Comparison of commonly used microwave measurement methods.
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This parameter has an important place for material characterization in electrical and electronics engineering. It can be used to recognize the interaction between a material and an electromagnetic radiation. In many applications, knowing of some parameters of the material, which is cheaper than trial-error method, facilitates the work of engineers. Therefore, materials characterization and measurement methods are increasingly gaining importance at mm waves and THz frequency ranges. For instance, the knowledge of behavior of materials in these frequency ranges is essential to design and produce new equipment for astronomy or remote sensing applications.
It is possible to divide the measurement methods into two categories as up and down frequency conversion methods. In this context, the optical measurement methods can be called as a down-conversion method, and its aim is to decrease the frequency from 1014 Hz to 1012 or 1011 Hz. The well-known down conversion (optical) measurement method is Terahertz time-domain spectroscopy (THz-TDS). Usually, a femtosecond laser source is used to excite receiver and transmitter photoconductive antennas. Millimeter wave or microwave measurement methods can be called as an up-conversion method because of using frequency extenders to obtain the hundreds of GHz, and the purpose of it is to increase the frequency from 1010 Hz to 1011 Hz. The most preferred method is free space measurement (FSM) method in this category. Generally, a sample is placed between two horn antennas, and the measurement process is controlled by a Vector Network Analyzer (VNA).
Many different extraction techniques were investigated to obtain the high accuracy for the dielectric parameters, and they are usually divided into two groups as analytical (Nicolson-Ross-Weir [NRW] or NIST Iterative) and numerical (Newton-Raphson or Genetic Algorithm) techniques. In addition, the artificial intelligence (AI) methods are used to extract the dielectric properties to provide support the numerical techniques. To obtain the dielectric constant, numerical techniques are preferred to eliminate the associated error between sample thickness and frequency. However, there is an initial value problem in this approach. Therefore, both analytical and numerical techniques should be tried to achieve the most accurate result.
The dielectric properties of a material are related to other properties of that material. Humidity and temperature in the environment, the density of the material, its structure, the amount of water in it, and the porosity can change the dielectric properties of the material for the frequencies of microwave, millimeter wave, and THz [1, 2]. Besides, the thickness of the material, the chemical composition, and especially, the permanent dipole moment also affect the dielectric properties of a material. In addition, the effects of electromagnetic interference are needed to take in the account considering the environmental conditions [3].
The complex permittivity, which is an internal characteristic of material independent of the measurement technique, is accepted an important value of material characterization for electrical engineering [4]. Dielectric constant and loss tangent, which are electrical characteristics of material, play an important role in the propagation of the electromagnetic energy in the insulating medium. Therefore, the permittivity determines the propagation speed of the electromagnetic wave and the amount of stored energy on the material.
The dielectric properties of a material consist of relative dielectric constant
where
The imaginary part is also correlated with electrical conductivity (
Representation of complex permittivity.
The propagation of the electromagnetic wave in a material depends on its permittivity and permeability. When the impedance of the waveguide in the material
Propagation speed of the waveguide through the material
Interaction of electromagnetic wave with material.
In an electromagnetic field, propagation paisley expression of a transverse electromagnetic (TEM) plane wave on
Two different measurements, which are optic and microwave methods, are used in material characterization processes of THz frequency range. THz waves have unique properties such as being able to pass through some materials, which are not so permeable for other parts of the electromagnetic spectrum, or reflecting from some materials close to 100%, being harmless compared to X-rays, and having the ability to distinguish between different materials. The change of wavelength and frequency related to the THz gap is shown in Figure 3.
Showing a part of electromagnetic spectrum.
The time-domain spectroscopy (TDS) system, which is created in parallel with technological developments, is still expensive due to its most important component femtosecond lasers, and it is generally not reliable and stable enough for long-term industrial use. To solve the problems of laser source in TDS system, Multimode Laser Diode (MLD), which is smaller, simpler, cheaper, stable, and commercially available, is used alternatively. Although MLD-TDS is weaker than traditional THz-TDS in terms of radiant power, radiation efficiency, and spectrum width, it has been shown in some studies that these points can be improved [9, 10, 11].
The microwave measurement systems including frequency up conversion methods are actively used in material characterization processes in THz frequency domain as an alternative to conventional TDS systems. However, only one of these methods cannot be used effectively on whole frequency band to measure the dielectric properties of the material. Moreover, several difficulties were seen in measuring lossy and low-loss materials with high accuracy. Therefore, different methods are needed for each band and material loss [6, 12]. The factors, such as measured frequency range, the expected value of the permittivity, required measurement accuracy, properties of the material (homogeneous, isotropic), and form of the material (solid, liquid, and gas), must be taken into consideration during the method determination. In addition, conditions such as sample size constraints, temperature, contact/noncontact measurement, and destructive/nondestructive measurement must be considered [12, 13].
Although the analyzed material differs according to where they are applied, the basic process is to completely determine the dielectric properties. In this framework, researches have been carried out on the analysis of many kinds of materials, and the results are shared. Some researches attempted to determine the effects of ambient conditions, which are created for the preservation of foods and preservation of freshness for a long time in food industry, on the material by the change in the permittivity [14, 15]. Successful studies have been conducted to examine the effect of changes in humidity on the freshness of the food [16, 17].
There is no single measurement technique for all conditions in the direction of these items. For this reason, a more precise measurement can be performed after determining which measurement method is suitable. If desired frequency range is high, free space measurement (FSM) method is the most suitable one by considering current technology.
Since the fact that it is aimed to work in THz frequency range, free space measurement method that is one of microwave measurement methods is at the foreground due to many advantages. FSM method especially offers the possibility of especially nondestructive and noncontact measurements, characterization of solid-liquid-powder materials, and measuring solid materials except very small ones.
Generally, measurement techniques, which are used in microwave and millimeter wave frequency regions, can be classified into two groups as resonant and nonresonant methods. Materials can be analyzed at single or discrete frequencies with resonant method. But with the nonresonant method, the analysis of materials can be pursued over a wide frequency band [6]. Recently, the most preferred methods of analysis for frequency bands above 1 GHz are listed as waveguide, coaxial probe, resonant cavity, and free-ambient measurement method [5, 18].
Nonresonant methods are used to determine electrical and magnetic properties over a wide frequency range, but resonant methods are better suited for calculating only single frequency [19]. Commonly used methods, which are including basic functions that must be included in a measurement method, are compared in Table 1, where ND is Nondestructive, S is Solid, L is Liquid, and G is Gas [5, 6]. Some of these techniques are more suitable for solid materials and others for liquids. It is also important that the analysis method is simple, as well as cheap [20].
FSM method has better dynamic capacity and spectral resolution than other methods [21]. However, FSM method could not be widening unless development of measuring devices for last decade [22]. Thus, measurement of the complex permittivity is possible over a wide frequency range by means of advanced measuring equipment and the FSM method accurately [23]. The FSM method consists of two antennas connected to a Vector Network Analyzer (VNA), and between the two antennas a sample holder in which the material to be measured is placed as shown in Figure 4 [9, 24].
Schematic representation of FSM method.
The quartz plates are not required in measurement setup if measurements are taken for solids like Teflon or glass. Because sagging of solid materials can be neglected when the sample holder is properly placed [7]. VNA is standard equipment of microwave and millimeter wave measurement systems for simultaneous measurement of S-parameters, which are used for calculating dielectric features of materials [22].
The accuracy of the measurements is increased by a high time domain solution with FSM method, even requiring a simple test setup for installation [25]. FSM method provides to measure S parameters under the conditions as contactless, nondestructive, and high temperature with wide frequency range and different substance forms and especially for nonhomogeneous materials. It is preferred to coaxial and waveguide measurement methods, since it does not need sample preparation [18, 26]. Another disadvantage of waveguide method is seen as leakage around the sample and limitation of sizing sample [27]. Moreover, waveguide and coaxial measurement methods both need for proper preparation of the sample. This requirement causes limitation of measurement accuracy for nonprocessable substances [28].
Spot focus can be achieved using lenses that will minimize the diffraction effect for high accuracy measurements [23, 26]. The antenna gain can also be increased, thanks to lenses that align the beam and reduce the diameter [29]. Additionally, the measurement errors can be reduced by TRL calibrations and VNA gating techniques [27]. Selecting the size of the sample larger also provides reduction of the diffraction effect. But larger specimens cause sagging problem especially nonrigids [7]. Even when the optimum thickness is achieved at the sample, another measurement error can be seen because the phase that is on the sample may not be planar. To prevent this, the effect of thickness must be taken into account in order to match the center of the sample with the point of the thinnest beam, which is aligned through the lens [30].
A software was developed for analysis and defining the material. Therefore, firstly, the materials, which had been analyzed in microwave and millimeter wave frequency bands, were measured and compared with other studies in the literature to confirm and ensure the accuracy of the developed software. The calculation techniques were optimized for the analysis of the data obtained by the FSM method, which constitutes a significant part of the study. Most appropriate algorithm was determined to use the output of characterizations for recognition of materials, and the results were proved.
Several experiment setups of FSM method were used to show the interaction of the electromagnetic waveguide with the material at different angles for determination of the dielectric properties of a material. In this system, the signals, which are reflected and transmitted from the sample surface, are collected as shown in Figure 4. FSM method is preferred for all measurements over than 75 GHz. At other frequencies, the antennas and distances between them were changed to keep the system as reliable. In order to be able to measure in the frequency range of 75–325 GHz by FSM method, four different experimental setups were required. For this reason, antenna structures (WR10, WR8.0, WR5.1, and WR3.4) were changed, and measurements were taken in four different stages up to 325 GHz. To be able to measure up to 500 GHz (between 325 and 500 GHz), WR2.2 antenna structure must be used in the fifth stage.
Measurements were made in the 75–325 GHz frequency range without using a parabolic mirror. The results of analyzed materials (Paper, Ultralam, PVC, Glass, Teflon, L1000HF, Rexolite, and RO3003) are seen in Figure 5. Newton-Raphson technique was used in the calculations. Lowest and highest values were entered for prediction of the algorithm instead of classic initial value assignment. Only specified
The dielectric constants of materials obtained by FSM method.
For the first time, an analysis of the materials given in Figure 5 has been made and shared in this frequency range. Due to the different measurement methods and using of different calculation techniques, little negligible differences can be obtained in the results. As the frequency band expands, the change in the dielectric constant values is not constant. For this reason, the thickness and dielectric constant values of each material are shown in Table 2. Ultralam, L1000HF, RO3003, and Rexolite materials measured different thicknesses as they are supplied from the manufacturer with different dimensions.
Wide | Discrete | Wide | |
Large | Medium | Little | |
ND | Destructive | ND | |
Easy | Hard | Easy | |
S-L-G | S | S-L | |
Very easy | Hard | Easy |
Comparison of commonly used microwave measurement methods.
0.15 | 2.10–2.14 | |
0.17 | 2.95–3.10 | |
0.25 | 2.90–3.05 | |
3 | 4.12–4.16 | |
4 | 1.98–2.05 | |
3.20 | 9.95–10.05 | |
12.85 | 2.52–2.55 | |
1.53 | 2.99–3.05 |
Measurement of materials in W-band (75–110 GHz).
Various methods such as poorman’s THz-TDS, Quasi-TDS (QTDS), and MLD-TDS are invented to obtain THz signal. In last two decades, the studies about multimode laser diode (MLD) that one of them can be grouped in three as THz pulse generation, sample analysis, and 2D imaging [10, 31, 32, 33]. Photoconductive antennas provide THz radiation by generating current ripple at pico-second time interval. To do this, a sudden fluctuation of the beam from the MLD is used [34, 35]. The idea of generating THz pulses from an MLD with this feature has been proposed by Hangyo. In his study, MLD-induced Photo-Conductive Antenna (PCA) is shown to be capable of producing THz pulses, and the THz pulse was measured with a bolometer that was sensitive to temperature change instead of antenna [33, 36]. In this first study, Hyodo and his colleagues used an experimental setup and added MLD instead of a dual-chip microchip laser as a beam source [36, 37]. In later researches, similar systems have been established, and obtaining THz pulses are aimed with different antenna structures. In addition, the dielectric constant and refractive index of the sample were measured to define the material [11, 34, 38].
Spectroscopy systems determine the response of the material to electromagnetic fields. THz-TDS system can be simply expressed in terms of production and detection of THz radiation in time domain. Two optical arms are seen in such systems in the same experimental setup as one for production and the other for detection. Ultra-fast lasers (UFL) are used as a beam source in this system. THz radiation is produced by one of the two branches of the incoming beam. THz waveform is obtained as a function of time, while the detection beam is scanned by interferometric steps. The first measurement of THz waveform is used as reference information. Spectroscopic information about the sample is obtained by examining the measurements of THz-TDS under the Fourier Transform (FD). In general, the time shift in main THz peak, the change on refractive index, and amplitude are related with power absorption of the sample [39].
MLD is proposed as an alternative cheaper and smaller beam source to design TDS systems, which are frequently used in material characterization and imaging processes [36]. The researches show that the signals obtained via MLD are like those obtained via the TDS one. THz pulse can be generated between the frequencies of 0.1–1 THz [10, 36].
PCAs are electrical components of MLD-THz spectroscopy system, and others are passive components. When the system is installed, first the passive components, then the electrical components are placed. The test setup consists of the generation and detection paths. The beam paths and system components of MLD-TDS are shown in Figure 6.
Schematic representation of MLD-TDS system.
The working principle of the developed MLD measurement system is like the THz-TDS system. The light beam, from the MLD, is divided into two by the beam splitter. The beam, which follows the two paths known as generation and detection arms, is focused on the antennas by the objective lens. The signals emitted by the antennas are directed by parabolic mirrors. PCA, a device made of a semiconductor material, known changed the electrical conductivity when interacting with light, can convert infrared rays to THz. By exciting with laser beams focusing on the photoconductive antenna, the carriers are accelerated. Thus, the conductivity is increased and the photoaxis is created by a voltage signal from the function generator THz signal, radiating from the silicon lens face of the antenna, producing THz electric field. The relationship between the light intensity induced by the lock-in amplifier and the THz electric field is obtained as a function of the delay time. The delay time generated for the THz pulse is mechanically designed. Voltage/current values obtained from the locked amplifier are stored by LabVIEW software and plotted THz wave profile by time.
When previous researches are analyzed, only very low energy THz signals could be obtained. If the energy goes up, the nonlinear effect will decrease. However, this is an undesirable situation in MLD-TDS systems. Obtained signal should be at least 25 times of the noise. But the magnitude of obtained THz pulse by MLD is one hundredth or millionth of the magnitude of the pulsed system [15]. Therefore, the diameters of the parabolic mirrors should be large and positioned as close to the antenna as possible. The focal length of the parabolic mirror should be small, and the solid angle should be large to obtain higher signal. And of course, used antenna should be compatible with MLD-TDS systems.
The parabolic mirrors are used in the system for better collecting and aligning of generated THz signals, and the ambient conditions are most effective factors in weakening THz signal. If the focal points of the parabolic mirrors are less than 10 cm, the power of THz signal can be maintained. Since THz signals produced by MLD-TDS have very low amplitude values (Volt or Ampere) than THz-TDS systems, the signal should align meticulously and the distance of the catheter should be short.
In the material characterization process with TDS systems, firstly, the refractive index should be calculated to determine the dielectric constant. Refractive index is given by amplitude difference between sampled and unsampled measurements in pico-seconds the shift of the THz signal. The waveform of obtained data, from w/o sample measurements of PVC sample, is seen in Figure 7. This spectroscopy system consists of MLD, driver, and cooler. Mostly, the softwares called Origin and Pkgraph are used for analysis. Origin was preferred for this study because of visual advantages of its interface.
The measuring of PVC material by MLD-TDS system.
Two different equations are used to calculate the refractive index depending on time and frequency. The refractive index can be obtained via Eq. 3, where
The complex permittivity
The complex permittivity of PVC sample.
Quality of THz signal obtained via MLD-TDS is not as good as ultra-short femtosecond laser source using TDS systems, but the measurement results of MLD-TDS are at least as successful as them. Researches on MLD-TDS systems are increasing because of being cheaper and more compact than THz-TDS. In this study, cheaper laser driver and cooler were used instead of conventional ones. Cooling is very important subject for MLD not to shift on mode spacing, which prevents THz signal generation, and if the limit current value to be applied to MLD is exceeded while supplying laser driver circuit, MLD will run like a standard LED emitting 808-nm laser beam.
The distance between the antennas should be kept within a certain range for generating planar wave while using FSM method. The distance between the antennas can be reduced by forming the planar waveguide at a shorter distance using the lens and parabolic mirrors. When parabolic mirrors are used to generate better THz signals and send aligning the center of the sample, the name of the system is revised as Quasi-Optical. Parabolic mirrors ensure more accurate data by focusing THz signal on the sample, and it enables to measure little-sized samples by FSM method [12]. Thus, sizing limitation problem of FSM method is already solved as seen in Figure 9.
Schematic representation of quasi-optical FSM method.
Very precise adjustment is required to put parabolic mirrors since they align incoming beam. Normally, incoming beam is aligned by using infrared camera before PCA. Generated THz signal is directed to parabolic mirror, where it is aligned circular before sending next parabolic mirror. Aligning THz signal with the infrared camera is not so complicated since the wavelength of the beam is around 800 nm, but this is not so easy for FSM method. Repeat and repeat measurement may be needed while determining the position of the parabolic mirrors.
Before interpreting the results of measurements made with quasi-optical FSM method, some of mathematical approaches are needed to be clarified. When there is difficulty of generating THz signal with FSM method, highly likely expected error signals and unwanted situations should be eliminated. Some of signal correction techniques should be applied to correct the measured signals as seen below.
Two different measurements are taken as with and without sample to perform the signal correction process, and the transmission
However, some filtering methods may be needed if noise and error signals still exist. In this study, measurements were made at a frequency band of 140–500 GHz. Measurements of the material up to 325 GHz can be performed by using Quasi-optical FSM correctly even repeated a few times, when the calibration is done in a proper method. But for measurement at the band of 325–500 GHz, some of noise and error signals may still exist, even though signal correction steps have been made. The Singular Spectrum Analysis (SSA) method should be applied to remove them after using Eq. 5 and 7 as seen in Figure 10.
Corrected signal of PVC sample.
Obtained revised transmission parameter
The results of complex permittivity obtained via quasi-optical TDS.
Before measurements, the study includes the calibration, which is performed to collect the correct data, and the extraction, where the dielectric properties are determined after measurements. Different calibrating techniques were applied and compared in the studies [40, 41, 42]. The most basic extraction technique Nicolson-Ross-Weir (NRW) is widely used for extracting the dielectric properties [43, 44]. Numerical methods, such as Newton-Raphson (N-R), Genetic Algorithm (GA), and Root Finding Algorithm (RFA), are used as well beside of this analytical method. Artificial neural networks (ANN) algorithms, which can be learned by analysis of obtained data from calculation, are also used in estimating the complex permittivity [45, 46, 47].
The results, obtained from analyzed data by these extraction techniques, give an approximate value to the results of the mathematical theory. By optimizing these analytical and numerical techniques, the complex permittivity and refractive index of materials can be extracted with a smaller error rate and higher accuracy. To obtain more accurate results, the extraction techniques should be compared according to the above criteria and the most suitable one should be determined. Collected data by VNA are needed to purify from errors and noise. Indeed, the accuracy of the calibration is deteriorated especially while long-term measurements. Because of the difficulties of recalibration, filtering process is preferred.
Basically, the complex permittivity and permeability of the materials are extracted by reflection (
Analytical techniques generally require precise and explicit expression. For this reason, expressions are understandable and easy to use. However, in the NRW extraction technique, the equations become unstable and erroneous at a certain interval of the sample thickness. Therefore, analytical techniques are unstable for universal computational solutions [29, 50]. An iterative extraction method is proposed for dielectric materials to come from above resonances (to remove instantaneous peaks), when the sample thickness is greater than half the wavelength [51]. Unlike analytical techniques, numerical solution techniques, which are iterative methods, cover a wide range of algorithms. The biggest disadvantage of numerical extraction techniques is that it is necessary to estimate the value to be extracted before starting the extraction methods [29, 50].
The complex permittivity extraction technique, called NRW, was developed by Nicolson, Ross, and Weir [43, 44]. In this technique, transmission
The dielectric constant of the material (
Thanks to the iterative structure of the Newton-Raphson (N-R) technique, the best solution can be found. Only the transmission
Transmission
And next unknown values of
It is observed that the studies using NRW technique have different algorithms. Therefore, before the comparison, it is needed to have a decision which NRW algorithm will be compared with N-R. In this study, five different NRW algorithms, which are named as NRW1, NRW2, NRW3, NRW4 and NRW5, were evaluated.
According to NRW1, cut-off wavelength (
The use of S-parameters in terms of voltage sum and difference is also seen in the NRW3 algorithm.
As seen in Eq. 26, transmission coefficient
In NRW5, impedance
As seen on these comparisons between NRW algorithms, it can be modeled with different approaches and used in material characterization. Although NRW cannot be used in the analysis of very thick materials, it is needed to demonstrate the accuracy of another technique incase used for analysis. Therefore, many studies have been compared with NRW in the literature.
The differences in NRW extraction technique (such as NRW1, NRW2, and NRW5) may also be applied to other extraction techniques. To prove this, the NRW algorithms were compared with the Newton-Raphson (N-R) results in the same way as seen above. The real and imaginary parts of the complex permittivity were examined. The results of the best performing algorithms (NRWs and N-R) are shown at the frequency band of 20–26.5 GHz on a thickness of 2 mm Teflon sample as seen in Figure 12 [53]. According to results, the approaches of NRW3 and NRW5 are one-to-one overlap, and therefore, the results of NRW3 were removed from the Figure 12.
Comparison of Newton-Raphson and NRW techniques.
When the literature is reviewed, generally the dielectric properties of materials are analyzed with TDS in THz frequency region above 100 GHz. In recent years, using frequencies with FSM method are increased up to 500 GHz. Obtained results by the FSM method are compared to THz-TDS in the frequency down conversion methods by some researches. In this study, the results of FSM were compared with MLD-TDS system, which is cheaper than THz-TDS method. Two different measurement methods (FSM and MLD-TDS) were compared for different materials of various thicknesses, and necessary calculations were analyzed.
The results of complex permittivity of four samples are seen in Figure 13. As seen on the results, the values are close to each other except for a little gap. Although the systems are different, produced THz pulses will have same frequency. But it is noticed that not only operating in different medium but also the differences of extraction techniques affect the results.
Comparison of complex permittivity with two different systems.
These methods are preferred by various applications because of noncontact and nondestructive measurement possibilities, even they have different working principles. Before having a decision, which method is better, the subjects mentioned in Table 3 and the measurement results should be considered as well.
Discrete | Wide | |
Short | Long | |
Short | Long | |
Long | Long | |
Few | Many | |
Good | Not bad | |
Good | Medium | |
Expensive | Cheap |
Comparison of FSM and MLD-TDS methods.
The FSM method is disadvantageous to TDS because it requires a very expensive device such as the Vector Network Analyzer (VNA). In TDS method, cheaper laser diodes are used instead of expensive laser sources. FSM setup is simpler, because of having fewer components, and installation and testing measurement accuracy of TDS system take longer time. But performing broadband measurement with TDS is possible at one time contrary to FSM.
Due to antenna designs and productions are classified according to specific wave lengths, more than one antenna set is needed for wide band measurement or the measurement must be limited in a certain frequency band. For this reason, the discrete measurement is a limitation for FSM method.
FSM is advantageous when measuring length is concerned. Once the calibration process has been completed, the transmitted and reflected signals can be measured within seconds. But it is not possible for TDS. Only one w/o sample measurement takes 15 minutes. Though some displacement slider designs, which can measure 60 times per second, is pushed on the market to recover this, the price is needed to consider.
The stability of TDS method is adversely affected by the large number of components in the system. In addition, even if the system is protected in a housing, micron size displacement over time can cause to change laser beam path. In this case, the accuracy of measurement cannot be survived. From time to time, calibration or re-installation of measurement system may be needed. In FSM method, even if there is any adjustment malfunction, the measurement can be continued by performing the calibration in a short time.
Comparisons made in this study are important in confirming that the results are obtained by using FSM method recently in THz frequency domain measurements. Although the bandwidth is narrow, FSM has a good spectral resolution and dynamic range around 0.3 THz. The real parts of the complex permittivity values obtained by both methods are overlapped, but the results of the TDS system are better for the imaginary parts, probably because of multiple reflections effect in FSM. In TDS, measurements below 100 GHz, which are already outside the THz frequency domain, are not within the desired range due to the poor signal-to-noise ratio, and they are generally not shared. The measurement methods both have advantages in certain directions, and so they may be selected to use up to needs and priorities of the measurement will be done. FSM can provide more accurate results for the measurements in a certain frequency range, but TDS system can be offered for a wider frequency range as most efficient solution. These methods of measurement, thanks to developing technology, are being optimized for medical, biology, food, security, military, and other subjects to offer solutions to the problems.
In this chapter, measurement methods and extraction techniques used in material characterization are examined, and new materials were measured to show the accuracy and contribution of the proposed extraction techniques. The results of two different measurement methods with advantages relative to each other were compared, and approximate values were obtained as well as previously published studies. Thus, the usability of the FSM method in the THz frequency range has been shown using the results. Despite some disadvantages, TDS system, which uses the MLD as a light source, is more preferable than the FSM because it has a broadband spectrum measurement capability.
S-parameters collected during material measurement process were used to extract the dielectric properties with various extraction techniques, and successful results were obtained. By using Nicolson-Ross-Weir (NRW) method, which is the most basic calculation technique, various algorithms are compared and the Newton-Raphson approach which is the numerical analysis method is verified.
It must be provided that the generated THz signal is collimated to interact well with the material. In this context, the parabolic mirror, which is an optical component, can be preferred in order to efficiently use the FSM method in the THz frequency range. Due to the optical component used in the measurement method, the new system is called optical-like FSM. Due to the advantage of this system, hybrid systems consisting of optical and microwave measurement methods in the frequency range of 0.5–1 THz are predicted to be used more widely in the future.
We would like to thank to Osamu Morikawa (Chair of Liberal Arts, Japan Coast Guard Academy, Kure, Japan) for his supports.
Pregnancy is a specific condition that is associated with significant changes in the course of metabolic processes in the female body [1]. Gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) is a common pregnancy complication and it was estimated that it affects 1 in 6 births [2]. GDM is associated with multiple adverse pregnancy outcomes including caesarian delivery, preeclampsia, subsequent development of type 2 diabetes, macrosomia, shoulder dystocia, neonatal hypoglycemia, and respiratory distress syndrome [3].
GDM can be a scary experience in the beginning, and it can take time for a pregnant woman to make the necessary changes to ensure optimal control. In addition to the potential risks it poses to the mother and fetus, GDM can also have a negative effect on the mental health and quality of life of pregnant women [4, 5].
In most cases, GDM is a temporary condition that usually occurs between 24 and 28 weeks of gestation and disappears after a woman gives birth. However, its occurrence poses a risk in affected women for the development of type 2 diabetes in the future [6]. There are no generally accepted standards for diagnosing GDM, which is why many women do not receive the treatment they need to achieve successful birth outcomes [7].
Women diagnosed with GDM need detailed information and appropriate education on the pathophysiology of GDM, treatment options, self-management (self-monitoring of blood glucose, meal planning, exercise), and possible complications of this condition [8]. Education is the key element in the diabetes care process. It provides an opportunity for women with GDM to realize their place and role in the diabetes team. The main education strategy during pregnancy is aimed at acquiring knowledge and skills for adaptation and self-management of diabetes [9].
Providing education and counseling to women with GDM can sometimes face additional challenges and barriers [8]. For improving diabetes self-management education during pregnancy and overcome these challenges, innovative approaches can be used.
Dr. Elliott P. Joslin (1869–1962) is considered to be the founder of modern diabetes education. As early as 1925, he conducted educational courses that included an explanation of the disease, insulin treatment, food intake, and physical activity. Dr. Joslin is also the author of the first diabetes patient handbook called “Diabetic Manual—for the Doctor and Patient” [10]. Part of the Joslin Clinic team was Dr. Priscilla White (1900–1989), who is considered a pioneer in the treatment of diabetes during pregnancy [11].
Pregnancy complicated by diabetes can be an adventure full of challenges. During this adventure, pregnant women require additional information, education, support, as well as appropriate treatment and practical advice for self-management. All this requires the active involvement of the woman with GDM, her family, and the diabetes team. Newly diagnosed women sometimes feel scared and insecure about how they will deal with GDM self-management. Providing structured education, support, and trust-building partnership between the patient and a well-collaborating diabetes team is crucial to acquiring knowledge and skills in managing the “sweet” disease [12]. According to Okun et al., an effective healthcare partnership includes health providers working in concert with patients and family caregivers to achieve positive experience and mutually agreed-upon outcomes [13].
Providing diabetes education is a keystone in a comprehensive therapeutic approach. Patients should gain knowledge, skills, and motivation to overcome daily challenges associated with the disease [9, 14]. Diabetes self-management education in parallel with insulin discovery is considered to be one of the most important advances in diabetes treatment in the 20th century [9].
The education of women with GDM is very important for the normal course of pregnancy and avoidance of complications. If a woman has not had diabetes before pregnancy, she may not know how to measure and track her blood glucose levels or how to administer insulin.
The main goals of the education process of women with GDM include the following:
Optimization of knowledge about diabetes pathophysiology, risk factors, and management;
Increasing the pregnant women’s motivation to take care of themselves;
Effective compliance with diet and performing physical activity;
Meal planning and carbohydrate counting;
Instructions for administrating insulin and recommendations for dealing with side effects (e.g., hypoglycemia);
Self-monitoring and tracking of blood glucose levels;
Effective communication between members of the diabetes team;
Prevention of type 2 diabetes later in life.
In 2017, International Diabetes Federation (IDF) developed interactive online courses called the IDF School of Diabetes. These educational programs consist of several modules that cover all aspects of diabetic care, disease management, and prevention. The courses are certified and end with a final exam. They are suitable for all health professionals involved in diabetes care, including general practitioners, nurses, pharmacists, dietitians, social workers, and others. In addition to training, the Web site also offers access to information on the latest advances in diabetes therapy. The main mission of the IDF School of Diabetes is to provide innovative educational programs for health professionals involved in the care and treatment of diabetes, which in turn provide the necessary training resources to people with diabetes and those who care for them [15].
In Bulgaria, in 1997, a unified large-scale training program for patients with diabetes was introduced, supported by the Government of Denmark and the Bulgarian Ministry of Health. There are 56 training centers in the country—4 university centers, 48 regional centers, and 4 training centers for children with diabetes, in which a structured five-day training program for patients has been introduced. Initially, teams of doctors and nurses from the Medical Universities of Sofia, Plovdiv, Varna, and Pleven were trained at the Steno Diabetes Center in Copenhagen, after which they organized the training of other teams in the country [16].
The challenge of achieving a healthy pregnancy and a successful birth outcome in women with GDM requires a multidisciplinary approach with close collaboration between healthcare providers. The diabetes team involved in the educational process may include medical professionals with different specialties (Figure 1).
The diabetes team involved in the educational process of woman with GDM.
The education for women with GDM focuses on their needs, preferences, and goals, helping to increase not only the knowledge about the disease but also to provide skills related to self-management and treatment [17]. Patient education has been shown to improve quality of life, contribute to better compliance, and reduce complications and healthcare costs [17, 18, 19, 20].
In the educational process, the diabetes team often encounters difficulties of different nature, which may affect both healthcare providers and pregnant women [14]. These difficulties or barriers could be classified as patient-related, healthcare provider-related, and socioeconomic or cultural barriers (Figure 2).
Possible barriers to the educational process of women with GDM.
The most common barriers related to pregnant women include lack of motivation, inpatient behavior, low level of trust in healthcare providers, poor adherence and compliance to health advice, a tendency to deny their own role in the process of education, or not being willing to assist in the implementation of instructions and prescriptions. There may also be barriers related to healthcare providers such as the use of a non-motivational approach, poor communication skills, insufficient time, lack of special qualifications. Other barriers that may occur during the education process include socioeconomic factors, geographical factors, cultural factors, level of education of patients, poor health literacy, and lack of access to educational materials [14].
Different strategies could be used for overcoming barriers during the educational process. These strategies may include demonstrations, written information (leaflets, brochures, booklets, etc.), pictograms, audio and video materials, and mobile applications.
Verbal or oral communication is essential for the educational process, but it is not enough in itself. The provision of printed educational materials such as leaflets and booklets in addition to healthcare provider counseling makes patient education more effective [21]. The use of written informational materials in the educational process can improve the quality of life, contribute to better compliance, prevent complications, and reduce healthcare costs [22].
Printed leaflets and booklets must meet the basic requirements for the effectiveness of the written educational materials in terms of content, structure, language, layout, and illustrations [22]. Using plain language, followed by appropriate charts, figures, and illustrations, is essential in the development process of printed educational materials [23]. The information included in them must be based on reliable, publicly available, and evidence-based literature sources. Attractive visualization is very important for a better understanding of the information included in the leaflets/booklets [22, 24]. Printed educational materials should provide practical and easy-to-follow advice to help pregnant women manage their condition successfully.
Some of the diabetes associations and health organizations have developed informational brochures and guidelines designed especially for women with GDM. IDF has developed an educational manual entitled “Having a baby? Now is the time to learn more about gestational diabetes?” which aims to provide information about GDM in an easy-to-understand form for expectant mothers [25]. American Diabetes Association provides information on GDM on its Web site, as well as in the book “Pregnancy & Diabetes: A Complete Guide for Women with Gestational, Type 2, And Type 1 Diabetes” [26]. In the USA, The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention also provides a brochure about GDM and pregnancy [27]. In Australia, National Diabetes Services Scheme developed an educational booklet that provides comprehensive information on GDM management and where pregnant women can get additional help. In addition to the English version, the brochure is also available in seven other languages [28].
In Bulgaria, we developed an educational manual for healthy pregnancy designed for women with GDM [29]. The educational manual gives the readers realistic insight and practical advice on how to deal with the daily challenges of pregnancy with diabetes. It covers all the aspects of GDM management (medical nutrition therapy; recipes for healthy meals; exercise tips for pregnancy: types, benefits, and cautions; insulin use; self-monitoring of blood glucose; sources of additional information and support—mobile applications, technologies, and Web sites). Information about the follow-up of GDM and prevention of type 2 diabetes has also been included. A feedback study showed a very high level of patient satisfaction. Pregnant women find the educational manual very useful [30].
Even in the modern digital age, written health information could play an important role in improving the connection between the patient and the healthcare provider. The provision of printed educational materials can increase patients’ health literacy, as well as their personal responsibility, motivation, and attitude toward their own health. The development of printed educational materials about GDM may improve pregnant women’s knowledge, their lifestyle habits (appropriate weight gain, meal planning, physical activity, etc.), and regular self-monitoring of blood glucose (four times daily), and contribute to avoiding maternal and fetal complications.
Telemedicine can be defined as a way of providing medical services remotely without physical contact between the healthcare provider and the patient, most often through a telephone conversation or video link through a platform [31]. The rapid development of digital technologies in recent years has turned telemedicine into an important component of healthcare delivery [32]. During the COVID-19 pandemic, telemedicine allowed patients to communicate completely safely and effectively with their healthcare providers [33]. Diabetes care is the area where telemedicine finds wide application [34].
A recent systematic review evaluated the effectiveness of telemedicine interventions for women with GDM. The meta-analysis included 32 randomized controlled trials and showed that telemedicine was associated with significant improvement in glycemic control (HbA1c, fasting, and postprandial blood glucose levels) and lower incidence of adverse pregnancy outcomes (Cesarean sections, neonatal hypoglycemia, macrosomia, preterm birth) compared to standard care [35].
The use of telemedicine in the management of GDM may have notable benefits. More cost evaluation studies are required to confirm its cost-effectiveness.
Since the Internet is found to be the primary source of information during pregnancy, the use of Web-based education programs for women with GDM could have a beneficial effect on diabetes self-management [36]. In Australia, Carolan et al. developed and tested an educational Web site for women with GDM [37]. The researchers assessed pregnant women’s knowledge of GDM and healthy lifestyle (healthy diet and foods), after using the Web-based program compared to women who received standard education. The findings showed that both approaches resulted in excellent knowledge scores [36]. Recent randomized control trial (RCT) using the same Web site aimed to evaluate changes in maternal body mass index, blood pressure, glycemic level, and infant birth weight after using a Web-based educational program compared to standard clinic-based GDM education. Results showed significant improvements in the intervention group that received Web-based education. Significant differences were observed between groups regarding women’s postpartum weight, glycemic level, and attendance at oral glucose tolerance test by 12-week postpartum [38].
In today’s digital age, in addition to the role of medical professionals who care for women with GDM, a new assistant would take part: mobile applications.
There are mobile applications (apps) designed specifically for women with GDM, which are already popular and highly desired among pregnant women [39, 40].
A recent study performed by Zahmatkeshan et al. aimed to review the evidence for the effectiveness of using mobile health (m-health) interventions for GDM. Based on their findings, it can be concluded that m-health interventions, including apps, could have a positive effect on GDM management and outcomes [41].
Another study evaluated the mobile apps applicability for pregnant women at risk of GDM. According to the results, the authors suggest that there is a need for the development of more apps that provide both comprehensive educational content and tracking tools [42].
There are few RCTs that assess the effects of mobile apps on GDM management [39, 43, 44, 45, 46]. The largest one [46] was conducted in Singapore among 340 pregnant women with GDM. The results from this study show that in addition to usual care, the use of a smartphone app coaching program led to better glycemic control and fewer neonatal complications [46].
Mobile apps cannot replace consulting a healthcare provider, but they could be useful in GDM management.
This chapter summarizes all of the aspects of diabetes self-management education during pregnancy including possible challenges and innovative approaches that can find practical application in the educational process. Health professionals can encourage women with GDM to look for mobile apps, Web sites, and new technologies that can help them to successfully manage the disease. Active involvement of pregnant women and good collaboration of the diabetes team member is essential for the effectiveness of the educational process.
The publication of this chapter was financially funded by Novo Nordisk. The authors take full responsibility for the content and conclusions stated in this manuscript. Novo Nordisk neither influenced the content of this publication nor was it involved in the study design, data collection, analysis, interpretation or review.
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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The researchers all over the world have been studying fundamental and advanced processes to better understand and thereby predict the genesis and evolution of TCs. This review chapter provides a brief overview on TC climatology, their basic characteristics, movement and intensification, research on structure analysis and prediction of these fascinating storms, with primary emphasis to North Indian Ocean (NIO). The role of ocean and atmosphere in determining the genesis and intensification of TCs is discussed. This chapter reviews the past and current research activities including inter-annual and intra-seasonal changes in TCs, current status of TC research using numerical weather prediction, gaps identified and relevant measures taken by the meteorological and government agencies in this direction, along with future directions in order to improve the understanding and predictability over the NIO region.",book:{id:"5180",slug:"recent-developments-in-tropical-cyclone-dynamics-prediction-and-detection",title:"Tropical Cyclone Dynamics, Prediction, and Detection",fullTitle:"Recent Developments in Tropical Cyclone Dynamics, Prediction, and Detection"},signatures:"Kasturi Singh, Jagabandhu Panda, Krishna K. Osuri and Naresh\nKrishna Vissa",authors:[{id:"178828",title:"Dr.",name:"Naresh",middleName:null,surname:"Vissa",slug:"naresh-vissa",fullName:"Naresh Vissa"},{id:"178872",title:"Dr.",name:"Jagabandhu",middleName:null,surname:"Panda",slug:"jagabandhu-panda",fullName:"Jagabandhu Panda"},{id:"180613",title:"Ms.",name:"Kasturi",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"kasturi-singh",fullName:"Kasturi Singh"},{id:"180614",title:"Dr.",name:"Krishna K.",middleName:null,surname:"Osuri",slug:"krishna-k.-osuri",fullName:"Krishna K. Osuri"}]},{id:"51981",doi:"10.5772/64859",title:"An Operational Statistical Scheme for Tropical Cyclone-Induced Rainfall Forecast",slug:"an-operational-statistical-scheme-for-tropical-cyclone-induced-rainfall-forecast",totalDownloads:1691,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:10,abstract:"Nonparametric methods are used in this study to analyze and predict short-term rainfall due to tropical cyclones (TCs) in a coastal meteorological station. All 427 TCs during 1953–2011, which made landfall along the Southeast China coast with a distance less than 700 km to a certain meteorological station, Shenzhen, are analyzed and grouped according to their landfalling direction, distance, and intensity. The corresponding daily rainfall records at Shenzhen Meteorological Station (SMS) during TCs landfalling period (a couple of days before and after TC landfall) are collected. The maximum daily rainfall (R24) and maximum 3-day accumulative rainfall (R72) records at SMS for each TC category are analyzed by a nonparametric statistical method, percentile estimation. The results are plotted by statistical boxplot, expressing in the probability of precipitation. The performance of the statistical boxplots was evaluated to forecast the short-term rainfall at SMS during the TC seasons in 2012 and 2013. The results show that the boxplot scheme can be used as a valuable reference to predict the short-term rainfall at SMS due to TCs landfalling along the Southeast China coast.",book:{id:"5180",slug:"recent-developments-in-tropical-cyclone-dynamics-prediction-and-detection",title:"Tropical Cyclone Dynamics, Prediction, and Detection",fullTitle:"Recent Developments in Tropical Cyclone Dynamics, Prediction, and Detection"},signatures:"Qinglan Li, Hongping Lan, Johnny C.L. Chan, Chunyan Cao, Cheng Li\nand Xingbao Wang",authors:[{id:"179370",title:"Dr.",name:"Qinglan",middleName:null,surname:"Li",slug:"qinglan-li",fullName:"Qinglan Li"},{id:"185562",title:"Prof.",name:"Hongping",middleName:null,surname:"Lan",slug:"hongping-lan",fullName:"Hongping Lan"},{id:"185563",title:"Prof.",name:"Johnny C.L.",middleName:null,surname:"Chan",slug:"johnny-c.l.-chan",fullName:"Johnny C.L. Chan"},{id:"185564",title:"Ms.",name:"Chunyan",middleName:null,surname:"Cao",slug:"chunyan-cao",fullName:"Chunyan Cao"},{id:"185565",title:"Mr.",name:"Cheng",middleName:null,surname:"Li",slug:"cheng-li",fullName:"Cheng Li"},{id:"185566",title:"Dr.",name:"Xingbao",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"xingbao-wang",fullName:"Xingbao Wang"}]},{id:"50973",doi:"10.5772/64009",title:"Influence of Tropical Cyclones in the Western North Pacific",slug:"influence-of-tropical-cyclones-in-the-western-north-pacific",totalDownloads:2291,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:"The Western North Pacific (WNP) is the most favorable area in the world for the generation of tropical cyclones (TCs). As the most intense weather system, TCs play an important role in the change of ocean environment in the WNP. Based on many investigations published in the literature, we obtained a collective and systematic understanding of the influence of TCs on ocean components in the WNP, including sea temperature, ocean currents, mesoscale eddies, storm surges, phytoplankton (indicated by chlorophyll a). Some ocean responses to TCs are unique in the WNP because of the existence of the Kuroshio and special geographical configurations such as the South China Sea.",book:{id:"5180",slug:"recent-developments-in-tropical-cyclone-dynamics-prediction-and-detection",title:"Tropical Cyclone Dynamics, Prediction, and Detection",fullTitle:"Recent Developments in Tropical Cyclone Dynamics, Prediction, and Detection"},signatures:"Wen-Zhou Zhang, Sheng Lin and Xue-Min Jiang",authors:[{id:"179513",title:"Dr.",name:"Wen-Zhou",middleName:null,surname:"Zhang",slug:"wen-zhou-zhang",fullName:"Wen-Zhou Zhang"},{id:"180488",title:"BSc.",name:"Sheng",middleName:null,surname:"Lin",slug:"sheng-lin",fullName:"Sheng Lin"},{id:"180491",title:"BSc.",name:"Xue-Min",middleName:null,surname:"Jiang",slug:"xue-min-jiang",fullName:"Xue-Min Jiang"}]},{id:"51916",doi:"10.5772/64114",title:"Satellite Remote Sensing of Tropical Cyclones",slug:"satellite-remote-sensing-of-tropical-cyclones",totalDownloads:2547,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"This chapter provides a review on satellite remote sensing of tropical cyclones (TCs). Applications of satellite remote sensing from geostationary (GEO) and low earth orbital (LEO) platforms, especially from passive microwave (PMW) sensors, are focused on TC detection, structure, and intensity analysis as well as precipitation patterns. The impacts of satellite remote sensing on TC forecasts are discussed with respect to helping reduce the TC's track and intensity forecast errors. Finally, the multi‐satellite‐sensor data fusion technique is explained as the best way to automatically monitor and track the global TC's position, structure, and intensity.",book:{id:"5180",slug:"recent-developments-in-tropical-cyclone-dynamics-prediction-and-detection",title:"Tropical Cyclone Dynamics, Prediction, and Detection",fullTitle:"Recent Developments in Tropical Cyclone Dynamics, Prediction, and Detection"},signatures:"Song Yang and Joshua Cossuth",authors:[{id:"178744",title:"Dr.",name:"Song",middleName:null,surname:"Yang",slug:"song-yang",fullName:"Song Yang"},{id:"179320",title:"Dr.",name:"Joshua",middleName:null,surname:"Cossuth",slug:"joshua-cossuth",fullName:"Joshua Cossuth"}]},{id:"51689",doi:"10.5772/64029",title:"Climate Risk Early Warning System for Island Nations: Tropical Cyclones",slug:"climate-risk-early-warning-system-for-island-nations-tropical-cyclones",totalDownloads:1653,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"Tropical cyclones (TCs) frequently affect coastal areas of Australia and islands in the tropical Indian and Pacific oceans. Multi-hazards associated with TCs (destructive winds, storm surges and torrential rain) have dramatic impact on population and infrastructure. Accurate forecasting of TC seasonal activity is an important part of a Climate Risk Early Warning System (CREWS) for improving resilience of the society to potentially destructive impacts of TCs. Currently, a statistical model-based prediction of TC activity in the coming season is used for operational seasonal forecasting in the Australian region and the South Pacific Ocean. In this chapter, a possibility of improving the accuracy of seasonal TC prediction using advanced statistical model-based approaches is demonstrated. It is also demonstrated that an alternative approach—dynamical (physics-based) climate modelling—is promising for skilful seasonal TC forecasting. Using improved statistical and dynamical model-based methodologies for TC seasonal prediction as an integral part of the CREWS will provide valuable information about TC seasonal variability and will assist with decision making, responses and adaptation in island countries.",book:{id:"5180",slug:"recent-developments-in-tropical-cyclone-dynamics-prediction-and-detection",title:"Tropical Cyclone Dynamics, Prediction, and Detection",fullTitle:"Recent Developments in Tropical Cyclone Dynamics, Prediction, and Detection"},signatures:"Yuriy Kuleshov",authors:[{id:"102903",title:"Prof.",name:"Yuriy",middleName:null,surname:"Kuleshov",slug:"yuriy-kuleshov",fullName:"Yuriy Kuleshov"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"51652",title:"Satellite Climatology of Tropical Cyclone with Concentric Eyewalls",slug:"satellite-climatology-of-tropical-cyclone-with-concentric-eyewalls",totalDownloads:1502,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"An objective method is developed to identify concentric eyewalls (CEs) for tropical cyclones (TCs) using passive microwave satellite imagery from 1997 to 2014 in the western North Pacific (WNP) and Atlantic (ATL) basin. There are 91 (33) TCs and 113 (50) cases with CE identified in the WNP (ATL). Three CE structural change types are classified as follows: a CE with the inner eyewall dissipated in an eyewall replacement cycle (ERC, 51 and 56% in the WNP and ATL), a CE with the outer eyewall dissipated first and the no eyewall replacement cycle (NRC, 27 and 29% in the WNP and ATL), and a CE structure that is maintained for an extended period (CEM, 23 and 15% in the WNP and ATL). The moat size and outer eyewall width in the WNP (ATL) basin are approximately 20–50% (15–25%) larger in the CEM cases than that in the ERC and NRC cases. Our analysis suggests that the ERC cases are more likely dominated by the internal dynamics, whereas the NRC cases are heavily influenced by the environment condition, and both the internal and environmental conditions are important in the CEM cases. A good correlation of the annual CE TC number and the Oceanic Niño index is found (0.77) in WNP basin, with most of the CE TCs occurring in the warm episodes. In contrast, the El Niño/Southern Oscillation (ENSO) may not influence on the CE formation in the ATL basin. After the CE formation, however, the unfavorable environment that is created by ENSO may reduce the TC intensity quickly during warm episode. The variabilities of structural changes in the WNP basin are larger than that in the ATL basin.",book:{id:"5180",slug:"recent-developments-in-tropical-cyclone-dynamics-prediction-and-detection",title:"Tropical Cyclone Dynamics, Prediction, and Detection",fullTitle:"Recent Developments in Tropical Cyclone Dynamics, Prediction, and Detection"},signatures:"Yi-Ting Yang, Hung-Chi Kuo, Eric A. Hendricks and Melinda S. Peng",authors:[{id:"24152",title:"Dr.",name:"Melinda",middleName:null,surname:"Peng",slug:"melinda-peng",fullName:"Melinda Peng"},{id:"24153",title:"Prof.",name:"Hung-Chi",middleName:null,surname:"Kuo",slug:"hung-chi-kuo",fullName:"Hung-Chi Kuo"},{id:"179607",title:"Dr.",name:"Yi-Ting",middleName:null,surname:"Yang",slug:"yi-ting-yang",fullName:"Yi-Ting Yang"},{id:"180632",title:"Prof.",name:"Eric",middleName:null,surname:"Hendricks",slug:"eric-hendricks",fullName:"Eric Hendricks"}]},{id:"51981",title:"An Operational Statistical Scheme for Tropical Cyclone-Induced Rainfall Forecast",slug:"an-operational-statistical-scheme-for-tropical-cyclone-induced-rainfall-forecast",totalDownloads:1691,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:10,abstract:"Nonparametric methods are used in this study to analyze and predict short-term rainfall due to tropical cyclones (TCs) in a coastal meteorological station. All 427 TCs during 1953–2011, which made landfall along the Southeast China coast with a distance less than 700 km to a certain meteorological station, Shenzhen, are analyzed and grouped according to their landfalling direction, distance, and intensity. The corresponding daily rainfall records at Shenzhen Meteorological Station (SMS) during TCs landfalling period (a couple of days before and after TC landfall) are collected. The maximum daily rainfall (R24) and maximum 3-day accumulative rainfall (R72) records at SMS for each TC category are analyzed by a nonparametric statistical method, percentile estimation. The results are plotted by statistical boxplot, expressing in the probability of precipitation. The performance of the statistical boxplots was evaluated to forecast the short-term rainfall at SMS during the TC seasons in 2012 and 2013. The results show that the boxplot scheme can be used as a valuable reference to predict the short-term rainfall at SMS due to TCs landfalling along the Southeast China coast.",book:{id:"5180",slug:"recent-developments-in-tropical-cyclone-dynamics-prediction-and-detection",title:"Tropical Cyclone Dynamics, Prediction, and Detection",fullTitle:"Recent Developments in Tropical Cyclone Dynamics, Prediction, and Detection"},signatures:"Qinglan Li, Hongping Lan, Johnny C.L. Chan, Chunyan Cao, Cheng Li\nand Xingbao Wang",authors:[{id:"179370",title:"Dr.",name:"Qinglan",middleName:null,surname:"Li",slug:"qinglan-li",fullName:"Qinglan Li"},{id:"185562",title:"Prof.",name:"Hongping",middleName:null,surname:"Lan",slug:"hongping-lan",fullName:"Hongping Lan"},{id:"185563",title:"Prof.",name:"Johnny C.L.",middleName:null,surname:"Chan",slug:"johnny-c.l.-chan",fullName:"Johnny C.L. Chan"},{id:"185564",title:"Ms.",name:"Chunyan",middleName:null,surname:"Cao",slug:"chunyan-cao",fullName:"Chunyan Cao"},{id:"185565",title:"Mr.",name:"Cheng",middleName:null,surname:"Li",slug:"cheng-li",fullName:"Cheng Li"},{id:"185566",title:"Dr.",name:"Xingbao",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"xingbao-wang",fullName:"Xingbao Wang"}]},{id:"51916",title:"Satellite Remote Sensing of Tropical Cyclones",slug:"satellite-remote-sensing-of-tropical-cyclones",totalDownloads:2547,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"This chapter provides a review on satellite remote sensing of tropical cyclones (TCs). Applications of satellite remote sensing from geostationary (GEO) and low earth orbital (LEO) platforms, especially from passive microwave (PMW) sensors, are focused on TC detection, structure, and intensity analysis as well as precipitation patterns. The impacts of satellite remote sensing on TC forecasts are discussed with respect to helping reduce the TC's track and intensity forecast errors. Finally, the multi‐satellite‐sensor data fusion technique is explained as the best way to automatically monitor and track the global TC's position, structure, and intensity.",book:{id:"5180",slug:"recent-developments-in-tropical-cyclone-dynamics-prediction-and-detection",title:"Tropical Cyclone Dynamics, Prediction, and Detection",fullTitle:"Recent Developments in Tropical Cyclone Dynamics, Prediction, and Detection"},signatures:"Song Yang and Joshua Cossuth",authors:[{id:"178744",title:"Dr.",name:"Song",middleName:null,surname:"Yang",slug:"song-yang",fullName:"Song Yang"},{id:"179320",title:"Dr.",name:"Joshua",middleName:null,surname:"Cossuth",slug:"joshua-cossuth",fullName:"Joshua Cossuth"}]},{id:"51496",title:"Progress in Tropical Cyclone Predictability and Present Status in the North Indian Ocean Region",slug:"progress-in-tropical-cyclone-predictability-and-present-status-in-the-north-indian-ocean-region",totalDownloads:3326,totalCrossrefCites:13,totalDimensionsCites:19,abstract:"Tropical cyclone (TC) is an important research area since it has a significant impact on human life, properties and environment. The researchers all over the world have been studying fundamental and advanced processes to better understand and thereby predict the genesis and evolution of TCs. This review chapter provides a brief overview on TC climatology, their basic characteristics, movement and intensification, research on structure analysis and prediction of these fascinating storms, with primary emphasis to North Indian Ocean (NIO). The role of ocean and atmosphere in determining the genesis and intensification of TCs is discussed. This chapter reviews the past and current research activities including inter-annual and intra-seasonal changes in TCs, current status of TC research using numerical weather prediction, gaps identified and relevant measures taken by the meteorological and government agencies in this direction, along with future directions in order to improve the understanding and predictability over the NIO region.",book:{id:"5180",slug:"recent-developments-in-tropical-cyclone-dynamics-prediction-and-detection",title:"Tropical Cyclone Dynamics, Prediction, and Detection",fullTitle:"Recent Developments in Tropical Cyclone Dynamics, Prediction, and Detection"},signatures:"Kasturi Singh, Jagabandhu Panda, Krishna K. Osuri and Naresh\nKrishna Vissa",authors:[{id:"178828",title:"Dr.",name:"Naresh",middleName:null,surname:"Vissa",slug:"naresh-vissa",fullName:"Naresh Vissa"},{id:"178872",title:"Dr.",name:"Jagabandhu",middleName:null,surname:"Panda",slug:"jagabandhu-panda",fullName:"Jagabandhu Panda"},{id:"180613",title:"Ms.",name:"Kasturi",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"kasturi-singh",fullName:"Kasturi Singh"},{id:"180614",title:"Dr.",name:"Krishna K.",middleName:null,surname:"Osuri",slug:"krishna-k.-osuri",fullName:"Krishna K. Osuri"}]},{id:"50973",title:"Influence of Tropical Cyclones in the Western North Pacific",slug:"influence-of-tropical-cyclones-in-the-western-north-pacific",totalDownloads:2291,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:"The Western North Pacific (WNP) is the most favorable area in the world for the generation of tropical cyclones (TCs). As the most intense weather system, TCs play an important role in the change of ocean environment in the WNP. Based on many investigations published in the literature, we obtained a collective and systematic understanding of the influence of TCs on ocean components in the WNP, including sea temperature, ocean currents, mesoscale eddies, storm surges, phytoplankton (indicated by chlorophyll a). Some ocean responses to TCs are unique in the WNP because of the existence of the Kuroshio and special geographical configurations such as the South China Sea.",book:{id:"5180",slug:"recent-developments-in-tropical-cyclone-dynamics-prediction-and-detection",title:"Tropical Cyclone Dynamics, Prediction, and Detection",fullTitle:"Recent Developments in Tropical Cyclone Dynamics, Prediction, and Detection"},signatures:"Wen-Zhou Zhang, Sheng Lin and Xue-Min Jiang",authors:[{id:"179513",title:"Dr.",name:"Wen-Zhou",middleName:null,surname:"Zhang",slug:"wen-zhou-zhang",fullName:"Wen-Zhou Zhang"},{id:"180488",title:"BSc.",name:"Sheng",middleName:null,surname:"Lin",slug:"sheng-lin",fullName:"Sheng Lin"},{id:"180491",title:"BSc.",name:"Xue-Min",middleName:null,surname:"Jiang",slug:"xue-min-jiang",fullName:"Xue-Min Jiang"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"629",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:0,limit:8,total:null},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:89,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:104,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:32,numberOfPublishedChapters:318,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:141,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:113,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:105,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:5,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:15,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. 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",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/3.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"May 13th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:8,editor:{id:"419588",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sergio",middleName:"Alexandre",surname:"Gehrke",slug:"sergio-gehrke",fullName:"Sergio Gehrke",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000038WgMKQA0/Profile_Picture_2022-06-02T11:44:20.jpg",biography:"Dr. Sergio Alexandre Gehrke is a doctorate holder in two fields. The first is a Ph.D. in Cellular and Molecular Biology from the Pontificia Catholic University, Porto Alegre, Brazil, in 2010 and the other is an International Ph.D. in Bioengineering from the Universidad Miguel Hernandez, Elche/Alicante, Spain, obtained in 2020. In 2018, he completed a postdoctoral fellowship in Materials Engineering in the NUCLEMAT of the Pontificia Catholic University, Porto Alegre, Brazil. He is currently the Director of the Postgraduate Program in Implantology of the Bioface/UCAM/PgO (Montevideo, Uruguay), Director of the Cathedra of Biotechnology of the Catholic University of Murcia (Murcia, Spain), an Extraordinary Full Professor of the Catholic University of Murcia (Murcia, Spain) as well as the Director of the private center of research Biotecnos – Technology and Science (Montevideo, Uruguay). Applied biomaterials, cellular and molecular biology, and dental implants are among his research interests. He has published several original papers in renowned journals. In addition, he is also a Collaborating Professor in several Postgraduate programs at different universities all over the world.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Católica San Antonio de Murcia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:2,paginationItems:[{id:"1",title:"Oral Health",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/1.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11397,editor:{id:"173955",title:"Prof.",name:"Sandra",middleName:null,surname:"Marinho",slug:"sandra-marinho",fullName:"Sandra Marinho",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRGYMQA4/Profile_Picture_2022-06-01T13:22:41.png",biography:"Dr. Sandra A. Marinho is an Associate Professor and Brazilian researcher at the State University of Paraíba (Universidade Estadual da Paraíba- UEPB), Campus VIII, located in Araruna, state of Paraíba since 2011. She holds a degree in Dentistry from the Federal University of Alfenas (UNIFAL), while her specialization and professional improvement in Stomatology took place at Hospital Heliopolis (São Paulo, SP). Her qualifications are: a specialist in Dental Imaging and Radiology, Master in Dentistry (Periodontics) from the University of São Paulo (FORP-USP, Ribeirão Preto, SP), and Doctor (Ph.D.) in Dentistry (Stomatology Clinic) from Hospital São Lucas of the Pontifical Catholic University of Rio Grande do Sul (HSL-PUCRS, Porto Alegre, RS). She held a postdoctoral internship at the Federal University from Jequitinhonha and Mucuri Valleys (UFVJM, Diamantina, MG). She is currently a member of the Brazilian Society for Dental Research (SBPqO) and the Brazilian Society of Stomatology and Pathology (SOBEP). Dr. Marinho's experience in Dentistry mainly covers the following subjects: oral diagnosis, oral radiology; oral medicine; lesions and oral infections; oral pathology, laser therapy and epidemiological studies.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"State University of Paraíba",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"2",title:"Prosthodontics and Implant Dentistry",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/2.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11398,editor:{id:"179568",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Wen Lin",middleName:null,surname:"Chai",slug:"wen-lin-chai",fullName:"Wen Lin Chai",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRHGAQA4/Profile_Picture_2022-05-23T14:31:12.png",biography:"Professor Dr. Chai Wen Lin is currently a lecturer at the Department of Restorative Dentistry, Faculty of Dentistry of the University of Malaya. She obtained a Master of Dental Science in 2006 and a Ph.D. in 2011. Her Ph.D. research work on the soft tissue-implant interface at the University of Sheffield has yielded several important publications in the key implant journals. She was awarded an Excellent Exchange Award by the University of Sheffield which gave her the opportunity to work at the famous Faculty of Dentistry of the University of Gothenburg, Sweden, under the tutelage of Prof. Peter Thomsen. In 2016, she was appointed as a visiting scholar at UCLA, USA, with attachment in Hospital Dentistry, and involvement in research work related to zirconia implant. In 2016, her contribution to dentistry was recognized by the Royal College of Surgeon of Edinburgh with her being awarded a Fellowship in Dental Surgery. She has authored numerous papers published both in local and international journals. She was the Editor of the Malaysian Dental Journal for several years. Her main research interests are implant-soft tissue interface, zirconia implant, photofunctionalization, 3D-oral mucosal model and pulpal regeneration.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Malaya",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},editorTwo:{id:"479686",title:"Dr.",name:"Ghee Seong",middleName:null,surname:"Lim",slug:"ghee-seong-lim",fullName:"Ghee Seong Lim",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003ScjLZQAZ/Profile_Picture_2022-06-08T14:17:06.png",biography:"Assoc. Prof Dr. Lim Ghee Seong graduated with a Bachelor of Dental Surgery from University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur in 2008. He then pursued his Master in Clinical Dentistry, specializing in Restorative Dentistry at Newcastle University, Newcastle, UK, where he graduated with distinction. He has also been awarded the International Training Fellowship (Restorative Dentistry) from the Royal College of Surgeons. His passion for teaching then led him to join the faculty of dentistry at University Malaya and he has since became a valuable lecturer and clinical specialist in the Department of Restorative Dentistry. He is currently the removable prosthodontic undergraduate year 3 coordinator, head of the undergraduate module on occlusion and a member of the multidisciplinary team for the TMD clinic. He has previous membership in the British Society for Restorative Dentistry, the Malaysian Association of Aesthetic Dentistry and he is currently a lifetime member of the Malaysian Association for Prosthodontics. Currently, he is also the examiner for the Restorative Specialty Membership Examinations, Royal College of Surgeons, England. He has authored and co-authored handful of both local and international journal articles. His main interest is in prosthodontics, dental material, TMD and regenerative dentistry.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Malaya",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},editorThree:null}]},overviewPageOFChapters:{paginationCount:15,paginationItems:[{id:"82427",title:"Our Globalization Era among Success, Obstacles and Doubts",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105545",signatures:"Arnaldo Canziani, Annalisa Baldissera and Ahmad Kahwaji",slug:"our-globalization-era-among-success-obstacles-and-doubts",totalDownloads:5,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Globalization and Sustainability - Recent Advances, New Perspectives and Emerging Issues",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11476.jpg",subseries:{id:"91",title:"Sustainable Economy and Fair Society"}}},{id:"82248",title:"Sustainability and Excellence: Pillars for Business Survival",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105420",signatures:"Irina Severin, Maria Cristina Dijmarescu and Mihai Caramihai",slug:"sustainability-and-excellence-pillars-for-business-survival",totalDownloads:5,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Globalization and Sustainability - Recent Advances, New Perspectives and Emerging Issues",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11476.jpg",subseries:{id:"91",title:"Sustainable Economy and Fair Society"}}},{id:"82124",title:"Assessment of Diversity, Growth Characteristics and Aboveground Biomass of Tree Species in Selected Urban Green Areas of Osogbo, Osun State",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104982",signatures:"Omolara Aremu, Olusola O. 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