient improvement of CO2 levels
The choice of criteria for CPAP failure should be suited for the practice of a particular sleep laboratory, and it should be consistent over time.
Careful evaluation is necessary to avoid deeming inadequate patient compliance as CPAP failure.
It is important to note that a failure of CPAP during titration does not necessarily lead to failure of the CPAP treatment [36]. A single or few titration nights of CPAP may falsely display a failure, when in fact, a more extended period of treatment (2–3 months) might be necessary for CPAP to be effective. The length of a trial should be adapted according to the convenience of a sleep laboratory.
The high proportion of CPAP failure in OHS patients has led to identifying certain predictors when CPAP should be tried with a reasonable expectation of success and when to proceed straight to NIV.
Recognized CPAP failure predictors were:
awake oxygen saturation < 94% and PaO2 < 68 mm Hg [37]
daytime PaCO2 > 53 mm Hg [15]
significant comorbidities [40]
acute respiratory failure [39]
and clinician’s preference [39]
Generally, worse blood gases [38], higher obesity, significant comorbidities, and clinician’s preference warrant the trial of NIV in the first step.
Novel increasingly intelligent auto-titrating devices are able to adjust to a patient’s ventilatory need depending on his/her body position or the sleep stage.
Volume targeted pressure support assures sufficient ventilation but may potentially lead to sleep disturbance.
Auto-titrating EPAP allows to maintain the patency of upper airways and alleviates concomitant sleep apnea [18].
Standard ST mode is not inferior to the novel modes but requires precise and gradual titration, which is time-consuming.
Similarly, as the OHS patients are monitored for signs of CPAP failure, patients with NIV should be checked frequently, as there is a possibility of improvement of the respiratory center sensitivity, and a switch from NIV to CPAP might be considered.
COPD is a serious disease with an increasing prevalence, accompanied by a high risk of respiratory failure [41]. Unlike OHS, COPD is a disease where, in addition to the failure of the ventilatory pump (muscle weakness, shortening of the diaphragm), lung disease (obstructive airway disorder) is added [42]. The severity of the situation and the fact that it is a progressive disease also affect the management of respiratory failure. The use of NIV in COPD is common practice today. This treatment has clearly been shown to be effective in acute exacerbations of COPD (AECOPD) [43] and has long been a controversial topic in chronic indications [44]. However, recent studies have provided clear evidence in favor of treatment (including the effect on survival), and the greatest benefit of NIV has been present with higher pressures in NIV settings for maximum CO2 reduction, in patients with higher basal PaCO2 values, and in those who achieve high treatment compliance [45, 46, 47]. In the management of hypercapnic respiratory failure in COPD, there is growing evidence of the effectiveness of so-called high-intensity NIV (HI-NIV) [48]. However, many studies and guidelines perceive COPD as a single disease and do not reflect the existence of different phenotypes, comorbidities, and the need for a unique approach to them. One of them is an obese patient with COPD.
Several respiratory societies perceive COPD, not as a single homogeneous airway disease but also distinguishes between several phenotypes characterizing differences between patients [49, 50]. In intensive care units, patients with COPD often appear to be classified as a classic “Blue bloater.” These patients are generally classified as chronic bronchitis phenotype, but its definition does not fully describe such a complex clinical trait. On the contrary, there is increasing evidence that this trait of COPD patients is characterized by different radiological findings than those seen in emphysema, and it is associated strongly with obesity and frequently also with OSA [51]. The prevalence of obesity among COPD patients is also very high and variable (18–54%) [51, 52]. Obesity is strongly linked with the presence of OSA, and in COPD patients requiring inpatient pulmonary rehabilitation, the number of obese patients with OSA increases significantly [53]. The presence of obesity and the COPD-OSA overlap syndrome appears to be a key factor in the pathogenesis and development of clinical signs of the blue bloater trait. This statement is underlined with evidence that the severity of static hyperinflation is negatively associated with the apnea-hypopnea index in both COPD and non-COPD patients surviving acute hypercapnic respiratory failure [54]. This evidence is following data showing that overlap syndrome increases the risk of respiratory failure, pulmonary hypertension, and COPD exacerbations [55]. In line with the above literary data [56], a new “obese patient with COPD” phenotype (characterized by predominantly chronic bronchitis, less hyperinflation, metabolic and cardiovascular comorbidity, sleep apnea symptoms, that is, daytime sleepiness, snoring, nonrefreshing sleep, and/or hypercapnic respiratory failure) was proposed [57] with a recommendation of screening for sleep-disordered breathing in this group of patients [50].
Acute exacerbation of COPD (AECOPD) is a severe condition that requires urgent intervention, and recommendations for its treatment are well known [41]. NIV has an irreplaceable place in the management of AECOPD in the event of acute or acute-on-chronic respiratory failure [17, 43]. In a patient with COPD who is obese, it should be borne in mind that obesity is probably one of the predominant factors predisposing to respiratory failure. Other possible factors such as cardiogenic edema, infection, uncontrolled excessive oxygen therapy, or pneumothorax should not be forgotten [17]. Because NIV effectively prevents endotracheal intubation and survival in patients with AECOPD [23, 58], it should be indicated whenever a patient meets the criteria for initiation.
Acute ventilatory support in AECOPD is indicated in the same criteria as in OHS patients:
PaCO2 ≥ 45 mm Hg
Respiratory acidosis with 7.1 < pH < 7.35
Severe breathlessness, tachypnea (≥23 breaths/min)
It should be emphasized that controlled low-flow oxygen therapy (to achieve a saturation of 88–92%) is the basis for treating respiratory insufficiency in COPD. However, if respiratory acidosis develops or progresses (pH < 7.35) during careful monitoring of this treatment, NIV is recommended [7, 23].
Examinations before the start of NIV are recommended the same as in Section 3.2.2. A chest radiograph is necessary to determine whether the deterioration of the patient’s condition is caused by pneumothorax or pulmonary edema.
A patient with AECOPD with respiratory acidosis is at extreme risk of early death, and early intervention is necessary [59]. NIV is highly effective in this indication but does not replace the standard treatment of AECOPD, which must be given in each case. NIV should be started as soon as it is confirmed that regulated oxygen therapy is failing. In the case of AECOPD, as in the case of OHS, CPAP is not an appropriate treatment (as respiratory support). The method of choice is bilevel ventilation [7, 17, 23]. In treating obese patients with COPD, we can generally proceed from the procedures in OHS, with certain specifics for airway disorder.
Predictors of NIV failure have already been mentioned in Section 3.2.3. The documented percentage of NIV failure ranges widely from 5 to 40% (depending on the predictors of failure, patient selection, and staff experience with NIV). Analysis of several studies has shown that the most significant predictor of NIV failure is pH 1 h after the onset of NIV, followed by the severity of the underlying disease and patient compliance [61]. If the pH after 1–2 h of NIV is below 7.25, respiratory rate > 25/min, or new confusion or distress appears, consider intubation [17]. Nevertheless, if NIV adds to patient distress and intubation has been inappropriate, NIV should be discontinued, and palliative care measures adopted [17].
In case of NIV failure and planning for escalation of treatment to invasive mechanical ventilation (IMV), it is necessary to [23, 60]:
monitor and document parameters and signs indicating intubation
document and provide a decision in “do not intubate” patients
discuss the management with the patient and family
plan intubation before late failure of NIV
NIV may be an appropriate option in patients who have survived intubation and invasive mechanical ventilation and require continued treatment for chronic respiratory failure. However, in ventilator-dependent patients requiring ventilation for 12 h or more, tracheostomy may be considered and is highly recommended if the ventilation time exceeds 16 h per day. In this case, it is necessary to provide a ventilation device with an integrated battery [17, 40]. There are at least two reasons why we can assume that patients who have survived AECOPD with a need for NIV or IMV will be candidates for long-term home ventilation. The first is that obese patients with COPD have probable or known sleep-disordered breathing and will require some form of PAP treatment [53, 56]. Secondly, an episode of acute hypercapnic respiratory failure (AHRF) is a milestone in the course of the disease that predicts adverse development and prognosis [17]. In contrast to OHS (where weight reduction can reverse the course of the disease), this fact supports the planning of long-term ventilation treatment in obese patients with COPD. Therefore, clinicians should discuss the management of possible future episodes of AHRF with patients following an episode requiring ventilatory support because there is a high risk of recurrence [17]. Timing of indications for home mechanical ventilation (HMV) in COPD is a debated topic and ultimately depends on the decision of the patient and the physician. If the patient’s condition after AHRF is stable, does not require continued ventilation, he/she may be discharged from the hospital with a scheduled early follow-up. It is recommended to reassess postacute NIV COPD patients 2–4 weeks after clinical recovery. NIV should be considered if the pCO2 remains >7 kPa (53 mm Hg) [47] or if sleep-disordered breathing is detected in a sleep study.
COPD is a disease associated with a high risk of developing chronic respiratory insufficiency [41]. Despite long-standing discussions about whether long-term NIV can affect the course and prognosis of the disease, the reality is that more than a third of patients treated are patients with lung and airways diseases [62]. Moreover, we now know that long-term NIV positively affects the quality of life and symptoms and improves survival [46, 47]. Thus, the question is not whether to ventilate COPD patients, but which COPD patients benefit from NIV and when it should be initiated.
Obese patients with COPD are very likely to have OSA simultaneously, commonly referred to as overlap syndrome [63]. The prevalence of these diseases in the general population is up to 10%, but in severely ill patients with COPD, the prevalence of OSA may be much higher, especially in the obese [53]. The coexistence of both diseases leads to a combination of continuous hypoxia (due to COPD) and chronic intermittent hypoxia (during sleep in apnea episodes due to OSA) in patients, which contributes to the development of the described clinical phenotype (Section 4.1) [57]. CPAP is the standard treatment for OSA and overlap syndrome [64]. However, CPAP treatment alone is more suitable for normocapnic patients with COPD, as it may not be effective in reversing hypoventilation and hypoxemia. Options should be carefully considered, and if nocturnal hypoxemia persists despite CPAP treatment, NIV may be an appropriate treatment instead of adding oxygen therapy to CPAP. In COPD patients diagnosed with OSA in the sleep laboratory, CPAP has been shown to fail in more than one-fifth. Although there are no clear limits to the efficacy of CPAP, treatment failure and NIV indication are more common in patients who are more obese, have worse lung function, hypercapnia, and more severe hypoxemia (with a longer desaturation time below 90% during nocturnal PSG) [65].
There is not only one criterion for indicating long-term NIV in COPD, which is confirmed by common practice that patients need to be approached individually [7, 9, 44, 66]. Long-term NIV may be indicated at a stable stage of COPD or after overcoming an acute exacerbation, meeting specific criteria, and considering the patient’s needs. An important factor influencing the decision on the need for NIV is the presence of OSA. Contrary to the diagnosis of OHS with severe OSA, in the case of COPD-OSA overlap and hypercapnia, CPAP is not an appropriate option. CPAP may be effective in normocapnia in this case, but in hypercapnic COPD and the likelihood of progression of the underlying lung disease, NIV is the treatment of choice.
chronic daytime PaCO2 > 50 mm Hg
nocturnal hypercapnia with PaCO2 > 55 mm Hg
daytime hypercapnia with PaCO2 45–50 mm Hg and nocturnal rise in transcutaneous CO2 (PTCCO2) ≥ 10 mm Hg
stable daytime hypercapnia with PaCO2 45–50 mm Hg and at least two hospitalizations for hypercapnic respiratory failure within the past 12 months
overlap syndrome COPD-OSA and daytime hypercapnia with PaCO2 > 45 mm Hg
after overcoming an acute exacerbation, if the need for respiratory support persists (based on clinical estimation)
Blood gas collection and chest X-ray are recommended as standard. If possible, it is advisable to carry out a sleep study, preferably with the measurement of transcutaneous capnometry. Finally, the examination of lung functions is critical. Although this is not indicated directly in COPD exacerbation, in patients with a controversial diagnosis (especially in an obese patient), a misdiagnosis of COPD is common. Planning spirometry and possible body plethysmography with a distance from exacerbation before setting for long-term NIV will make it possible to clarify the diagnosis and set up treatment effectively.
Because patients with COPD form a wide range of different phenotypes, making precise recommendations on setting long-term NIV is not easy. In recent years, various approaches have been used, including the so-called low-intensity NIV (LI-NIV) and high-intensity NIV (HI-NIV) [44, 66]. The main difference is that HI-NIV uses higher values of IPAP and backup frequency to achieve normocapnia [48]. This approach has been shown in clinical trials to be effective in improving symptoms and quality of life and even in improving survival [45, 46, 47]. NIV was most effective in those COPD patients where IPAP over 18 cm H2O was used, baseline paCO2 was over 55 mm Hg, and NIV was used overnight for more than 5 h [44]. Another option is to use volume-targeted ventilation modes. In COPD, their use is equally effective compared to HI-NIV [67]. It can make sense to obese patients with COPD because they allow them to better adapt to current and later patient needs when set up correctly.
This chapter aimed to discuss different approaches to the treatment of respiratory failure depending on the situation and diagnosis in obese patients. Up-to-date information from evidence-based medicine and international guidelines was used in the preparation of the chapter. Although COPD and OHS are different diagnoses with different prognoses, in obese patients, they are associated with the presence of sleep-disordered breathing. It is obstructive sleep apnea that seems to be a key factor contributing to the clinical picture of the so-called obese patient with COPD, and early diagnosis and treatment can reverse the negative impact of the disease on patients’ health.
Agriculture is the most important and reliable enterprise, as it provides food and raw materials for industries that require them. The depletion of natural resources and the increase in world population demand that agricultural production become more economically feasible, ecologically sound, and productive. Changes such as these are crucial to attaining a number of goals inside the last year. Therefore, environmental performance should be employed and involvement from food chain ecosystems concerning agricultural foodstuff production must be incorporated. When it comes to eliminating poverty and hunger from today’s world, the agricultural revolution is a must-have phenomenon. In this scenario, well-known lenders are living below the poverty line and are dispersed in rural areas where agricultural expansion has not been as successful. Therefore, we need to make a significant stride forward in agriculture. All these considered, the global food supply was increased enormously in recent farming techniques pertaining to the Green Revolution. The influence on the environment and on ecosystem services was also unanticipated and harmful, which highlighted the need for more sustainable agriculture techniques [1, 2]. Excessive and improper use of fertilizers and pesticides in soil and surface waterways has been well established to increase nutrients and toxins, incur health and water purification expenses and decrease fishing and recreational alternatives. Agricultural practices that contribute to the eutrophication of aquatic habitats by degrading soil quality and may require increased fertilization, irrigation and energy expenses to maintain productivity in degraded soils. They also destroy profitable insects and wild animals.
Nanotechnology may be possibly the best solutions to eradicating the problems. Nanotechnology has got gained strenuous attention these days due to that will its diverse applications. Aside from that, there will be numerous future benefits, such as improved food quality and defense, a reduction in agricultural inputs, enrichment by absorbing nanoscale nutrients from your soil, etc. the usage of nanotechnology to be a persistent burden. For example, nanopesticides and nanofertilizers can assist in generating returns without decontaminating soils, water, and protecting against a few insect infestations and microbial issues [3]. As a result of nanotechnology, new agrochemical agents and totally new delivery methods are available to boost crop yield, and pesticide applications are expected to be reduced. Agriculture can benefit from nanotechnology in a number of ways, such as: nanoformulations of agrochemicals for the application of pesticides and fertilizers for crop progress, the use of nanosensors in crop protection with the identification of diseases, and nanodevices for genetically modifying crops and postharvest management, among other things [4, 5].
Nanotechnology has a lot of promise in agriculture, but there are still a few concerns that need to be addressed as part of the risk assessment. Nanoparticle attractants made from biopolymers such as proteins and carbohydrates have a low impact on human health as well as the environment in this regard [6]. When it comes to gardening products, nanotechnology may be used at every stage of the process, from manufacture to storage to labeling and distribution [7]. Because of its potential to enhance plant absorption of nutrients, detect disease, and manage pest infestations, nanotechnology can transform the agricultural and food sector.
The word “nano” is derived from the Latin nanus, which means dwarf or little. Nanoparticles (NPs) are tiny particles with a diameter of 1–100 nm. When a particle has a diameter between 1 and 100 nm, it is classified as a primary nanoparticle [8]. Nanoparticles, whether or not regarding normal or perhaps made origins have got inside the array of 1–100 nm inside one or more dimensions. A nanometer (nm) is a SI unit of length equal to 10–9 meter. NMs are materials with a length of 1–1000 nm in at least one dimension; however, they are usually characterized as having a 1–100 nm diameter. The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (USFDA) also describes NMs as “materials with an area of roughly one dimension and depending on dimensions of approximately 1 to 100 nm” [9]. To put it another way: according to International Organization for Standardization (ISO), NMs are “materials with any external or internal nanoscale dimension or surface structure at the nanoscale” [10].
Typically, nanometer will be a single billionth of the meter. Nanoemulsion, carbon dioxide nanotubes, quantum dots, nanorods, small and also nano- encapsulation and so forth. Morphology-aspect proportion or perhaps dimensions, hydrophobicity, solubility-release regarding dangerous types, surface or perhaps roughness, surface area types contaminations or perhaps adsorption, in the course of activity or perhaps historical past, reactive O2 types (ROS) O2 / H2O, ability to make ROS, construction, structure, competing holding web sites together with the receptor and also dispersal and also aggregation will be the crucial qualities regarding nanoparticles. Nanoparticles have several unique properties including a greater charge density and reactivity, considerably more strength, increased heat resistance, a lower melting point, and different permanent magnetic properties linked with nano-clusters. Distinctions inside the uncovered surface area regarding diverse nanoparticles cause differences inside atomic syndication throughout the nanoparticles, which often affect the particular electron exchange fee kinetics among metallic nanoparticles and also matching adsorbed types. These types of distinctive qualities provide the subsequent benefits to nanoparticles within farming, for example, greater solubility within the suspension, greater transmission associated with seedling jackets as well as consequently rising origins, much better bioavailability associated with substances towards the seedling radicals, supplying real focus as well as managed discharge associated with fertilizers or even pesticides within reaction to particular problems, enhanced specific exercise as well as eco-friendly along with security as well as calm transportation.
Nanoparticles tend to be seen as a distinctive bodily as well as chemical substance functions such as surface area, pore size, particle morphology, and reactivity because of their rigorous programs within the farming area. Nanoparticles are used in nano fertilizer, nano-pesticides as well as herbicides that are helpful to improve plants development, to manage extreme utilizes associated with chemical substances fertilizers as well as improve survivability towards biotic tension. The effects of various nanoparticles on plant development and phytotoxicity have been documented by a number of substances such as magnetite (Fe3O4) nanoparticles, alumina, zinc, and additionally zinc oxide in relation to seed germination [11]. Wheat can benefit from the addition of nanoparticles to their environment. The particular Zn takes on essential function inside place metabolic rate simply by influencing the actions regarding hydrogenase and also carbonic anhydrase, stabilization regarding ribosomal fractions and also activity regarding cytochrome. Place digestive enzymes stimulated simply by Zn get excited about carbs metabolic rate, servicing with the strength regarding cell filters, necessary protein activity, rules regarding auxin activity and also pollen creation. Magnesium (Mg) is involved with numerous physical as well as biochemical activities; it’s an important component concerning growing development as well as improvement and performs a vital part within grow support systems within abiotic tension circumstances. The actual common perform associated with Mg within vegetation is most likely it’s part since the main atom from the chlorophyll molecule within the light-absorbing complicated associated with chloroplasts and it is a factor to photosynthetic fixation associated with CO2.
Having the limited resources, development of agriculture for the higher growth now becoming the management practices, and fertilizer management has proved the significant in a remarkable way [12, 13]. Considering the novel method of fertilizer application as a form of nanoparticles has stimulated the attributes of plant growth by the upgradation of soil system [14]. As the field condition, fertilizers variation, pH of soil etc. are being the major determinant but the slow-release mechanism of nutrients improves the efficiency of fertilizer use efficiency [15]. The activities of plant root system also accelerated by the use of nanoparticles [16]. Researchers [17] addressed chemical fertilizers as the prime factor for crop production while at the same time it also degraded the soil fertility. But the controlled use of nano-fertilizer has improved the physio-chemical attributes of the crop plants in every possible way from synthesis to metabolism. It has made more efficient practices to improve the system of agricultural practices with the new idea like precision farming involving with the technology like slow release, quick release, specific release, moisture release, heat release, pH release, ultrasound release etc. [18]. Although nanotechnology in agriculture has proved the blessings but it also has come with great risk for every living communities [19]. Therefore, to implement the advancement of agriculture sector for developing countries like Bangladesh need to grasp this huge potential of nanotechnology without delay.
To meet the hunger of the over populated countries higher yield is the prime concern and to meet the yield potential use of pesticide has covered the whole system of farming [20]. Pesticides are chemical substances enormously used to eliminate and control the harmful organisms that cause economic damage to agricultural production [21]. Every year insect pests and plant pathogens cause significant crop loss, which is around 14% and 13%, respectively, with an approximate value of U.S. $2,000 billion globally [22]. It has been reported that a minimal amount, approximately less than 0.1%, of pesticide reaches the sites of action due to loss of pesticide in the air during the application, and as run-off, spray drift, off-target deposition, and photo-degradation, the remaining bulk contaminates the surrounding environment [23, 24]. Again, these toxic chemicals are responsible for various health issues such as neurological effects, respiratory diseases, cancer, Parkinson’s disorder, fetal diseases, infertility, diabetes, and genetic disorders [25]. With the rising demand for pesticides throughout the world to minimize the effects of pathogens and pests, measures should be taken to reduce pesticides’ excessive application by finding appropriate alternatives. Due to the extensive use of conventional pesticides, bioaccumulation, which is caused due to biomagnifying of persistent organic pollutants and the development of resistance in the target pests, is a major concern in this generation [26, 27]. Therefore, a craze has already been started to minimize the excessive pesticide use. With the application of nanotechnology in manufacturing various nano-based pesticides, we can easily overcome these limitations [28]. Nanotechnology can reduce the application of high amounts of pesticides as nanomaterials have a high surface area with enhanced reactivity, thus lowering the cost with increasing yields [29]. Thus, the less frequent application is good for costs and human and environmental safety, ultimately a great asset for sustainable agriculture [30].
Nano based pesticides, fungicides, herbicides, molluscicides, nematicides, miticide, and nanoparticulated growth regulators are effective against various pests such as insects, rodents, weeds, fungi, viruses, bacteria, and mites [31, 32, 33, 34]. They are also eco-friendly as they increase the formulation properties, including dispersion of water, chemical solidity, adhesion, permeability, and finally, controlled-release [35, 36]. The solubility rate of poorly soluble active ingredient can be increased with nano pesticide formulations, which ultimately helps the active ingredient release slowly and effectively. For example, nanoparticle formation like nanoencapsulation of agrochemicals such as insecticide or pesticide can increase the absorption rate and the slow and efficient release of various agrochemicals to a particular host plant for pest control [37, 38]. A small amount of nano-pesticides gives better crop protection because of their high reactivity at Nanoscale compared to their bulk counterparts [39]. For example, for the development of various nano-pesticides, we can use some effective chemical ingredients like silica, silver, carbon, and aluminium silicate [40].
Nanoparticles can be used effectively in pest control through the use of porous silica loaded with water-soluble pesticide for the ability to slow-release [41]. The cuticular lipid barrier is found in insect pests, which can be obstructed by the nano-silica component [42]. Nanoscale alumina has been used effectively against two insect pests:
Nanotechnology is a significant research strategy which enables easy understanding of technology for the modern world. From the enormous efficiency of nanotechnology pesticide based on nanoparticles, encapsulation of nanoparticles or nanoparticle-based DNA transfer to enhance the pest resistant are some examples of smart and precision farming [52]. Because it can stimulate the improvement of farming by means of application in nanoscale strategies [53]. Which will enable the hazardous use of chemicals in farming sector by stimulating the approach of farmers to implement the precision farming. The present strategies of farming are the application of pesticide without considering the actual efficiency or persistent. That is why nanotechnology-based use of pesticides like nano-encapsulation, controlled release mechanism could be useful for the betterment of sustainable agriculture [54].
The Advancement in the 21st century of agricultural science new ideas like nanotechnology evolved the system of cultural practices. Now a novel strategy for this aspect is the nano-biosensors. These nanoscale miniature devices are used to detect analytes at extremely low concentrations. It is a method of integrated approach with the combination of computer, electronics or nano-sciences in respect to the concern of biology [55, 56]. The sensors are being used to control moisture and pH level of soil, monitor temperature, crop nutrient status, insects, plant diseases, weeds etc., ion detection with the effectiveness of fertilizer or pesticide application strategy [57]. This real-time monitoring is accomplished by deploying wireless nanosensor networks over cultivated fields, which provide critical data for agronomic intelligence operations such as crop planting and harvesting at the appropriate times. The main strategy of this mechanism is to being the cost-effective production in agriculture by promoting the techniques of less input for the farming activities [58]. Nanobarcodes and nanoprocessing might potentially be used to track agricultural product quality. Scientists at Cornell University exploited the notion of supermarket barcodes to decode and identify diseases in a cheap, efficient, faster, and easy way. They developed minuscule probes, sometimes known as nanobarcodes, that may be used to track numerous diseases in a farm and be identified using any fluorescent-based equipment.
Soil is an inevitable medium for plant growth and food production; also, it operates planetary processes for the existence of life on earth. That is why soil is the most crucial component for the terrestrial ecosystem to flourish [59, 60]. Soil operates various vital events like biogeochemical cycles, water cycle, earth’s climate, pollutant detoxification, biogenic gas regulation, ecosystem restoration, and biodiversity maintenance [61, 62]. Soil can be contaminated by various chemicals like heavy metals, pesticides, and POPs that can be remediated effectively with nanomaterials’ help. For example, nano-based materials can be used to convert heavy metals to their less toxic forms, pesticide degradation, and bioremediation of contaminated soil. Besides, nano-based sensors are useful components for detecting harmful pesticide residue in the soil, like detecting Mn impurities with grapheme nanoribbon [63, 64].
For soil remediation, conventional physical and chemical methods are available, but there is a risk of secondary contamination due to these remediating agents’ high quantity uses [65]. Again microbial-based soil remediation is eco-friendly but not sufficient for higher costs [66]. These limitations can be easily eliminated with nano-based techniques such as nano fertilizers, nano biosensors, nano pesticides, and different nano-remediation processes [55, 67, 68]. Conventional soil remediation methods are mainly in situ and ex situ types where nano-remediation is normally on-site method without transportation of soil, which makes this cost-effective [69, 70].
Nanoparticles possess various mechanisms such as redox reactions, adsorption, ion exchange, surface complexation, and electrostatic interaction, which are useful for the adsorption and degradation of pollutants [71]. Moreover, other features include lower temperature modification, shorter interparticle diffusion distance, and multiple surface chemistry that make these materials appropriate catalysts for the remission of the concerned soil pollutants [72]. Nanoparticles are very much fruitful for the degradation of common industrial contaminants such as chlorinated organic compounds, petroleum nano aromatics, nitrates, heavy metals (arsenic (As) lead (Pb), copper (Cu), zinc (Zn), nickel (Ni), cadmium (Cd)), insecticides, and dyes [73, 74, 75, 76]. For instance, specific organic and inorganic compounds such as natural short-ordered aluminosilicate, the surface of titanium oxide, and humic acids can be coupled with Ni through a multiwalled carbon nanotube. These components are effective nano-bioremediation for the sustainable agricultural system [77, 78].
Nano-scale zero-valent iron (nZVI), titanium dioxide (TiO2), zinc oxide (ZnO), multiwalled carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs), fullerenes, bimetallic nanoparticles are widely used NPs for soil remediation because of their large surface area, high reactivity, and reduction capability [70, 79, 80, 81]. Surface-modified nano-scale carbon black can reduce the bioavailability of Cu and Zn; also, nanometer hydroxyapatite can remove Cd pollution from the soil, which promotes plant growth [82, 83]. On the other hand, nanometer zeolite can remove Cu and Pb; both are organic and heavy metal pollutants of soil [84]. Some researchers [85, 86] showed that Cd and Zn pollution could be repaired with the help of a ferric tetroxide nanometer.
Apart from all positive impacts, nanomaterials caused toxic effects on organisms dependent on soil [87]. For instance, copper nanoparticles negatively impact rats, as copper’s toxicity is related to the particle size [88]. Again, some heavy metal ions can be dissolved with metal nanomaterials, which is toxic for the ecology. Nano-TiO2 and its byproducts affected the antioxidant system and oxidative stress reaction of earthworms, one of the essential soil organisms [89, 90]. For this reason, we should pay more to keep an eye on the biological toxicity of nanomaterials used in soil remediation. Though the development of the appropriate use of nanotechnology for remediation of polluted soils is essential with the help of numerous uses of nanomaterials, we also need a comprehensive understanding of the human and environmental risk–benefit balance by using these nanomaterials [91].
In assumption, soil is meant to be the biggest receiver of NPs. When nanoparticles or nanoformulations are given to plants, the substance eventually makes its way to the soil, where it may be used. Because of its proximity to plant roots and microbes, the nanomaterial establishes a unique connection with them once it is in the soil. In addition to soil, which is the most abundant source of natural nanoparticles, both as primary particles and aggregates, it is also regarded an externally significant environmental matrix. Dissolution, transformation, and aggregation/disaggregation are among of the mechanisms that regulate the fate of NMs in soils. In soils, several of the mechanisms that determine NM fate and behavior, such as straining, deposition/mobilization and diffusive transport are substantially different (Figure 1). The significance of these factors varies depending on the NM and soil conditions [92, 93]. Because dissolution destroys them and aligns their destiny and bioavailability with the soluble components, dissolution may be critical for some NMs. Examples include the fast dissolving of ZnO, which is likely to be ephemeral in soil unless coated with compounds that prevent dissolution. When it comes to dissolving, pH is the most essential factor to take into consideration.
The key mechanisms that determine the fate of natural colloids and nanomaterials in soils. 1, colloid generation; 2, engineered nanomaterial leaching from biosolids; 3, homoaggregation; 4, fragmentation; 5, sedimentation; 6, heteroaggregation; 7, size exclusion; 8, straining; 9, deposition; 10, convective transport [
For example, researchers [92] used a worldwide database to compare soil saturation extract pH and ionic strength to NMs critical coagulation concentrations. Since the pH and Ionic Strength of most soil solutions are below the critical coagulation concentration of most nanomaterials, homoaggregation would be sluggish in most soils. As in aquatic contexts, heteroaggregation is anticipated to play a major role in soils because soil porewaters frequently include larger quantities of natural colloids in suspension. In most soils, NM condensation will occur in the topsoil with limited transport to the depths, resulting in increased straining (Figure 1). In soil porewaters, NOM has been reported to stabilize NMs and prevent both homo- and heteroaggregation, according to several studies [94]. NM movement in soils has been studied in a limited number of researches, and this is likely the most important gap in understanding the true danger of NM transport. NM transport researches in soils have evolved from utilizing inert stationary phases (e.g., quartz beads) in columns to employing real soils in the recent decade. It appears that the CNTs are retained in soils due to their large aspect ratio, resulting in considerable straining. There is a high concentration of fullerenes in soils due to interactions with soil organic matter.
Nanotechnology has opened up new avenues for increasing nutrient efficiency and lowering environmental protection expenditures. The fact that fertilizer usage efficiency is just 20–50% for nitrogen and 10–25% for phosphorus is alarming [95]. According to researchers [96], the introduction of nanofertilizers as an alternative to traditional fertilizers would remove nutrient buildup in soils, therefore eliminating eutrophication and drinking water pollution. The main idea is to improve the efficiency of native and applied phosphorus in soils to keep the ratio of applied and plant absorption P near unity. Because nearly all P fertilizers contain heavy metals and, more significantly, deliver P to plants in accessible forms, there is a need to regulate critical and harmful components linked with phosphorous in the pedosphere–hydrosphere continuum. Nanofertilizers increased the quality of agricultural goods, eliminated environmental risks, and needed less fertilizer than conventional fertilizers [97]. Because the rate of release of absorbed nitrogen (or fertilizers compounds) is much slower than that of adsorbed ionic forms of nitrogen, zeolites could be used for nitrogen capture and storage [98]. Researchers [99] noticed that zeolite chips containing urea in their cavities can be used as a slow-release nitrogen fertilizer material. When zeolites were loaded with nitrogen, potassium, phosphorous, calcium, and a set of minor and trace nutrients, few researchers [100] discovered that the honeycomb-like layered crystal network slowly released nutritional ions “on demand.”
According to another researcher [101], application of a nanocomposite comprising N, P, K, certain micronutrients, mannose, and amino acids improved nutrient absorption in grain crops. A group of researchers [41] used zinc–aluminum layered double-hydroxide nanomaterials with plant growth regulators and discovered that the products released chemicals in a regulated way. These studies showed that nanotechnology may be used to build advanced supply tools with great success. There are carbonaceous chemicals that are secreted into the soil that allow N and/or P mineralization from organic matter and P mineralization from soil inorganic colloids in nutrient-depleted soils. As environmental signals, these root exudates may be utilized to make nanobiosensors, which could then be integrated into new nanofertilizers, according to the authors’ hypothesis.
It’s well-known that current fertilizers create soil acidity, alter soil carbon profiles, harm beneficial microorganisms, weather clay minerals, and collect heavy metals in the soil. As receptacles, novel nanofertilizers use plant-nutrient ions intercalating or adsorbing on clay minerals. Salts make up the majority of current fertilizers, with one component consisting of plant-nutrient ion(s), whereas the other component isn’t particularly beneficial or harmful at all. To enhance soil structure, reduce salt concentration, and promote crop development in salt-affected soils, nanotechnology can be utilized to improve soil structure. The following are some areas where research might be initiated: CaCO3 solubilization, Na2CO3 prevention, adding K+ to clay minerals, and increasing precipitation are all examples of ways to reduce salt concentration in soil solution, improve drainage, and/or replace Na + with Ca2+ and/or K+.
In order to determine the influence of nanoparticles on soil microbial activity, soil respiration and enzymatic activity must be measured. Soil enzymatic activity and bacterial abundance may be affected by metallic nanoparticles [102]. They can also cause free radical damage to bacteria’ cell membranes, DNA and mitochondria. Even beneficial microorganism communities may be threatened by the introduction of nanoparticles (NPs) into the natural environment. In flooded paddy soil, TiO2 and CuO nanoparticles reduced soil microbial biomass and enzymatic activity, as well as their community structure. Increased Fe3O4 nanoparticle concentration dramatically reduced the number of bacteria in soil, and produced cavities, holes and membrane breakdown in the microorganisms [103].
Plants are sessile organisms and undergo abiotic stressors that impact their development and production throughout their life cycle. In response to environmental stressors, plants generate defensive mechanisms at multiple levels through modification of their biochemical and morphological routes as well as their molecular pathways (the changing of genetic expressions). But these are not sufficient to annul all the adverse effects of environmental stress. The salinity reduces, for example, the osmotic potential of the soil, resulting in food disequilibrium. Improve ionic toxicity negatively impacts many important biochemical or physiological activities including photosynthesis, protein synthesis and lipid metabolism. The rising world population and the concomitant decline in food supply, with ongoing environmental changes, are currently in a difficult state. Therefore, scientists’ main focus is to develop strategies to expedite the plant adaptation to environmental changes.
In the worldwide scenario, salt stress alone reduces crop yield by roughly 23 per cent according to current agricultural practices. In previous study on nano-SiO2 treatment on tomatoes and squash plants, there have been numerous beneficial results on the usage of nano fertiliser in salty circumstances [107, 108]. The use of silica nanoparticles increases plant tolerance to drought stress by promoting plants’ agronomic parameters, physiology, biochemistry, delay senescence, and maintained water status of plants exposed to the water-deficit condition [109, 110].
Although several investigations of the use of nanomaterials to plant development have been carried out during stress environments, the fundamental components remain mostly unexplored. However, researchers believe that, under unfavorable environmental circumstances, the impacts of nanomaterials on crop development are partially attributable to the enhanced enzyme activity. The activity of antioxidant enzymes such as superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT), and peroxidase (POD) are regulated by nanoparticles [114]. Increased SOD activities have been observed by the application of TiO2 nanoparticles on onion seedlings [115]. At lower levels of TiO2 the activity of the enzyme is greater. The buildup of free proline and amino acids is escalating by nanomaterials (nano-SiO2 and nano-ZnO). The consumption of nutrients and water might also rise. The use of these nanoparticles further enhances the activity of the antioxidant enzymes such as SOD, CAT, POD and reductase nitrates. Nanomaterials can also control the expression of stress genes. For example, microscope research showed that silver nanoparticles in
Plants represent the boundary between the environment and the biosphere, thus understanding how nanomaterials influence them is crucial for ecological evaluations and assessments of environmental impact. Terrestrial plants can be threatened by metal-based nanoparticles (NPs); yet, little is known about plant defense systems that could combat nanotoxicity. When cells are subjected to nanoparticles and oxidative pressure develops, the equilibrium between cell function as well as antioxidative defense systems is altered. A group of researchers [3] described cell membrane damage due to oxidative stress, as well as DNA degradation are all caused by biochemical factors that produce unnecessarily high reactive oxygen species (ROS). Different defensive mechanisms can be triggered by plants in response to stress [117]. As an example, using nanoparticles to boost plant defenses is one of the most intriguing aspects of this technology (Table 1). An enzyme and a non-enzymatic agent are used in plants’ antioxidant defense system. These agents include SOD, CAT, APX, ascorbate peroxidase (APX), and glutathione reductase (GRT) (GR).
Nanoparticles | Mode of action | References |
---|---|---|
Chitosan | Total phenolics and NO signaling molecules are elevated, as is the expression of defense-related genes, such as numerous antioxidant enzymes. | [118] |
TiO2 | SOD, catalase, and peroxidase (POD) activities are increased, and reactive oxygen free radical buildup is reduced. | [119] |
Multi-walled carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs) | Antimicrobial pathogens cannot complete their life cycle because ROS defense response cascade is activated. ROS, such as super peroxides and H2O2, are generated. | [120, 121] |
Silicon | An improved resistance against fungus in maize | [122] |
Copper oxide | Raise the levels of SOD and CAT, as well as lipid peroxidase | [123] |
Cerium oxide | Rice seedlings are exposed to lipid peroxidation and photosynthetic stress when exposed to CeO2 (modifications of antioxidant defense system) | [124] |
Zinc oxide | GSH levels and CAT activity are both higher. | [125] |
Nanoparticles and its mode of action.
It has been demonstrated that nanoparticles of cerium oxide imitate enzymes for scavenging. This feature increases the plant’s defensive system. As a result, microbial pathogens are prevented from completing their life cycle by multiwalled carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs). Changes in enzymes are prevalent as a result of fluctuations in ROS levels [126]. ROS play a major role in the start of plant disease resistance responses, since they are essential signals for resolving defensive gene installation. To further understand plant defense mechanisms against nanoparticles, more research is needed.
Food production must double by 2050 to satisfy the demands of the world’s increasing population, food production must double by 2050, and new strategies are needed to fight hunger [127]. The rising global human population has resulted in a larger population to feed, and agricultural production has not kept pace with this growth. This imbalance has shown the actual need for food preservation for food items to reach people worldwide. The establishment of nanotechnology in the food sector has made it easier for food to be transported to various areas globally by increasing most food items’ shelf life. The latest developments in nanostructured materials that significantly affect the food sector are novel methods in food nanotechnology (Table 2). Nanotechnology in today’s food sector has played a significant role in food processing, food packaging and food preservation. Many areas of food science have been revolutionized by the fast growth of nanotechnology, particularly those involving food processing, packaging, storage, transportation, functioning, and other safety concerns. A wide range of nanostructured materials (NSMs), from inorganic metal, metal oxides, and their nanocomposites to nano-organic materials with bioactive agents, has been applied to the food industry. Figure 2 shows the application of nanotechnology in the food business [136].
Nano-Technology | Description | Example | Reference |
---|---|---|---|
Nanostructures food ingredients | Nano-engineered additives | Titanium dioxide (TiO2) is a Nano-engineered additive that is used as a colorant, and an antibacterial agent. | [128] |
Nano-Emulsion | Nano structured Emulsion | The Nano-Emulsion method is used to produce low-fat mayonnaise and ice cream that are as creamy as their full-fat counterparts, providing customers with healthier choices. | [129] |
Nano-encapsulation | Delivery systems for additives and bioactive | Nano-encapsulation is the process by which bioactive chemicals are incorporated, absorbed, or dispersed. | [130, 131] |
Food packaging | Silver, Zinc oxide, Titanium oxide, Silver oxide used in the food packaging. | In green asparagus, silver nanoparticles inhibit the development of aerobic psychrotrophic bacteria. | [132] |
Nanosensors and nanobiosensors | Quality control and food safety assist in the detection of any subtle changes in food color as well as any gasses produced due to spoilage | Gold, platinum, and palladium are used to make the gas sensors. The gold-based nanoparticles can detect the aflatoxin B1 toxin present in milk. | [133] |
Food processing | Fortification | Incorporation of nutraceuticals, viscosifying and evaporating agents, vitamin and mineral fortification | [134] |
Current uses of nanotechnology in food industry.
Application areas of nanotechnology in food industry [
Demand for agricultural goods is rising rapidly as the population grows. More food items are being produced to satisfy this increasing demand, resulting in a rise in waste materials. Waste is a significant issue throughout the globe, and it is produced by a variety of agricultural, industrial, and urban activities. Agricultural wastes are such kinds of wastes derived from various agricultural activities, including processing raw agricultural products; plant debris; excessive use of pesticides and fertilizers that enter into our ecosystem; wastes from animal farms and slaughterhouses; salt and silt drained from fields and finally harvest wastes. In other words, these are leftovers from the production and processing of raw agricultural goods, including fruits, vegetables, meat, poultry, dairy products, and crops [137]. Large amount-of agricultural wastes are generated every year throughout the world that can be solid, liquid, or slurries in form depending on the agricultural activities, posing a threat to the environment (Table 3). We are exploiting our environment using excess amounts of agrochemicals like pesticides and fertilizers every year. These chemicals are generally persistent and have a significant impact on the environment as well as human health due to the bioaccumulation in food. For sustainable agriculture, we badly need an efficient way to properly use agricultural inputs and reduce these wastes to minimize environmental pollution. Through nanotechnology, pesticides and fertilizers can be converted and reused. Some nanomaterials for the remediation of soil polluted by agrochemicals are encapsulated and slow released fertilizers and pesticides under specific conditions; controlled release of plant growth hormones and concentration of ammonium nanoparticles that can be recycled as fertilizer [139, 140].
Classification | Origin point | Wastages |
---|---|---|
Garbage | Domiciliary/merchandise | Kitchen waste (food), poultry/slaughter house |
Settlings | Domiciliary/retailer | Dead leaves, wood wool, shredders waste, waste tyre rubber, polyethelene, plastic bottles, etc. |
Ashes | Households/industries | Rice husk ashes, coal fly ashes |
Pharmaceuticals | Industries/households | Expired medicines, scraps etc. |
Waste microbes | Industries/households | Metal ion-treated cells, fungi refusals, bacterial cellulose discard, etc. |
Agricultural waste | Beverage industries/food processing industries | Palm oil mill effluent, defatted seeds, orange peels, etc. |
Classification of waste as per their source of origin [138].
Photocatalysis applications, coupled with nanotechnology, offer effective results and enormous possibilities for the reduction of certain harmful chemicals from various herbicides, bactericides, and fungicides (Table 4). For example, for the elimination of pesticide residues from water, therefore decontamination of water is effective with the process of photocatalysis coupled to a nanomaterial [153]. On the other hand, nano-sensors can detect various chemicals and toxic pollutants that are harmful to humans. The application of nanomaterials coupled to specific antibodies can generate lights that can be used to identify and quantify agrochemicals like pesticides and fertilizers [139].
Agricultural wastes | Nanomaterial associated | References |
---|---|---|
Rice husk | Calcium hydroxyapetite NPs | [141] |
Olive mill wastewater | Titanium (IV) oxide anatase, iron (III) oxide nanorods NPs | [142] |
Waste cooking oil | Magnetic NPs, Mesoporous silica/ superparamagnetic iron oxide core shell NPs, Molybdenum oxide/Zirconia NPs | [143, 144, 145] |
Water with high phosphate content | Iron NPs | [146] |
Peels of Pomegranate | Silver nanoparticles | [147] |
Coconut shells | Silver nanoparticles | [148] |
Silver nanoparticles | [149] | |
Sugarcane waste | Silver and Gold nanoparticles | [150] |
Banana peel | Gold nanoparticles | [151] |
Grapes waste | Gold nanoparticles | [152] |
peanut skin extract | Iron nanoparticles | [79] |
Nanomaterial-associated waste management.
Apart from this, rice husk, a by-product from rice-mill, can be an excellent source for nano-silica production, making glass materials and concrete. This renewable nano-silica ultimately reduces the rice husk disposal problem through nanomaterials. Waste from the cotton industry, such as cellulose or other low valued products like yarns and cotton balls, can be reduced with nanomaterials’ help. For example, with the use of electrospinning and newly developed solvents, 100 nm-sized fibers can be produced and use as an absorbent of various fertilizers or pesticides, which is useful for targeted application at the desired time as well as location [154, 155]. Nanocellulose can be extracted from the residues of banana cultivation like pseudostem, foliar parts, and shells, which will be the replacement of certain synthetic fibers. On the other hand, gold nanoparticles, which are numerously used in semiconductors and bio-medical areas, can be synthesized from agricultural wastes of grape seed, skin, and stalks [140, 156].
From the last couple of years, the production of ethanol from maize feedstock has increased the global price and demand of maize, and researchers are working on various nano-engineered enzymes that authorize simple and cost-effective modification of cellulose into ethanol from waste plant parts [131]. Nanomaterials also inspire the metabolism of microorganisms like the efficacy of lipid extraction can be improved with the help of nanotechnology without disrupting the microalgae. Nanomaterials like calcium and magnesium oxide nanoparticles can be used successfully as biocatalyst transporters for the transesterification of oil to bio-diesel [157].
Due to the mass production of agricultural goods, many wastes are generated every year from this sector, and with the application of nanomaterials, these wastes can be reduced, reused, and recycled effectively. Also, this new technique can be an asset for poor nations having poor sanitation, water scarcity, and inadequate resources [2, 158]. When crops are harvested, additional connected problems exist, such as crop waste, nearly 80% of the farm’s biomass. The production of agricultural waste is hundreds of millions of tons annually [159]. Every year, a large amount of food and agricultural goods are wasted as agro-waste throughout the globe. It estimates that about one-third of the world’s food produced for human use is lost or destroyed each year [160]. Minimizing agricultural product losses reduces resource pressures and therefore reduces the need for chemical fertilizers and pesticides [161]. It is thus time to manage waste strategically to recycle, recycle and reuse agro-purpose.
Nanotechnology is now confined to the energy, food hygiene, telecommunications, agriculture, and healthcare sectors and has now covered environmental protection and waste management. Green nanoparticles production is becoming more popular in a straightforward, ecologically friendly manner. The continual deposition of agricultural wastes or byproducts in nature has become a significant concern. Nanotechnology has the potential to be used in the reduction of waste generated during agricultural production. Agricultural wastes, including natural and non-natural wastes, may also be effectively used to produce nanoparticles.
Nanotechnology has a wonderful possibility in agriculture. Research on nanotechnology uses in agriculture is less than ten years old. However, given the growing inadequacy of traditional farming techniques and the excess capacity of the terrestrial ecosystem demands, we have little alternative but to investigate the nanotechnologies in all agricultural sectors. New technology is generally acknowledged as essential to the creation of national prosperity.
There’s been a substantial improvement upon nanoparticles dependent programs in agriculture industries. Scanty reviews can be found about the suitable utilization as well as improvement associated with eco-friendly nanoparticles in several fields. Therefore, execution associated with nanomaterials may uplift the actual farming requirements and supply advantages in various methods. However, among the main constrict may be the toxicity associated with nanoparticles. Therefore, to conquer the actual poisonous results, various logical methods are now being created. One particular technique entails the utilization of (i) Natural organizations or even their items concerning manufacturing associated with nanoparticles that type among the eco-friendly procedures about functionality associated with nanoparticles. (ii) Bioconjugation as well as encapsulation associated with nanoparticles along with bioactive substances is guaranteeing area that prevents toxicity. (iii) Nanotechnology also offers options about degrading continual chemical substances into safe as well as occasionally helpful elements. (iv) Nanotechnology may effort to supply as well as essentially improve the actual systems presently utilized in environment recognition, realizing as well as remediation. (v) To be able to obtain prosperous utilization as well as commercialization associated with nanomaterials, various knowledge ought to work with others to style biomimetic nanomaterials as well as their assessment within the agriculture field.
In conjunction with information on the agriculture production system, nanotechnology demands a solid understanding of science as well as of production and material technologies. The severity of this task can draw talented brains into a career for agriculture. To succeed in this sector, human resources require advanced training, which is urgently necessary for new instruction programs, particularly at the graduation level.
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His studies in robotics lead him not only to a PhD degree but also inspired him to co-found and build the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems - world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"441",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Jaekyu",middleName:null,surname:"Park",slug:"jaekyu-park",fullName:"Jaekyu Park",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/441/images/1881_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"LG Corporation (South Korea)",country:{name:"Korea, South"}}},{id:"465",title:"Dr",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Martens",slug:"christian-martens",fullName:"Christian Martens",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"479",title:"Dr.",name:"Valentina",middleName:null,surname:"Colla",slug:"valentina-colla",fullName:"Valentina Colla",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/479/images/358_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sant'Anna School of Advanced Studies",country:{name:"Italy"}}},{id:"494",title:"PhD",name:"Loris",middleName:null,surname:"Nanni",slug:"loris-nanni",fullName:"Loris Nanni",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/494/images/system/494.jpg",biography:"Loris Nanni received his Master Degree cum laude on June-2002 from the University of Bologna, and the April 26th 2006 he received his Ph.D. in Computer Engineering at DEIS, University of Bologna. On September, 29th 2006 he has won a post PhD fellowship from the university of Bologna (from October 2006 to October 2008), at the competitive examination he was ranked first in the industrial engineering area. He extensively served as referee for several international journals. He is author/coauthor of more than 100 research papers. He has been involved in some projects supported by MURST and European Community. His research interests include pattern recognition, bioinformatics, and biometric systems (fingerprint classification and recognition, signature verification, face recognition).",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"496",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Leon",slug:"carlos-leon",fullName:"Carlos Leon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Seville",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"512",title:"Dr.",name:"Dayang",middleName:null,surname:"Jawawi",slug:"dayang-jawawi",fullName:"Dayang Jawawi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Technology Malaysia",country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"528",title:"Dr.",name:"Kresimir",middleName:null,surname:"Delac",slug:"kresimir-delac",fullName:"Kresimir Delac",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/528/images/system/528.jpg",biography:"K. Delac received his B.Sc.E.E. degree in 2003 and is currentlypursuing a Ph.D. degree at the University of Zagreb, Faculty of Electrical Engineering andComputing. His current research interests are digital image analysis, pattern recognition andbiometrics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Zagreb",country:{name:"Croatia"}}},{id:"557",title:"Dr.",name:"Andon",middleName:"Venelinov",surname:"Topalov",slug:"andon-topalov",fullName:"Andon Topalov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/557/images/1927_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Andon V. Topalov received the MSc degree in Control Engineering from the Faculty of Information Systems, Technologies, and Automation at Moscow State University of Civil Engineering (MGGU) in 1979. He then received his PhD degree in Control Engineering from the Department of Automation and Remote Control at Moscow State Mining University (MGSU), Moscow, in 1984. From 1985 to 1986, he was a Research Fellow in the Research Institute for Electronic Equipment, ZZU AD, Plovdiv, Bulgaria. In 1986, he joined the Department of Control Systems, Technical University of Sofia at the Plovdiv campus, where he is presently a Full Professor. He has held long-term visiting Professor/Scholar positions at various institutions in South Korea, Turkey, Mexico, Greece, Belgium, UK, and Germany. And he has coauthored one book and authored or coauthored more than 80 research papers in conference proceedings and journals. 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Presently he is working as a associate professor in the Dept of Prosthodontics, Rural Dental College, Loni and maintains a successful private practice specialising in Implantology at Rahata.\n\nEmail: drdeepak_mvikhe@yahoo.com..................",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Pravara Institute of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"204110",title:"Dr.",name:"Ahmed A.",middleName:null,surname:"Madfa",slug:"ahmed-a.-madfa",fullName:"Ahmed A. Madfa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204110/images/system/204110.jpg",biography:"Dr. Madfa is currently Associate Professor of Endodontics at Thamar University and a visiting lecturer at Sana'a University and University of Sciences and Technology. He has more than 6 years of experience in teaching. 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Dr. Madfa also regularly attends international conferences and holds administrative positions (Deputy Dean of the Faculty for Students’ & Academic Affairs and Deputy Head of Research Unit).",institutionString:"Thamar University",institution:null},{id:"210472",title:"Dr.",name:"Nermin",middleName:"Mohammed Ahmed",surname:"Yussif",slug:"nermin-yussif",fullName:"Nermin Yussif",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/210472/images/system/210472.jpg",biography:"Dr. Nermin Mohammed Ahmed Yussif is working at the Faculty of dentistry, University for October university for modern sciences and arts (MSA). Her areas of expertise include: periodontology, dental laserology, oral implantology, periodontal plastic surgeries, oral mesotherapy, nutrition, dental pharmacology. She is an editor and reviewer in numerous international journals.",institutionString:"MSA University",institution:null},{id:"204606",title:"Dr.",name:"Serdar",middleName:null,surname:"Gözler",slug:"serdar-gozler",fullName:"Serdar Gözler",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204606/images/system/204606.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Serdar Gözler has completed his undergraduate studies at the Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry in 1978, followed by an assistantship in the Prosthesis Department of Dicle University Faculty of Dentistry. Starting his PhD work on non-resilient overdentures with Assoc. Prof. Hüsnü Yavuzyılmaz, he continued his studies with Prof. Dr. Gürbüz Öztürk of Istanbul University Faculty of Dentistry Department of Prosthodontics, this time on Gnatology. He attended training programs on occlusion, neurology, neurophysiology, EMG, radiology and biostatistics. In 1982, he presented his PhD thesis \\Gerber and Lauritzen Occlusion Analysis Techniques: Diagnosis Values,\\ at Istanbul University School of Dentistry, Department of Prosthodontics. As he was also working with Prof. Senih Çalıkkocaoğlu on The Physiology of Chewing at the same time, Gözler has written a chapter in Çalıkkocaoğlu\\'s book \\Complete Prostheses\\ entitled \\The Place of Neuromuscular Mechanism in Prosthetic Dentistry.\\ The book was published five times since by the Istanbul University Publications. Having presented in various conferences about occlusion analysis until 1998, Dr. Gözler has also decided to use the T-Scan II occlusion analysis method. Having been personally trained by Dr. Robert Kerstein on this method, Dr. Gözler has been lecturing on the T-Scan Occlusion Analysis Method in conferences both in Turkey and abroad. Dr. Gözler has various articles and presentations on Digital Occlusion Analysis methods. He is now Head of the TMD Clinic at Prosthodontic Department of Faculty of Dentistry , Istanbul Aydın University , Turkey.",institutionString:"Istanbul Aydin University",institution:{name:"Istanbul Aydın University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"240870",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Alaa Eddin Omar",middleName:null,surname:"Al Ostwani",slug:"alaa-eddin-omar-al-ostwani",fullName:"Alaa Eddin Omar Al Ostwani",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/240870/images/system/240870.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Al Ostwani Alaa Eddin Omar received his Master in dentistry from Damascus University in 2010, and his Ph.D. in Pediatric Dentistry from Damascus University in 2014. Dr. Al Ostwani is an assistant professor and faculty member at IUST University since 2014. \nDuring his academic experience, he has received several awards including the scientific research award from the Union of Arab Universities, the Syrian gold medal and the international gold medal for invention and creativity. Dr. Al Ostwani is a Member of the International Association of Dental Traumatology and the Syrian Society for Research and Preventive Dentistry since 2017. He is also a Member of the Reviewer Board of International Journal of Dental Medicine (IJDM), and the Indian Journal of Conservative and Endodontics since 2016.",institutionString:"International University for Science and Technology.",institution:{name:"Islamic University of Science and Technology",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"42847",title:"Dr.",name:"Belma",middleName:null,surname:"Işik Aslan",slug:"belma-isik-aslan",fullName:"Belma Işik Aslan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/42847/images/system/42847.jpg",biography:"Dr. Belma IşIk Aslan was born in 1976 in Ankara-TURKEY. After graduating from TED Ankara College in 1994, she attended to Gazi University, Faculty of Dentistry in Ankara. She completed her PhD in orthodontic education at Gazi University between 1999-2005. Dr. Işık Aslan stayed at the Providence Hospital Craniofacial Institude and Reconstructive Surgery in Michigan, USA for three months as an observer. She worked as a specialist doctor at Gazi University, Dentistry Faculty, Department of Orthodontics between 2005-2014. She was appointed as associate professor in January, 2014 and as professor in 2021. Dr. Işık Aslan still works as an instructor at the same faculty. She has published a total of 35 articles, 10 book chapters, 39 conference proceedings both internationally and nationally. Also she was the academic editor of the international book 'Current Advances in Orthodontics'. She is a member of the Turkish Orthodontic Society and Turkish Cleft Lip and Palate Society. She is married and has 2 children. Her knowledge of English is at an advanced level.",institutionString:"Gazi University Dentistry Faculty Department of Orthodontics",institution:null},{id:"178412",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Guhan",middleName:null,surname:"Dergin",slug:"guhan-dergin",fullName:"Guhan Dergin",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178412/images/6954_n.jpg",biography:"Assoc. Prof. Dr. Gühan Dergin was born in 1973 in Izmit. He graduated from Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry in 1999. He completed his specialty of OMFS surgery in Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry and obtained his PhD degree in 2006. In 2005, he was invited as a visiting doctor in the Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery Department of the University of North Carolina, USA, where he went on a scholarship. Dr. Dergin still continues his academic career as an associate professor in Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry. He has many articles in international and national scientific journals and chapters in books.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Marmara University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"178414",title:"Prof.",name:"Yusuf",middleName:null,surname:"Emes",slug:"yusuf-emes",fullName:"Yusuf Emes",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178414/images/6953_n.jpg",biography:"Born in Istanbul in 1974, Dr. Emes graduated from Istanbul University Faculty of Dentistry in 1997 and completed his PhD degree in Istanbul University faculty of Dentistry Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery in 2005. He has papers published in international and national scientific journals, including research articles on implantology, oroantral fistulas, odontogenic cysts, and temporomandibular disorders. Dr. Emes is currently working as a full-time academic staff in Istanbul University faculty of Dentistry Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Istanbul University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"192229",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Ana Luiza",middleName:null,surname:"De Carvalho Felippini",slug:"ana-luiza-de-carvalho-felippini",fullName:"Ana Luiza De Carvalho Felippini",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/192229/images/system/192229.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:"University of São Paulo",institution:{name:"University of Sao Paulo",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"256851",title:"Prof.",name:"Ayşe",middleName:null,surname:"Gülşen",slug:"ayse-gulsen",fullName:"Ayşe Gülşen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/256851/images/9696_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ayşe Gülşen graduated in 1990 from Faculty of Dentistry, University of Ankara and did a postgraduate program at University of Gazi. \nShe worked as an observer and research assistant in Craniofacial Surgery Departments in New York, Providence Hospital in Michigan and Chang Gung Memorial Hospital in Taiwan. \nShe works as Craniofacial Orthodontist in Department of Aesthetic, Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, Faculty of Medicine, University of Gazi, Ankara Turkey since 2004.",institutionString:"Univeristy of Gazi",institution:null},{id:"255366",title:"Prof.",name:"Tosun",middleName:null,surname:"Tosun",slug:"tosun-tosun",fullName:"Tosun Tosun",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/255366/images/7347_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated at the Faculty of Dentistry, University of Istanbul, Turkey in 1989;\nVisitor Assistant at the University of Padua, Italy and Branemark Osseointegration Center of Treviso, Italy between 1993-94;\nPhD thesis on oral implantology in University of Istanbul and was awarded the academic title “Dr.med.dent.”, 1997;\nHe was awarded the academic title “Doç.Dr.” (Associated Professor) in 2003;\nProficiency in Botulinum Toxin Applications, Reading-UK in 2009;\nMastership, RWTH Certificate in Laser Therapy in Dentistry, AALZ-Aachen University, Germany 2009-11;\nMaster of Science (MSc) in Laser Dentistry, University of Genoa, Italy 2013-14.\n\nDr.Tosun worked as Research Assistant in the Department of Oral Implantology, Faculty of Dentistry, University of Istanbul between 1990-2002. \nHe worked part-time as Consultant surgeon in Harvard Medical International Hospitals and John Hopkins Medicine, Istanbul between years 2007-09.\u2028He was contract Professor in the Department of Surgical and Diagnostic Sciences (DI.S.C.), Medical School, University of Genova, Italy between years 2011-16. \nSince 2015 he is visiting Professor at Medical School, University of Plovdiv, Bulgaria. \nCurrently he is Associated Prof.Dr. at the Dental School, Oral Surgery Dept., Istanbul Aydin University and since 2003 he works in his own private clinic in Istanbul, Turkey.\u2028\nDr.Tosun is reviewer in journal ‘Laser in Medical Sciences’, reviewer in journal ‘Folia Medica\\', a Fellow of the International Team for Implantology, Clinical Lecturer of DGZI German Association of Oral Implantology, Expert Lecturer of Laser&Health Academy, Country Representative of World Federation for Laser Dentistry, member of European Federation of Periodontology, member of Academy of Laser Dentistry. Dr.Tosun presents papers in international and national congresses and has scientific publications in international and national journals. He speaks english, spanish, italian and french.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Istanbul Aydın University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"171887",title:"Prof.",name:"Zühre",middleName:null,surname:"Akarslan",slug:"zuhre-akarslan",fullName:"Zühre Akarslan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/171887/images/system/171887.jpg",biography:"Zühre Akarslan was born in 1977 in Cyprus. She graduated from Gazi University Faculty of Dentistry, Ankara, Turkey in 2000. \r\nLater she received her Ph.D. degree from the Oral Diagnosis and Radiology Department; which was recently renamed as Oral and Dentomaxillofacial Radiology, from the same university. \r\nShe is working as a full-time Associate Professor and is a lecturer and an academic researcher. \r\nHer expertise areas are dental caries, cancer, dental fear and anxiety, gag reflex in dentistry, oral medicine, and dentomaxillofacial radiology.",institutionString:"Gazi University",institution:{name:"Gazi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"256417",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Sanaz",middleName:null,surname:"Sadry",slug:"sanaz-sadry",fullName:"Sanaz Sadry",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/256417/images/8106_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"272237",title:"Dr.",name:"Pinar",middleName:"Kiymet",surname:"Karataban",slug:"pinar-karataban",fullName:"Pinar Karataban",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/272237/images/8911_n.png",biography:"Assist.Prof.Dr.Pınar Kıymet Karataban, DDS PhD \n\nDr.Pınar Kıymet Karataban was born in Istanbul in 1975. After her graduation from Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry in 1998 she started her PhD in Paediatric Dentistry focused on children with special needs; mainly children with Cerebral Palsy. She finished her pHD thesis entitled \\'Investigation of occlusion via cast analysis and evaluation of dental caries prevalance, periodontal status and muscle dysfunctions in children with cerebral palsy” in 2008. She got her Assist. Proffessor degree in Istanbul Aydın University Paediatric Dentistry Department in 2015-2018. ın 2019 she started her new career in Bahcesehir University, Istanbul as Head of Department of Pediatric Dentistry. In 2020 she was accepted to BAU International University, Batumi as Professor of Pediatric Dentistry. She’s a lecturer in the same university meanwhile working part-time in private practice in Ege Dental Studio (https://www.egedisklinigi.com/) a multidisciplinary dental clinic in Istanbul. Her main interests are paleodontology, ancient and contemporary dentistry, oral microbiology, cerebral palsy and special care dentistry. She has national and international publications, scientific reports and is a member of IAPO (International Association for Paleodontology), IADH (International Association of Disability and Oral Health) and EAPD (European Association of Pediatric Dentistry).",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"202198",title:"Dr.",name:"Buket",middleName:null,surname:"Aybar",slug:"buket-aybar",fullName:"Buket Aybar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/202198/images/6955_n.jpg",biography:"Buket Aybar, DDS, PhD, was born in 1971. She graduated from Istanbul University, Faculty of Dentistry, in 1992 and completed her PhD degree on Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery in Istanbul University in 1997.\nDr. Aybar is currently a full-time professor in Istanbul University, Faculty of Dentistry Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery. She has teaching responsibilities in graduate and postgraduate programs. Her clinical practice includes mainly dentoalveolar surgery.\nHer topics of interest are biomaterials science and cell culture studies. She has many articles in international and national scientific journals and chapters in books; she also has participated in several scientific projects supported by Istanbul University Research fund.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"260116",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:null,surname:"Yaltirik",slug:"mehmet-yaltirik",fullName:"Mehmet Yaltirik",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/260116/images/7413_n.jpg",biography:"Birth Date 25.09.1965\r\nBirth Place Adana- Turkey\r\nSex Male\r\nMarrial Status Bachelor\r\nDriving License Acquired\r\nMother Tongue Turkish\r\n\r\nAddress:\r\nWork:University of Istanbul,Faculty of Dentistry, Department of Oral Surgery and Oral Medicine 34093 Capa,Istanbul- TURKIYE",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"172009",title:"Dr.",name:"Fatma Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Uzuner",slug:"fatma-deniz-uzuner",fullName:"Fatma Deniz Uzuner",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/172009/images/7122_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Deniz Uzuner was born in 1969 in Kocaeli-TURKEY. After graduating from TED Ankara College in 1986, she attended the Hacettepe University, Faculty of Dentistry in Ankara. \nIn 1993 she attended the Gazi University, Faculty of Dentistry, Department of Orthodontics for her PhD education. After finishing the PhD education, she worked as orthodontist in Ankara Dental Hospital under the Turkish Government, Ministry of Health and in a special Orthodontic Clinic till 2011. Between 2011 and 2016, Dr. Deniz Uzuner worked as a specialist in the Department of Orthodontics, Faculty of Dentistry, Gazi University in Ankara/Turkey. In 2016, she was appointed associate professor. Dr. Deniz Uzuner has authored 23 Journal Papers, 3 Book Chapters and has had 39 oral/poster presentations. She is a member of the Turkish Orthodontic Society. Her knowledge of English is at an advanced level.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"332914",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad Saad",middleName:null,surname:"Shaikh",slug:"muhammad-saad-shaikh",fullName:"Muhammad Saad Shaikh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Jinnah Sindh Medical University",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"315775",title:"Dr.",name:"Feng",middleName:null,surname:"Luo",slug:"feng-luo",fullName:"Feng Luo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sichuan University",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"423519",title:"Dr.",name:"Sizakele",middleName:null,surname:"Ngwenya",slug:"sizakele-ngwenya",fullName:"Sizakele Ngwenya",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of the Witwatersrand",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"419270",title:"Dr.",name:"Ann",middleName:null,surname:"Chianchitlert",slug:"ann-chianchitlert",fullName:"Ann Chianchitlert",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Walailak University",country:{name:"Thailand"}}},{id:"419271",title:"Dr.",name:"Diane",middleName:null,surname:"Selvido",slug:"diane-selvido",fullName:"Diane Selvido",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Walailak University",country:{name:"Thailand"}}},{id:"419272",title:"Dr.",name:"Irin",middleName:null,surname:"Sirisoontorn",slug:"irin-sirisoontorn",fullName:"Irin Sirisoontorn",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Walailak University",country:{name:"Thailand"}}},{id:"355660",title:"Dr.",name:"Anitha",middleName:null,surname:"Mani",slug:"anitha-mani",fullName:"Anitha Mani",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"SRM Dental College",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"355612",title:"Dr.",name:"Janani",middleName:null,surname:"Karthikeyan",slug:"janani-karthikeyan",fullName:"Janani Karthikeyan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"SRM Dental College",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334400",title:"Dr.",name:"Suvetha",middleName:null,surname:"Siva",slug:"suvetha-siva",fullName:"Suvetha Siva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"SRM Dental College",country:{name:"India"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"11",type:"subseries",title:"Cell Physiology",keywords:"Neurodevelopment and Neurodevelopmental Disease, Free Radicals, Tumor Metastasis, Antioxidants, Essential Fatty Acids, Melatonin, Lipid Peroxidation Products and Aging Physiology",scope:"\r\n\tThe integration of tissues and organs throughout the mammalian body, as well as the expression, structure, and function of molecular and cellular components, is essential for modern physiology. The following concerns will be addressed in this Cell Physiology subject, which will consider all organ systems (e.g., brain, heart, lung, liver; gut, kidney, eye) and their interactions: (1) Neurodevelopment and Neurodevelopmental Disease (2) Free Radicals (3) Tumor Metastasis (4) Antioxidants (5) Essential Fatty Acids (6) Melatonin and (7) Lipid Peroxidation Products and Aging Physiology.
",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/11.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!0,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11407,editor:{id:"133493",title:"Prof.",name:"Angel",middleName:null,surname:"Catala",slug:"angel-catala",fullName:"Angel Catala",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/133493/images/3091_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Dr. Angel Catalá \r\nShort Biography Angel Catalá was born in Rodeo (San Juan, Argentina). He studied \r\nchemistry at the Universidad Nacional de La Plata, Argentina, where received aPh.D. degree in chemistry (Biological Branch) in 1965. From\r\n1964 to 1974, he worked as Assistant in Biochemistry at the School of MedicineUniversidad Nacional de La Plata, Argentina. From 1974 to 1976, he was a Fellowof the National Institutes of Health (NIH) at the University of Connecticut, Health Center, USA. From 1985 to 2004, he served as a Full Professor oBiochemistry at the Universidad Nacional de La Plata, Argentina. He is Member ofthe National Research Council (CONICET), Argentina, and Argentine Society foBiochemistry and Molecular Biology (SAIB). His laboratory has been interested for manyears in the lipid peroxidation of biological membranes from various tissues and different species. Professor Catalá has directed twelve doctoral theses, publishedover 100 papers in peer reviewed journals, several chapters in books andtwelve edited books. Angel Catalá received awards at the 40th InternationaConference Biochemistry of Lipids 1999: Dijon (France). W inner of the Bimbo PanAmerican Nutrition, Food Science and Technology Award 2006 and 2012, South AmericaHuman Nutrition, Professional Category. 2006 award in pharmacology, Bernardo\r\nHoussay, in recognition of his meritorious works of research. Angel Catalá belongto the Editorial Board of Journal of lipids, International Review of Biophysical ChemistryFrontiers in Membrane Physiology and Biophysics, World Journal oExperimental Medicine and Biochemistry Research International, W orld Journal oBiological Chemistry, Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity, Diabetes and thePancreas, International Journal of Chronic Diseases & Therapy, International Journal oNutrition, Co-Editor of The Open Biology Journal.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National University of La Plata",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Argentina"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,series:{id:"10",title:"Physiology",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",issn:"2631-8261"},editorialBoard:[{id:"186048",title:"Prof.",name:"Ines",middleName:null,surname:"Drenjančević",slug:"ines-drenjancevic",fullName:"Ines Drenjančević",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186048/images/5818_n.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Osijek",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Croatia"}}},{id:"187859",title:"Prof.",name:"Kusal",middleName:"K.",surname:"Das",slug:"kusal-das",fullName:"Kusal Das",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSBDeQAO/Profile_Picture_1623411145568",institutionString:"BLDE (Deemed to be University), India",institution:null},{id:"79615",title:"Dr.",name:"Robson",middleName:null,surname:"Faria",slug:"robson-faria",fullName:"Robson Faria",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/79615/images/system/79615.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"84459",title:"Prof.",name:"Valerie",middleName:null,surname:"Chappe",slug:"valerie-chappe",fullName:"Valerie Chappe",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/84459/images/system/84459.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Dalhousie University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Canada"}}}]},onlineFirstChapters:{paginationCount:26,paginationItems:[{id:"82112",title:"Comparative Senescence and Lifespan",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105137",signatures:"Hassan M. 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