\\n\\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\\n\\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"Highly Cited",originalUrl:"/media/original/117"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'IntechOpen is proud to announce that 191 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nThroughout the years, the list has named a total of 261 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\nReleased this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-supports-asapbio-s-new-initiative-publish-your-reviews-20220729",title:"IntechOpen Supports ASAPbio’s New Initiative Publish Your Reviews"},{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"6934",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Psycho-Social Aspects of Human Sexuality and Ethics",title:"Psycho-Social Aspects of Human Sexuality and Ethics",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"With the emerging newer trends in sexuality and clashes with the traditional practice of human sexuality, there is a need for introspection and a framework of ethical principles that may guide human sexuality and its practice. Human sexuality is more than a biological phenomenon. Open discussions about sexual identity and sexual practices will help people better understand themselves, others, and the world around them. This book gives a panoramic view of certain aspects of human sexuality in health and disease.",isbn:"978-1-83962-442-1",printIsbn:"978-1-83962-441-4",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83962-443-8",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73465",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"psycho-social-aspects-of-human-sexuality-and-ethics",numberOfPages:116,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"44731b106aa0d1ab5c64a7394483c7d5",bookSignature:"Dhastagir Sultan Sheriff",publishedDate:"January 27th 2021",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6934.jpg",numberOfDownloads:5436,numberOfWosCitations:1,numberOfCrossrefCitations:5,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:9,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:15,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"September 30th 2019",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"March 6th 2020",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"May 5th 2020",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"July 24th 2020",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"September 22nd 2020",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"167875",title:"Dr.",name:"Dhastagir Sultan",middleName:null,surname:"Sheriff",slug:"dhastagir-sultan-sheriff",fullName:"Dhastagir Sultan Sheriff",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/167875/images/system/167875.jpg",biography:"Dhastagir Sultan Sheriff is a life member of the European Society for Human Reproduction and Early Human Development, Association of Physiologists and Pharmacologists of India, member of the National Academy of Medical Sciences, New Delhi, and resource person for UNESCO for Medical and Bioethics. Dr. Sheriff has authored five books including a textbook on medical biochemistry with additional interest in human sexology. He had editorials written in the British Journal of Sexology, Journal of Royal Society of Medicine, Postgraduate Medicine, and Scientist. He was a former Rotarian, Citizen Ambassador, and was selected for the Ford Foundation Fellowship.",institutionString:"University of Benghazi",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"4",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"2",institution:{name:"University of Benghazi",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Libya"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"278",title:"Social Psychology",slug:"social-psychology"}],chapters:[{id:"72834",title:"Introductory Chapter: Sex, Sexuality and Ethics - An Indian Perspective",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.93262",slug:"introductory-chapter-sex-sexuality-and-ethics-an-indian-perspective",totalDownloads:392,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Dhastagir Sultan Sheriff",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/72834",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/72834",authors:[{id:"167875",title:"Dr.",name:"Dhastagir Sultan",surname:"Sheriff",slug:"dhastagir-sultan-sheriff",fullName:"Dhastagir Sultan Sheriff"}],corrections:null},{id:"67230",title:"Adolescents and Young Adults: Targeting the Unique Challenges of This High Risk Group",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.86251",slug:"adolescents-and-young-adults-targeting-the-unique-challenges-of-this-high-risk-group",totalDownloads:834,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Adolescents, particularly sexual minority youth, account for a disproportionate number of sexually transmitted infections and pelvic inflammatory disease cases. This population is at increased risk of infection and presents unique challenges when it comes to screening and treatment. This chapter will discuss these challenges and suggest some evidence based solutions. Challenges to be discussed include lack of physician comfort in discussing sexual activity with adolescents, issues of confidentiality, difficulties with contacting adolescent patients with their test results, and arranging for treatment of both patients and their partners. A discussion about expedited partner therapy will be included—the legal implications and the role it plays in sexually transmitted infection reduction efforts.",signatures:"Kari Schneider, Joanna Ekstrom and Rachel Cafferty",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/67230",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/67230",authors:[{id:"297306",title:"M.D.",name:"Kari",surname:"Schneider",slug:"kari-schneider",fullName:"Kari Schneider"},{id:"300171",title:"Dr.",name:"Rachel",surname:"Cafferty",slug:"rachel-cafferty",fullName:"Rachel Cafferty"},{id:"300172",title:"Dr.",name:"Joanna",surname:"Ekstrom",slug:"joanna-ekstrom",fullName:"Joanna Ekstrom"}],corrections:null},{id:"71723",title:"Characterizing Rapists and Their Victims in Select Nigeria Newspapers",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.91705",slug:"characterizing-rapists-and-their-victims-in-select-nigeria-newspapers",totalDownloads:1087,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:5,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"While offender and victim characterization offers clues to devising preventive strategies and victim therapy, existing studies in Nigeria are yet to capture this empirically. Using two national dailies, about 331 rape cases have been analyzed. The rapists were found to be of the age group 18–55 years. The victims’ age has been reported to be between 1 and 20 years. Rape victims were mostly females (>90%) compared to males. Most of the rapists are labeled as familiar foes meaning, father, relatives, or neighbors. Third-party guardianship is mentioned as predatory.",signatures:"Oludayo Tade and Collins Udechukwu",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/71723",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/71723",authors:[{id:"316697",title:"Dr.",name:"Oludayo",surname:"Tade",slug:"oludayo-tade",fullName:"Oludayo Tade"},{id:"318220",title:"Dr.",name:"Collins",surname:"Udechukwu",slug:"collins-udechukwu",fullName:"Collins Udechukwu"}],corrections:null},{id:"73087",title:"Experiences of Sexual and Reproductive Healthcare Professionals Working with Migrant Women Living with Female Genital Cutting in Western Australia",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.93353",slug:"experiences-of-sexual-and-reproductive-healthcare-professionals-working-with-migrant-women-living-wi",totalDownloads:578,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Female genital mutilation or cutting (FGM/C) is a global public health problem. The practice is particularly prevalent amongst people of African, Middle East and South East Asian descent. FGM/C creates a permanent change to the body of women. When such women migrate to other countries, they bring the associated social and health problems of FGM/C with them. As a multicultural society, Australia has many residents who come from settings in which FGM/C is prevalent. This qualitative study investigated whether healthcare professionals in Western Australia are prepared and able to provide adequate healthcare to women living with FGM/C. We found that there is a paucity of literature in Australia generally, and Western Australia more specifically, about FGM/C and the associated experiences of healthcare providers. Healthcare professionals were found to experience challenges when working with women living with FGM/C, mainly because of poor cultural sensitivity and poor levels of communication, and lacked appropriate education and training for working with women living with FGM/C. This study identified a need for empirical studies on how women living with FGM/C experience sexual and reproductive health services in Western Australia.",signatures:"Darlene Ndasi and Kwadwo Adusei-Asante",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/73087",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/73087",authors:[{id:"324900",title:"Dr.",name:"Kwadwo",surname:"Adusei-Asante",slug:"kwadwo-adusei-asante",fullName:"Kwadwo Adusei-Asante"},{id:"324932",title:"Ms.",name:"Darlene",surname:"Ndasi",slug:"darlene-ndasi",fullName:"Darlene Ndasi"}],corrections:null},{id:"70808",title:"Don’t Objectify Me!: Sexual Self-Monitoring, Coping, and Psychological Maladjustment",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.90997",slug:"don-t-objectify-me-sexual-self-monitoring-coping-and-psychological-maladjustment",totalDownloads:666,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Undergraduate college students (283 females, 127 males) completed surveys aimed at measuring positive sexual awareness vs. sexual self-monitoring, coping styles, and psychopathological symptoms. Positive sexual awareness significantly positively correlated with adaptive coping styles but did not otherwise correlate with psychopathological symptoms. Sexual self-monitoring was significantly positively correlated with somatization, depression-anxiety, and avoidant coping in women but not men. Bootstrapped mediation analyses indicated that the relationships between sexual self-monitoring and somatization, depression-anxiety, and eating disorder symptoms were significantly mediated by avoidant coping in women but not in men. These results were explained in terms of Objectification Theory, suggesting that women who experience sexual objectification are more likely to engage in avoidant coping, thus increasing their risk of developing psychopathology. Findings are discussed in terms of broader issues of the disempowering effects of objectification.",signatures:"Catherine Baggett, Craig Nagoshi and Julie Nagoshi",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/70808",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/70808",authors:[{id:"314134",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Craig",surname:"Nagoshi",slug:"craig-nagoshi",fullName:"Craig Nagoshi"},{id:"314135",title:"Ms.",name:"Catherine",surname:"Baggett",slug:"catherine-baggett",fullName:"Catherine Baggett"},{id:"314136",title:"Dr.",name:"Julie",surname:"Nagoshi",slug:"julie-nagoshi",fullName:"Julie Nagoshi"}],corrections:null},{id:"72050",title:"Political Gender Gap and Social Dominance Orientation",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.92222",slug:"political-gender-gap-and-social-dominance-orientation",totalDownloads:720,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:4,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"In the last 30 years, there was a rise in the political gender gap. The Center for the American Woman and Politics data shows that a larger proportion of women than men vote for the Democratic Party. Women tend to differ from men in several political issues endorsing more welfare policies and progressive policy changes and are less racist than men. Social dominance orientation (SDO) has been theorized to account for political gender differences. Men have higher average levels of SDO than women, everything else being equal. To test the gender invariance hypothesis, we believe it’s important to take into consideration people who not only identify with groups that hold specific hierarchy-enhancing or hierarchy-attenuating ideologies but who participate in them promoting their values and ideas. In this chapter, we describe the findings of research on gender differences in SDO of activists in political parties that range from extreme left-wing to extreme right-wing.",signatures:"Minou Ella Mebane, Antonio Aiello and Donata Francescato",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/72050",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/72050",authors:[{id:"149375",title:"Prof.",name:"Donata",surname:"Francescato",slug:"donata-francescato",fullName:"Donata Francescato"},{id:"261445",title:"Prof.",name:"Minou Ella",surname:"Mebane",slug:"minou-ella-mebane",fullName:"Minou Ella Mebane"},{id:"318392",title:"Prof.",name:"Antonio",surname:"Aiello",slug:"antonio-aiello",fullName:"Antonio Aiello"}],corrections:null},{id:"71842",title:"Psychological Health Influences of Legal-Marriage and -Partnerships on Same-Sex Couples",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.90249",slug:"psychological-health-influences-of-legal-marriage-and-partnerships-on-same-sex-couples",totalDownloads:655,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"This chapter explores whether Californians in same-sex legal marriages and partnerships reported lower levels of psychological distress than other adult Californians after the 2008 California Supreme Court Decision that legalized same-sex marriage. We pooled 10 years of California Health Interview Survey (CHIS) data and employ a T1-T2 design to approximate a time series design. Dependent variables include overall self-related health, psychological distress, and household income. Independent variables include sexual identity and same-sex spouse. Bi-variate analyses compared self-reported mental and physical health between the two periods. We found decreased reports of poorer health and increased reports of very good health among gay men and lesbian women with legal spouses. Psychological distress decreased for legally coupled gay men and lesbians while increased slightly among unpartnered lesbian women and gay men. Household income increased among coupled lesbian women and gay men and decreased among others. Our project demonstrated positive health influences for Californians with legal same-sex spouses. We recommend future research projects that explore whether and how same- and opposite-sex marriage benefits health, well-being, and prosperity, and for marital status survey questions that are inclusive of sexual and gender identities and elicit the sex/gender of a respondent’s spouse.",signatures:"William N. Elwood, Veronica L. Irvin, Benmei Liu, Richard Lee and Nancy Breen",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/71842",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/71842",authors:[{id:"313818",title:"Ph.D.",name:"William",surname:"Elwood",slug:"william-elwood",fullName:"William Elwood"}],corrections:null},{id:"74580",title:"“Kidnapping the Bride”—A Traditional Sasak Wedding Seen in Sesak Cinta Di Tanah Sasak Novel: A Model in Contemporary Indonesian Literature Studies",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.93697",slug:"-kidnapping-the-bride-a-traditional-sasak-wedding-seen-in-em-sesak-cinta-di-tanah-sasak-em-novel-a-m",totalDownloads:505,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"This article aims to create dialog of “kidnapping the bride” reality in several studies and to construct the practice in reality. Discussion of “kidnapping the bride” practices in literature and cultural studies of Lombok intends to find contemporary Indonesian literary models of ethnic Lombok. To achieve this goal, this article applies Stuart Hall’s representation theory. In literary studies, “kidnapping the bride” is constructed as a critique of nobility. Sesak Cinta di Tanah Sasak novel construct “kidnapping the bride” as a criminal act. The meaning is constructed by Islamic discourse and tradition (nobility). Resistance to the discourse is what presents a romantic discourse. Romantic discourse, in the novel When Love Takes to Go, is constructed to fight against feudalism and capitalism. Romantic discourse in Opto Ergo Sum is a tradition discourse. The discourse is gathered from different voices, men’s and women’s voices. Women’s voice tends to be strong to the lid of the real world (in Ketika Cinta Tak Mau Pergi). Man’s voice rejects integration (in Opto Ergo Sum). Finally, the study of Sesak Cinta di Tanah Sasak and two other novels signifies a model for contemporary Indonesian literary studies. The model can be found by blurring the boundaries between Lombok cultural study and Indonesian literature.",signatures:"H.D. Dharma Satrya, Faruk Faruk and Pujiharto Pujiharto",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/74580",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/74580",authors:[{id:"324710",title:"M.A.",name:"Dharma",surname:"Satrya HD",slug:"dharma-satrya-hd",fullName:"Dharma Satrya HD"},{id:"326507",title:"Prof.",name:"Faruk",surname:"Faruk",slug:"faruk-faruk",fullName:"Faruk Faruk"},{id:"326509",title:"Dr.",name:"Pujiharto",surname:"Pujiharto",slug:"pujiharto-pujiharto",fullName:"Pujiharto Pujiharto"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"7163",title:"Infertility, Assisted Reproductive Technologies and Hormone Assays",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6db6e4ccb7088f17f819121f7eb6424d",slug:"infertility-assisted-reproductive-technologies-and-hormone-assays",bookSignature:"Dhastagir Sultan 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Willcox, A.E. Luloff, James C. Finley and Donald G. Hodges",dateSubmitted:"June 21st 2018",dateReviewed:"October 22nd 2018",datePrePublished:"December 31st 2018",datePublished:"February 19th 2020",book:{id:"8295",title:"Landscape Reclamation",subtitle:"Rising From What's Left",fullTitle:"Landscape Reclamation - Rising From What's Left",slug:"landscape-reclamation-rising-from-what-s-left",publishedDate:"February 19th 2020",bookSignature:"Luis Loures",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8295.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"108118",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",middleName:null,surname:"Loures",slug:"luis-loures",fullName:"Luis Loures"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"264298",title:"Dr.",name:"Jason",middleName:null,surname:"Gordon",fullName:"Jason Gordon",slug:"jason-gordon",email:"jason.gordon@uga.edu",position:null,institution:{name:"University of Georgia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]}},chapter:{id:"65057",slug:"public-perceptions-of-values-associated-with-wildfire-protection-at-the-wildland-urban-interface-a-s",signatures:"Jason Gordon, Adam S. Willcox, A.E. Luloff, James C. Finley and Donald G. Hodges",dateSubmitted:"June 21st 2018",dateReviewed:"October 22nd 2018",datePrePublished:"December 31st 2018",datePublished:"February 19th 2020",book:{id:"8295",title:"Landscape Reclamation",subtitle:"Rising From What's Left",fullTitle:"Landscape Reclamation - Rising From What's Left",slug:"landscape-reclamation-rising-from-what-s-left",publishedDate:"February 19th 2020",bookSignature:"Luis Loures",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8295.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"108118",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",middleName:null,surname:"Loures",slug:"luis-loures",fullName:"Luis Loures"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"264298",title:"Dr.",name:"Jason",middleName:null,surname:"Gordon",fullName:"Jason Gordon",slug:"jason-gordon",email:"jason.gordon@uga.edu",position:null,institution:{name:"University of Georgia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]},book:{id:"8295",title:"Landscape Reclamation",subtitle:"Rising From What's Left",fullTitle:"Landscape Reclamation - Rising From What's Left",slug:"landscape-reclamation-rising-from-what-s-left",publishedDate:"February 19th 2020",bookSignature:"Luis Loures",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8295.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"108118",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",middleName:null,surname:"Loures",slug:"luis-loures",fullName:"Luis Loures"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}},ofsBook:{item:{type:"book",id:"11453",leadTitle:null,title:"Biomimetics - Bridging the Gap",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"\r\n\tBiomimetics can be described as an innovative form of technology that imitates (or mimics) nature to improve human lives via creating desirable solutions. Indeed, it is the study of nature and natural phenomena, in an attempt to understand the principles and elucidate the underlying mechanisms, obtain ideas from nature, and apply concepts that may benefit science, engineering, pharmacy, dentistry, and medicine. Smart/Intelligent Biomaterials for tissue engineering and regenerative medicine is a fine example. Yet, biomimicry can go above and beyond the simplistic inspiration and use of natural properties as the basis for the innovation of new products. It bridges the gap between the lab and the industry, via the intra-disciplinary design and formulation of functional solutions combining knowledge, methods, techniques, and advances in the fields of chemistry, biology, architecture, engineering, medicine, pharmaceutics, dentistry, and biomedical engineering. Three-Dimensional Printing, Self-Healing nanoCoatings, biomechanical Carbon nanoTubes, Stimuli-sensitive and -responsive Cell/Drug Delivery Systems, and Robotics are good examples. Those are some of the topics that will be covered in this new book, with the objective to provide the interested reader, whether a student or an expert, with a practical reference approaching biomimetics from a realistic and translational perspective, discussing problems and offering solutions, via including studies from basics to the clinic to scale-up and industrial or go-to-market obstacles.
",isbn:"978-1-80356-897-3",printIsbn:"978-1-80356-896-6",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80356-898-0",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"173e62fa4d7bf5508cec3bdd8e3cb32d",bookSignature:"Prof. Ziyad S. Haidar",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11453.jpg",keywords:"BioMechanics, 3D Printing, BioInspired Chemistry, Adaptive Structure, Self-Healing, Bioinspired Thermal Control, Self-Organization, Visco-Elastic Materials, Artificial Intelligence, Implantable Devices, Molecule Recognition, In Vitro",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"April 5th 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"June 16th 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"August 15th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"November 3rd 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"January 2nd 2023",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"2 months",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!1,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"DDS, Cert Implantol, MSc OMFS, FRCS(C), with an MBA in HealthCare Organizations Management and Ph.D. in BioEngineering and nanoPharmaceuticals (McGill University, Montréal, Canada). Presently, a Full Professor, leading the BioMAT’X R&D&I HAIDAR LAB at the CiiB, UAndes, Santiago de Chile.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"222709",title:"Prof.",name:"Ziyad S.",middleName:null,surname:"Haidar",slug:"ziyad-s.-haidar",fullName:"Ziyad S. Haidar",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/222709/images/system/222709.jpg",biography:"Ziyad S. Haidar, DDS, Cert Implantol, MSC, FRCSc, MBA, Ph.D., is a Full Professor of Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering and the scientific director of the Facultad de Odontología (Faculty of Dentistry), Universidad de los Andes (UAndes), Santiago, Chile. He is also the founder and head of the Biomaterials, Pharmaceutical Delivery, and Cranio-Maxillo-Facial Tissue Engineering Laboratory (BioMAT\\'X R&D&I Chile – HAIDAR Lab). In addition, he serves as the head of innovation at the Centro de Investigación e Innovación Biomédica (CiiB), a faculty/theses member in the bioMedicine Doctoral (Ph.D. bioMedicina) Program at UAndes, and a visiting clinical and surgical professor at the MaxilloFacial Division of the Universidad de la Frontera and the Department of Head and Neck Surgery, Lautaru Hospital, both in Temuco, Chile.\n\nDr. Haidar is a trained dentist, implantologist, and an oral and maxillofacial surgeon with a Ph.D. in Nanobiomaterials, Pharmaceuticals, and Tissue Engineering from McGill University, Montréal, Canada. He completed a post-doctoral training residency in orthopedics at the Montréal Shriners Hospital, McGill University Health Center, Montréal, Canada. Before moving to Chile, he served as Associate Professor of Bioceramics and the Chair of Excellence in BioEngineering at the Université de Limoges, Limoges, France and was an assistant professor in the Department of Pharmaceutics and Pharmaceutical Chemistry (cross-appointment with the Department of BioEngineering), University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT, USA. Between 2010 and 2012 Dr. Haidar served as an adjunct professor of Head and Neck Surgery and the scientific director of the joint Utah–Inha R&D Center, Inha University Hospital, Incheon, Seoul, South Korea. \n\nHe has won several prestigious awards from the International Bone and Mineral Society, Society for Biomaterials, Canadian Biomaterial Society, and the Canadian and Lebanese Societies of Plastic Surgeons, to name a few. His R&D&I focus on patient-oriented development and evaluation of bionanotechnology, biopolymers, bioceramics, and drug delivery systems for the repair, restoration, reconstruction, and regeneration of challenging craniofacial and orthopedic defects. Dr. Haidar is an international speaker with more than 125 publications, conference proceedings, textbooks, and patents to his credit. 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From chapter submission and review, to approval and revision, copy-editing and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. 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The Northwest Pacific and the South China Sea regions are the birthplaces of most monsoons and typhoons and are important channels for the generation and transmission of water vapor [1, 2, 3]. The influence of a typhoon on a region is often not only a heavy wind disaster. At the same time, the heavy rain, extreme waves, storm surges, and coastal inundation that are produced will also have a huge impact on the region, which will result in the formation of a typhoon disaster chain [4, 5, 6].
\nThere are more than 20 typhoons in the Pacific Northwest each year, which is the region with the most frequent typhoon activity in the world. China, which has a long coastline on the west coast of the Pacific Ocean, is the country with the most frequent typhoon attacks in the world, with an average of 9.3 per year, resulting in a direct economy every year. The losses exceeded 100 billion yuan and the number of casualties reached thousands. Therefore, a comprehensive understanding and in-depth study of the typhoon process, especially the improvement of typhoon monitoring and early warning capabilities, is an inevitable requirement for the disaster reduction work of our national defense platform.
\nIn the past few decades, from the perspective of atmospheric science, the research on the mechanisms of typhoon development, numerical simulation and forecasting has made great progress. However, as a strong atmospheric process, typhoons have violent disturbances, the cumulative effects of many typhoons will also have a significant impact on the ocean’s thermo-salt structure and ocean circulation and global ocean heat transport. These effects will counteract typhoons, affect not only the intensity and path of specific typhoons, but also the global the low-frequency variation characteristics of the typhoon. But so far, the lack of on-site observation data during the typhoon has made the study of multi-scale response and feedback mechanism of typhoon not deep enough. People cannot simulate the interaction process between the ocean and typhoon well. The reliable initial ocean field required for typhoon forecasting has greatly limited the further improvement of typhoon research and forecasting capabilities.
\nThe typhoon is a devastating natural disaster that has long been a focus of attention in the field of atmospheric and oceanic research [7, 8]. With the rapid development of computers, the numerical simulation of typhoons is becoming increasingly developed, and the model resolution is getting higher and higher [9]. The Pacific Northwest is the most concentrated area of global tropical cyclones (also known as typhoons in the Pacific Northwest). China is located on the west coast of the Pacific Ocean, with a long coastline and a special geographical position on the southeast coast. It has been hit by typhoons frequently, with an average annual rate of 9.3, ranking first in the world. The typhoon is one of the most serious natural disasters in China [10, 11, 12]. The annual direct economic losses caused by the typhoon are nearly 100 billion yuan, and the number of casualties is thousands. On the one hand, the strong winds and heavy rains that landed in the typhoon brought huge meteorological disasters to the vast areas of China, posing a huge threat to the people’s lives, property and production activities. On the other hand, huge waves and storm surges caused by typhoons have also caused serious marine disasters, which have caused major safety hazards and economic losses to offshore operations and transportation, coastal protection projects, marine fisheries and marine aquaculture. Coastal areas are one of China’s most economically developed regions, which are vulnerable to the effects of marine disasters [13, 14, 15, 16].
\nTherefore, studying the movement mechanism of typhoon, accurately forecasting the influence of typhoon and reducing storm surge disasters have important social value for the protection of national economic development and people’s lives and property safety.
\nFrom the perspective of practical application, improving the monitoring and forecasting ability of typhoon is the fundamental goal of typhoon research. Due to the multi-scale characteristics of the interaction between ocean and typhoon, the ocean data assimilation for the typhoon process should also be multi-scale. Due to extreme sea conditions under typhoon conditions Harsh, satellite remote sensing data has become an important data source for assimilation. However, remote sensing can only provide sea surface information. At present, people usually use the projection mapping method and multiple dynamic constraints to map surface information to the ocean subsurface and assimilate. Some assimilation methods still lack universality. How to establish a sea surface data assimilation method that considers more dynamic constraints and is more suitable for typhoon conditions is an important part of the future sea-air coupled data assimilation research. For the actual operational forecast of the typhoon, International or domestic still rely mainly on numerical weather patterns. After long-term exploration and improvement, the main forecasting modes are for atmospheric processes (such as atmospheric boundary layer physical properties, cloud physical processes, atmospheric turbulent energy calculations, cumulus convective parameterization schemes, etc.). There has been considerable progress in simulation and forecasting capabilities. The understanding of ocean feedback is insufficient. The current typhoon numerical (weather) forecasting model still has significant errors, especially for typhoon intensity and wind and rain distribution forecast. The United States is the first to develop a sea-air coupled hurricane (the Atlantic called hurricane, the Pacific Ocean). After years of operational operation, the improved air-sea coupled model has improved both the intensity of the hurricane and the path prediction compared with the traditional atmospheric model.
\nIn summary, the interaction between the ocean and typhoon has obvious scientific significance and important practical value. At various time and space scales, people’s understanding of the mechanism of the ocean response to typhoon and modulation is obviously insufficient. At present, air-sea coupling The model’s ability to simulate, assimilate and forecast the typhoon process is still very limited, which has become a bottleneck problem to further improve the typhoon forecasting capability.
\nWith an increase in sea surface temperature (SST), the total number of tropical cyclones in the North Pacific, Indian Ocean, and southwest Pacific Ocean decreases, and the cyclone development period shortens, but the number and proportion of tropical cyclones reaching super typhoon intensity increases greatly [17].
\nIn the study of air-sea interaction, the response of the upper ocean to typhoons is a hot topic [18]. Typhoon transit can cause ocean mixing and upwelling, and sea surface cooling is the main feature [19]. The cooling caused by a typhoon is mainly related to the intensity, propagation speed of the typhoon, and the ocean condition before typhoon arrival, such as the location of cold vortices, the thermodynamic structure of the upper ocean, the position of the 26°C isotherm, etc.
\nCyclonic wind stress results in the upwelling of sea water in the center of the path, the decrease of sea surface temperature, and the heat transfer from the surface to the atmosphere. Strong winds cause turbulent mixing of the ocean, entraining cold water from the lower layer into the mixing layer, resulting in cooling of the upper sea water and deepening of the mixing layer [10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21]. Inclusive mixing disturbances cause 85% of irreversible ocean heat to enter the atmosphere; direct air-sea interaction plays a minor role in surface cooling. Mixed layer plays an important role in sea surface cooling [22, 23, 24]. After typhoon transit, the ocean response is mostly the internal nonlocal baroclinic process caused by wind stress. In baroclinic driving stage, the flow of mixing layer 1 m/s is induced by vertical mixing, and the flow of near-inertial oscillation frequency wave into thermocline, which lasts for 5–10 days. The barotropic driving process usually results in geostrophic currents and associated sea surface height changes.
\nUsing the observed data to study the ocean response to typhoons is a common research method. However, due to the severe weather conditions during the transit of tropical cyclones, it is very difficult to obtain fixed-point observation data. There is a strong mass transport, energy exchange, and interaction between the atmosphere and the ocean during a typhoon process [25, 26] (Figure 1).
\nThe spatial distribution of change in sea surface temperature (ΔSST) in the northern area of the South China Sea under the influence of typhoon Kai-tak (2012).
The response mechanism of the ocean to typhoon can be considered from two levels. First, the typhoon-driven mesoscale three-dimensional ocean circulation will have a significant impact on the local dynamics and thermal processes. The resulting near-inertial internal waves and vortices can input a large amount of mechanical energy into the ocean, thus significantly enhancing the local The ocean mixes and changes the warm salt structure of the upper ocean. Second, in the interior of the ocean, the energy input into the ocean by typhoons in the form of near-inertial internal waves travels along the oceanic thermocline to distant places, such as the entire tropical Pacific. During the propagation process, they interact nonlinearly with the original internal waves and near-inertial oscillations inside the ocean, which affects the ocean basin scale and even the global energy distribution, and leads to an increase in ocean mixing rate in some specific regions. The modulation of the typhoon by the ocean can also be considered from two scales. On the weather scale, the ocean plays a very important role in the movement and action of typhoons.
\nThe maturity stage is mainly characterized by negative feedback that reduces the sea surface temperature. However, when the upper ocean warm water is thicker, the typhoon transit will not cause obvious sea temperature anomaly, and the lack of negative ocean feedback can cause the typhoon to strengthen. The interaction between the ocean mesoscale process and the typhoon is currently a focus of typhoon research. Usually, the warm vortex can quickly strengthen the typhoon, and the cold vortex can quickly weaken the typhoon. At the climate scale, global warming and interannual and interdecadal variations of climate can cause changes in ocean circulation and thermal conditions, resulting in low-frequency modulation of the intensity and frequency of typhoons.
\nThe typhoon is one of the most serious natural disasters that affects the coastal ocean environment in China [27, 28], especially in the eastern and southern estuaries, such as the Yangtze River Estuary [29] and the Pearl River Estuary [30, 31, 32, 33]. During a typhoon, the coupling of various dynamic factors, such as wind, waves, storm surges, and river runoff, greatly enhances the mass and energy exchange of various interfaces in the ocean and is accompanied by heavy rain and storm runoff on the surface [34, 35, 36, 37]. Scouring can transport a large amount of minerals from the land to an estuary offshore, causing sudden changes in the water quality of the estuary, which may have an important impact on the marine ecological environment [38, 39, 40].
\nOn the one hand, typhoon transit strengthens the mixing process of offshore water [41, 42, 43]. On the other hand, the heavy rainfall brought by a typhoon rapidly increases river runoff into the sea, and a large amount of land-based materials are washed away and brought into the estuary offshore area [44, 45, 46, 47]. These changes due to the influence of a typhoon significantly affect the physical, chemical and biological processes of estuarine offshore waters, which in turn have an impact on the structure and function of the ecosystem [48, 49, 50]. Studying the changes of the estuarine nearshore environment under the influence of a typhoon and its ecological effects are of great importance for further understanding the evolution process of ecosystems in this region on a long-term scale [8, 51].
\nField observations show that the salinity of the surface water of an estuary usually shows a sharp change during a typhoon and the resulting rain, which gradually rises after entering the recovery period [8, 52, 53, 54]. During typhoon crossing, the disturbance caused by strong winds strengthens the mixing process of the estuary and its adjacent waters. However, this process has a passing impact on the water environment, and the runoff diluting water expansion and the external seawater intrusion play a greater role in changing the water environment after a typhoon. Among these, the strengthening of a typhoon after the expansion of fresh water greatly affects the upper water, the upper salinity decreases after the typhoon, and the nutrient salt concentration increases significantly. External seawater intrusion substantially changes the bottom water environment. The salinity of the bottom layer increases after a typhoon, and the nutrient concentration of nitrogen and silicon decreases.
\nTyphoons or tropical cyclones are strong wind events in the climate system and are a strong form of air-sea interaction. The strong vertical mixing and wind field generated by a typhoon has a major impact on the upper ocean dynamics and ecosystem [55]. Due to typhoons, there is a decrease in sea level, a decrease in sea surface temperature, an increase in phytoplankton blooms and a decrease in primary productivity, which also affect marine fisheries [56, 57, 58]. Typhoons mainly affect the marine ecological environment through two physical mechanisms: (1) after a typhoon, a cold vortex is formed, causing seawater to upwell and the lower layer of cold nutrient water is transported to the upper layer [59, 60]; and (2) the typhoon intensifies the vertical mixing of the upper ocean by a strong wind process [61, 62, 63, 64].
\nAt present, most research on the sea surface salinity (SSS) response to typhoons is limited to the estuary area. According to the physical and biochemical environmental conditions of the estuary, SSS may show an upward or downward trend after typhoon transit [2, 22, 65, 66, 67, 68, 69, 70, 71, 72, 73, 74, 75]. However, studies on marine ecological factors, especially SSS and the response to typhoon transit, are limited and have not been discussed in detail [76, 77, 78, 79]. The South China Sea (CSC) is the largest marginal sea in the Pacific Northwest, and is also a frequent typhoon zone, but it is difficult to obtain measured data during typhoons.
\nDue to the harsh meteorological conditions during typhoon transit, the use of on-site observation methods in an estuary to study the changes in the marine environment before and after a typhoon is very limited. The numerical simulation method is an effective way to study the distribution characteristics of fresh and salt water in an estuary under the influence of a typhoon (Figure 2).
\nChanges in stratifications salinity influenced by typhoon Kai-tak based on the fully coupled WRF-SWAN-ROMS model (beginning on 2012-08-15 00:00:00 UTC).
The Northwest Pacific and the South China Sea region are the birthplaces of most monsoons and typhoons and are an important channel for the generation and transmission of water vapor [18, 80, 81, 82, 83, 84]. The Northwest Pacific plays a major role in regulating interdecadal and long-term changes in climate [46, 85, 86]. China is the region with the largest number of typhoons and the most destructive power affected by typhoons in the world [87, 88].
\nCompared with large-scale phenomena such as global climate change, small- and medium-scale phenomena such as typhoons and thunderstorms have an even greater impact on people’s production and life [6, 89, 90]. Typhoons and hurricanes present some of the greatest threats to life and damage to property [91]. The influence of a typhoon on a region is often not only a heavy wind disaster. At the same time, the heavy rain, extreme waves, storm surges and beach erosion [24] that are produced will also have a huge impact on the region, which will result in the formation of a typhoon disaster chain [19, 92, 93, 94]. Therefore, studying the movement mechanism of typhoon, accurately forecasting the influence of typhoon and reducing storm surge disasters have important social value for the protection of national economic development and human and property safety.
\nTropical cyclones (TCs) present some of the greatest threats to life [25, 95, 96, 97, 98] and damage to property [99]. The SLOSH model was widely used in storm surge simulation in seas, lakes, and on land. Blumberg and Mellor (1987) developed the POM model to simulate large-scale ocean and coastal water levels, and flow field changes. Many ocean models have been developed and used for the simulation of storm surges, such as the ECOM model, ROMS model, CH3D-IMS model, CEST model, SELFE model, Delft3D model, ADCIRC model and FVCOM model. They have achieved very good results and laid the foundation for understanding the dynamic mechanism of storm surges. The development of a coupled atmospheric and ocean model had significant effects on improving the accuracy of numerical prediction. The establishment of a coupled atmosphere and ocean model is an effective method to solve this problem (Figure 3).
\nSpatial distribution of storm surge level influenced by typhoon Kai-tak (start at 2012-08-15 00:00:00 UTC).
The typhoon numerical model is the focus of typhoon research and the key to typhoon forecasting. The modern model has a certain forecasting ability for the typhoon path, but the forecast of typhoon intensity is still a recognized problem in the international meteorological community. The reason is that, besides the understanding and simulation of the atmospheric environment and the structure of the typhoon itself is not accurate enough, it is also one of the important reasons for the lack of understanding of the complexity and feedback of related ocean dynamics and thermal processes. When the typhoon transits, it exerts a great shearing force on the sea surface. The related wave breaking and the interaction between the wind field and the Stokes drifting can generate a large amount of turbulent kinetic energy, which produces a wave below the sea surface. The turbulent enhancement zone enhances the rate of turbulence dissipation in the upper ocean. Therefore, the establishment of a relatively complete marine hybrid scheme is an important way to improve the maritime-coupled typhoon model. In addition, improving the sea surface flux parameterization scheme under strong wind conditions is also an urgent need to improve the model prediction capability. With the rapid increase of computing power and technology, the air-sea coupled typhoon model has broken through the limitations of the early axisymmetric typhoon model and the mixed-layer ocean model, and replaced it with a complete fully coupled ocean and atmosphere model. At present, the world’s 1/32 to 1/900 degree resolution ocean model is being developed, which will provide strong support for the study of small-scale processes in the ocean and the multi-scale interaction between ocean and typhoon.
\nThe interaction between the ocean and the typhoon is a major scientific issue with significant scientific significance and important practical value. In recent years, with the support of national major scientific research projects, China has comprehensively utilized on-site observations from the perspective of air-sea interaction. Research methods such as theoretical analysis, data assimilation, and model prediction systematically study the response and modulation mechanism of the upper ocean to the typhoon, the interaction between the ocean and atmospheric observation system for the typhoon, the ocean mesoscale process and the typhoon, and the ocean to the typhoon. A series of innovations have been achieved in low-frequency response and modulation, physical mechanisms and parameterization of typhoons affecting the upper oceans, ocean multi-source data assimilation and parameter estimation during the typhoon, and ocean-air coupled prediction technology and applications in typhoons and marine environments. These research results will provide a solid theoretical foundation and technical support for further improving the forecast level of typhoon business in China, and make substantial contributions to the major national needs of disaster prevention and reduction.
\nHowever, it must also be recognized that China is still very lacking in the research field of interaction between ocean and typhoon, and there is still a big gap with the international advanced level. Compared with the national demand for disaster prevention, there are still obvious deficiencies. Based on the research results, we believe that the major scientific problems and major challenges in the interaction between oceans and typhoons are mainly reflected in the following points.
On-site observations are still very scarce. As described in this paper, China has already made important practices in ocean monitoring of typhoon processes and has obtained valuable on-site observations. Especially in the field of sea-air coordinated observation, China has launched A useful attempt. After the technology and security conditions are more mature, the typhoon observations coordinated by the sea-air will provide the necessary information for deepening the typhoon research. In addition, due to the harsh sea conditions during the typhoon, the long-term monitoring system for the typhoon process is still missing. The Pacific region and the northern part of the South China Sea are the regions with the highest typhoon in the world, and are almost the only way for typhoons that cause major disasters in our country. Therefore, long-term observation networks are built and maintained in the region (for example, the cross buoy/potential system) An array of observations for the basic structure is an effective means of enhancing ocean and atmospheric monitoring during the typhoon.
The response mechanism of the multi-scale circulation system of the upper ocean to the typhoon needs to be deepened. The circulation system of the upper ocean is very complicated. The typhoon prevailing in the northwestern Pacific includes the North Pacific subtropical circulation and tropical circulation driven by the trade wind, by buoyancy flux. The shallow transfected circulation of the North Pacific, the monsoon-driven circulation of the South China Sea, and the small-scale circulation and vortex superimposed on these large-scale circulations. Typhoons can not only affect and even drive small- and medium-scale ocean circulation and vortex on the weather scale. The rotation can also affect the large-scale ocean circulation of the climatic state by changing the thermal salt structure of the upper ocean. Therefore, the response of the multi-scale circulation system of the upper ocean to the typhoon includes various dynamic processes, thermal processes, and nonlinearities between them. Interactions, these are major challenges in the study of the interaction between ocean and typhoon. Reveal the propagation, transfer and dissipation mechanisms of near-inertial energy input into the ocean by typhoons, and understand the mesoscale processes such as ocean vortex and internal waves during typhoon transit. Response characteristics and excitation mechanism to determine the “heat pump” and “cold suction” of the typhoon. The different effects on ocean stratification are the core of solving these problems.
A quantitative study on the modulation of typhoon intensity by the dynamic and thermal structures of the upper ocean. The dynamic and thermal structure of the upper ocean determines the magnitude of sensible heat and latent heat flux at the air-sea interface during typhoon transit. The maintenance and development of typhoons, especially the changes in typhoon intensity, depending on the energy and water vapor provided by these fluxes. Therefore, the dynamic and thermal structures of the upper oceans can play an important role in modulating the intensity of typhoons. The path and intensity are closely related, but since the typhoon intensity is directly affected by the energy provided by the ocean and is the weak link of the current typhoon forecast, we should pay special attention to the modulation of the typhoon intensity by the ocean. If the marine environment does not change, this modulation can be easily estimated from the upper maritime structure of the climatic state. But the problem is that the dynamic and thermal structures of the upper ocean are constantly changing at various spatial and temporal scales. Understand the feedback mechanism of the maritime mesoscale process on the typhoon on the weather scale, reveal the climate. The low-frequency variation of the upper ocean circulation and heat content under changing background should be solved by this question. The key to the question.
In short, based on the existing research foundation and experience, we suggest that in the future research on the interaction between ocean and typhoon. On the basis of the mechanism, the typhoon intensity and the forecasting ability of the marine environment are improved, and the predictability of typhoon low-frequency variability is evaluated, making China one of the world’s leading researchers in the interaction between ocean and typhoon.
\nObservations over the past few decades have shown that the frequency, intensity, and duration of tropical cyclones vary over the interannual, interdecadal, and even longer timescales. Global warming caused by human activities and low-frequency natural oscillations in the Earth’s climate system may have an impact on typhoons, but the relative importance of the two is still controversial. Whatever the case, the role of the ocean is unquestionable. Because on a long-term scale, the memory of the climate system is mainly stored in the ocean, any low-frequency variation must be related to the ocean. Previous studies on the low-frequency modulation of tropical cyclones in the ocean have focused on the correlation analysis between tropical sea surface temperature and typhoon parameters, but such analysis has its limitations. For example, the variation of the total power consumption of the Atlantic tropical cyclone has a good correlation with the variation of the sea surface temperature. If this empirical relationship is brought into the climate model, the total power consumption of the Atlantic tropical cyclone will increase by 3 times by the end of the 21st century. However, if a similar empirical relationship is established by subtracting the global tropical average from the tropical Atlantic sea surface temperature variation, the total tropical Atlantic cyclone power consumption predicted by the climate model remains essentially unchanged. This shows that the Atlantic tropical cyclone has been mainly modulated by natural low-frequency oscillations for the past 30 years.
\nIn addition to high-resolution models, advanced data assimilation techniques are also essential to improve the simulation and forecasting capabilities of the typhoon model. Data assimilation can assimilate data from different sources, different time and space, and different elements into the dynamic model, and obtain an analysis field that is more detailed than the observation data and more realistic than the model results. For the assimilation of ocean data in the typhoon process, the most important problem is how to achieve multi-scale, multi-variable assimilation, extract the information reflecting the multi-scale interaction between ocean and typhoon in the observation system, and ensure the consistency of the model state field correction; The determination of the dependent background field error covariance matrix is also a problem.
\nIn summary, the response and modulation mechanism of the ocean to typhoons is an international frontier proposition for marine and atmospheric science research. It is extremely challenging in terms of theoretical methods, observation techniques, model development and data assimilation. Taking this as an entry point, it is expected to achieve breakthrough basic research results, develop and improve marine science theories, and promote the interdisciplinary and common development of marine and atmospheric sciences while meeting the major needs of the country.
\nThe study was supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (Grant Nos. 51809023, 51839002, and 51879015). The partial support also comes from the Open Research Foundation of Key Laboratory of the Pearl River Estuarine Dynamics and Associated Process Regulation, Ministry of Water Resources ([2018]KJ03), and the Research Foundation of Education Bureau of Hunan Province, China (Grant No. 19C0092).
\nTropical cyclones are some of the most destructive natural disasters, which often bring huge losses to people’s life and property. The Northwest Pacific and the South China Sea regions are the birthplaces of most monsoons and typhoons and are important channels for the generation and transmission of water vapor [1, 2, 3]. The influence of a typhoon on a region is often not only a heavy wind disaster. At the same time, the heavy rain, extreme waves, storm surges, and coastal inundation that are produced will also have a huge impact on the region, which will result in the formation of a typhoon disaster chain [4, 5, 6].
\nThere are more than 20 typhoons in the Pacific Northwest each year, which is the region with the most frequent typhoon activity in the world. China, which has a long coastline on the west coast of the Pacific Ocean, is the country with the most frequent typhoon attacks in the world, with an average of 9.3 per year, resulting in a direct economy every year. The losses exceeded 100 billion yuan and the number of casualties reached thousands. Therefore, a comprehensive understanding and in-depth study of the typhoon process, especially the improvement of typhoon monitoring and early warning capabilities, is an inevitable requirement for the disaster reduction work of our national defense platform.
\nIn the past few decades, from the perspective of atmospheric science, the research on the mechanisms of typhoon development, numerical simulation and forecasting has made great progress. However, as a strong atmospheric process, typhoons have violent disturbances, the cumulative effects of many typhoons will also have a significant impact on the ocean’s thermo-salt structure and ocean circulation and global ocean heat transport. These effects will counteract typhoons, affect not only the intensity and path of specific typhoons, but also the global the low-frequency variation characteristics of the typhoon. But so far, the lack of on-site observation data during the typhoon has made the study of multi-scale response and feedback mechanism of typhoon not deep enough. People cannot simulate the interaction process between the ocean and typhoon well. The reliable initial ocean field required for typhoon forecasting has greatly limited the further improvement of typhoon research and forecasting capabilities.
\nThe typhoon is a devastating natural disaster that has long been a focus of attention in the field of atmospheric and oceanic research [7, 8]. With the rapid development of computers, the numerical simulation of typhoons is becoming increasingly developed, and the model resolution is getting higher and higher [9]. The Pacific Northwest is the most concentrated area of global tropical cyclones (also known as typhoons in the Pacific Northwest). China is located on the west coast of the Pacific Ocean, with a long coastline and a special geographical position on the southeast coast. It has been hit by typhoons frequently, with an average annual rate of 9.3, ranking first in the world. The typhoon is one of the most serious natural disasters in China [10, 11, 12]. The annual direct economic losses caused by the typhoon are nearly 100 billion yuan, and the number of casualties is thousands. On the one hand, the strong winds and heavy rains that landed in the typhoon brought huge meteorological disasters to the vast areas of China, posing a huge threat to the people’s lives, property and production activities. On the other hand, huge waves and storm surges caused by typhoons have also caused serious marine disasters, which have caused major safety hazards and economic losses to offshore operations and transportation, coastal protection projects, marine fisheries and marine aquaculture. Coastal areas are one of China’s most economically developed regions, which are vulnerable to the effects of marine disasters [13, 14, 15, 16].
\nTherefore, studying the movement mechanism of typhoon, accurately forecasting the influence of typhoon and reducing storm surge disasters have important social value for the protection of national economic development and people’s lives and property safety.
\nFrom the perspective of practical application, improving the monitoring and forecasting ability of typhoon is the fundamental goal of typhoon research. Due to the multi-scale characteristics of the interaction between ocean and typhoon, the ocean data assimilation for the typhoon process should also be multi-scale. Due to extreme sea conditions under typhoon conditions Harsh, satellite remote sensing data has become an important data source for assimilation. However, remote sensing can only provide sea surface information. At present, people usually use the projection mapping method and multiple dynamic constraints to map surface information to the ocean subsurface and assimilate. Some assimilation methods still lack universality. How to establish a sea surface data assimilation method that considers more dynamic constraints and is more suitable for typhoon conditions is an important part of the future sea-air coupled data assimilation research. For the actual operational forecast of the typhoon, International or domestic still rely mainly on numerical weather patterns. After long-term exploration and improvement, the main forecasting modes are for atmospheric processes (such as atmospheric boundary layer physical properties, cloud physical processes, atmospheric turbulent energy calculations, cumulus convective parameterization schemes, etc.). There has been considerable progress in simulation and forecasting capabilities. The understanding of ocean feedback is insufficient. The current typhoon numerical (weather) forecasting model still has significant errors, especially for typhoon intensity and wind and rain distribution forecast. The United States is the first to develop a sea-air coupled hurricane (the Atlantic called hurricane, the Pacific Ocean). After years of operational operation, the improved air-sea coupled model has improved both the intensity of the hurricane and the path prediction compared with the traditional atmospheric model.
\nIn summary, the interaction between the ocean and typhoon has obvious scientific significance and important practical value. At various time and space scales, people’s understanding of the mechanism of the ocean response to typhoon and modulation is obviously insufficient. At present, air-sea coupling The model’s ability to simulate, assimilate and forecast the typhoon process is still very limited, which has become a bottleneck problem to further improve the typhoon forecasting capability.
\nWith an increase in sea surface temperature (SST), the total number of tropical cyclones in the North Pacific, Indian Ocean, and southwest Pacific Ocean decreases, and the cyclone development period shortens, but the number and proportion of tropical cyclones reaching super typhoon intensity increases greatly [17].
\nIn the study of air-sea interaction, the response of the upper ocean to typhoons is a hot topic [18]. Typhoon transit can cause ocean mixing and upwelling, and sea surface cooling is the main feature [19]. The cooling caused by a typhoon is mainly related to the intensity, propagation speed of the typhoon, and the ocean condition before typhoon arrival, such as the location of cold vortices, the thermodynamic structure of the upper ocean, the position of the 26°C isotherm, etc.
\nCyclonic wind stress results in the upwelling of sea water in the center of the path, the decrease of sea surface temperature, and the heat transfer from the surface to the atmosphere. Strong winds cause turbulent mixing of the ocean, entraining cold water from the lower layer into the mixing layer, resulting in cooling of the upper sea water and deepening of the mixing layer [10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21]. Inclusive mixing disturbances cause 85% of irreversible ocean heat to enter the atmosphere; direct air-sea interaction plays a minor role in surface cooling. Mixed layer plays an important role in sea surface cooling [22, 23, 24]. After typhoon transit, the ocean response is mostly the internal nonlocal baroclinic process caused by wind stress. In baroclinic driving stage, the flow of mixing layer 1 m/s is induced by vertical mixing, and the flow of near-inertial oscillation frequency wave into thermocline, which lasts for 5–10 days. The barotropic driving process usually results in geostrophic currents and associated sea surface height changes.
\nUsing the observed data to study the ocean response to typhoons is a common research method. However, due to the severe weather conditions during the transit of tropical cyclones, it is very difficult to obtain fixed-point observation data. There is a strong mass transport, energy exchange, and interaction between the atmosphere and the ocean during a typhoon process [25, 26] (Figure 1).
\nThe spatial distribution of change in sea surface temperature (ΔSST) in the northern area of the South China Sea under the influence of typhoon Kai-tak (2012).
The response mechanism of the ocean to typhoon can be considered from two levels. First, the typhoon-driven mesoscale three-dimensional ocean circulation will have a significant impact on the local dynamics and thermal processes. The resulting near-inertial internal waves and vortices can input a large amount of mechanical energy into the ocean, thus significantly enhancing the local The ocean mixes and changes the warm salt structure of the upper ocean. Second, in the interior of the ocean, the energy input into the ocean by typhoons in the form of near-inertial internal waves travels along the oceanic thermocline to distant places, such as the entire tropical Pacific. During the propagation process, they interact nonlinearly with the original internal waves and near-inertial oscillations inside the ocean, which affects the ocean basin scale and even the global energy distribution, and leads to an increase in ocean mixing rate in some specific regions. The modulation of the typhoon by the ocean can also be considered from two scales. On the weather scale, the ocean plays a very important role in the movement and action of typhoons.
\nThe maturity stage is mainly characterized by negative feedback that reduces the sea surface temperature. However, when the upper ocean warm water is thicker, the typhoon transit will not cause obvious sea temperature anomaly, and the lack of negative ocean feedback can cause the typhoon to strengthen. The interaction between the ocean mesoscale process and the typhoon is currently a focus of typhoon research. Usually, the warm vortex can quickly strengthen the typhoon, and the cold vortex can quickly weaken the typhoon. At the climate scale, global warming and interannual and interdecadal variations of climate can cause changes in ocean circulation and thermal conditions, resulting in low-frequency modulation of the intensity and frequency of typhoons.
\nThe typhoon is one of the most serious natural disasters that affects the coastal ocean environment in China [27, 28], especially in the eastern and southern estuaries, such as the Yangtze River Estuary [29] and the Pearl River Estuary [30, 31, 32, 33]. During a typhoon, the coupling of various dynamic factors, such as wind, waves, storm surges, and river runoff, greatly enhances the mass and energy exchange of various interfaces in the ocean and is accompanied by heavy rain and storm runoff on the surface [34, 35, 36, 37]. Scouring can transport a large amount of minerals from the land to an estuary offshore, causing sudden changes in the water quality of the estuary, which may have an important impact on the marine ecological environment [38, 39, 40].
\nOn the one hand, typhoon transit strengthens the mixing process of offshore water [41, 42, 43]. On the other hand, the heavy rainfall brought by a typhoon rapidly increases river runoff into the sea, and a large amount of land-based materials are washed away and brought into the estuary offshore area [44, 45, 46, 47]. These changes due to the influence of a typhoon significantly affect the physical, chemical and biological processes of estuarine offshore waters, which in turn have an impact on the structure and function of the ecosystem [48, 49, 50]. Studying the changes of the estuarine nearshore environment under the influence of a typhoon and its ecological effects are of great importance for further understanding the evolution process of ecosystems in this region on a long-term scale [8, 51].
\nField observations show that the salinity of the surface water of an estuary usually shows a sharp change during a typhoon and the resulting rain, which gradually rises after entering the recovery period [8, 52, 53, 54]. During typhoon crossing, the disturbance caused by strong winds strengthens the mixing process of the estuary and its adjacent waters. However, this process has a passing impact on the water environment, and the runoff diluting water expansion and the external seawater intrusion play a greater role in changing the water environment after a typhoon. Among these, the strengthening of a typhoon after the expansion of fresh water greatly affects the upper water, the upper salinity decreases after the typhoon, and the nutrient salt concentration increases significantly. External seawater intrusion substantially changes the bottom water environment. The salinity of the bottom layer increases after a typhoon, and the nutrient concentration of nitrogen and silicon decreases.
\nTyphoons or tropical cyclones are strong wind events in the climate system and are a strong form of air-sea interaction. The strong vertical mixing and wind field generated by a typhoon has a major impact on the upper ocean dynamics and ecosystem [55]. Due to typhoons, there is a decrease in sea level, a decrease in sea surface temperature, an increase in phytoplankton blooms and a decrease in primary productivity, which also affect marine fisheries [56, 57, 58]. Typhoons mainly affect the marine ecological environment through two physical mechanisms: (1) after a typhoon, a cold vortex is formed, causing seawater to upwell and the lower layer of cold nutrient water is transported to the upper layer [59, 60]; and (2) the typhoon intensifies the vertical mixing of the upper ocean by a strong wind process [61, 62, 63, 64].
\nAt present, most research on the sea surface salinity (SSS) response to typhoons is limited to the estuary area. According to the physical and biochemical environmental conditions of the estuary, SSS may show an upward or downward trend after typhoon transit [2, 22, 65, 66, 67, 68, 69, 70, 71, 72, 73, 74, 75]. However, studies on marine ecological factors, especially SSS and the response to typhoon transit, are limited and have not been discussed in detail [76, 77, 78, 79]. The South China Sea (CSC) is the largest marginal sea in the Pacific Northwest, and is also a frequent typhoon zone, but it is difficult to obtain measured data during typhoons.
\nDue to the harsh meteorological conditions during typhoon transit, the use of on-site observation methods in an estuary to study the changes in the marine environment before and after a typhoon is very limited. The numerical simulation method is an effective way to study the distribution characteristics of fresh and salt water in an estuary under the influence of a typhoon (Figure 2).
\nChanges in stratifications salinity influenced by typhoon Kai-tak based on the fully coupled WRF-SWAN-ROMS model (beginning on 2012-08-15 00:00:00 UTC).
The Northwest Pacific and the South China Sea region are the birthplaces of most monsoons and typhoons and are an important channel for the generation and transmission of water vapor [18, 80, 81, 82, 83, 84]. The Northwest Pacific plays a major role in regulating interdecadal and long-term changes in climate [46, 85, 86]. China is the region with the largest number of typhoons and the most destructive power affected by typhoons in the world [87, 88].
\nCompared with large-scale phenomena such as global climate change, small- and medium-scale phenomena such as typhoons and thunderstorms have an even greater impact on people’s production and life [6, 89, 90]. Typhoons and hurricanes present some of the greatest threats to life and damage to property [91]. The influence of a typhoon on a region is often not only a heavy wind disaster. At the same time, the heavy rain, extreme waves, storm surges and beach erosion [24] that are produced will also have a huge impact on the region, which will result in the formation of a typhoon disaster chain [19, 92, 93, 94]. Therefore, studying the movement mechanism of typhoon, accurately forecasting the influence of typhoon and reducing storm surge disasters have important social value for the protection of national economic development and human and property safety.
\nTropical cyclones (TCs) present some of the greatest threats to life [25, 95, 96, 97, 98] and damage to property [99]. The SLOSH model was widely used in storm surge simulation in seas, lakes, and on land. Blumberg and Mellor (1987) developed the POM model to simulate large-scale ocean and coastal water levels, and flow field changes. Many ocean models have been developed and used for the simulation of storm surges, such as the ECOM model, ROMS model, CH3D-IMS model, CEST model, SELFE model, Delft3D model, ADCIRC model and FVCOM model. They have achieved very good results and laid the foundation for understanding the dynamic mechanism of storm surges. The development of a coupled atmospheric and ocean model had significant effects on improving the accuracy of numerical prediction. The establishment of a coupled atmosphere and ocean model is an effective method to solve this problem (Figure 3).
\nSpatial distribution of storm surge level influenced by typhoon Kai-tak (start at 2012-08-15 00:00:00 UTC).
The typhoon numerical model is the focus of typhoon research and the key to typhoon forecasting. The modern model has a certain forecasting ability for the typhoon path, but the forecast of typhoon intensity is still a recognized problem in the international meteorological community. The reason is that, besides the understanding and simulation of the atmospheric environment and the structure of the typhoon itself is not accurate enough, it is also one of the important reasons for the lack of understanding of the complexity and feedback of related ocean dynamics and thermal processes. When the typhoon transits, it exerts a great shearing force on the sea surface. The related wave breaking and the interaction between the wind field and the Stokes drifting can generate a large amount of turbulent kinetic energy, which produces a wave below the sea surface. The turbulent enhancement zone enhances the rate of turbulence dissipation in the upper ocean. Therefore, the establishment of a relatively complete marine hybrid scheme is an important way to improve the maritime-coupled typhoon model. In addition, improving the sea surface flux parameterization scheme under strong wind conditions is also an urgent need to improve the model prediction capability. With the rapid increase of computing power and technology, the air-sea coupled typhoon model has broken through the limitations of the early axisymmetric typhoon model and the mixed-layer ocean model, and replaced it with a complete fully coupled ocean and atmosphere model. At present, the world’s 1/32 to 1/900 degree resolution ocean model is being developed, which will provide strong support for the study of small-scale processes in the ocean and the multi-scale interaction between ocean and typhoon.
\nThe interaction between the ocean and the typhoon is a major scientific issue with significant scientific significance and important practical value. In recent years, with the support of national major scientific research projects, China has comprehensively utilized on-site observations from the perspective of air-sea interaction. Research methods such as theoretical analysis, data assimilation, and model prediction systematically study the response and modulation mechanism of the upper ocean to the typhoon, the interaction between the ocean and atmospheric observation system for the typhoon, the ocean mesoscale process and the typhoon, and the ocean to the typhoon. A series of innovations have been achieved in low-frequency response and modulation, physical mechanisms and parameterization of typhoons affecting the upper oceans, ocean multi-source data assimilation and parameter estimation during the typhoon, and ocean-air coupled prediction technology and applications in typhoons and marine environments. These research results will provide a solid theoretical foundation and technical support for further improving the forecast level of typhoon business in China, and make substantial contributions to the major national needs of disaster prevention and reduction.
\nHowever, it must also be recognized that China is still very lacking in the research field of interaction between ocean and typhoon, and there is still a big gap with the international advanced level. Compared with the national demand for disaster prevention, there are still obvious deficiencies. Based on the research results, we believe that the major scientific problems and major challenges in the interaction between oceans and typhoons are mainly reflected in the following points.
On-site observations are still very scarce. As described in this paper, China has already made important practices in ocean monitoring of typhoon processes and has obtained valuable on-site observations. Especially in the field of sea-air coordinated observation, China has launched A useful attempt. After the technology and security conditions are more mature, the typhoon observations coordinated by the sea-air will provide the necessary information for deepening the typhoon research. In addition, due to the harsh sea conditions during the typhoon, the long-term monitoring system for the typhoon process is still missing. The Pacific region and the northern part of the South China Sea are the regions with the highest typhoon in the world, and are almost the only way for typhoons that cause major disasters in our country. Therefore, long-term observation networks are built and maintained in the region (for example, the cross buoy/potential system) An array of observations for the basic structure is an effective means of enhancing ocean and atmospheric monitoring during the typhoon.
The response mechanism of the multi-scale circulation system of the upper ocean to the typhoon needs to be deepened. The circulation system of the upper ocean is very complicated. The typhoon prevailing in the northwestern Pacific includes the North Pacific subtropical circulation and tropical circulation driven by the trade wind, by buoyancy flux. The shallow transfected circulation of the North Pacific, the monsoon-driven circulation of the South China Sea, and the small-scale circulation and vortex superimposed on these large-scale circulations. Typhoons can not only affect and even drive small- and medium-scale ocean circulation and vortex on the weather scale. The rotation can also affect the large-scale ocean circulation of the climatic state by changing the thermal salt structure of the upper ocean. Therefore, the response of the multi-scale circulation system of the upper ocean to the typhoon includes various dynamic processes, thermal processes, and nonlinearities between them. Interactions, these are major challenges in the study of the interaction between ocean and typhoon. Reveal the propagation, transfer and dissipation mechanisms of near-inertial energy input into the ocean by typhoons, and understand the mesoscale processes such as ocean vortex and internal waves during typhoon transit. Response characteristics and excitation mechanism to determine the “heat pump” and “cold suction” of the typhoon. The different effects on ocean stratification are the core of solving these problems.
A quantitative study on the modulation of typhoon intensity by the dynamic and thermal structures of the upper ocean. The dynamic and thermal structure of the upper ocean determines the magnitude of sensible heat and latent heat flux at the air-sea interface during typhoon transit. The maintenance and development of typhoons, especially the changes in typhoon intensity, depending on the energy and water vapor provided by these fluxes. Therefore, the dynamic and thermal structures of the upper oceans can play an important role in modulating the intensity of typhoons. The path and intensity are closely related, but since the typhoon intensity is directly affected by the energy provided by the ocean and is the weak link of the current typhoon forecast, we should pay special attention to the modulation of the typhoon intensity by the ocean. If the marine environment does not change, this modulation can be easily estimated from the upper maritime structure of the climatic state. But the problem is that the dynamic and thermal structures of the upper ocean are constantly changing at various spatial and temporal scales. Understand the feedback mechanism of the maritime mesoscale process on the typhoon on the weather scale, reveal the climate. The low-frequency variation of the upper ocean circulation and heat content under changing background should be solved by this question. The key to the question.
In short, based on the existing research foundation and experience, we suggest that in the future research on the interaction between ocean and typhoon. On the basis of the mechanism, the typhoon intensity and the forecasting ability of the marine environment are improved, and the predictability of typhoon low-frequency variability is evaluated, making China one of the world’s leading researchers in the interaction between ocean and typhoon.
\nObservations over the past few decades have shown that the frequency, intensity, and duration of tropical cyclones vary over the interannual, interdecadal, and even longer timescales. Global warming caused by human activities and low-frequency natural oscillations in the Earth’s climate system may have an impact on typhoons, but the relative importance of the two is still controversial. Whatever the case, the role of the ocean is unquestionable. Because on a long-term scale, the memory of the climate system is mainly stored in the ocean, any low-frequency variation must be related to the ocean. Previous studies on the low-frequency modulation of tropical cyclones in the ocean have focused on the correlation analysis between tropical sea surface temperature and typhoon parameters, but such analysis has its limitations. For example, the variation of the total power consumption of the Atlantic tropical cyclone has a good correlation with the variation of the sea surface temperature. If this empirical relationship is brought into the climate model, the total power consumption of the Atlantic tropical cyclone will increase by 3 times by the end of the 21st century. However, if a similar empirical relationship is established by subtracting the global tropical average from the tropical Atlantic sea surface temperature variation, the total tropical Atlantic cyclone power consumption predicted by the climate model remains essentially unchanged. This shows that the Atlantic tropical cyclone has been mainly modulated by natural low-frequency oscillations for the past 30 years.
\nIn addition to high-resolution models, advanced data assimilation techniques are also essential to improve the simulation and forecasting capabilities of the typhoon model. Data assimilation can assimilate data from different sources, different time and space, and different elements into the dynamic model, and obtain an analysis field that is more detailed than the observation data and more realistic than the model results. For the assimilation of ocean data in the typhoon process, the most important problem is how to achieve multi-scale, multi-variable assimilation, extract the information reflecting the multi-scale interaction between ocean and typhoon in the observation system, and ensure the consistency of the model state field correction; The determination of the dependent background field error covariance matrix is also a problem.
\nIn summary, the response and modulation mechanism of the ocean to typhoons is an international frontier proposition for marine and atmospheric science research. It is extremely challenging in terms of theoretical methods, observation techniques, model development and data assimilation. Taking this as an entry point, it is expected to achieve breakthrough basic research results, develop and improve marine science theories, and promote the interdisciplinary and common development of marine and atmospheric sciences while meeting the major needs of the country.
\nThe study was supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (Grant Nos. 51809023, 51839002, and 51879015). The partial support also comes from the Open Research Foundation of Key Laboratory of the Pearl River Estuarine Dynamics and Associated Process Regulation, Ministry of Water Resources ([2018]KJ03), and the Research Foundation of Education Bureau of Hunan Province, China (Grant No. 19C0092).
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Consequently, knowledge of exoplanets is considerably more limited than Solar System planets. This chapter reviews the essential characteristics of Solar System planets and associated data derived from a variety of observational approaches. Exoplanet characteristics and their comparison to Solar System planets are provided as well as general detection methods and planned probes to gather additional data.",book:{id:"10210",slug:"solar-system-planets-and-exoplanets",title:"Solar System Planets and Exoplanets",fullTitle:"Solar System Planets and Exoplanets"},signatures:"Joseph Bevelacqua",authors:[{id:"115462",title:"Dr.",name:"Joseph",middleName:"John",surname:"Bevelacqua",slug:"joseph-bevelacqua",fullName:"Joseph Bevelacqua"}]},{id:"65725",title:"On the Deviation of the Lunar Center of Mass to the East: Two Possible Mechanisms Based on Evolution of the Orbit and Rounding Off the Shape of the Moon",slug:"on-the-deviation-of-the-lunar-center-of-mass-to-the-east-two-possible-mechanisms-based-on-evolution-",totalDownloads:1025,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"It is known that the Moon’s center of mass (COM) does not coincide with the geometric center of figure (COF) and the line “COF/COM” is not directed to the center of the Earth, but deviates from it to the South-East. Here, we discuss two mechanisms to explain the deviation of the lunar COM to the East from the mean direction to Earth. The first mechanism considers the secular evolution of the Moon’s orbit, using the effect of the preferred orientation of the satellite with synchronous rotation to the second (empty) orbital focus. It is established that only the scenario with an increase in the orbital eccentricity e leads to the required displacement of the lunar COM to the East. It is important that high-precision calculations confirm an increase e in our era. In order to fully explain the shift of the lunar COM to the East, a second mechanism was developed that takes into account the influence of tidal changes in the shape of the Moon at its gradual removal from the Earth. The second mechanism predicts that the elongation of the lunar figure in the early era was significant. As a result, it was found that the Moon could have been formed in the annular zone at a distance of 3–4 radii of the modern Earth.",book:{id:"8444",slug:"lunar-science",title:"Lunar Science",fullTitle:"Lunar Science"},signatures:"Boris P. Kondratyev",authors:[{id:"277909",title:"Prof.",name:"Boris",middleName:"Petrovich",surname:"Kondratyev",slug:"boris-kondratyev",fullName:"Boris Kondratyev"}]},{id:"68357",title:"Solar System Exploration Augmented by In Situ Resource Utilization: System Analyses, Vehicles, and Moon Bases for Saturn Exploration",slug:"solar-system-exploration-augmented-by-in-situ-resource-utilization-system-analyses-vehicles-and-moon",totalDownloads:853,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Human and robotic missions to Saturn are presented and analyzed with a range of propulsion options. Historical studies of space exploration, planetary spacecraft and astronomy, in situ resource utilization (ISRU), and industrialization all point to the vastness of natural resources in the solar system. Advanced propulsion is benefitted from these resources in many ways. While advanced propulsion systems were proposed in these historical studies, further investigation of nuclear options using high-power nuclear electric and nuclear pulse propulsion as well as advanced chemical propulsion can significantly enhance these scenarios. Updated analyses based on these historical visions are presented. At Saturn, nuclear pulse propulsion with alternate propellant feed systems and Saturn moon exploration with chemical propulsion and nuclear electric propulsion options are discussed. Issues with using in situ resource utilization on Saturn’s moons are discussed. At Saturn, the best locations for exploration and the use of the moons as central locations for Saturn moon exploration are assessed. Environmental issues on Titan’s surface may present extreme challenges for some ISRU processes. In-space bases for moon-orbiting propellant processing and ground-based processing will be assessed.",book:{id:"7338",slug:"planetology-future-explorations",title:"Planetology",fullTitle:"Planetology - Future Explorations"},signatures:"Bryan Palaszewski",authors:[{id:"279275",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Bryan",middleName:null,surname:"Palaszewski",slug:"bryan-palaszewski",fullName:"Bryan Palaszewski"}]},{id:"65534",title:"Solar System Exploration Augmented by In Situ Resource Utilization: Lunar Base Issues",slug:"solar-system-exploration-augmented-by-in-situ-resource-utilization-lunar-base-issues",totalDownloads:1131,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"Creating a presence and an industrial capability on the Moon is essential for the development of humankind. There are many historical study results that have identified and quantified the lunar resources and analyzed the methods of obtaining and employing those resources. The idea of finding, obtaining, and using these materials is called in situ resource utilization (ISRU). The ISRU research and development efforts have led to new ideas in rocket propulsion. Applications in chemical propulsion, nuclear electric propulsion, and many other propulsion systems will be critical in making the initial lunar base and future lunar industries more sustainable and will lead to brilliant futures for humanity.",book:{id:"8444",slug:"lunar-science",title:"Lunar Science",fullTitle:"Lunar Science"},signatures:"Bryan Palaszewski",authors:[{id:"279275",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Bryan",middleName:null,surname:"Palaszewski",slug:"bryan-palaszewski",fullName:"Bryan Palaszewski"}]},{id:"32533",title:"Measuring the Isotopic Composition of Solar Wind Noble Gases",slug:"measuring-the-isotopic-composition-of-solar-wind-noble-gases",totalDownloads:2785,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:9,abstract:null,book:{id:"1617",slug:"exploring-the-solar-wind",title:"Exploring the Solar Wind",fullTitle:"Exploring the Solar Wind"},signatures:"Alex Meshik, Charles Hohenberg, Olga Pravdivtseva and Donald Burnett",authors:[{id:"114740",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",middleName:null,surname:"Meshik",slug:"alexander-meshik",fullName:"Alexander Meshik"},{id:"115300",title:"Prof.",name:"Donald",middleName:null,surname:"Burnett",slug:"donald-burnett",fullName:"Donald Burnett"},{id:"115301",title:"Prof.",name:"Charles",middleName:null,surname:"Hohenberg",slug:"charles-hohenberg",fullName:"Charles Hohenberg"},{id:"115302",title:"Dr.",name:"Olga",middleName:null,surname:"Pravdivtseva",slug:"olga-pravdivtseva",fullName:"Olga Pravdivtseva"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"98",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"82332",title:"Access to Space, Access to the Moon – Two Sides of the Same Coin?",slug:"access-to-space-access-to-the-moon-two-sides-of-the-same-coin-",totalDownloads:13,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105175",abstract:"The dynamics of human expansion towards space are going through Earth external layers, orbital space and the Moon. With its low gravity, slingshot effect relative to Earth, on-site resources and relative proximity to Earth in the solar system, the renewed space race is effectively returning first to the Moon. A psychological bridge to enlarge our civilization with a permanent bridge to our natural satellite. The development of this Earth-Moon system, requires enormous amount of finances, energy, science, technology, but over all, opportunities. This chapter deals with the efforts and the mental changes that may eventually result from all of these changes.",book:{id:"10955",title:"Lunar Science - Habitat and Humans",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10955.jpg"},signatures:"Yann-Henri Chemin"},{id:"81141",title:"Modeling Radiation Damage in Materials Relevant for Exploration and Settlement on the Moon",slug:"modeling-radiation-damage-in-materials-relevant-for-exploration-and-settlement-on-the-moon",totalDownloads:32,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102808",abstract:"Understanding the effect of radiation on materials is fundamental for space exploration. Energetic charged particles impacting materials create electronic excitations, atomic displacements, and nuclear fragmentation. Monte Carlo particle transport simulations are the most common approach for modeling radiation damage in materials. However, radiation damage is a multiscale problem, both in time and in length, an aspect treated by the Monte Carlo simulations only to a limited extent. In this chapter, after introducing the Monte Carlo particle transport method, we present a multiscale approach to study different stages of radiation damage which allows for the synergy between the electronic and nuclear effects induced in materials. We focus on cumulative displacement effects induced by radiation below the regime of hadronic interactions. We then discuss selected studies of radiation damage in materials of importance and potential use for the exploration and settlement on the Moon, ranging from semiconductors to alloys and from polymers to the natural regolith. Additionally, we overview some of the novel materials with outstanding properties, such as low weight, increased radiation resistance, and self-healing capabilities with a potential to reduce mission costs and improve prospects for extended human exploration of extraterrestrial bodies.",book:{id:"10955",title:"Lunar Science - Habitat and Humans",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10955.jpg"},signatures:"Natalia E. Koval, Bin Gu, Daniel Muñoz-Santiburcio and Fabiana Da Pieve"},{id:"80241",title:"The Evolution of the Moon’s Orbit Over 100 Million Years and Prospects for the Research in the Moon",slug:"the-evolution-of-the-moon-s-orbit-over-100-million-years-and-prospects-for-the-research-in-the-moon",totalDownloads:65,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102392",abstract:"As a result of solving the problem of interaction of Solar-system bodies, data on the evolution of the Moon’s orbit were obtained. These data were used as the basis for the development of a mathematical model for the Moon representing its motion over an interval of 100 million years. A program of exploration of the Moon with the aim of creating a permanent base on it is outlined. Such a base is intended for exploring the Earth, the Sun, and outer space.",book:{id:"10955",title:"Lunar Science - Habitat and Humans",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10955.jpg"},signatures:"Joseph J. Smulsky"},{id:"80217",title:"Educational and Scientific Analog Space Missions",slug:"educational-and-scientific-analog-space-missions",totalDownloads:88,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101392",abstract:"Analog space missions in Poland include international scientific, technological, and business projects designed and realized by a private research company Analog Astronaut Training Center Ltd. (AATC) devoted to the future Moon and Mars exploration. Growing experience in educational aspect of the training as well as continuous development of the habitat and its professional space science laboratory equipment correspond to increased interest of educational organizations, universities, and individual students. We serve unique practical platform for space engineering, space master, and even space doctoral theses. In addition to a wide range of training courses offered for future astronauts, for example, diving, skydiving, rocket workshops, and stratospheric missions, AATC provides a private laboratory to simulate the space environment. It carries out scientific experiments focused on biology and space medicine, as well as addressing several multidisciplinary issues related to the Moon and Mars exploration, including space mining. The main goal of each our analog simulation is to get publishable results, what means that our analog astronauts obtain not only certification of completion of the training but also ability to continue studies and to perform it individually. This chapter summarizes methodology used by us, didactic tools, and obtained results for both educational and scientific analog simulations.",book:{id:"10955",title:"Lunar Science - Habitat and Humans",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10955.jpg"},signatures:"Agata Maria Kołodziejczyk and M. Harasymczuk"},{id:"79544",title:"Regolith and Radiation: The Cosmic Battle",slug:"regolith-and-radiation-the-cosmic-battle",totalDownloads:126,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101437",abstract:"This chapter discusses regolith utilization in habitat construction mainly from the point of view of radiation protection of humans on missions of long duration. 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Since 1983, he has been a faculty member of the RO Perelman Department of Dermatology, NYU School of Medicine, where he is codirector of a training grant in cutaneous biology. Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. 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He is especially interested in the genetic differentiation pattern and speciation process that correlate to the flashing pattern and mating behavior of some fireflies in Japan. He then worked for Olympus Corporation, a Japanese manufacturer of optics and imaging products, where he was involved in the development of luminescence technology and produced a bioluminescence microscope that is currently being used for gene expression analysis in chronobiology, neurobiology, and developmental biology. 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She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"333753",title:"Dr.",name:"Rais",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"rais-ahmed",fullName:"Rais Ahmed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333753/images/20168_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). He was also awarded 'Outstanding Clinician in General Medicine” by Venus International Foundation for his extensive research expertise and services, perform over and above the standard expected in the advancement of healthcare, patient safety and quality of care.",institutionString:"Interfaith Medical Center",institution:{name:"Interfaith Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"93517",title:"Dr.",name:"Clement",middleName:"Adebajo",surname:"Meseko",slug:"clement-meseko",fullName:"Clement Meseko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/93517/images/system/93517.jpg",biography:"Dr. Clement Meseko obtained DVM and PhD degree in Veterinary Medicine and Virology respectively. He has worked for over 20 years in both private and public sectors including the academia, contributing to knowledge and control of infectious disease. Through the application of epidemiological skill, classical and molecular virological skills, he investigates viruses of economic and public health importance for the mitigation of the negative impact on people, animal and the environment in the context of Onehealth. \r\nDr. Meseko’s field experience on animal and zoonotic diseases and pathogen dynamics at the human-animal interface over the years shaped his carrier in research and scientific inquiries. He has been part of the investigation of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza incursions in sub Saharan Africa and monitors swine Influenza (Pandemic influenza Virus) agro-ecology and potential for interspecies transmission. He has authored and reviewed a number of journal articles and book chapters.",institutionString:"National Veterinary Research Institute",institution:{name:"National Veterinary Research Institute",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"94928",title:"Dr.",name:"Takuo",middleName:null,surname:"Mizukami",slug:"takuo-mizukami",fullName:"Takuo Mizukami",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94928/images/6402_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Institute of Infectious Diseases",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"233433",title:"Dr.",name:"Yulia",middleName:null,surname:"Desheva",slug:"yulia-desheva",fullName:"Yulia Desheva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/233433/images/system/233433.png",biography:"Dr. Yulia Desheva is a leading researcher at the Institute of Experimental Medicine, St. Petersburg, Russia. She is a professor in the Stomatology Faculty, St. Petersburg State University. She has expertise in the development and evaluation of a wide range of live mucosal vaccines against influenza and bacterial complications. Her research interests include immunity against influenza and COVID-19 and the development of immunization schemes for high-risk individuals.",institutionString:'Federal State Budgetary Scientific Institution "Institute of Experimental Medicine"',institution:null},{id:"238958",title:"Mr.",name:"Atamjit",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"atamjit-singh",fullName:"Atamjit Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/238958/images/6575_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"252058",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"Sulca",slug:"juan-sulca",fullName:"Juan Sulca",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252058/images/12834_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"191392",title:"Dr.",name:"Marimuthu",middleName:null,surname:"Govindarajan",slug:"marimuthu-govindarajan",fullName:"Marimuthu Govindarajan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/191392/images/5828_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. M. Govindarajan completed his BSc degree in Zoology at Government Arts College (Autonomous), Kumbakonam, and MSc, MPhil, and PhD degrees at Annamalai University, Annamalai Nagar, Tamil Nadu, India. He is serving as an assistant professor at the Department of Zoology, Annamalai University. His research interests include isolation, identification, and characterization of biologically active molecules from plants and microbes. He has identified more than 20 pure compounds with high mosquitocidal activity and also conducted high-quality research on photochemistry and nanosynthesis. He has published more than 150 studies in journals with impact factor and 2 books in Lambert Academic Publishing, Germany. He serves as an editorial board member in various national and international scientific journals.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"274660",title:"Dr.",name:"Damodar",middleName:null,surname:"Paudel",slug:"damodar-paudel",fullName:"Damodar Paudel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/274660/images/8176_n.jpg",biography:"I am DrDamodar Paudel,currently working as consultant Physician in Nepal police Hospital.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"241562",title:"Dr.",name:"Melvin",middleName:null,surname:"Sanicas",slug:"melvin-sanicas",fullName:"Melvin Sanicas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241562/images/6699_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"322007",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria Elizbeth",middleName:null,surname:"Alvarez-Sánchez",slug:"maria-elizbeth-alvarez-sanchez",fullName:"Maria Elizbeth Alvarez-Sánchez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma de la Ciudad de México",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"337443",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"A. Gonzalez-Sanchez",slug:"juan-a.-gonzalez-sanchez",fullName:"Juan A. Gonzalez-Sanchez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Puerto Rico System",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"337446",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Zavala-Colon",slug:"maria-zavala-colon",fullName:"Maria Zavala-Colon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Puerto Rico, Medical Sciences Campus",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"338856",title:"Mrs.",name:"Nur Alvira",middleName:null,surname:"Pascawati",slug:"nur-alvira-pascawati",fullName:"Nur Alvira Pascawati",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universitas Respati Yogyakarta",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"7",type:"subseries",title:"Bioinformatics and Medical Informatics",keywords:"Biomedical Data, Drug Discovery, Clinical Diagnostics, Decoding Human Genome, AI in Personalized Medicine, Disease-prevention Strategies, Big Data Analysis in Medicine",scope:"Bioinformatics aims to help understand the functioning of the mechanisms of living organisms through the construction and use of quantitative tools. The applications of this research cover many related fields, such as biotechnology and medicine, where, for example, Bioinformatics contributes to faster drug design, DNA analysis in forensics, and DNA sequence analysis in the field of personalized medicine. Personalized medicine is a type of medical care in which treatment is customized individually for each patient. Personalized medicine enables more effective therapy, reduces the costs of therapy and clinical trials, and also minimizes the risk of side effects. Nevertheless, advances in personalized medicine would not have been possible without bioinformatics, which can analyze the human genome and other vast amounts of biomedical data, especially in genetics. The rapid growth of information technology enabled the development of new tools to decode human genomes, large-scale studies of genetic variations and medical informatics. The considerable development of technology, including the computing power of computers, is also conducive to the development of bioinformatics, including personalized medicine. In an era of rapidly growing data volumes and ever lower costs of generating, storing and computing data, personalized medicine holds great promises. Modern computational methods used as bioinformatics tools can integrate multi-scale, multi-modal and longitudinal patient data to create even more effective and safer therapy and disease prevention methods. Main aspects of the topic are: Applying bioinformatics in drug discovery and development; Bioinformatics in clinical diagnostics (genetic variants that act as markers for a condition or a disease); Blockchain and Artificial Intelligence/Machine Learning in personalized medicine; Customize disease-prevention strategies in personalized medicine; Big data analysis in personalized medicine; Translating stratification algorithms into clinical practice of personalized medicine.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/7.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!0,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11403,editor:{id:"351533",title:"Dr.",name:"Slawomir",middleName:null,surname:"Wilczynski",slug:"slawomir-wilczynski",fullName:"Slawomir Wilczynski",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000035U1loQAC/Profile_Picture_1630074514792",biography:"Professor Sławomir Wilczyński, Head of the Chair of Department of Basic Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Medical University of Silesia in Katowice, Poland. His research interests are focused on modern imaging methods used in medicine and pharmacy, including in particular hyperspectral imaging, dynamic thermovision analysis, high-resolution ultrasound, as well as other techniques such as EPR, NMR and hemispheric directional reflectance. Author of over 100 scientific works, patents and industrial designs. Expert of the Polish National Center for Research and Development, Member of the Investment Committee in the Bridge Alfa NCBiR program, expert of the Polish Ministry of Funds and Regional Policy, Polish Medical Research Agency. Editor-in-chief of the journal in the field of aesthetic medicine and dermatology - Aesthetica.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Medical University of Silesia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,series:{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",issn:"2631-5343"},editorialBoard:[{id:"5886",title:"Dr.",name:"Alexandros",middleName:"T.",surname:"Tzallas",slug:"alexandros-tzallas",fullName:"Alexandros Tzallas",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/5886/images/system/5886.png",institutionString:"University of Ioannina, Greece & Imperial College London",institution:{name:"University of Ioannina",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},{id:"257388",title:"Distinguished Prof.",name:"Lulu",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"lulu-wang",fullName:"Lulu Wang",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRX6kQAG/Profile_Picture_1630329584194",institutionString:"Shenzhen Technology University",institution:{name:"Shenzhen Technology University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"225387",title:"Prof.",name:"Reda R.",middleName:"R.",surname:"Gharieb",slug:"reda-r.-gharieb",fullName:"Reda R. 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