\r\n\tThe aim of this book will be to describe the most common forms of dermatitis putting emphasis on the pathophysiology, clinical appearance and diagnostic of each disease. We also will aim to describe the therapeutic management and new therapeutic approaches of each condition that are currently being studied and are supposed to be used in the near future.
",isbn:null,printIsbn:"979-953-307-X-X",pdfIsbn:null,doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"278931ae110500350d8b64805c70f193",bookSignature:"Dr. Eleni Papakonstantinou",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7934.jpg",keywords:"Atopic eczema, Interleukin, Topical corticosteroids, Hand eczema, Blisters, Pruritus, Irritant contact dermatitis, Allergic contact dermatitis, Discoid eczema, Sebaceous glands, Inflammatory dermatitis, Facial rash",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:0,numberOfTotalCitations:0,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"February 5th 2019",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"March 19th 2019",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"May 18th 2019",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"August 6th 2019",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"October 5th 2019",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"2 years",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:null,coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"203520",title:"Dr.",name:"Eleni",middleName:null,surname:"Papakonstantinou",slug:"eleni-papakonstantinou",fullName:"Eleni Papakonstantinou",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/203520/images/system/203520.jpg",biography:"Dr. med. Eleni Papakonstantinou is a Doctor of Medicine graduate and board certified Dermatologist-Venereologist. She studied medicine at the Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, in Greece and she continued with her dermatology specialty in Germany (2012-2017) at the University of Magdeburg and Hannover Medical School, where she completed her dissertation in 2016 with research work on atopic dermatitis in children. During this time she gained wide experience in the whole dermatological field with special focus on the diagnosis and treatment of chronic inflammatory skin diseases and also the prevention and treatment of melanocytic and non-melanocytic skin tumors. Her research interests were beside atopic dermatitis and pruritus also the pathophysiology of blistering dermatoses. In addition to lectures at german and international congresses, she has published several articles in german and international journals and her work has been awarded with various prizes (poster prize of the German Dermatological Society for the project: 'Bullous pemphigoid and comorbidities' (DDG Leipzig 2016), 'Michael Hornstein Memorial Scholarship' (EADV Athens 2016), travel grant (EAACI Vienna 2016). Since 2017, she works as a specialist dermatologist in private practice in Dortmund, in Germany. Parallel she co-administrates an international dermatologic network, Wikiderm International and she writes a dermatology public guide for patients, as she is convinced that evidence-based knowledge has to be shared not only with colleagues but also with patients.",institutionString:"Private Practice, Dermatology and Venereology",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:null}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"16",title:"Medicine",slug:"medicine"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"270941",firstName:"Sandra",lastName:"Maljavac",middleName:null,title:"Ms.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/270941/images/7824_n.jpg",email:"sandra.m@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review, to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. Whether that be identifying an exceptional author and proposing an editorship collaboration, or contacting researchers who would like the opportunity to work with IntechOpen, I establish and help manage author and editor acquisition and contact."}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"6550",title:"Cohort Studies in Health Sciences",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"01df5aba4fff1a84b37a2fdafa809660",slug:"cohort-studies-in-health-sciences",bookSignature:"R. Mauricio Barría",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6550.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"88861",title:"Dr.",name:"René Mauricio",surname:"Barría",slug:"rene-mauricio-barria",fullName:"René Mauricio Barría"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophanides",surname:"Theophile",slug:"theophanides-theophile",fullName:"Theophanides Theophile"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1373",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Applications and Perspectives",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5e9ae5ae9167cde4b344e499a792c41c",slug:"ionic-liquids-applications-and-perspectives",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1373.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"57",title:"Physics and Applications of Graphene",subtitle:"Experiments",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0e6622a71cf4f02f45bfdd5691e1189a",slug:"physics-and-applications-of-graphene-experiments",bookSignature:"Sergey Mikhailov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/57.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"16042",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergey",surname:"Mikhailov",slug:"sergey-mikhailov",fullName:"Sergey Mikhailov"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"371",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",subtitle:"Mechanisms and Adaptations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"588466f487e307619849d72389178a74",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-mechanisms-and-adaptations",bookSignature:"Arun Shanker and B. Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"878",title:"Phytochemicals",subtitle:"A Global Perspective of Their Role in Nutrition and Health",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ec77671f63975ef2d16192897deb6835",slug:"phytochemicals-a-global-perspective-of-their-role-in-nutrition-and-health",bookSignature:"Venketeshwer Rao",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/878.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"82663",title:"Dr.",name:"Venketeshwer",surname:"Rao",slug:"venketeshwer-rao",fullName:"Venketeshwer Rao"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"4816",title:"Face Recognition",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"146063b5359146b7718ea86bad47c8eb",slug:"face_recognition",bookSignature:"Kresimir Delac and Mislav Grgic",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/4816.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"528",title:"Dr.",name:"Kresimir",surname:"Delac",slug:"kresimir-delac",fullName:"Kresimir Delac"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"71071",title:"Evaluation of the Synergistic Effect of Amikacin with Cefotaxime against Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Its Biofilm Genes Expression",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.91146",slug:"evaluation-of-the-synergistic-effect-of-amikacin-with-cefotaxime-against-pseudomonas-aeruginosa-and-",body:'\n
\n
1. Introduction
\n
The infection with Pseudomonas aeruginosa is responsible for humanity in poultry and clinical signs including respiratory signs and septicaemia. P. aeruginosa produces dyspnea and cheesy deposits on the serous surfaces lining the air sacs and peritoneal cavity and also congestion of the internal organs, perihepatitis, and pericarditis [1]. Pseudomonas species are not related to disease entity except Pseudomonas aeruginosa that has been associated with infection in both man and animals. The disease of pseudomonas induces a significant economic loss to the farm by causing high mortality of newly hatched chickens and death of embryo at a later stage [2]. Furthermore, Pseudomonas aeruginosa shows innate resistance to almost antibiotics in recent years [3, 4].
\n
Due to this intrinsic resistance to antibiotics, its ability to easily develop new resistance, its ability to create biofilms, and the recent decline in drug discovery programs, P. aeruginosa infections have become an urgent worldwide health concern [3, 5]. Recent efforts to focus on this rising challenge comprise repositioning screens to recognize commercially permitted drugs with novel antimicrobial activity [6, 7, 8, 9] and combinatorial drug screens to categorize combinations of traditional antibiotics and novel repositionable modulators [10, 11].
\n
Concomitant use of antibiotics (combination therapy) is recommended for severe infections when P. aeruginosa is the suspected pathogen, to prevent the development of resistance during treatment and to achieve a wide spectrum of activity. In addition to preventing the development of resistance, the combined use of antibiotics (as cephalosporins and aminoglycosides) may have synergistic effects and may reduce the occurrence of side effects, since each drug is used at a lower dose than would be used for monotherapy [12].
\n
Concerning bacterial biofilms, Batoni et al. [13] and Grassi et al. [14] proved a strong interaction between the effectiveness of combination therapy and biofilms formed by P. aeruginosa. Therefore, the present study concerned the effect of cefotaxime, amikacin singly, and in combination besides validating the activity of them on biofilm expression of the obtained P. aeruginosa isolates.
\n
\n
\n
2. Material and methods
\n
\n
2.1 Sampling and isolate characterization
\n
A total of 500 samples of the liver, heart, kidney, spleen, and lung (100 each) was aseptically collected from 100 freshly dead and diseased with respiratory manifestations broiler chickens from different ages and localities in Sharkia province, Egypt, from November 2018 to February 2019. All samples were subjected to conventional methods for isolation and identification of pseudomonas recommended by the Health Protection Agency [15]. Pseudomonas aeruginosa isolates were further identified with API20E kits (BioMérieux, France).
\n
\n
\n
2.2 Antibiotic susceptibility testing
\n
\n
2.2.1 Disk diffusion method
\n
The antimicrobial susceptibility test of the isolates was performed by Kirby-Bauer disk diffusion test [16]. In brief, each test isolate was swabbed uniformly onto the surface of Mueller-Hinton agar plates. Antibiotic sterile disks including cefotaxime (CTX: 30 μg) and amikacin (AK: 30 μg) were then placed on to the agar surface of the plate. Following incubation, the inhibition zones, in millimeters, were measured in duplicate and scored as sensitive, intermediate, and resistant categories by the critical breakpoints recommended by the Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute (CLSI) [17].
\n
\n
\n
2.2.2 Preparation of antibiotic stock solution
\n
Standard powder forms of cefotaxime and amikacin were stored at 4°C till usage. The stock solution of each antibiotic was prepared by weighing and consequently dissolving suitable amounts of the antibiotics reaching a concentration of 1000 μg/mL in Mueller-Hinton broth.
\n
\n
\n
2.2.3 Determination of the minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC)
\n
MIC values of antibiotics were determined by the microdilution method following the recommendations of Papich [18]. Stock solutions of antibiotics were prepared and added to the bottom of a 96-well microtiter plate (Nunc Inc., Roskilde, Denmark). 100 mL of this solution was added to the first well of the 96-well plate and serially diluted. 100 mL of an overnight culture of P. aeruginosa was added to each well at a final concentration of 5 × 105 CFU/mL (colony-forming units per milliliter). The microtiter plates were incubated at 35°C for 24 h and the MIC determined as the lowest concentration of antibiotics showing no visible bacterial growth.
\n
\n
\n
2.2.4 Test for synergism
\n
The synergistic effect of the antibiotic combinations was detected using a checkerboard dilution assay [19]. The initial concentration of each drug should be fourfold greater than the desired concentration (MIC concentration) and then diluted twofold. In a screw cap test tube, 0.25 mL of broth of each two drugs to be tested was added to 0.5 mL of broth containing a suspension of the organism to be tested to reach the final volume of 1 mL. The inoculum of the bacterial suspension (in 0.5 mL of broth) should be approximately 2 × 105 colony-forming unit (CFU) to produce a final inoculum of 1 × 105 CFU per mL after the addition of an equal volume of the antimicrobial solutions. Each test composed of 36 tubes set horizontally and vertically, 6 rows in one direction contained twofold serial dilutions of antibiotic 1, and 6 rows in the other direction contained twofold serial dilutions of antibiotic 2; two additional rows contained twofold serial dilution of antibiotic 1 or antibiotic 2 alone. The tubes were incubated at 37°C for 24 and 48 h, the tubes were read as those showing turbidity (+) and those showing no turbidity (−). A fractional inhibitory concentration index was used to interpret the results.
\n
\n
\n
2.2.5 Estimation of FIC index
\n
FIC of each agent was calculated by dividing the MIC of the drug in combination by the MIC of the drug alone. The sum of both FICs (ƩFIC = FIC of antibiotic A + FIC of antibiotic B) in each well was used to categorize the combined activity of antimicrobial agents at the given concentrations as synergistic (ƩFIC <= 0.5), partially synergistic (ƩFIC >0.5 and < 1), additive (ƩFIC = 1), indifferent (ƩFIC >1 and < 4), and antagonistic (ƩFIC > = 4) [20].
\n
\n
\n
\n
2.3 Phenotypic characterization of biofilm production
\n
\n
2.3.1 Congo red agar test
\n
Freeman et al. [21] have described a simple qualitative method to detect biofilm production by using a Congo red agar (CRA) medium. CRA medium was prepared with brain heart infusion agar (Oxoid, UK) 37 g/L, sucrose 50g/L, and Congo red indicator (Oxoid, UK) 8 g/L. The first Congo red dye was prepared as a concentrated aqueous solution and autoclaved (121°C for 15 min) separately from the other medium constituents. Then, it was added to the autoclaved brain heart infusion agar with sucrose at 55°C. In this test, the Congo red dye was used as a pH indicator, showing black coloration at pH ranges between 3.0 and 5.2. Plates with the Congo red agar medium were seeded and incubated in an aerobic environment for 24–48 h at 37°C. Isolates were interpreted according to their colony phenotypes. Black colonies with dry constancy and rough surface and edges were suspected as a positive sign of slime formation, while both black colonies with a smooth, round, and shiny surface and red colonies of dry texture and rough edges and surface were suspected as intermediate slime producers. Red colonies with smooth, round, and shiny surfaces were indicators for negative slime formation.
\n
\n
\n
2.3.2 Quantitative detection of biofilm by microtiter plate method
\n
The biofilm assay is performed by using flat-bottom microtiter plates (Techno Plastic Products, Switzerland) as described by O’Toole [22]. P. aeruginosa isolates were grown at 37°C in tryptic soy broth (TSB; Oxoid, UK). The bacterial cells were then pelleted at 6000 g for 10 min, and the cell pellets were in 5 mL of fresh medium. The optical densities (ODs) of the bacterial suspensions were measured using a spectrophotometer (Model 6305, Jenway Ltd., Essex, UK) and normalized to an absorbance of 1:00 at 600 nm. The cultures were diluted 1:40 in fresh TSB, and 200 μL of cells were aliquoted into a 96-well polystyrene microtiter plate and inoculated for 24 h at 37°C without agitation. After incubation at 37°C for 24 h, the planktonic cells were aspirated, and the wells were washed three times with sterile phosphate-buffered saline (PBS). The plates were inverted and allowed to dry for an hour at room temperature.
\n
For biofilm quantification, 200 μL of 0.1% aqueous crystal violet solution was added to each well, and the plates were allowed to stand for 15 min. The wells were subsequently washed three times with sterile PBS to wash off the excess crystal violet. Crystal violet bound to the biofilm was extracted with 200 μL of an 80:20 (v/v) mixture of ethyl alcohol and acetone, and the absorbance of the extracted crystal violet was measured at 545 nm on ELISA reader (stat fax 2100, USA). A negative control, crystal violet binding to wells was measured for wells exposed only to the medium with no bacteria. All biofilm assays were performed in triplicate. The interpretation of biofilm production was according to the criteria described by Stepanović et al. [23]. Based on these criteria, optical density cutoff value (ODc) is defined as an average OD of negative control +3 × SD (standard deviation) of the negative control. The ability to produce biofilm of each P. aeruginosa isolate was classified according to the following criteria: OD ≤ ODc = not a biofilm producer, ODc < OD ≤ 2x ODc = weak biofilm producer, 2x ODc < OD ≤ 4x ODc = moderate biofilm producer, and 4x ODc < OD = strong biofilm producer.
\n
\n
\n
\n
2.4 Molecular evaluation
\n
\n
2.4.1 DNA extraction
\n
DNA extraction from isolates was performed using the QIAamp DNA Mini Kit (Qiagen, Germany, GmbH) with modifications from the manufacturer’s recommendations. Concisely, 10 μL of proteinase K and 200 μL of lysis buffer were added to 200 μL of the sample suspension and incubated at 56°C for 10 min. Then, 200 μL of 100% ethanol was added to the lysate followed by washing and centrifugation according to the manufacturer’s recommendations. Nucleic acid was eluted with 100 μL of elution buffer.
\n
\n
\n
2.4.2 PCR amplification of biofilm virulence genes
\n
The obtained DNA was examined for the presence of biofilm in a 25 μL reaction comprising 12.5 μL of EmeraldAmp Max PCR Master Mix (Takara, Japan), 1 μL of each primer of 20 pmol concentration, 4.5 μL of water, and 6 μL of DNA template. The reaction was implemented in an Applied Biosystems 2720 Thermal Cycler for the investigation of the presence of biofilm genes. The properties of all used primers, as well as amplicon length and cycling conditions, were synopsized by Ghadaksaz et al. [24] and listed in \nTable 1\n.
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n\n
\n
Target gene
\n
Primer sequences
\n
Amplified segment (bp)
\n
Primary denaturation
\n
Amplification (35 cycles)
\n
Final extension
\n
\n
\n
Secondary denaturation
\n
Annealing
\n
Extension
\n
\n\n\n
\n
\nPslA\n
\n
TCCCTACCTCAGCAGCAAGC
\n
656
\n
94°C, 5 min
\n
94°C, 30 s
\n
60°C, 40 s
\n
72°C, 45 s
\n
72°C, 10 min
\n
\n
\n
TGTTGTAGCCGTAGCGTTTCTG
\n
\n
\n
\nPelA\n
\n
CATACCTTCAGCCATCCGTTCTTC
\n
786
\n
94°C, 5 min
\n
94°C, 30 s
\n
60°C, 40 s
\n
72°C, 45 s
\n
72°C, 10 min
\n
\n
\n
CGCATTCGCCGCACTCAG
\n
\n
\n
\nFliC\n
\n
TGAACGTGGCTACCAAGAACG
\n
180
\n
94°C, 5 min
\n
94°C, 30 s
\n
56.2 °C, 30 s
\n
72°C, 30 s
\n
72°C, 7 min
\n
\n\n
Table 1.
Primer sequences, target genes, amplicon sizes, and cycling conditions.
\n
\n
\n
2.4.3 Analysis of the PCR products
\n
The products of PCR were separated by electrophoresis on 1.5% agarose gel (AppliChem, Germany, GmbH) in 1× TBE buffer at room temperature using gradients of 5 V/cm. For gel analysis, 20 μL of the products were loaded in each gel slot. A GelPilot 100 bp DNA ladder (Qiagen, Germany, GmbH) and GeneRuler 100 bp ladder (Fermentas, Germany) were used to verify the size of fragments. The gel was photographed by a gel documentation system (Alpha Innotech, Biometra), and the data were assessed through computer software.
\n
\n
\n
2.4.4 Quantitative analysis of biofilm gene expression
\n
Biofilm gene expression was analyzed by quantitative real-time PCR (qRT-PCR), and the 16S rRNA housekeeping gene of Pseudomonas aeruginosa served as internal control with primer sequence F: GGGGGATCTTCGGACCTCA, R: TCCTTAGAGTGCCCACCCG to normalize the expressional levels between samples. Primers were utilized in a 25 μL reaction containing 12.5 μL of the 2× QuantiTect SYBR Green PCR Master Mix (Qiagen, Germany, GmbH), 0.25 μL of RevertAid Reverse Transcriptase (200 U/μL) (Thermo Fisher), 0.5 μL of each primer of 20 pmol concentration, 8.25 μL of water, and 3 μL of RNA template. The reaction was performed in a Stratagene MX3005P real-time PCR machine with specific conditions mentioned in \nTable 2\n. To estimate the variation of gene expression on the RNA of the different samples, the Ct of each sample was compared with that of the positive control group according to the “ΔΔCt” method stated by Yuan et al. [25].
Target genes and cycling conditions for SYBR green rt-PCR.
\n
\n
\n
\n
2.5 Statistical analysis
\n
Data analysis was performed by SPSS version 22 for windows. A t-test was used to detect statistical differences of the experiments including antibiotic combination treatment versus single antibiotic therapy. Moreover, one-way ANOVA was used for contrasting the influence of these remedies on the fold change of biofilm gene expression. A P ≤ 0.05 value was suspected as statistically significant.
\n
\n
\n
\n
3. Results
\n
\n
3.1 The recovery rate of isolation and identification
\n
\nPseudomonas spp. were isolated from 34 of 100 examined broiler chickens (34%) as shown in \nTable 3\n. They were further identified by standard microbiological techniques, and an API giving an overall prevalence of 21% was identified as Pseudomonas aeruginosa.\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n\n
\n
Sample
\n
No. of examined samples
\n
\nPseudomonas spp. isolates
\n
\nP. aeruginosa isolates
\n
\n
\n
No.
\n
Frequency
\n
No.
\n
Frequency
\n
\n\n\n
\n
Freshly dead
\n
28
\n
11
\n
39%
\n
11
\n
39%
\n
\n
\n
Diseased chicks Young (1–10 days)
\n
33
\n
20
\n
60%
\n
9
\n
27%
\n
\n
\n
Old broilers (11–35 days)
\n
39
\n
3
\n
7.6%
\n
1
\n
2.5%
\n
\n
\n
Total
\n
100
\n
34
\n
34%
\n
21
\n
21%
\n
\n\n
Table 3.
The incidence of Pseudomonas aeruginosa isolated from examined samples.
\n
\n
\n
3.2 Antimicrobial activity
\n
According to the disk diffusion method, 76.2% of isolates were resistant to cefotaxime, 14.3% were intermediate, and 9.5% were sensitive. Regarding amikacin, 57.2% of isolates were resistant, 9.5% were intermediate, and 33.3% were sensitive. Of interest, 57.2% of isolates were resistant to both tested antibiotics.
\n
According to the microdilution assay, the range of cefotaxime MIC was 8–512 μg/mL, while the amikacin MIC range was 1–64 μg/mL as depicted in \nTable 4\n.
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n\n
\n
Isolates no.
\n
MIC of CTX
\n
MIC of AK
\n
MIC of CTX in combination
\n
MIC of AK in combination
\n
FIC of CTX
\n
FIC of AK
\n
Ʃ FIC
\n
Interpretation
\n
\n\n\n
\n
1
\n
256
\n
32
\n
32
\n
2
\n
0.125
\n
0.06
\n
0.18
\n
Synergistic
\n
\n
\n
2
\n
8
\n
1
\n
2
\n
0.25
\n
0.25
\n
0.25
\n
0.5
\n
Synergistic
\n
\n
\n
3
\n
32
\n
2
\n
2
\n
1
\n
0.06
\n
0.5
\n
0.56
\n
Partially synergistic
\n
\n
\n
4
\n
128
\n
64
\n
32
\n
16
\n
0.25
\n
0.25
\n
0.5
\n
Synergistic
\n
\n
\n
5
\n
32
\n
64
\n
8
\n
16
\n
0.25
\n
0.25
\n
0.5
\n
Synergistic
\n
\n
\n
6
\n
32
\n
64
\n
8
\n
8
\n
0.25
\n
0.125
\n
0.375
\n
Synergistic
\n
\n
\n
7
\n
64
\n
64
\n
16
\n
4
\n
0.25
\n
0.06
\n
0.31
\n
Synergistic
\n
\n
\n
8
\n
8
\n
4
\n
2
\n
1
\n
0.25
\n
0.25
\n
0.5
\n
Synergistic
\n
\n
\n
9
\n
64
\n
64
\n
16
\n
16
\n
0.25
\n
0.25
\n
0.5
\n
Synergistic
\n
\n
\n
10
\n
128
\n
64
\n
16
\n
16
\n
0.125
\n
0.25
\n
0.375
\n
Synergistic
\n
\n
\n
11
\n
32
\n
64
\n
2
\n
32
\n
0.06
\n
0.5
\n
0.56
\n
Partially synergistic
\n
\n
\n
12
\n
32
\n
64
\n
8
\n
16
\n
0.25
\n
0.25
\n
0.5
\n
Synergistic
\n
\n
\n
13
\n
16
\n
4
\n
2
\n
1
\n
0.125
\n
0.25
\n
0.375
\n
Synergistic
\n
\n
\n
14
\n
128
\n
64
\n
8
\n
8
\n
0.06
\n
0.125
\n
0.18
\n
Synergistic
\n
\n
\n
15
\n
256
\n
64
\n
16
\n
8
\n
0.06
\n
0.125
\n
0.18
\n
Synergistic
\n
\n
\n
16
\n
256
\n
32
\n
64
\n
2
\n
0.25
\n
0.06
\n
0.31
\n
Synergistic
\n
\n
\n
17
\n
32
\n
8
\n
8
\n
4
\n
0.25
\n
0. 5
\n
0.75
\n
Partially synergistic
\n
\n
\n
18
\n
16
\n
4
\n
4
\n
2
\n
0.25
\n
0.5
\n
0.75
\n
Partially synergistic
\n
\n
\n
19
\n
16
\n
4
\n
2
\n
1
\n
0.25
\n
0.25
\n
0.5
\n
Synergistic
\n
\n
\n
20
\n
256
\n
64
\n
64
\n
16
\n
0.25
\n
0.25
\n
0.5
\n
Synergistic
\n
\n
\n
21
\n
512
\n
64
\n
64
\n
8
\n
0.125
\n
0.125
\n
0.25
\n
Synergistic
\n
\n\n
Table 4.
MIC of CTX and AK alone and in combination and FIC index against P. aeruginosa by the checkerboard method.
\n
In the checkerboard technique, the interaction between the combination of cefotaxime and amikacin against Pseudomonas aeruginosa was predominantly synergistic, although there were few partially synergistic. Thus no growth or turbidity clearly illustrated the extensive activity of aminoglycoside which was enforced by the second drug: cefotaxime resulting in an antibacterial effect. The synergistic activities of the antimicrobial combinations are detailed in \nTable 4\n. The combination of amikacin and cefotaxime exerted synergetic effect against 17 isolates, and 4 isolates were partially synergistic. FIC index values ranged from 0.18 to 0.75. Statistical analysis of one sample test revealed no significant difference between synergism effects among all isolates indicating strong synergy between both antibiotics where P-value = 0.088. Antagonism was not detected against any isolate in our study.
\n
\n
\n
3.3 Congo red test
\n
About 66.6% of the isolates were positive for biofilm production with varying degrees. Out of 21 P. aeruginosa isolates, 19%, 28.6%, and 19% were strong, intermediate, and negative biofilm producers, respectively. The morphology of all types of colonies is illustrated in \nFigure 1\n.
\n
Figure 1.
Investigation of biofilm producer P. aeruginosa using CRA method: (A) dry black colonies, (B) smooth black colonies, (C) dry red colonies, and (D) smooth red colonies.
\n
\n
\n
3.4 Microtiter plate test (MTP)
\n
Biofilm quantification analyses showed that 90.4% of the isolates were biofilm producers, indicating that this technique was more efficient than Congo red agar for the detection of biofilm production. The obtained isolates of this study had the following results for the categories of biofilm production: 9.6% were non-adherent, 33.4% weakly adherent, 42.8% moderately adherent, and 14.2% strongly adherent as shown in \nFigure 2\n.
\n
Figure 2.
Microtiter plate method showing none, strong, moderate, and weak biofilm producers differentiated by crystal violet stain in 96-well tissue culture plate.
\n
A comparison of results obtained by the CRA method versus that of MTP assay is declared in \nTable 5\n. Out of 21 biofilm P. aeruginosa isolates by the CRA method, 19 isolates were positive by the MTP approach but with various levels of production (3 strong, 7 moderate, 9 weak), and only 2 isolates were factual negative by both assays.
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n\n
\n
Sample code no.
\n
CRA
\n
No.
\n
MTP
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
Strong
\n
Moderate
\n
Weak
\n
None
\n
\n\n\n
\n
1, 16, 20, 21
\n
Dry black
\n
4
\n
2
\n
2
\n
0
\n
0
\n
\n
\n
4, 7, 9, 10, 14, 15
\n
Smooth black
\n
6
\n
1
\n
3
\n
2
\n
0
\n
\n
\n
3, 5, 6, 17
\n
Dry red
\n
4
\n
0
\n
2
\n
2
\n
0
\n
\n
\n
2, 8, 11, 12, 13, 18, 19
\n
Smooth red
\n
7
\n
0
\n
0
\n
5
\n
2
\n
\n\n
Table 5.
CRA versus MTP methods for detection of biofilm formation by P. aeruginosa.
\n
\n
\n
3.5 Detection of biofilm genes in strong biofilm P. aeruginosa isolates by conventional multiplex PCR
\n
All strong biofilm producers P. aeruginosa isolates of code numbers (1, 4, 21) were harbored all examined biofilm genes and gave their characteristic bands as shown in \nFigure 3\n.
\n
Figure 3.
Agarose gel electrophoresis of biofilm genes: Lanes 1, 6, and 12, positive controls; lanes 5, 11, and 16, negative controls; lane 8, DNA ladder (100 bp); lanes 2–4, positive isolates for filC gene; lanes 7, 9, and 10, positive isolates for pelA gene; and lanes 13–15, positive isolates for pslA gene.
\n
\n
\n
3.6 Quantitative assessment effect of each antibiotic alone and in combination on biofilm gene expression
\n
By RT-PCR, comparing the amount of examining biofilm gene products before and after each treatment with a sub-inhibitory concentration (SIC) of each antibiotic alone and combination, results revealed that the amount of examining gene products was relatively increased in untreated samples with drugs than those treated, which leads to high threshold cycle (Ct) value in treated than untreated. Interestingly, we found that drug combination was more effective in significantly reducing the expression of biofilm genes than each antibiotic alone.
\n
Statistical data assessed that fold changes in pslA, pelA, and filC gene expression after treatment with SIC of cefotaxime and amikacin alone were (0.599:0.752:0.597 fold) and (0.348:0.354:0.296 fold), respectively, which were significantly higher (P ≤ 0.05) than a fold change in same gene expression after combination treatment (0.132:0.211:0.158 fold) as shown in \nTable 6\n and \nFigure 4\n\n.\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n\n
\n
Genes
\n
Isolate no.
\n
Fold change
\n
\n
\n
Cefotaxime
\n
Amikacin
\n
Cefotaxime-amikacin combination
\n
\n\n\n
\n
\nPslA\n
\n
1
\n
0.5212
\n
0.3209
\n
0.0890
\n
\n
\n
2
\n
0.6830
\n
0.3121
\n
0.1869
\n
\n
\n
3
\n
0.5946
\n
0.4118
\n
0.1216
\n
\n
\n
\nPelA\n
\n
1
\n
0.7371
\n
0.4506
\n
0.2535
\n
\n
\n
2
\n
0.8526
\n
0.3276
\n
0.2253
\n
\n
\n
3
\n
0.6690
\n
0.2852
\n
0.1550
\n
\n
\n
\nFliC\n
\n
1
\n
0.6071
\n
0.3322
\n
0.2176
\n
\n
\n
2
\n
0.5471
\n
0.2643
\n
0.1708
\n
\n
\n
3
\n
0.6373
\n
0.2932
\n
0.0884
\n
\n\n
Table 6.
Results of RT-PCR showing expression of biofilm genes in P. aeruginosa isolates before and after treatment with SIC of each antibiotic alone and in combination.
\n
Figure 4.
Expression curves of each biofilm gene after different treatments by SYBR green RT-PCR, (A) PslA gene, (B) PelA gene and (C) FilC gene.
\n
\n
\n
\n
4. Discussion
\n
\nPseudomonas aeruginosa is considered to be an opportunistic organism that produces respiratory infection, sinusitis, keratitis/keratoconjunctivitis, and septicemia, and it becomes an infection when it is introduced into tissues of susceptible hosts [27]. The bacterium is widely distributed in the environment, as it can utilize a wide range of materials for its nutrients while only requiring a limited amount of nutrients to survive [28]. Moreover, biofilm production has been considered to be an important determinant of pathogenicity in P. aeruginosa infections [29]. The formation of biofilms facilitates chronic bacterial infections and reduces the efficacy of antimicrobial therapy [29, 30, 31]. The situation is getting very concerning, the World Health Organization has declared it to be a “critical priority pathogen,” on which research and development of novel antibiotics should be focused [32]. For this reason, this work designed to find repositionable candidate’s antibiotics against P. aeruginosa biofilms, which are disreputable for their intensified drug resistance.
\n
Here we isolated 21 P. aeruginosa from 100 broiler chickens suffering from respiratory manifestations (21%). These findings were close to that (20%) reported earlier in India [1]. Many studies showed different prevalence rates of P. aeruginosa isolates in broilers worldwide: in Iraq, a low rate of 6% was reported [33], while in Nigeria, a high rate of 75% was reported [34]. These differences in prevalence rates may reflect the considerable disparity in the sampling scheme, sample types, pseudomonas detection protocol, and geographic location.
\n
In the current investigation, all the isolates were tested against cefotaxime and amikacin to determine the antibiotic susceptibility patterns. A high-resistance rate was detected for both antibiotics at which 76.2% were resistant to cefotaxime and 57.2% to amikacin. This might be due to the indiscriminate use of antibiotics in the feed of broiler breeders or other environmental possibilities [35].
\n
The increased observance of multiple resistances (mainly to beta-lactam antibiotics) in pseudomonas isolates is making it increasingly difficult to treat infections caused by this pathogen. Resistance to antimicrobials in pseudomonas strains develops via several mechanisms, including the production of specific enzymes (b-lactamases, enzymes that modify aminoglycosides, for example), changes in cell-membrane permeability, and active efflux systems [36].
\n
Interpretative reading was used to detect the bactericidal activity of each antibiotic against isolates with cefotaxime MICs of 8–512 and amikacin MICs of 1–64. These data are reinforced by findings from other countries, including Kuwait [37], Canada [38], China [39], and the USA [40].
\n
Synergy testing has shown evidence of an interaction of two antibiotics in combination against pseudomonas bacterial isolates where statistical analysis provides important insights into drug synergism where the FIC index calculations exemplified a significant synergism of both drugs achieving an enhanced overall effect which is substantially greater than the sum of their ones. These results were consistent with the previous studies of Saiman [41], Dundar and Otkun [42], and Hawkey et al. [43]. The possible explanation for this synergism is the ability of beta-lactam cefotaxime to penetrate the outer membrane of pseudomonas bacteria which thereby increases the permeability of the bacterium to the aminoglycoside amikacin binding to 30S ribosome inhibiting the protein synthesis, thus leading to a synergistic effect in the in vitro studies [44].
\n
To investigate the effect of a synergistic combination of the repositionable drugs against P. aeruginosa biofilms, we detected their effect on the expression of screened biofilm genes.
\n
In this study, biofilm production was examined qualitatively, depending on colony morphology of 21 P. aeruginosa isolates inoculated on Congo red agar. Some differences between researches were apparent concerning the interpretation of CRA test results. In that respect, both bright black colonies [45] and black colonies [46] were considered as a positive result. However, Cucarella et al. [47] described the dry crystalline surface (rough colony morphology) as a positive result, disregarding the color (black or pink). Such discrepancy when interpreting the results may be possible since the test itself was not originally designed for investigating P. aeruginosa isolates as reported by Freeman et al. [21]. In this investigation, according to Osman et al. [48], isolates that produced black/rough colonies were verified as strong biofilm-forming, while isolates producing red/smooth colonies were described as non-biofilm formers. The smooth black and dry red colonies were respected as indefinite findings.
\n
The qualitative technique revealed that only 66.6% of the isolates were considered biofilm producers, while the biofilm quantitative technique (MTP method) revealed that 90.4% of the isolates were biofilm producers, indicating that the quantitative technique was more efficient than the qualitative technique for the detection of biofilm production. There was also high biofilm production by the evaluated tested isolates of P. aeruginosa.\n
\n
Biofilms are surface-associated communities embedded within an extracellular matrix [49]. The extracellular matrix consists of polysaccharides, proteins, nucleic acids, and lipids and is a distinguishing feature of biofilms, capable of functioning as both a structural scaffold and a protective barrier [45]. Extracellular polysaccharides are a crucial component of the matrix and carry out a range of functions including promoting attachment to surfaces and other cells, building and maintaining biofilm structure, as well as protecting the cells from antimicrobials and host defenses [50, 51].
\n
\nP. aeruginosa produces at least two extracellular polysaccharides that can be important in biofilm development and is accompanied by gene regulation [52, 53, 54].
\n
Conventional PCR was carried out for detection of pelA and pslA genes which were involved in the formation of polysaccharide components of biofilm among tested isolates and were expressed heavily in all of them (100%). These data matched with previous studies of Wei and Ma [55], Vasiljević et al. [56], and Emami et al. [57].
\n
Moreover, Suriyanarayanan et al. [58] mentioned that the effects of fliC phosphorylation on biofilm attachment and dispersal led to two conclusions. Both initial attachment and detachment during the dispersal stage were delayed by the loss of fliC phosphorylation in static and dynamic flow biofilms. As each of these processes still proceeded in the lack of phosphorylation, it suggested that fliC phosphorylation regulates the timing and rate of these processes without affecting biofilm architecture. These investigations were parallel with our results where fliC detected in all tested isolates.
\n
Regarding the qRT-PCR results, the suppressing effects in fold change of previously mentioned biofilm gene expression were detected for drug combination in comparison with each antibiotic alone. Exposure to each antibiotic caused a decreased level of biofilm expression ranging between 0.1- and 0.7-fold changes, while the repression was strong and most significant with amikacin-cefotaxime combination treatment with fold change reaching 0.08, i.e., the consequence of treatment on the average expression profile among all biofilm involving genes constituting the bacterial communities studied. As described in this paper and by others [59, 60, 61], sub-MICs of combinations have potent effects on attenuating biofilm formation which are totally different from each antibiotic alone.
\n
\n
\n
5. Conclusion
\n
The treatment of biofilm-related P. aeruginosa infections in the poultry industry has become an important part of antimicrobial chemotherapy because biofilms are not affected by therapeutic concentrations of antibiotics permitting attachment of other pathogens. Our study proved that using a combination of antimicrobial agents including cefotaxime and amikacin represents a profound synergism, significant antibiofilm, and a suitable candidate in combatting this fierce infection.
\n
\n
Conflict of interest
The authors manifested that they have no conflicts of interest.
Abbreviations
FIC
fractional inhibitory concentration
MIC
minimum inhibitory concentration
CRA
Congo red agar
MTP
microtiter plate
RT-PCR
reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction
\n',keywords:"P. aeruginosa, cefotaxime, amikacin, combination therapy, biofilm, gene expression",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/71071.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/71071.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/71071",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/71071",totalDownloads:177,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,dateSubmitted:"October 27th 2019",dateReviewed:"January 11th 2020",datePrePublished:"February 12th 2020",datePublished:"April 1st 2020",dateFinished:null,readingETA:"0",abstract:"A total of 100 broiler chickens were examined for the presence of Pseudomonas aeruginosa by standard microbiological techniques. Susceptibility pattern for amikacin and cefotaxime was performed by Kirby-Bauer and microdilution assays. Then, checkerboard titration in trays was applied and FIC was measured to identify the type of interaction between the two antibiotics. The ability of isolates to form in vitro biofilm was detected by two methods, one qualitative (CRA) and the other quantitative (MTP), followed by investigating the effect of each antibiotic alone and in combination on the expression of biofilm genes. The overall isolation percentage of P. aeruginosa was 21%. Resistance to each antibiotic was more than 50%; the range of cefotaxime MIC was 8–512 μg/ml, while amikacin MIC range was 1–64 μg/ml. The FIC index established a synergistic association between tested two drugs in 17 (81%) of isolates and the remaining represent partially synergism. The qualitative technique showed that only 66.6% of the isolates were considered biofilm producers, while the quantitative technique showed that 90.4% of the isolates were biofilm producers. Further to RT-PCR investigation, significant repression against biofilm-forming genes (filC, pelA, and pslA) was observed for the combination of antibiotics when compared with monotherapy.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/71071",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/71071",book:{slug:"gene-expression-and-phenotypic-traits"},signatures:"Azza S. El-Demerdash and Neveen R. Bakry",authors:[{id:"314300",title:"Dr.",name:"Azza",middleName:null,surname:"El-Demerdash",fullName:"Azza El-Demerdash",slug:"azza-el-demerdash",email:"dr.azzasalah@yahoo.com",position:null,institution:{name:"Animal Health Research Institute",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Taiwan"}}},{id:"316523",title:"Dr.",name:"Neveen",middleName:null,surname:"Bakery",fullName:"Neveen Bakery",slug:"neveen-bakery",email:"nevo_talk@yahoo.com",position:null,institution:{name:"Animal Health Research Institute",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Taiwan"}}}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Material and methods",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"2.1 Sampling and isolate characterization",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"2.2 Antibiotic susceptibility testing",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_3",title:"2.2.1 Disk diffusion method",level:"3"},{id:"sec_4_3",title:"2.2.2 Preparation of antibiotic stock solution",level:"3"},{id:"sec_5_3",title:"2.2.3 Determination of the minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC)",level:"3"},{id:"sec_6_3",title:"2.2.4 Test for synergism",level:"3"},{id:"sec_7_3",title:"2.2.5 Estimation of FIC index",level:"3"},{id:"sec_9_2",title:"2.3 Phenotypic characterization of biofilm production",level:"2"},{id:"sec_9_3",title:"2.3.1 Congo red agar test",level:"3"},{id:"sec_10_3",title:"2.3.2 Quantitative detection of biofilm by microtiter plate method",level:"3"},{id:"sec_12_2",title:"2.4 Molecular evaluation",level:"2"},{id:"sec_12_3",title:"2.4.1 DNA extraction",level:"3"},{id:"sec_13_3",title:"Table 1.",level:"3"},{id:"sec_14_3",title:"2.4.3 Analysis of the PCR products",level:"3"},{id:"sec_15_3",title:"Table 2.",level:"3"},{id:"sec_17_2",title:"2.5 Statistical analysis",level:"2"},{id:"sec_19",title:"3. Results",level:"1"},{id:"sec_19_2",title:"3.1 The recovery rate of isolation and identification",level:"2"},{id:"sec_20_2",title:"3.2 Antimicrobial activity",level:"2"},{id:"sec_21_2",title:"3.3 Congo red test",level:"2"},{id:"sec_22_2",title:"3.4 Microtiter plate test (MTP)",level:"2"},{id:"sec_23_2",title:"3.5 Detection of biofilm genes in strong biofilm P. aeruginosa isolates by conventional multiplex PCR",level:"2"},{id:"sec_24_2",title:"3.6 Quantitative assessment effect of each antibiotic alone and in combination on biofilm gene expression",level:"2"},{id:"sec_26",title:"4. Discussion",level:"1"},{id:"sec_27",title:"5. Conclusion",level:"1"},{id:"sec_31",title:"Conflict of interest",level:"1"},{id:"sec_30",title:"Abbreviations",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'\nShukla S, Mishra P. Pseudomonas aeruginosa infections in broiler chicks in Jabalpur. International Journal of Environmental Research. 2015;6:37-39. Available from: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/304704794_Pseudomonas_aeruginosa_Infection_in_Broiler_Chicks_in_Jabalpur\n\n'},{id:"B2",body:'\nKebede F. Pseudomonas infection in chickens. Journal of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Health. 2010;2:55-58. Available from: https://academicjournals.org/journal/JVMAH/article-full-text-pdf/663013539683\n\n'},{id:"B3",body:'\nWilkinson GF, Pritchard K. In vitro screening for drug repositioning. Journal of Biomolecular Screening. 2015;20:167-179. DOI: 10.1177/1087057114563024\n'},{id:"B4",body:'\nDandachi I, Sokhn ES, Dahdouh EA, Azar E, El-Bazzal B, Rolain JM, et al. Prevalence and characterization of multi-drug-resistant gram-negative bacilli isolated from lebanese poultry: A nationwide study. Frontiers in Microbiology. 2018;9:1-11. DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2018.00550\n'},{id:"B5",body:'\nShrivastava SR, Shrivastava PS, Ramasamy J, et al. World health organization releases global priority list of antibiotic-resistant bacteria to guide research, discovery, and development of new antibiotics. Journal of Medical Society. 2018;32:76. Available from: http://www.jmedsoc.org/temp/JMedSoc32176-3543534_095035.pdf\n\n'},{id:"B6",body:'\nSiles SA, Srinivasan A, Pierce CG, Lopez-Ribot JL, Ramasubramanian AK. High-throughput screening of a collection of known pharmacologically active small compounds for identification of Candida albicans biofilm inhibitors. Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy. 2013;57:3681-3687. DOI: 10.1128/AAC.00680-13\n'},{id:"B7",body:'\nRangel-Vega A, Bernstein LR, Mandujano Tinoco E-A, Garcia-Contreras S-J, Garcia-Contreras R. Drug repurposing as an alternative for the treatment of recalcitrant bacterial infections. Frontiers in Microbiology. 2015;6:282. DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2015.00282\n'},{id:"B8",body:'\nTorres NS, Abercrombie JJ, Srinivasan A, Lopez-Ribot JL, Ramasubramanian AK, Leung KP. Screening a commercial library of pharmacologically active small molecules against Staphylococcus aureus biofilms. Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy. 2016;60:5663-5672. DOI: 10.1128/AAC.00377-16\n'},{id:"B9",body:'\nYssel AEJ, Vanderleyden J, Steenackers HP. Repurposing of nucleoside-and nucleobase-derivative drugs as antibiotics and biofilm inhibitors. The Journal of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy. 2017;72:2156-2170. DOI: 10.1093/jac/dkx151\n'},{id:"B10",body:'\nDelattin N, De Brucker K, Vandamme K, Meert E, Marchand A, Chaltin P, et al. Repurposing as a means to increase the activity of amphotericin B and caspofungin against Candida albicans biofilms. The Journal of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy. 2013;69:1035-1044. DOI: 10.1093/jac/dkt449\n'},{id:"B11",body:'\nden Driessche F, Brackman G, Swimberghe R, Rigole P, Coenye T. Screening a repurposing library for potentiators of antibiotics against Staphylococcus aureus biofilms. International Journal of Antimicrobial Agents. 2017;49:315-320. DOI: 10.1016/j.ijantimicag.2016.11.023\n'},{id:"B12",body:'\nNazli E, Zer Y, Eksi F. In vitro efficacy of various antibiotic combinations against Pseudomonas aeruginosa isolates. The Journal of International Medical Research. 2015;43:217-225. DOI: 10.1177/0300060514553490\n'},{id:"B13",body:'\nBatoni G, Maisetta G, Esin S. Antimicrobial peptides and their interaction with biofilms of medically relevant bacteria. Biochimica et Biophysica Acta - Biomembranes. 2016;1858:1044-1060. DOI: 10.1016/j.bbamem.2015.10.013\n'},{id:"B14",body:'\nGrassi L, Maisetta G, Esin S, Batoni G. Combination strategies to enhance the efficacy of antimicrobial peptides against bacterial biofilms. Frontiers in Microbiology. 2017;8:2409. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5770624/\n\n'},{id:"B15",body:'\nHealth protection agency. Identification of pseudomonas species and other non-glucose fermenters. Standards for microbiology investigations (UK SMI). 2015;3:3-41. Available from: https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/422699/ID_17i3.pdf\n\n'},{id:"B16",body:'\nJorgensen JH, Turnidge JD. Susceptibility test methods: Dilution and disk diffusion methods. In: Manual of Clinical Microbiology, 11th ed. American Society of Microbiology; 2015. pp. 1253-1273. Available from: https://www.asmscience.org/content/book/10.1128/9781555817381.mcm11.ch71?crawler=true\n\n'},{id:"B17",body:'\nCLSI (Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute). M100-S25 Performance Standards for Antimicrobial. 2015;35(3):1-240. Available from: http://file.qums.ac.ir/repository/mmrc/CLSI2015.pdf\n\n'},{id:"B18",body:'\nPapich MG. Antimicrobials, susceptibility testing, and minimum inhibitory concentrations (MIC) in veterinary infection treatment. The Veterinary Clinics of North America. Small Animal Practice. 2013;43:1079-1089. DOI: 10.1016/j.cvsm.2013.04.005\n'},{id:"B19",body:'\nKim S-H, Park C, Chun H-S, Lee D-G, Choi J-K, Lee H-J, et al. Pilot screening to determine antimicrobial synergies in a multidrug-resistant bacterial strain library. Microbial Drug Resistance. 2016;22:372-378. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4939386/\n\n'},{id:"B20",body:'\nOrhan G, Bayram A, Zer Y, Balci I. Synergy tests by E test and checkerboard methods of antimicrobial combinations against Brucella melitensis. Journal of Clinical Microbiology. 2005;43:140-143. DOI: 10.1128/JCM.43.1.140-143.2005\n'},{id:"B21",body:'\nFreeman DJ, Falkiner FR, Keane CT. New method for detecting slime production by coagulase negative staphylococci. Journal of Clinical Pathology. 1989;42:872-874. DOI: 10.1136/jcp.42.8.872\n'},{id:"B22",body:'\nO’Toole GA. Microtiter dish biofilm formation assay. Journal of Visualized Experiments. 2011;47:1-2. DOI: 10.3791/2437\n'},{id:"B23",body:'\nStepanović S, Vuković D, Hola V, Bonaventura GDI, Djukić S, Ćirković I, et al. Quantification of biofilm in microtiter plates: Overview of testing conditions and practical recommendations for assessment of biofilm production by staphylococci. APMIS. 2007;115:891-899. DOI: 10.1111/j.1600-0463.2007.apm_630.x\n'},{id:"B24",body:'\nGhadaksaz A, Fooladi AAI, Hosseini HM, Amin M. The prevalence of some pseudomonas virulence genes related to biofilm formation and alginate production among clinical isolates. Journal of Applied Biomedicine. 2015;13:61-68. DOI: 10.1016/j.jab.2014.05.002\n'},{id:"B25",body:'\nYuan JS, Reed A, Chen F, Stewart CN. Statistical analysis of real-time PCR data. BMC Bioinformatics. 2006;7:85. DOI: 10.1186/1471-2105-7-85\n'},{id:"B26",body:'\nSpilker T, Coenye T, Vandamme P, LiPuma JJ. PCR-based assay for differentiation of Pseudomonas aeruginosa from other Pseudomonasspecies recovered from cystic fibrosis patients. Journal of Clinical Microbiology. 2004;42:2074-2079. DOI: 10.1128/jcm.42.5.2074-2079.2004\n'},{id:"B27",body:'\nGoldberg JB. Why is Pseudomonas aeruginosa a pathogen? F1000 Biology Reports. 2010;2:29. DOI: 10.3410/B2-29\n'},{id:"B28",body:'\nAbdelraouf K, Kabbara S, Ledesma KR, Poole K, Tam VH. Effect of multidrug resistance-conferring mutations on the fitness and virulence of Pseudomonas aeruginosa. The Journal of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy. 2011;66:1311-1317. DOI: 10.1093/jac/dkr105\n'},{id:"B29",body:'\nWareham DW, Curtis MA. A genotypic and phenotypic comparison of type III secretion profiles of Pseudomonas aeruginosa cystic fibrosis and bacteremia isolates. International Journal of Medical Microbiology. 2007;297:227-234. DOI: 10.1016/j.ijmm.2007.02.004\n'},{id:"B30",body:'\nParsek MR, Singh PK. Bacterial biofilms: An emerging link to disease pathogenesis. Annual Review of Microbiology. 2003;57:677-701. DOI: 10.1146/annurev.micro.57.030502.090720\n'},{id:"B31",body:'\nFinnan S, Morrissey JP, O’gara F, Boyd EF. Genome diversity of Pseudomonas aeruginosa isolates from cystic fibrosis patients and the hospital environment. Journal of Clinical Microbiology. 2004;42:5783-5792. DOI: 10.1128/JCM.42.12\n'},{id:"B32",body:'\nTacconelli E, Carrara E, Savoldi A, Harbarth S, Mendelson M, Monnet DL, et al. Discovery, research, and development of new antibiotics: The WHO priority list of antibiotic-resistant bacteria and tuberculosis. The Lancet Infectious Diseases. 2018;18:318-327. DOI: 10.1016/S1473-3099(17)30753-3\n'},{id:"B33",body:'\nNoori TE, Alwan MJ. Isolation and identification of zoonotic bacteria from poultry meat. International Journal of Advanced Research in Biological Sciencesi. 2016;3:57-66. Available from: https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/488e/4253f660528b486642056c4d74aa3b6cc742.pdf\n\n'},{id:"B34",body:'\nAbiala M, Olayiwola J, Babatunde O, Aiyelaagbe O, Akinyemi S. Evaluation of therapeutic potentials of plant extracts against poultry bacteria threatening public health. BMC Complementary and Alternative Medicine. 2016;16:417. DOI: 10.1186/s12906-016-1399-z\n'},{id:"B35",body:'\nNazer AHK, Dadras H, Eskandari S. Aerobic bacteria isolated from eggs and day-old chicks and their antibacterial resistance in shiraz, Iran. Iranian Journal of Veterinary Research. 2006;7:20-30. Available from: https://www.sid.ir/en/Journal/ViewPaper.aspx?ID=43085\n\n'},{id:"B36",body:'\nNathwani D, Raman G, Sulham K, Gavaghan M, Menon V. Clinical and economic consequences of hospital-acquired resistant and multidrug-resistant Pseudomonas aeruginosa infections: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Antimicrobial Resistance and Infection Control. 2014;3:32. DOI: 10.1186/2047-2994\n'},{id:"B37",body:'\nAlfouzan W, Dhar R, Nicolau D. In vitro activity of newer and conventional antimicrobial agents, including Fosfomycin and Colistin, against selected gram-negative bacilli in Kuwait. Pathogens. 2018;7:75. DOI: 10.3390/pathogens7030075\n'},{id:"B38",body:'\nDomalaon R, Sanchak Y, Koskei LC, Lyu Y, Zhanel GG, Arthur G, et al. Short proline-rich lipopeptide potentiates minocycline and rifampin against multidrug-and extensively drug-resistant Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy. 2018;62:e02374-e02317\n'},{id:"B39",body:'\nKuti JL, Wang Q , Chen H, Li H, Wang H, Nicolau DP. Defining the potency of amikacin against Escherichia coli, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and Acinetobacter baumannii derived from Chinese hospitals using CLSI and inhalation-based breakpoints. Infection and Drug Resistance. 2018;11:783. DOI: 10.2147/IDR.S161636\n'},{id:"B40",body:'\nSutherland CA, Verastegui JE, Nicolau DP. In vitro potency of amikacin and comparators against E. coli, K. pneumoniae and P. aeruginosa respiratory and blood isolates. Annals of Clinical Microbiology and Antimicrobials. 2016;15:39. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4912699/\n\n'},{id:"B41",body:'\nSaiman L. Clinical utility of synergy testing for multidrug-resistant Pseudomonas aeruginosa isolated from patients with cystic fibrosis. Paediatric Respiratory Reviews. 2007;8:249-255. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17868923\n\n'},{id:"B42",body:'\nDundar D, Otkun M. In-vitro efficacy of synergistic antibiotic combinations in multidrug resistant Pseudomonas aeruginosa strains. Yonsei Medical Journal. 2010;51:111-116. DOI: 10.3349/ymj.2010.51.1.111\n'},{id:"B43",body:'\nHawkey PM, Warren RE, Livermore DM, McNulty CAM, Enoch DA, Otter JA, et al. Treatment of infections caused by multidrug-resistant gram-negative bacteria: Report of the British Society for Antimicrobial Chemotherapy/healthcare infection society/british infection association joint working party. The Journal of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy. 2018;73:iii2-iii78\n'},{id:"B44",body:'\nSpoorthi NJ, Vishwanatha T, Reena V, Divyashree BC, Aishwarya S, Siddhalingeshwara KG, et al. Antibiotic synergy test: Checkerboard method on multidrug resistant Pseudomonas aeruginosa. International Research Journal of Pharmacy. 2011;2:196-198. Available from: https://irjponline.com/admin/php/uploads/754_pdf.pdf\n\n'},{id:"B45",body:'\nHäussler S, Parsek MR. Biofilms 2009: new perspectives at the heart of surface-associated microbial communities 2010. DOI: 10.1128/JB.00332-10\n'},{id:"B46",body:'\nJain A, Agarwal A. Biofilm production, a marker of pathogenic potential of colonizing and commensal staphylococci. Journal of Microbiological Methods. 2009;76:88-92. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18851996\n\n'},{id:"B47",body:'\nCucarella C, Tormo MA, Ubeda C, Trotonda MP, Monzón M, Peris C, et al. Role of biofilm-associated protein bap in the pathogenesis of bovine Staphylococcus aureus. Infection and Immunity. 2004;72:2177-2185. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15039341\n\n'},{id:"B48",body:'\nOsman K, Alvarez-Ordóñez A, Ruiz L, Badr J, ElHofy F, Al-Maary KS, et al. Antimicrobial resistance and virulence characterization of Staphylococcus aureus and coagulase-negative staphylococci from imported beef meat. Annals of Clinical Microbiology and Antimicrobials. 2017;16:1-10. DOI: 10.1186/s12941-017-0210-4\n'},{id:"B49",body:'\nRasamiravaka T, Vandeputte OM, Pottier L, Huet J, Rabemanantsoa C, Kiendrebeogo M, et al. Pseudomonas aeruginosa biofilm formation and persistence, along with the production of quorum sensing-dependent virulence factors, are disrupted by a triterpenoid coumarate ester isolated from Dalbergia trichocarpa, a tropical legume. PLoS One. 2015;10:e0132791\n'},{id:"B50",body:'\nSmith-Palmer A, Stewart J, Fyfe L. The potential application of plant essential oils as natural food preservatives in soft cheese. Food Microbiology. 2001;18:463-470. Available from: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0740002001904150\n\n'},{id:"B51",body:'\nStoodley P, Sauer K, Davies DG, Costerton JW. Biofilms as complex differentiated communities. Annual Review of Microbiology. 2002;56:187-209. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12142477\n\n'},{id:"B52",body:'\nCosterton JW, Stewart PS, Greenberg EP. Bacterial biofilms: A common cause of persistent infections. Science. 1999;284:1318-1322. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10334980\n\n'},{id:"B53",body:'\nDrenkard E. Antimicrobial resistance of Pseudomonas aeruginosa biofilms. Microbes and Infection. 2003;5:1213-1219. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14623017\n\n'},{id:"B54",body:'\nWei Q , Ma LZ. Biofilm matrix and its regulation in Pseudomonas aeruginosa. International Journal of Molecular Sciences. 2013;14:20983-21005. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24145749\n\n'},{id:"B55",body:'\nWei B, Cha S-Y, Kang M, Park I-J, Moon O-K, Park C-K, et al. Development and application of a multiplex PCR assay for rapid detection of 4 major bacterial pathogens in ducks. Poultry Science. 2013;92:1164-1170. Available from: https://academic.oup.com/ps/article/92/5/1164/1573914\n\n'},{id:"B56",body:'\nVasiljević Z, Jovčić B, Ćirković I, DJukić S. An examination of potential differences in biofilm production among different genotypes of Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Archives of Biological Sciences. 2014;66:117-121. Available from: http://www.doiserbia.nb.rs/Article.aspx?ID=0354-46641401117V#.XhmKw9QzbIU\n\n'},{id:"B57",body:'\nEmami S, Nikokar I, Ghasemi Y, Ebrahimpour M, Ebrahim-Saraie HS, Araghian A, et al. Antibiotic resistance pattern and distribution of pslA gene among biofilm producing Pseudomonas aeruginosa isolated from waste water of a burn center. Jundishapur Journal of Microbiology. 2015;8(11):e23669. DOI: 10.5812/jjm.23669\n'},{id:"B58",body:'\nSuriyanarayanan T, Periasamy S, Lin MH, Ishihama Y, Swarup S. Flagellin FliC phosphorylation affects type 2 protease secretion and biofilm dispersal in Pseudomonas aeruginosa PAO1. PLoS One. 2016;11(10):1-19. DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0164155\n'},{id:"B59",body:'\nGümücs D, Kalayci-Yüksek F, Yörük E, Uz G, Çelik E, Arslan C, et al. Alterations of growth rate and gene expression levels of UPEC by antibiotics at sub-MIC. Folia Microbiologia (Praha). 2018;63:451-457. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/29327292\n\n'},{id:"B60",body:'\nRaymond B. Five rules for resistance management in the antibiotic apocalypse, a road map for integrated microbial management. Evolutionary Applications. 2019;12(6):1079-1091. DOI: 10.1111/eva.12808\n'},{id:"B61",body:'\nShahat HS, Mohamed H, Al-Azeem A, Mohammed W, Nasef SA. Molecular detection of some virulence genes in Pseudomonas aeruginosa isolated from chicken embryos and broilers with regard to disinfectant resistance. SVU-International Journal of Veterinary Sciences. 2019;2:52-70. Available from: https://svu.journals.ekb.eg/article_40727_bc49d8a75991c214123ab7c8573d73a4.pdf\n\n'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Azza S. El-Demerdash",address:"dr.azzasalah@yahoo.com",affiliation:'
Agriculture Research Center (ARC), Animal Health Research Institute (AHRI), Egypt
'},{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Neveen R. Bakry",address:null,affiliation:'
Agriculture Research Center (ARC), Animal Health Research Institute (AHRI), Reference Laboratory for Veterinary Quality Control on Poultry Production (RLQCP), Egypt
'}],corrections:null},book:{id:"8992",title:"Gene Expression and Phenotypic Traits",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Gene Expression and Phenotypic Traits",slug:"gene-expression-and-phenotypic-traits",publishedDate:"April 1st 2020",bookSignature:"Yuan-Chuan Chen and Shiu-Jau Chen",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8992.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"185559",title:"Dr.",name:"Yuan-Chuan",middleName:null,surname:"Chen",slug:"yuan-chuan-chen",fullName:"Yuan-Chuan Chen"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},chapters:[{id:"69649",title:"Introductory Chapter: Gene Expression and Phenotypic Traits",slug:"introductory-chapter-gene-expression-and-phenotypic-traits",totalDownloads:319,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Yuan-Chuan Chen",authors:[{id:"185559",title:"Dr.",name:"Yuan-Chuan",middleName:null,surname:"Chen",fullName:"Yuan-Chuan Chen",slug:"yuan-chuan-chen"}]},{id:"68975",title:"Instability of Sex-Determining Systems in Frogs",slug:"instability-of-sex-determining-systems-in-frogs",totalDownloads:277,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Michihiko Ito",authors:[{id:"212370",title:"Dr.",name:"Michihiko",middleName:null,surname:"Ito",fullName:"Michihiko Ito",slug:"michihiko-ito"}]},{id:"65501",title:"Comparison of Sex Determination in Vertebrates (Nonmammals)",slug:"comparison-of-sex-determination-in-vertebrates-nonmammals-",totalDownloads:799,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Aleksandr F. Smirnov and Antonina V. Trukhina",authors:[{id:"276749",title:"Prof.",name:"Aleksander",middleName:null,surname:"Smirnov",fullName:"Aleksander Smirnov",slug:"aleksander-smirnov"},{id:"286055",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonina",middleName:null,surname:"Trukhina",fullName:"Antonina Trukhina",slug:"antonina-trukhina"}]},{id:"71044",title:"Specific Features of Sex Determination in Birds on the Example of Gallus gallus domesticus",slug:"specific-features-of-sex-determination-in-birds-on-the-example-of-em-gallus-gallus-em-domesticus",totalDownloads:204,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Aleksandr Fedorovich Smirnov and Antonina Vladimirovna Trukhina",authors:[{id:"276749",title:"Prof.",name:"Aleksander",middleName:null,surname:"Smirnov",fullName:"Aleksander Smirnov",slug:"aleksander-smirnov"},{id:"286055",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonina",middleName:null,surname:"Trukhina",fullName:"Antonina Trukhina",slug:"antonina-trukhina"}]},{id:"71335",title:"Transcriptional and Epigenetic Regulation of Krüppel-Like Transcription Factors",slug:"transcriptional-and-epigenetic-regulation-of-kr-ppel-like-transcription-factors",totalDownloads:293,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Morgan Salmon",authors:[{id:"307253",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Morgan",middleName:null,surname:"Salmon",fullName:"Morgan Salmon",slug:"morgan-salmon"}]},{id:"69394",title:"Circular RNAs and Its Biological Functions in Health and Disease",slug:"circular-rnas-and-its-biological-functions-in-health-and-disease",totalDownloads:330,totalCrossrefCites:1,signatures:"Atiye Seda Yar Saglam, Ebru Alp and Hacer Ilke Onen",authors:[{id:"65630",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Atiye Seda",middleName:null,surname:"Yar Saglam",fullName:"Atiye Seda Yar Saglam",slug:"atiye-seda-yar-saglam"},{id:"66797",title:"Dr.",name:"Ebru",middleName:null,surname:"Alp",fullName:"Ebru Alp",slug:"ebru-alp"},{id:"118060",title:"Dr.",name:"Ilke",middleName:null,surname:"Onen",fullName:"Ilke Onen",slug:"ilke-onen"}]},{id:"71071",title:"Evaluation of the Synergistic Effect of Amikacin with Cefotaxime against Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Its Biofilm Genes Expression",slug:"evaluation-of-the-synergistic-effect-of-amikacin-with-cefotaxime-against-pseudomonas-aeruginosa-and-",totalDownloads:177,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Azza S. El-Demerdash and Neveen R. Bakry",authors:[{id:"314300",title:"Dr.",name:"Azza",middleName:null,surname:"El-Demerdash",fullName:"Azza El-Demerdash",slug:"azza-el-demerdash"},{id:"316523",title:"Dr.",name:"Neveen",middleName:null,surname:"Bakery",fullName:"Neveen Bakery",slug:"neveen-bakery"}]},{id:"68939",title:"Gene Expression Profile of HDF in SMG Partially Overlaps with That in the NASA Twins Study",slug:"gene-expression-profile-of-hdf-in-smg-partially-overlaps-with-that-in-the-nasa-twins-study",totalDownloads:189,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Jade Q. Clement",authors:[{id:"75025",title:"Dr.",name:"Jade",middleName:"Q.",surname:"Clement",fullName:"Jade Clement",slug:"jade-clement"}]},{id:"69254",title:"Environmental Factors Affecting the Expression of Bilateral-Symmetrical Traits in Plants",slug:"environmental-factors-affecting-the-expression-of-bilateral-symmetrical-traits-in-plants",totalDownloads:181,totalCrossrefCites:1,signatures:"Sergey Baranov, Igor Vinokurov and Lubov Fedorova",authors:[{id:"308314",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergey",middleName:null,surname:"Baranov",fullName:"Sergey Baranov",slug:"sergey-baranov"}]},{id:"68366",title:"Sellafield, Seascale, and Scandinavia: A Legacy of Radioactive Contamination with Future Implications for Gene Evolution in Affected Ecosystems",slug:"sellafield-seascale-and-scandinavia-a-legacy-of-radioactive-contamination-with-future-implications-f",totalDownloads:252,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Chanda Siddoo-Atwal",authors:[{id:"232234",title:"Dr.",name:"Chanda",middleName:null,surname:"Siddoo-Atwal",fullName:"Chanda Siddoo-Atwal",slug:"chanda-siddoo-atwal"},{id:"309464",title:"Dr.",name:"Chanda",middleName:null,surname:"Siddoo-Atwal",fullName:"Chanda Siddoo-Atwal",slug:"chanda-siddoo-atwal"}]}]},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"8891",title:"Gene Editing",subtitle:"Technologies and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"25f0d7de56709fc0558c0bb8212a0d03",slug:"gene-editing-technologies-and-applications",bookSignature:"Yuan-Chuan Chen and Shiu-Jau Chen",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8891.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"185559",title:"Dr.",name:"Yuan-Chuan",surname:"Chen",slug:"yuan-chuan-chen",fullName:"Yuan-Chuan Chen"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},chapters:[{id:"66368",title:"Introductory Chapter: Gene Editing Technologies and Applications",slug:"introductory-chapter-gene-editing-technologies-and-applications",signatures:"Yuan-Chuan Chen",authors:[{id:"185559",title:"Dr.",name:"Yuan-Chuan",middleName:null,surname:"Chen",fullName:"Yuan-Chuan Chen",slug:"yuan-chuan-chen"}]},{id:"67086",title:"Application and Development of CRISPR/Cas9 Technology in Pig Research",slug:"application-and-development-of-crispr-cas9-technology-in-pig-research",signatures:"Huafeng Lin, Qiudi Deng, Lili Li and Lei Shi",authors:[null]},{id:"66549",title:"Possible Production of Genome-Edited Animals Using Gene-Engineered Sperm",slug:"possible-production-of-genome-edited-animals-using-gene-engineered-sperm",signatures:"Masahiro Sato and Shingo Nakamura",authors:[{id:"177444",title:"Dr.",name:"Shingo",middleName:null,surname:"Nakamura",fullName:"Shingo Nakamura",slug:"shingo-nakamura"},{id:"245795",title:"Prof.",name:"Masahiro",middleName:null,surname:"Sato",fullName:"Masahiro Sato",slug:"masahiro-sato"}]},{id:"63557",title:"Molecular Identification of Genetically Modified Crops for Biosafety and Legitimacy of Transgenes",slug:"molecular-identification-of-genetically-modified-crops-for-biosafety-and-legitimacy-of-transgenes",signatures:"Shahid Nazir, Muhammad Zaffar Iqbal and Sajid-ur-Rahman",authors:[null]}]}]},onlineFirst:{chapter:{type:"chapter",id:"70427",title:"Direct Torque Control Strategies of Induction Machine: Comparative Studies",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.90199",slug:"direct-torque-control-strategies-of-induction-machine-comparative-studies",body:'
1. Introduction
Advanced control of electrical machines requires an independent control of magnetic flux and torque. For that reason it was not surprising that the DC machine played an important role in the early days of high-performance electrical drive systems, since the magnetic flux and torque are easily controlled by the stator and rotor current, respectively. The introduction of field oriented control meant a huge turn in the field of electrical drives, since with this type of control the robust induction machine can be controlled with a high performance. Later in the 1980s, a new control method for induction machines was introduced: The direct torque control (DTC) method. It was proposed by Takahashi and Depenbrock [1, 2]. It bases on the direct selecting of the switching states to control the voltage source inverter (VSI) through a switching look-up table. Due to the limits of the conventional DTC strategy, especially the high torque and flux ripples problem, various control structures are presented to improve the performances of control, [3, 4]. The constant switching frequency DTC using the space vector modulation (DTC-SVM) is a well discussed solution; in order to improve the DTC-SVM performances, hysteresis comparators of electromagnetic torque and stator flux have been replaced by PI controllers, [5, 6]. The main drawbacks of DTC-SVM using PI controllers are the sensitivity of the performances to the system-parameter variations and the inadequate rejection of external disturbances and load changes [7, 8, 9, 10, 11]. To cope with this disadvantage, it is suggested to replace the conventional regulators used for the speed control, flux, and electromagnetic torque by intelligent controllers by fuzzy logic to make the controls more robust against the disturbances of the parameters of the machine. The aim of this chapter is to design and compare three strategies for the direct torque control (DTC) of induction motor (IM). The first method is a conventional direct torque control (C-DTC) where the torque and the flux are regulated by the hysteresis controllers. The second one is direct torque control by space vector modulation strategy (SVM-DTC) where the torque and flux are regulated by PI controllers. The third one is fuzzy SVM-DTC with adaptive fuzzy-PI speed controller where the torque and flux are regulated by fuzzy logic controllers. The main feature of the proposed (SVM-DTC) strategy is the reduction of torque and flux ripples.
2. Model of induction motor dedicated for direct torque control
The mathematical model of induction motor can be described in the stator fixed reference frame (α,β) (stationary frame) by assuming the rotor and the stator flux as state variables:
dXdt=AX+BUE1
with
X=ϕsαϕsβϕrαϕrβ, A=−RsσLs0MRsοLrLs00−RsσLs0MRsοLrLsMRrοLrLs0−RrσLr−ω0MRrοLrLsω−RrσLr, B=10010000 and U=vsαvsβ where
ϕsα, ϕsβ, ϕrα, ϕrβ are stator and rotor flux components.
Rs, Rr are stator and rotor resistance.
Ls, Lr are stator and rotor inductance.
M is the mutual stator-rotor inductance.
σ=1−M2LrLs is the Blondel’s coefficient.
ω is the machine speed (ω=pΩ=ωs‐ωr and p is the pole pair number).
The rotor motion can be described by:
JdΩdt=Tem−TL−fΩE2
where J is the motor inertia, Tem is the electromagnetic torque, TL is the load torque, and f is the friction coefficient.
3. Two-level voltage source inverter (VSI) model
Two-level three-phase voltage source inverter (VSI) is considered as a mature technology and becoming an industrial standard for the demand for energy saving. The output phase voltages are produced by the rectifier (Vdc) is delivered to the inverter input, which, thanks to controlled transistor switches, converts this voltage to three-phase AC voltage signal with wide range variable voltage amplitude and frequency.
The type of the used switches depends on the power of the inverter and switching frequency. In the most applications, IGBT transistors with antiparallel diodes are so helpful.
The model of two-level voltage inverter is shown in Figure 1.
Figure 1.
Three-phase VSI fed star-connected induction machine.
Figure 1 shows the two-level three-phase voltage source inverter (VSI) with six transistor switches, S1–S6, and a dc constant voltage source Vdc connecting a three-phase load.
The voltage vector is generated by the following equation:
V→s=23VdcS+aSebj2π3+Secj4π3E3
where Sa, Sb, and Sc are three-phase inverter switching functions, which can take a logical value of either 0 or 1.
4. Principles of direct torque control
Direct torque control principle was introduced in the late 1980s by [1, 2]. It achieves a decoupled control of the stator flux and the electromagnetic torque in the stationary frame (α, β), and it allows induction machines to have an accurate and fast electromagnetic torque response. It uses a switching table for the selection of an appropriate voltage vector. The selection of the switching states is related directly to the variation of the stator flux and the torque of the machine. Hence, the selection is made by restricting the flux and torque magnitudes within two hysteresis bands. Those controllers ensure a separated regulation of both of these quantities [12, 13, 14]. The inputs of hysteresis controllers are the flux and the torque errors as well as their outputs determine the appropriate voltage vector for each commutation period.
5. Estimation of stator flux and electromagnetic torque
5.1 Control of stator flux
Basing on the induction motor model in stationary frame, the stator flux equation can be expressed as follows [15, 16, 17, 18, 19]:
ϕsα=∫vsα−Rsisαdtϕsβ=∫vsβ−RsisβdtE4
Considering that the control of the switches of the inverter is done by control period (or sampling) Te and that at each of these periods the states Sa, Sb, and Sc are kept constant, the method of numerical integration of the rectangles makes it possible to obtain an expression of the sample k + 1 of the stator flux in the following form:
A vector inscription of this expression can be given by:
ϕ→sk+1=ϕ→sk+V→sk−RsI→skTeE6
We can neglect the stator resistance voltage drop compared to Vs for high speed regions. Then Eq. (6) can be written as:
ϕ→sk+1=ϕ→sk+V→skTeE7
Eq. (7) means that the stator flux can be changed by the application of stator voltage during a time k. The stator flux vector’s extremity moves in direction given by the voltage vector and making a circular trajectory.
A two-level hysteresis comparator is used for flux regulation. It allows to drop easily the flux vector extremity within the limits of the two concentric circles with close radius. The choice of the hysteresis bandwidth depends on the switching frequency of the inverter Figures 2 and 3.
Figure 2.
Evolution of stator flux vector in the complex plan.
Figure 3.
Two-level hysteresis comparator for stator flux control.
The logical outputs of the flux controller are defined as:
Cflx=1ifΔϕs>hϕsCflx=0ifΔϕs≤−hϕsE8
where hϕs is hysteresis band of stator flux.
The stator flux error is defined by the difference between the reference value of flux and the actual estimated value:
Δϕs=ϕs∗−ϕsE9
5.2 Control of electromagnetic torque
During one sampling period, the rotor flux vector is supposed invariant. The rotor and stator flux vectors are linked by the following relation:
ϕr=MLs.11+jσωTrϕsE10
The angle between these two vectors is given by:
δ=ArctangσωTrE11
Finally, between the modules of the two flux vectors, we have the following relation:
ϕr=MLs.11+σωTr2ϕsE12
The general expression of electromagnetic torque is given by:
Tem=pMσLsLrϕs.ϕr∗E13
Tem=pMσLsLrϕs.ϕrSinδE14
where:
p is the number of poles pairs.
ϕs,ϕr are stator and rotor flux vectors.
δ angle between the stator and rotor flux vectors.
From expression (14), it is clear that the electromagnetic torque is controlled by the stator and rotor flux amplitudes. If those quantities are maintaining constant, the torque can be controlled by adjusting the load angle δ.
The torque regulation can be realized using three-level hysteresis comparator.
The torque error is defined by the difference between the references values of the torque and the actual estimated values:
ΔTem=Tem∗−TemE16
6. Estimation of stator flux and electromagnetic torque
6.1 Stator flux estimation
The amplitude of the stator flux is estimated from its two-phase components ϕsα and ϕsβ:
ϕs=ϕsα2+ϕsβ2E17
Or ϕsα and ϕsβ are estimated using Eq. (4) which requires knowledge of the components of the stator current vector isα and isβ and that of the vector stator voltage vsα and vsβ.
The stator voltage components vsα and vsβ are obtained by applying Concordia transformation on the output voltage of the three-phase VSI which are given by:
vsα=23VdcSa−12Sb+Scvsβ=12VdcSb−ScE18
The stator currents components isα and isβ can be obtained also by applying Concordia transformation on the measured currents:
isα=32isaisβ=12isb−iscE19
6.2 Electromagnetic torque estimation
The produced electromagnetic torque of the induction motor can be determined using the cross product of the stator quantities (i.e., stator flux and stator currents). The torque formula is expressed as the following:
Tem=pϕsαisβ−ϕsβisαE20
7. Switching table construction and control algorithm design
To maintain a decoupled control, a pair of hysteresis comparators receives the stator flux and torque errors as inputs. Then, the comparators outputs determine the appropriate voltage vector selection. However, the choice of voltage vector is not only depending on the output of hysteresis controllers but on the position of stator flux vector also. Thus, the circular stator flux vector trajectory will be divided into six symmetrical sectors (Table 1).
Increases
Decreases
ϕs
Vi−1 and Vi+1
Vi+2 and Vi−2
Tem
Vi+1 and Vi+2
Vi−1 and Vi−2
Table 1.
Generalized switching table.
For each sector, the vectors (Vi and V3+i) are not considered because both of them can increase or decrease the torque in the same sector according to the position of flux vector on the first or the second sector. If the zero vectors V0 and V7 are selected, the stator flux will stop moving, its magnitude will not change, and the electromagnetic torque will decrease, but not as much as when the active voltage vectors are selected. The resulting look-up table for DTC which was proposed by Takahashi is presented in Table 2.
Flux
Torque
1
2
3
4
5
6
Comparator
Cflx = 1
Ctrq = 1
V2
V3
V4
V5
V6
V1
Two-level
Ctrq = 0
V7
V0
V7
V0
V7
V0
Ctrq = −1
V6
V1
V2
V3
V4
V5
Three-level
Cflx = 0
Ctrq = 1
V3
V4
V5
V6
V1
V2
Two-level
Ctrq = 0
V0
V7
V0
V7
V0
V7
Ctrq = −1
V5
V6
V1
V2
V3
V4
Three-level
Table 2.
Look-up table for basic direct torque control.
8. Global scheme of conventional direct torque control
The global control scheme of conventional direct torque control strategy is shown in Figure 5. It is composed of speed regulation loop; the proportional-integral (PI) controller is used for the regulation. It is performed by comparing the speed reference signal to the actual measured speed value. Then the comparison error becomes the input of the PI controller. The pole placement method is used to determine the controller gains. The used PI controller in our work in the outer speed loop is the anti-windup controller. It allows to enhance speed control performance by canceling the windup phenomenon which is caused by the saturation of the pure integrator [20]. Figure 6 shows the speed anti-windup PI controller diagram block.
Figure 5.
Global control scheme of basic direct torque control.
Figure 6.
Speed anti-windup PI controller.
This strategy consists on the correction of the integral action based on the difference between the control signal and the saturation limit. The difference value is passed through a gain block (tracking time constant Ti) before arriving as feedback to the integrator. As well flux and torque hysteresis controllers, look-up switching table, an association of VSI-Induction motor, voltage and current calculation blocks with 3/2 (Concordia) transformation and flux/torque estimators with position/sector determination.
9. Constant switching frequency direct torque control using SVM
The conventional direct torque control has several disadvantages, among which the variable switching frequency and the high level of ripples. Consequently, they lead to high-current harmonics and an acoustical noise and they degrade the control performance especially at low speed values. The ripples are affected proportionally by the width of the hysteresis band. However, even with choosing a reduced bandwidth values, the ripples are still important due to the discrete nature of the hysteresis controllers. Moreover, the very small values of bandwidths increase inverter switching frequency. In order to overcome these drawbacks, most of the studies presented in the literature have been oriented towards modification in the conventional DTC method by the introduction of a vector modulator [21, 22]. The vector PWM technique (SVM) is used to apply a voltage vector with a fixed switching frequency. The control system consists of replacing the switching table and the hysteresis comparators with proportional and integrating controllers (PI) for controlling the stator flux and the electromagnetic torque, [6, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27]. The main drawbacks of DTC-SVM using PI controllers are the sensitivity of the performances to the system-parameter variations and the inadequate rejection of external disturbances and load changes [28, 29]. To cope with this disadvantage, it is suggested to replace the conventional regulators used for the speed control, flux, and electromagnetic torque by intelligent controllers by adaptive fuzzy-PI and fuzzy logic to make the control more robust against the disturbances of the parameters of the machine.
9.1 Space vector modulation algorithm
This technique is much requested in the field of control in that the reference voltages are given by a global control vector approximated over a modulation period Tz. The principle of SVM is the prediction of inverter voltage vector by the projection of the reference vector Vs∗ between adjacent vectors corresponding to two non-zero switching states. For two-level inverters, the switching vector diagram forms a hexagon divided into six sectors, each one is expanded by 60° as shown in Figure 7.
Figure 7.
Diagram of voltage space vector.
The application time for each vector can be obtained by vector calculations, and the rest of the time period will be spent by applying the null vector.
When the reference voltage is in sector 1 (Figure 8), it can be synthesized by using the vectors V1, V2, and V0 (zero vector).
Figure 8.
Reference vector as a combination of adjacent vectors at sector 1.
The determination of times T1 and T2 corresponding to voltage vectors are obtained by simple projections (Figure 9).
Figure 9.
Switching times of sector 1.
T1=6⋅Vsα−2⋅Vsβ2VdcTE21
T2=2⋅VsβVdc⋅TE22
where Vdc is the DC bus voltage.
T1, T2, and T0 are the corresponding application times of the voltage vectors, respectively. Tz is the sampling time.
Figure 10 shows the global block diagram of DTC with SVM.
Figure 10.
Global control scheme of SVM-direct torque control with PI controller.
9.2 Principle of fuzzy direct torque control
The complete block diagram DTC-SVM improvement of induction motor drive with fuzzy logic controller is shown in Figure 11. The practical difficulty with PI controllers has been addressed in the previous section. The PI controllers are being replaced by fuzzy logic controllers that generates the module and the voltage vector angle in order to bring the stator flux and the electromagnetic torque to references optimally; this vector is used by a PWM control vector to generate the pulses for the control of the switches of the inverter, and PI speed controller is replaced by the adaptive fuzzy-PI speed controller to offer a good insensitivity to parameter variations, to get better response in external disturbance rejection and fast dynamics.
Figure 11.
Global control scheme of SVM-direct torque control with fuzzy logic controllers and adaptive fuzzy-PI speed controller.
9.2.1 Selecting the position of the voltage vector
The position of the reference voltage vector with respect to the stator flux vector must be chosen so as to maintain the stator flux and the electromagnetic torque in an optimal error band around their reference value. The errors of torque and flux are multiplied by “scales factors” to obtain standardized sizes and functions. These values are used by the fuzzification block to be transformed into fuzzy values. These are used by the block fuzzy control rules after defuzzification; the value of (ψ) which must be added to the angle of the stator flux [30, 31, 32] (Figure 12).
Figure 12.
Controller structure for estimating the angle (ψ).
9.2.2 Selection of the voltage vector magnitude
The voltage vector module must be selected to minimize the error of torque and flux. A fuzzy logic controller is designed to generate the appropriate voltage vector magnitude (Figure 13).
Figure 13.
Controller structure for voltage vector module estimation.
9.2.3 Selection of the voltage vector magnitude
The voltage vector obtained from the characteristic comes to the vector modulation V¯s=fεTem which in turn generates the states, and switches using Vα, Vβ the following algorithm:
Calculate the biphasic components of the desired voltage vector using the following equations [30, 31, 32]:
Vsα=VscosθVsβ=VssinθE23
Calculation of the area where the desired voltage vector is.
Get the switching vectors and their operating cycle. Then calculate the operating cycle of the null switching vector t0=1−t1−t2.
Calculation of the relative position of the clock (PRH) in the sampling time by using the following equations:
PRH=Remt/Ts/Ts.E24
9.2.4 The speed control of the IM by an adaptive fuzzy-PI controller
In what follows, we show the synthesis and description of the adaptation of the PI controller by a fuzzy system method:
The fuzzy inference mechanism adjusts the PI parameters and generates new parameters during the process control. It enlarges the operating area of the linear controller (PI) so that it also works with a nonlinear system [33, 34].
The inputs of the fuzzy adapter are the error (e) and the derivative of error (Δe); the outputs are the normalized value of the proportional action (kp′) and the normalized value of the integral action (ki′).
The normalization PI parameters are given by:
kp′=kp−kpmin/kpmax−kpminE25
ki′=ki−kimin/kimax−kiminE26
The parameters kp′ and ki′ are determined by a set of fuzzy rules of the form:
IfeisAiandΔeisBi,thenkp\'isCi,andki\'isDiE27
where Ai, Bi, Ci, and Di are fuzzy sets on corresponding supporting sets.
The associated fuzzy sets involved in the fuzzy control rules are defined as follows:
PB
Positive big
NB
Negative big
B
Big
PM
Positive medium
NM
Negative medium
ZE
Zero
PS
Positive small
NS
Negative small
S
Small
The membership functions for the fuzzy sets corresponding to the error e and Δe and the adjusted proportional and integral terms (kp′ and ki′) are defined in Figures 14 and 15.
Figure 14.
Membership functions e and Δe.
Figure 15.
Membership functions kp′ and ki′.
By using the membership functions shown in Figure 15, we satisfy the following condition.
∑1mυi=1E28
The fuzzy outputs kp′ and ki′ can be calculated by the center of area defuzzification as:
where C=c1…c2 is the vector containing the output fuzzy centers of the membership functions, W=w1⋯w2/∑i=12wi is the firing strength vector,
and υi represents the membership value of the output kp′ or ki′ to output fuzzy set i.
Once the values of kp′ and ki′ are obtained (Tables 3 and 4), the new parameters of PI controller is calculated by the following equations:
e
Δe
NB
NM
NS
ZE
PS
PM
PB
NB
B
B
B
B
B
B
B
NM
S
B
B
B
B
B
S
NS
S
S
B
B
B
S
S
ZE
S
S
S
B
S
S
S
PS
S
S
B
B
B
S
S
PM
S
B
B
B
B
B
S
PB
B
B
B
B
B
B
B
Table 3.
Fuzzy rule base for computing kp′.
e
Δe
NB
NM
NS
ZE
PS
PM
PB
NB
B
B
B
B
B
B
B
NM
B
S
S
S
S
S
B
NS
B
B
S
S
S
B
B
ZE
B
B
B
S
B
B
B
PS
B
B
S
S
S
B
B
PM
B
S
S
S
S
S
B
PB
B
B
B
B
B
B
B
Table 4.
Fuzzy rules base for computing ki′.
kp=kpmax−kpminkp′+kpminE30
ki=kimax−kiminki′+kiminE31
10. Simulation results
The DTC control algorithms have been simulated by MATLAB/Simulink software. A comparative study between the three strategies for the direct torque control (DTC) of induction motor (IM) is presented. The first method is a conventional direct torque control (C-DTC) where the torque and the flux are regulated by the hysteresis controllers. The second one is direct torque control by space vector modulation strategy (SVM-DTC) where the torque and flux are regulated by PI controllers. The third one is fuzzy SVM-DTC with adaptive fuzzy-PI speed controller where the torque and flux are regulated by fuzzy logic controllers is presented. The simulation has been conducted for a three-phase 1.5 kW squirrel-cage induction motor with characteristics given in the appendix. The starting up and the steady states of the controlled motor with load introduction are presented. For the classical DTC, the chosen bandwidths of the hysteresis controllers are ±0.01 Wb for flux and ±0.1 Nm for torque.
This section presents the starting up state of the induction motor according to speed step reference of 1000 rpm. Then, a load of 10 Nm is suddenly applied between (t = 1 s) and (t = 2 s).
Figures 16 and 17 show, respectively, rotor speed, torque, stator phase current isa, flux magnitude, and the circular trajectory.
Figure 16.
Simulation results of the classical DTC control applied to IM.
Figure 17.
Simulation results of the SVM-DTC control applied to IM. (a) SVM-DTC-PI. (b) SVM-DTC- Fuzzy.
Figures 16 and 17(a) illustrate the comparison between speed responses of conventional DTC and SVM-DTC-PI, according to the speed reference step of 1000 rpm. The load disturbance has been introduced between (t = 1 s) and (t = 2 s). The results of Figure 16 show that the conventional DTC technique gives a good dynamic at starting up. We can notice that the speed regulation loop rejects the applied load disturbance quickly. The SVM-DTC-PI in Figure 17(a) kept the same fast speed response of DTC strategy. Since the same PI speed controller is used for both schemes, there is no difference in the transient response.
Then, the results illustrate the torque responses with load application. The figures show that at the beginning the speed controller (PI anti-windup) operates the system at the physical limit. It can be seen clearly that the constant switching frequency-based DTC strategy in Figure 17(a) has a reducer ripples level owing to the use of SVM compared to the conventional DTC in Figure 16, where it is observed that the high torque ripples exceed the hysteresis boundary. Next, the stator phase current with zoom is presented. The conventional DTC in Figure 16 shows a chopped sinusoid waveform of current which indicates a high harmonic level, while SVM-DTC in Figure 17(a) shows a smoother sinusoid waveform. After that, the results exhibit the magnitude of stator flux evolution and circular trajectory. It is clear that the flux ripples of the conventional DTC have exceeded the hysteresis boundary. The magnitude and the trajectory illustrate that the flux takes a few steps before reaching the reference value (1.2 Wb) at the starting stage due to the zone’s changing.
The simulation in Figure 17(b) shows that the SVM-DTC-fuzzy has better performance than those obtained by both other DTC strategies (conventional and SVM-PI). There is an appreciable decrease in the start-up response time; we can notice that the speed regulation loop rejects the applied load disturbance very quickly which proves the performance of adaptive fuzzy-PI controller as well as a significant attenuation of the ripples of the torque and of the sinusoidal current without any ripple in the steady state.
11. Conclusion
The main objective of this chapter is the improvement of the performance of an induction motor drive controlled by DTC. The objective of this improvement is to minimize the ripples of the couple and the flux of the IM on the one hand and the decrease of the switching frequency of the inverter on the other hand. In this context, a comparative analysis between different DTC strategies has been presented. This chapter began by explaining the principle of the conventional DTC, SVM-DTC-PI, and SVM-DTC-fuzzy with adaptive Fuzzy-PI speed controller. The chapter presents later a discussion based on the simulation results presented in the same work. The synthesis of this simulation study reveals advantages of SVM-DTC-fuzzy scheme compared to the two strategies: conventional DTC and SVM-DTC-PI. It has been observed by comparing the torque, speed, and stator flux characteristics that the method SVM-DTC-fuzzy is better. It is clear that the current is sinusoidal without any ripple in the steady state and torque ripples are reduced. In order to improve the SVM-DTC-fuzzy to have better performances, this method has been associated to the adaptive fuzzy-PI speed controller. This association makes the induction motor-based DTC perform more and more stable; there is an appreciable decrease in the start-up response time; we can notice that the speed regulation loop rejects the applied load disturbance very quickly.
Item
Symbol
Data
IM mechanical power
PW
1.5 kw
Nominal speed
ω
1420 rpm
Nominal frequency
f
50 Hz
Pole pair number
P
2
Stator resistance
Rs
4.85 Ω
Rotor resistance
Rr
3.805 Ω
Stator self-inductance
Ls
274 mH
Rotor self-inductance
Lr
274 mH
Mutual inductance
Lm
258 mH
Moment of inertia
J
0.031 kg m2
Friction coefficient
F
0.00114 kg m2/s
\n',keywords:"induction motor, conventional direct torque control (DTC), space vector modulation, DTC-SVM, fuzzy-PI speed controller",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/70427.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/70427.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/70427",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/70427",totalDownloads:349,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:1,dateSubmitted:"May 24th 2019",dateReviewed:"October 17th 2019",datePrePublished:"January 24th 2020",datePublished:"January 20th 2021",dateFinished:"December 12th 2019",readingETA:"0",abstract:"The direct torque control (DTC) was proposed as an alternative to the vector control in the middle of 1980s for AC machine control. This strategy bases on the direct determination of inverter switching states and offers a simpler scheme and less sensitivity to machine parameters. However, the variable switching frequency of DTC causes high flux and torque ripples which lead to an acoustical noise and degrade the performance of the control technique, especially at low-speed regions. In the objective of improving the performance of DTC for the induction motor, this work addresses the most important points concerning this issue. The reduction of high ripples, which are the major drawbacks, by applying a constant switching frequency using the space vector modulation (SVM) has been done firstly. Then, fuzzy DTC-SVM strategy with adaptive fuzzy-PI speed controller has been proposed. The results of all the discussed aspects of this chapter have been obtained by numerical simulation using MATLAB/Simulink software.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/70427",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/70427",signatures:"Cherifi Djamila and Miloud Yahia",book:{id:"8686",title:"Direct Torque Control Strategies of Electrical Machines",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Direct Torque Control Strategies of Electrical Machines",slug:"direct-torque-control-strategies-of-electrical-machines",publishedDate:"January 20th 2021",bookSignature:"Fatma Ben Salem",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8686.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"295623",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Fatma",middleName:null,surname:"Ben Salem",slug:"fatma-ben-salem",fullName:"Fatma Ben Salem"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"306238",title:"Dr.",name:"Cherifi",middleName:null,surname:"Djamila",fullName:"Cherifi Djamila",slug:"cherifi-djamila",email:"d_cherifi@yahoo.fr",position:null,institution:null},{id:"310114",title:"Prof.",name:"Miloud",middleName:null,surname:"Yahia",fullName:"Miloud Yahia",slug:"miloud-yahia",email:"docteur.cherifi@yahoo.fr",position:null,institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Model of induction motor dedicated for direct torque control",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Two-level voltage source inverter (VSI) model",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4",title:"4. Principles of direct torque control",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5",title:"5. Estimation of stator flux and electromagnetic torque",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"5.1 Control of stator flux",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"5.2 Control of electromagnetic torque",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8",title:"6. Estimation of stator flux and electromagnetic torque",level:"1"},{id:"sec_8_2",title:"6.1 Stator flux estimation",level:"2"},{id:"sec_9_2",title:"6.2 Electromagnetic torque estimation",level:"2"},{id:"sec_11",title:"7. Switching table construction and control algorithm design",level:"1"},{id:"sec_12",title:"8. Global scheme of conventional direct torque control",level:"1"},{id:"sec_13",title:"9. Constant switching frequency direct torque control using SVM",level:"1"},{id:"sec_13_2",title:"9.1 Space vector modulation algorithm",level:"2"},{id:"sec_14_2",title:"9.2 Principle of fuzzy direct torque control",level:"2"},{id:"sec_14_3",title:"9.2.1 Selecting the position of the voltage vector",level:"3"},{id:"sec_15_3",title:"9.2.2 Selection of the voltage vector magnitude",level:"3"},{id:"sec_16_3",title:"9.2.3 Selection of the voltage vector magnitude",level:"3"},{id:"sec_17_3",title:"9.2.4 The speed control of the IM by an adaptive fuzzy-PI controller",level:"3"},{id:"sec_20",title:"10. Simulation results",level:"1"},{id:"sec_21",title:"11. Conclusion",level:"1"},{id:"sec_23",title:"",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Takahashi, Noguchi T. A new quick-response and high-efficiency control strategy of an induction motor. IEEE Transactions on Industry Applications., Vol.22, No.5, pp.820–827, 1986. DOI: 10.1109/TIA.1986.4504799'},{id:"B2",body:'Depenbrock M. Direct self control (DSC) of inverter fed induction machine. IEEE Transactions on Power Electronics. 1988;3(4):420-429. DOI: 10.1109/63.17963'},{id:"B3",body:'Ammar A, Benakcha A, Bourek A. Closed loop torque SVM-DTC based on robust super twisting speed controller for induction motor drive with efficiency optimization. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy. 2017:1-13. DOI: 10.1016/j.ijhydene.2017.04.034'},{id:"B4",body:'Lazim MT, Al-Khishali MJM, Al-Shawi AI. Space vector modulation direct torque speed control of induction motor. Procedia Computer Science. 2011;5:505-512. DOI: 10.1016/j.procs.2011.07.065'},{id:"B5",body:'Habetler Thomas G, Profumo F, Pastorelli M, Tolbert Leon M. Direct torque control of induction machines using space vector modulation. IEEE Transactions on Industry Applications. 1992;28(5):1045-1053. DOI: 10.1109/28.158828'},{id:"B6",body:'Hassan Farhan R, Nadia Tan ML, Koh SP, Abdalla AN, Chong KH, Tiong SK. DTC-SVM based on PI torque and PI flux controllers to achieve high performance of induction motor. Research Journal of Applied Sciences, Engineering and Technology. 2014;7(4):875-891. DOI: 10.19026/rjaset.7.330'},{id:"B7",body:'Krim S, Gdaim S, Mtibaa A, Mimoun MF. FPGA-based DTC-SVM: A comparative study between two approaches. IEEE. 2016. DOI: 10.1109/CEIT.2016.7929060'},{id:"B8",body:'Yu H, Chen Z. Three-phase induction motor DTC-SVPWM scheme with self-tuning PI-type fuzzy controller. International Journal of Computer and Communication Engineering. 2015;4(3). DOI: 10.17706/IJCCE.2015.4.3.204-210'},{id:"B9",body:'Ben Salem F, Derbel N. Direct torque control of induction motors based on discrete space vector modulation using adaptive sliding mode control. International Journal of Electric Power Components and Systems. 2014;42(14):1598-1610. DOI: 10.1080/15325008.2014.927029'},{id:"B10",body:'Ben Salem F, Derbel N. Performance analysis of DTC-SVM sliding mode controllers-based parameters estimator of electric motor speed drive. Mathematical Problems in Engineering. 2014:1-11. DOI: 10.1155/2014/127128. Article ID 127128'},{id:"B11",body:'Ben Salem F, Derbel N. Chapter 14: DTC-SVM based sliding mode controllers with load torque estimators for induction motor drives. In: Applications of Sliding Mode Control, Studies in Systems, Decision and Control 79. Singapore: Springer Science+Business Media; 2017. pp. 269-297. DOI: 10.1007/978-981-10-2374-3_14'},{id:"B12",body:'Brandstetter P, Chlebis P, Palacky P. Direct torque control of induction motor with direct calculation of voltage vector. Advances in Electrical and Computer Engineering Journal. 2010;10(4):17-22. DOI: 10.4316/aece.2010.04003'},{id:"B13",body:'Carmelia S, Maurib M. Direct torque control as variable structure control: Existence conditions verification and analysis. Electric Power Systems Research. 2011;81:1188-1196. DOI: 10.1016/j.epsr.2011.01.007'},{id:"B14",body:'Kuo-Kai S, Juu-Kuh L, Van-Truong P, Ming-Ji Y, Te-Wei W. Global minimum torque ripple design for direct torque control of induction motor drives. IEEE Transactions on Industrial Electronics. 2010;57(9):3148-3156. DOI: 10.1109/TIE.2009.2038401'},{id:"B15",body:'Nash JN. Direct torque control, induction motor vector control without an encoder. IEEE Transactions on Industry Applications. 1997;33(2):333-341. DOI: 10.1109/28.567792'},{id:"B16",body:'Tiitinen P, Pohkalainen P, Lalu J. The next generation motor control method: Direct torque control (DTC). European Power Electronics and Drives. 1995;5(1):14-18. DOI: 10.1080/09398368.1995.11463357'},{id:"B17",body:'Kazmierkowski MP, Kasprowicz A. Improved direct torque and flux vector control of PWM inverter-fed induction motor drives. IEEE Transactions on Industrial Electronics. 1995;45(4):344-350. DOI: 10.1109/41.402472'},{id:"B18",body:'Buja GS, Kazmierkowski MP. Direct torque control of PWM inverter-fed AC motors—A survey. IEEE Transactions on Industrial Electronics. 2004;51(4):744-757. DOI: 10.1109/TIE.2004.831717'},{id:"B19",body:'Yuttana K, Suttichai P, Hamid AT. Modified direct torque control method for induction motor drives based on amplitude and angle control of stator flux. Journal of Electric Power Systems Research. 2008;78(10):1712-1718. DOI: 10.1016/j.epsr.2008.02.015'},{id:"B20",body:'Yang M, Tang S, Xu D. Comments on Antiwindup strategy for PI-type speed controller. IEEE Transactions on Industrial Electronics. 2015;62(2):1329-1332. DOI: 10.1109/TIE.2014.2363626'},{id:"B21",body:'Jose L, Azcue P, Ernesto R. Three-phase induction motor DTC-SVM scheme with self-tuning PI-type fuzzy controller. In: International Conference on FSKD. 2010. DOI: 10.1109/FSKD.2010.5569358'},{id:"B22",body:'Lascu C, Trzynadlowski AM. Combining the principles of sliding mode, direct torque control, and space-vector modulation in a high-performance sensorless AC drive. IEEE Transactions on Industry Applications. 2004;40(1):170-177. DOI: 10.1109/TIA.2003.821667'},{id:"B23",body:'Kyo-Beum L, Blaabjerg F. An improved DTC-SVM method for sensorless matrix converter drives using an over modulation strategy and a simple nonlinearity compensation. IEEE Transactions on Industrial Electronics. 2007;54(6):3155-3166. DOI: 10.1109/TIE.2007.905914'},{id:"B24",body:'Bounadja M, Belarbi A, Belmadani B. A high-performance space vector modulation—Direct torque controlled induction machine drive based on stator flux orientation technique. Advances in Electrical and Computer Engineering. 2009;9(2):28-33. DOI: 10.4316/aece.2009.02005'},{id:"B25",body:'Bo L, Gui-Fang G, Xiao-Hong H, Xiao-Ning L. Novel torque ripple minimization algorithm for direct torque control of induction motor drive. Journal of Shanghai University. 2009;13(2):155-163. DOI: 10.1007/s11741-009-0213-3'},{id:"B26",body:'Rashag HF, Koh SP, Chong KH, Tiong SK, Tan NML, Abdalla AN. High performance of space vector modulation direct torque control SVM-DTC based on amplitude voltage and stator flux angle. Research Journal of Applied Sciences, Engineering and Technology. 2013;5(15):3934-3940. DOI: 10.19026/rjaset.5.4455'},{id:"B27",body:'Subodh KB, Kiran KJ. Five-phase induction motor DTC-SVM scheme with PI controller and ANN controller. Procedia Technology. 2016:816-823. DOI: 10.1016/j.protcy.2016.08.184'},{id:"B28",body:'Gadoue SM, Giaouris D, Finch JW. Artificial intelligence-based speed control of DTC induction motor drives—A comparative study. Electric Power Systems Research. 2009:210-219. DOI: 10.1016/j.epsr.2008.05.024'},{id:"B29",body:'El Ouanjli N, Derouich A, El Ghzizal A, Motahhir S, Chebabhi A, El Mourabit Y, et al. Modern improvement techniques of direct torque control for induction motor drives—A review. Protection and Control of Modern Power Systems. 2019:1-12. DOI: 10.1186/s41601-019-0125-5'},{id:"B30",body:'Uddin M, Hafeez M. FLC-based DTC scheme to improve the dynamic performance of an IM drive. IEEE Transactions on Industry Applications. 2012;48(2):823-831. DOI: 10.1109/TIA.2011.2181287'},{id:"B31",body:'Ouledali O, Meroufel A, Wira P, Bentouba S. Direct torque fuzzy control of PMSM based on SVM. Energy Procedia. 2015:1314-1322. DOI: 10.1016/j.egypro.2015.07.778'},{id:"B32",body:'Nour MO, Tedjini HA. Improved fuzzy logic control strategy of induction machine based on direct torque control. International Journal of Mechatronics, Electrical and Computer Technology (IJMEC). DOI: 649123/10.225134'},{id:"B33",body:'Bousserhane IK, Hazzab A, Rahli M, Kamli M, Mazari B. Adaptive PI controller using fuzzy system optimized by genetic algorithm for induction motor control. IEEE. 2006:1-8. DOI: 10.1109/CIEP.2006.312162'},{id:"B34",body:'Laroussi K, Zelmat M. Implementation of a fuzzy logic system to tune a PI controller applied to induction motor. Advances in Electrical and Computer Engineering. 2009;9(3):107-113. DOI: 10.4316/aece.2009.03019'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Cherifi Djamila",address:"d_cherifi@yahoo.fr",affiliation:'
GACA Laboratory, University of Dr Moulay Tahar, Saida, Algeria
GACA Laboratory, University of Dr Moulay Tahar, Saida, Algeria
'}],corrections:null},book:{id:"8686",title:"Direct Torque Control Strategies of Electrical Machines",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Direct Torque Control Strategies of Electrical Machines",slug:"direct-torque-control-strategies-of-electrical-machines",publishedDate:"January 20th 2021",bookSignature:"Fatma Ben Salem",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8686.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"295623",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Fatma",middleName:null,surname:"Ben Salem",slug:"fatma-ben-salem",fullName:"Fatma Ben Salem"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}},profile:{item:{id:"155090",title:"Prof.",name:"Zhaojun",middleName:null,surname:"Yang",email:"yzj@jlu.edu.cn",fullName:"Zhaojun Yang",slug:"zhaojun-yang",position:null,biography:null,institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",totalCites:0,totalChapterViews:"0",outsideEditionCount:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalEditedBooks:"0",personalWebsiteURL:null,twitterURL:null,linkedinURL:null,institution:null},booksEdited:[],chaptersAuthored:[{title:"Design, Analysis and Experiments of a Novel in situ SEM Indentation Device",slug:"design-analysis-and-experiments-of-a-novel-in-situ-sem-indentation-device",abstract:null,signatures:"Hongwei Zhao, Hu Huang, Zunqiang Fan, Zhaojun Yang and Zhichao Ma",authors:[{id:"35374",title:"Prof.",name:"Hu",surname:"Huang",fullName:"Hu Huang",slug:"hu-huang",email:"huanghuzy@163.com"},{id:"53835",title:"Prof.",name:"Hongwei",surname:"Zhao",fullName:"Hongwei Zhao",slug:"hongwei-zhao",email:"hwzhao@jlu.edu.cn"},{id:"142395",title:"Dr.",name:"Zunqiang",surname:"Fan",fullName:"Zunqiang Fan",slug:"zunqiang-fan",email:"fanzunq@jlu.edu.cn"},{id:"142396",title:"Dr.",name:"Zhichao",surname:"Ma",fullName:"Zhichao Ma",slug:"zhichao-ma",email:"455090724@qq.com"},{id:"155090",title:"Prof.",name:"Zhaojun",surname:"Yang",fullName:"Zhaojun Yang",slug:"zhaojun-yang",email:"yzj@jlu.edu.cn"}],book:{title:"Nanoindentation in Materials Science",slug:"nanoindentation-in-materials-science",productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume"}}}],collaborators:[{id:"35374",title:"Prof.",name:"Hu",surname:"Huang",slug:"hu-huang",fullName:"Hu Huang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/35374/images/system/35374.jpg",biography:"Dr. Hu Huang received his B.E. and Ph.D. degrees in mechanical engineering from Jilin University, China, in 2010 and 2014, respectively. Supported by the Japan Society for the Promotion of Science (JSPS), he worked as a research fellow at Keio University from 2014 to 2017. He is currently a full professor at Jilin University. His research interests include precision machines and instruments, mechanical properties of materials, and surface modification of materials. He has published more than 70 journal papers which are indexed by the Science Citation Index Expanded (Web of Science). He is the senior member of Chinese Mechanical Engineering Society, and a member of International Society of Bionic Engineering. He works as the invited reviewer for 30 ISI journals such as IEEE/ASME Transactions on Mechatronics, IEEE Transactions on Industrial Electronics, Review of Scientific Instruments, Mechanical Systems and Signal Processing, ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces, Applied Surface Science, Materials Letters, Materials and Design, et al.",institutionString:"Jilin University",institution:{name:"Jilin University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"53835",title:"Prof.",name:"Hongwei",surname:"Zhao",slug:"hongwei-zhao",fullName:"Hongwei Zhao",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Jilin University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"139499",title:"Dr.",name:"Bruno",surname:"Latella",slug:"bruno-latella",fullName:"Bruno Latella",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Australian Nuclear Science and Technology Organisation",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Australia"}}},{id:"139500",title:"Prof.",name:"Michael",surname:"Swain",slug:"michael-swain",fullName:"Michael Swain",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"142321",title:"Dr.",name:"Ling",surname:"Zhang",slug:"ling-zhang",fullName:"Ling Zhang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"142395",title:"Dr.",name:"Zunqiang",surname:"Fan",slug:"zunqiang-fan",fullName:"Zunqiang Fan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"142396",title:"Dr.",name:"Zhichao",surname:"Ma",slug:"zhichao-ma",fullName:"Zhichao Ma",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"142661",title:"Mr.",name:"Nagendra Sekhar",surname:"Vasarla",slug:"nagendra-sekhar-vasarla",fullName:"Nagendra Sekhar Vasarla",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"142710",title:"Prof.",name:"Jaroslav",surname:"Menčík",slug:"jaroslav-mencik",fullName:"Jaroslav Menčík",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/142710/images/4917_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Jaroslav Menčík, originally mechanical engineer, has spent\nmany years in technological and materials research at various institutions and universities in Czech Republic, Australia, Germany, UK, Japan, and other places. He is the author of two monographs on mechanical properties and many papers in scientific journals and conferences, with more than 1200 quotations. Since joining the University of Pardubice in 1996 he has been active in reliability engineering. He headed several grant projects and international scientific conferences on the topic. His lectures on reliability have been attended by students from various countries and branches: mechanical, civil and electrical engineering, transport technology, economy. With this extensive experience he decided to prepare a concise book for students and other people\nwho want to get some insight into reliability, regardless their professional orientation. In writing, he put therefore emphasis on universal rules and methods.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"150569",title:"Dr.",name:"Michel",surname:"Ignat",slug:"michel-ignat",fullName:"Michel Ignat",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null}]},generic:{page:{slug:"open-access-funding",title:"Open Access Funding",intro:"
IntechOpen’s Academic Editors and Authors have received funding for their work through many well-known funders, including: the European Commission, Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation, Wellcome Trust, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Natural Science Foundation of China (NSFC), CGIAR Consortium of International Agricultural Research Centers, National Institute of Health (NIH), National Science Foundation (NSF), National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST), German Research Foundation (DFG), Research Councils United Kingdom (RCUK), Oswaldo Cruz Foundation, Austrian Science Fund (FWF), Foundation for Science and Technology (FCT), Australian Research Council (ARC).
Open Access publication costs can often be designated directly in the grants or in specific budgets allocated for that purpose. Many of the most important funding organisations encourage, and even request, that the projects they fund are made available at no cost to the wider public. IntechOpen strives to maintain excellent relationships with these funders and ensures compliance with mandates.
\\n\\n
In order to help Authors identify appropriate funding agencies and institutions, we have created a list, based on extensive research on various OA resources (including ROARMAP and SHERPA/JULIET) of organizations that have funds available. Before consulting our list we encourage you to petition your own institution or organization for Open Access funds or check the specifications of your grant with your funder to ascertain if publication costs are included. Where you are in receipt of a grant you should clarify:
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Does your institution already have a budget for covering Open Access publication costs?
\\n\\t
Does your grant list Open Access publication fees as legitimate direct/indirect costs?
\\n
\\n\\n
If you are associated with any of the institutions in our list below, you can apply to receive OA publication funds by following the instructions provided in the links. Please consult the Open Access policies or grant Terms and Conditions of any institution with which you are linked to explore ways to cover your publication costs (also accessible by clicking on the link in their title).
\\n\\n
Please note that this list is not a definitive one and is updated regularly. To suggest possible modifications or the inclusion of your institution/funder, please contact us at oapf@intechopen.com
\\n\\n
Please be aware that you must be a member, or grantee, of the institutions/funders listed in order to apply for their Open Access publication funds.
Open Access publication costs can often be designated directly in the grants or in specific budgets allocated for that purpose. Many of the most important funding organisations encourage, and even request, that the projects they fund are made available at no cost to the wider public. IntechOpen strives to maintain excellent relationships with these funders and ensures compliance with mandates.
\n\n
In order to help Authors identify appropriate funding agencies and institutions, we have created a list, based on extensive research on various OA resources (including ROARMAP and SHERPA/JULIET) of organizations that have funds available. Before consulting our list we encourage you to petition your own institution or organization for Open Access funds or check the specifications of your grant with your funder to ascertain if publication costs are included. Where you are in receipt of a grant you should clarify:
\n\n
\n\t
Does your institution already have a budget for covering Open Access publication costs?
\n\t
Does your grant list Open Access publication fees as legitimate direct/indirect costs?
\n
\n\n
If you are associated with any of the institutions in our list below, you can apply to receive OA publication funds by following the instructions provided in the links. Please consult the Open Access policies or grant Terms and Conditions of any institution with which you are linked to explore ways to cover your publication costs (also accessible by clicking on the link in their title).
\n\n
Please note that this list is not a definitive one and is updated regularly. To suggest possible modifications or the inclusion of your institution/funder, please contact us at oapf@intechopen.com
\n\n
Please be aware that you must be a member, or grantee, of the institutions/funders listed in order to apply for their Open Access publication funds.
\n'}]},successStories:{items:[]},authorsAndEditors:{filterParams:{sort:"featured,name"},profiles:[{id:"6700",title:"Dr.",name:"Abbass A.",middleName:null,surname:"Hashim",slug:"abbass-a.-hashim",fullName:"Abbass A. Hashim",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/6700/images/1864_n.jpg",biography:"Currently I am carrying out research in several areas of interest, mainly covering work on chemical and bio-sensors, semiconductor thin film device fabrication and characterisation.\nAt the moment I have very strong interest in radiation environmental pollution and bacteriology treatment. The teams of researchers are working very hard to bring novel results in this field. I am also a member of the team in charge for the supervision of Ph.D. students in the fields of development of silicon based planar waveguide sensor devices, study of inelastic electron tunnelling in planar tunnelling nanostructures for sensing applications and development of organotellurium(IV) compounds for semiconductor applications. I am a specialist in data analysis techniques and nanosurface structure. I have served as the editor for many books, been a member of the editorial board in science journals, have published many papers and hold many patents.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sheffield Hallam University",country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},{id:"54525",title:"Prof.",name:"Abdul Latif",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"abdul-latif-ahmad",fullName:"Abdul Latif Ahmad",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"20567",title:"Prof.",name:"Ado",middleName:null,surname:"Jorio",slug:"ado-jorio",fullName:"Ado Jorio",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"47940",title:"Dr.",name:"Alberto",middleName:null,surname:"Mantovani",slug:"alberto-mantovani",fullName:"Alberto Mantovani",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"12392",title:"Mr.",name:"Alex",middleName:null,surname:"Lazinica",slug:"alex-lazinica",fullName:"Alex Lazinica",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/12392/images/7282_n.png",biography:"Alex Lazinica is the founder and CEO of IntechOpen. After obtaining a Master's degree in Mechanical Engineering, he continued his PhD studies in Robotics at the Vienna University of Technology. Here he worked as a robotic researcher with the university's Intelligent Manufacturing Systems Group as well as a guest researcher at various European universities, including the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Lausanne (EPFL). During this time he published more than 20 scientific papers, gave presentations, served as a reviewer for major robotic journals and conferences and most importantly he co-founded and built the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems- world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics. Starting this journal was a pivotal point in his career, since it was a pathway to founding IntechOpen - Open Access publisher focused on addressing academic researchers needs. Alex is a personification of IntechOpen key values being trusted, open and entrepreneurial. Today his focus is on defining the growth and development strategy for the company.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",middleName:null,surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/19816/images/1607_n.jpg",biography:"Alexander I. Kokorin: born: 1947, Moscow; DSc., PhD; Principal Research Fellow (Research Professor) of Department of Kinetics and Catalysis, N. Semenov Institute of Chemical Physics, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow.\r\nArea of research interests: physical chemistry of complex-organized molecular and nanosized systems, including polymer-metal complexes; the surface of doped oxide semiconductors. He is an expert in structural, absorptive, catalytic and photocatalytic properties, in structural organization and dynamic features of ionic liquids, in magnetic interactions between paramagnetic centers. The author or co-author of 3 books, over 200 articles and reviews in scientific journals and books. He is an actual member of the International EPR/ESR Society, European Society on Quantum Solar Energy Conversion, Moscow House of Scientists, of the Board of Moscow Physical Society.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Semenov Institute of Chemical Physics",country:{name:"Russia"}}},{id:"62389",title:"PhD.",name:"Ali Demir",middleName:null,surname:"Sezer",slug:"ali-demir-sezer",fullName:"Ali Demir Sezer",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62389/images/3413_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ali Demir Sezer has a Ph.D. from Pharmaceutical Biotechnology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Marmara (Turkey). He is the member of many Pharmaceutical Associations and acts as a reviewer of scientific journals and European projects under different research areas such as: drug delivery systems, nanotechnology and pharmaceutical biotechnology. Dr. Sezer is the author of many scientific publications in peer-reviewed journals and poster communications. Focus of his research activity is drug delivery, physico-chemical characterization and biological evaluation of biopolymers micro and nanoparticles as modified drug delivery system, and colloidal drug carriers (liposomes, nanoparticles etc.).",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Marmara University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"61051",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"100762",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"St David's Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"107416",title:"Dr.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Texas Cardiac Arrhythmia",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"64434",title:"Dr.",name:"Angkoon",middleName:null,surname:"Phinyomark",slug:"angkoon-phinyomark",fullName:"Angkoon Phinyomark",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/64434/images/2619_n.jpg",biography:"My name is Angkoon Phinyomark. I received a B.Eng. degree in Computer Engineering with First Class Honors in 2008 from Prince of Songkla University, Songkhla, Thailand, where I received a Ph.D. degree in Electrical Engineering. My research interests are primarily in the area of biomedical signal processing and classification notably EMG (electromyography signal), EOG (electrooculography signal), and EEG (electroencephalography signal), image analysis notably breast cancer analysis and optical coherence tomography, and rehabilitation engineering. I became a student member of IEEE in 2008. During October 2011-March 2012, I had worked at School of Computer Science and Electronic Engineering, University of Essex, Colchester, Essex, United Kingdom. In addition, during a B.Eng. I had been a visiting research student at Faculty of Computer Science, University of Murcia, Murcia, Spain for three months.\n\nI have published over 40 papers during 5 years in refereed journals, books, and conference proceedings in the areas of electro-physiological signals processing and classification, notably EMG and EOG signals, fractal analysis, wavelet analysis, texture analysis, feature extraction and machine learning algorithms, and assistive and rehabilitative devices. I have several computer programming language certificates, i.e. Sun Certified Programmer for the Java 2 Platform 1.4 (SCJP), Microsoft Certified Professional Developer, Web Developer (MCPD), Microsoft Certified Technology Specialist, .NET Framework 2.0 Web (MCTS). I am a Reviewer for several refereed journals and international conferences, such as IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Engineering, IEEE Transactions on Industrial Electronics, Optic Letters, Measurement Science Review, and also a member of the International Advisory Committee for 2012 IEEE Business Engineering and Industrial Applications and 2012 IEEE Symposium on Business, Engineering and Industrial Applications.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Joseph Fourier University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"55578",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Jurado-Navas",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",fullName:"Antonio Jurado-Navas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/55578/images/4574_n.png",biography:"Antonio Jurado-Navas received the M.S. degree (2002) and the Ph.D. degree (2009) in Telecommunication Engineering, both from the University of Málaga (Spain). He first worked as a consultant at Vodafone-Spain. From 2004 to 2011, he was a Research Assistant with the Communications Engineering Department at the University of Málaga. In 2011, he became an Assistant Professor in the same department. From 2012 to 2015, he was with Ericsson Spain, where he was working on geo-location\ntools for third generation mobile networks. Since 2015, he is a Marie-Curie fellow at the Denmark Technical University. His current research interests include the areas of mobile communication systems and channel modeling in addition to atmospheric optical communications, adaptive optics and statistics",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Malaga",country:{name:"Spain"}}}],filtersByRegion:[{group:"region",caption:"North America",value:1,count:5699},{group:"region",caption:"Middle and South America",value:2,count:5172},{group:"region",caption:"Africa",value:3,count:1689},{group:"region",caption:"Asia",value:4,count:10244},{group:"region",caption:"Australia and Oceania",value:5,count:888},{group:"region",caption:"Europe",value:6,count:15650}],offset:12,limit:12,total:117315},chapterEmbeded:{data:{}},editorApplication:{success:null,errors:{}},ofsBooks:{filterParams:{sort:"dateEndThirdStepPublish",topicId:"20"},books:[{type:"book",id:"10675",title:"Hydrostatics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"c86c2fa9f835d4ad5e7efd8b01921866",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10675.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10575",title:"Magnetic Skyrmions",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"d93d7485e8a6a30d9e069aed78fdb355",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Dipti Ranjan Sahu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10575.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"251855",title:"Prof.",name:"Dipti Ranjan",surname:"Sahu",slug:"dipti-ranjan-sahu",fullName:"Dipti Ranjan Sahu"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10206",title:"Terahertz Technology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"2cdb79bf6297623f1d6202ef11f099c4",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Borwen You and Dr. Ja-Yu Lu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10206.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"191131",title:"Dr.",name:"Borwen",surname:"You",slug:"borwen-you",fullName:"Borwen You"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10957",title:"Liquid Crystals",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"b8dac1788dc54d12f8fc3d94a7e3e338",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/cover.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],filtersByTopic:[{group:"topic",caption:"Agricultural and Biological Sciences",value:5,count:9},{group:"topic",caption:"Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology",value:6,count:15},{group:"topic",caption:"Business, Management and Economics",value:7,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Chemistry",value:8,count:6},{group:"topic",caption:"Computer and Information Science",value:9,count:10},{group:"topic",caption:"Earth and Planetary Sciences",value:10,count:4},{group:"topic",caption:"Engineering",value:11,count:15},{group:"topic",caption:"Environmental Sciences",value:12,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Immunology and Microbiology",value:13,count:4},{group:"topic",caption:"Materials Science",value:14,count:4},{group:"topic",caption:"Mathematics",value:15,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Medicine",value:16,count:56},{group:"topic",caption:"Neuroscience",value:18,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Pharmacology, Toxicology and Pharmaceutical Science",value:19,count:5},{group:"topic",caption:"Physics",value:20,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Psychology",value:21,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Robotics",value:22,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Social Sciences",value:23,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Technology",value:24,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",value:25,count:2}],offset:12,limit:12,total:4},popularBooks:{featuredBooks:[{type:"book",id:"7802",title:"Modern Slavery and Human Trafficking",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"587a0b7fb765f31cc98de33c6c07c2e0",slug:"modern-slavery-and-human-trafficking",bookSignature:"Jane Reeves",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7802.jpg",editors:[{id:"211328",title:"Prof.",name:"Jane",middleName:null,surname:"Reeves",slug:"jane-reeves",fullName:"Jane Reeves"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8545",title:"Animal Reproduction in Veterinary Medicine",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"13aaddf5fdbbc78387e77a7da2388bf6",slug:"animal-reproduction-in-veterinary-medicine",bookSignature:"Faruk Aral, Rita Payan-Carreira and Miguel Quaresma",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8545.jpg",editors:[{id:"25600",title:"Prof.",name:"Faruk",middleName:null,surname:"Aral",slug:"faruk-aral",fullName:"Faruk Aral"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9961",title:"Data Mining",subtitle:"Methods, Applications and Systems",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ed79fb6364f2caf464079f94a0387146",slug:"data-mining-methods-applications-and-systems",bookSignature:"Derya Birant",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9961.jpg",editors:[{id:"15609",title:"Dr.",name:"Derya",middleName:null,surname:"Birant",slug:"derya-birant",fullName:"Derya Birant"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9157",title:"Neurodegenerative Diseases",subtitle:"Molecular Mechanisms and Current Therapeutic Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"bc8be577966ef88735677d7e1e92ed28",slug:"neurodegenerative-diseases-molecular-mechanisms-and-current-therapeutic-approaches",bookSignature:"Nagehan Ersoy Tunalı",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9157.jpg",editors:[{id:"82778",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Nagehan",middleName:null,surname:"Ersoy Tunalı",slug:"nagehan-ersoy-tunali",fullName:"Nagehan Ersoy Tunalı"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8686",title:"Direct Torque Control Strategies of Electrical Machines",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"b6ad22b14db2b8450228545d3d4f6b1a",slug:"direct-torque-control-strategies-of-electrical-machines",bookSignature:"Fatma Ben Salem",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8686.jpg",editors:[{id:"295623",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Fatma",middleName:null,surname:"Ben Salem",slug:"fatma-ben-salem",fullName:"Fatma Ben Salem"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7434",title:"Molecular Biotechnology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"eceede809920e1ec7ecadd4691ede2ec",slug:"molecular-biotechnology",bookSignature:"Sergey Sedykh",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7434.jpg",editors:[{id:"178316",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sergey",middleName:null,surname:"Sedykh",slug:"sergey-sedykh",fullName:"Sergey Sedykh"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9839",title:"Outdoor Recreation",subtitle:"Physiological and Psychological Effects on Health",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5f5a0d64267e32567daffa5b0c6a6972",slug:"outdoor-recreation-physiological-and-psychological-effects-on-health",bookSignature:"Hilde G. Nielsen",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9839.jpg",editors:[{id:"158692",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Hilde G.",middleName:null,surname:"Nielsen",slug:"hilde-g.-nielsen",fullName:"Hilde G. Nielsen"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9208",title:"Welding",subtitle:"Modern Topics",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"7d6be076ccf3a3f8bd2ca52d86d4506b",slug:"welding-modern-topics",bookSignature:"Sadek Crisóstomo Absi Alfaro, Wojciech Borek and Błażej Tomiczek",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9208.jpg",editors:[{id:"65292",title:"Prof.",name:"Sadek Crisostomo Absi",middleName:"C. Absi",surname:"Alfaro",slug:"sadek-crisostomo-absi-alfaro",fullName:"Sadek Crisostomo Absi Alfaro"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9139",title:"Topics in Primary Care Medicine",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ea774a4d4c1179da92a782e0ae9cde92",slug:"topics-in-primary-care-medicine",bookSignature:"Thomas F. Heston",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9139.jpg",editors:[{id:"217926",title:"Dr.",name:"Thomas F.",middleName:null,surname:"Heston",slug:"thomas-f.-heston",fullName:"Thomas F. Heston"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9343",title:"Trace Metals in the Environment",subtitle:"New Approaches and Recent Advances",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ae07e345bc2ce1ebbda9f70c5cd12141",slug:"trace-metals-in-the-environment-new-approaches-and-recent-advances",bookSignature:"Mario Alfonso Murillo-Tovar, Hugo Saldarriaga-Noreña and Agnieszka Saeid",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9343.jpg",editors:[{id:"255959",title:"Dr.",name:"Mario Alfonso",middleName:null,surname:"Murillo-Tovar",slug:"mario-alfonso-murillo-tovar",fullName:"Mario Alfonso Murillo-Tovar"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8697",title:"Virtual Reality and Its Application in Education",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ee01b5e387ba0062c6b0d1e9227bda05",slug:"virtual-reality-and-its-application-in-education",bookSignature:"Dragan Cvetković",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8697.jpg",editors:[{id:"101330",title:"Dr.",name:"Dragan",middleName:"Mladen",surname:"Cvetković",slug:"dragan-cvetkovic",fullName:"Dragan Cvetković"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7831",title:"Sustainability in Urban Planning and Design",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c924420492c8c2c9751e178d025f4066",slug:"sustainability-in-urban-planning-and-design",bookSignature:"Amjad Almusaed, Asaad Almssad and Linh Truong - Hong",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7831.jpg",editors:[{id:"110471",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Zaki",surname:"Almusaed",slug:"amjad-almusaed",fullName:"Amjad Almusaed"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],offset:12,limit:12,total:5143},hotBookTopics:{hotBooks:[],offset:0,limit:12,total:null},publish:{},publishingProposal:{success:null,errors:{}},books:{featuredBooks:[{type:"book",id:"9208",title:"Welding",subtitle:"Modern Topics",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"7d6be076ccf3a3f8bd2ca52d86d4506b",slug:"welding-modern-topics",bookSignature:"Sadek Crisóstomo Absi Alfaro, Wojciech Borek and Błażej Tomiczek",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9208.jpg",editors:[{id:"65292",title:"Prof.",name:"Sadek Crisostomo Absi",middleName:"C. Absi",surname:"Alfaro",slug:"sadek-crisostomo-absi-alfaro",fullName:"Sadek Crisostomo Absi Alfaro"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9139",title:"Topics in Primary Care Medicine",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ea774a4d4c1179da92a782e0ae9cde92",slug:"topics-in-primary-care-medicine",bookSignature:"Thomas F. Heston",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9139.jpg",editors:[{id:"217926",title:"Dr.",name:"Thomas F.",middleName:null,surname:"Heston",slug:"thomas-f.-heston",fullName:"Thomas F. Heston"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8697",title:"Virtual Reality and Its Application in Education",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ee01b5e387ba0062c6b0d1e9227bda05",slug:"virtual-reality-and-its-application-in-education",bookSignature:"Dragan Cvetković",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8697.jpg",editors:[{id:"101330",title:"Dr.",name:"Dragan",middleName:"Mladen",surname:"Cvetković",slug:"dragan-cvetkovic",fullName:"Dragan Cvetković"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9343",title:"Trace Metals in the Environment",subtitle:"New Approaches and Recent Advances",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ae07e345bc2ce1ebbda9f70c5cd12141",slug:"trace-metals-in-the-environment-new-approaches-and-recent-advances",bookSignature:"Mario Alfonso Murillo-Tovar, Hugo Saldarriaga-Noreña and Agnieszka Saeid",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9343.jpg",editors:[{id:"255959",title:"Dr.",name:"Mario Alfonso",middleName:null,surname:"Murillo-Tovar",slug:"mario-alfonso-murillo-tovar",fullName:"Mario Alfonso Murillo-Tovar"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9785",title:"Endometriosis",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f457ca61f29cf7e8bc191732c50bb0ce",slug:"endometriosis",bookSignature:"Courtney Marsh",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9785.jpg",editors:[{id:"255491",title:"Dr.",name:"Courtney",middleName:null,surname:"Marsh",slug:"courtney-marsh",fullName:"Courtney Marsh"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7831",title:"Sustainability in Urban Planning and Design",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c924420492c8c2c9751e178d025f4066",slug:"sustainability-in-urban-planning-and-design",bookSignature:"Amjad Almusaed, Asaad Almssad and Linh Truong - Hong",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7831.jpg",editors:[{id:"110471",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Zaki",surname:"Almusaed",slug:"amjad-almusaed",fullName:"Amjad Almusaed"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9376",title:"Contemporary Developments and Perspectives in International Health Security",subtitle:"Volume 1",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"b9a00b84cd04aae458fb1d6c65795601",slug:"contemporary-developments-and-perspectives-in-international-health-security-volume-1",bookSignature:"Stanislaw P. Stawicki, Michael S. Firstenberg, Sagar C. Galwankar, Ricardo Izurieta and Thomas Papadimos",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9376.jpg",editors:[{id:"181694",title:"Dr.",name:"Stanislaw P.",middleName:null,surname:"Stawicki",slug:"stanislaw-p.-stawicki",fullName:"Stanislaw P. Stawicki"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7769",title:"Medical Isotopes",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f8d3c5a6c9a42398e56b4e82264753f7",slug:"medical-isotopes",bookSignature:"Syed Ali Raza Naqvi and Muhammad Babar Imrani",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7769.jpg",editors:[{id:"259190",title:"Dr.",name:"Syed Ali Raza",middleName:null,surname:"Naqvi",slug:"syed-ali-raza-naqvi",fullName:"Syed Ali Raza Naqvi"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9279",title:"Concepts, Applications and Emerging Opportunities in Industrial Engineering",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9bfa87f9b627a5468b7c1e30b0eea07a",slug:"concepts-applications-and-emerging-opportunities-in-industrial-engineering",bookSignature:"Gary Moynihan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9279.jpg",editors:[{id:"16974",title:"Dr.",name:"Gary",middleName:null,surname:"Moynihan",slug:"gary-moynihan",fullName:"Gary Moynihan"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7807",title:"A Closer Look at Organizational Culture in Action",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"05c608b9271cc2bc711f4b28748b247b",slug:"a-closer-look-at-organizational-culture-in-action",bookSignature:"Süleyman Davut Göker",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7807.jpg",editors:[{id:"190035",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Süleyman Davut",middleName:null,surname:"Göker",slug:"suleyman-davut-goker",fullName:"Süleyman Davut Göker"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],latestBooks:[{type:"book",id:"7434",title:"Molecular Biotechnology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"eceede809920e1ec7ecadd4691ede2ec",slug:"molecular-biotechnology",bookSignature:"Sergey Sedykh",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7434.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"178316",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sergey",middleName:null,surname:"Sedykh",slug:"sergey-sedykh",fullName:"Sergey Sedykh"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8545",title:"Animal Reproduction in Veterinary Medicine",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"13aaddf5fdbbc78387e77a7da2388bf6",slug:"animal-reproduction-in-veterinary-medicine",bookSignature:"Faruk Aral, Rita Payan-Carreira and Miguel Quaresma",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8545.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"25600",title:"Prof.",name:"Faruk",middleName:null,surname:"Aral",slug:"faruk-aral",fullName:"Faruk Aral"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9569",title:"Methods in Molecular Medicine",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"691d3f3c4ac25a8093414e9b270d2843",slug:"methods-in-molecular-medicine",bookSignature:"Yusuf Tutar",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9569.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"158492",title:"Prof.",name:"Yusuf",middleName:null,surname:"Tutar",slug:"yusuf-tutar",fullName:"Yusuf Tutar"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9839",title:"Outdoor Recreation",subtitle:"Physiological and Psychological Effects on Health",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5f5a0d64267e32567daffa5b0c6a6972",slug:"outdoor-recreation-physiological-and-psychological-effects-on-health",bookSignature:"Hilde G. Nielsen",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9839.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"158692",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Hilde G.",middleName:null,surname:"Nielsen",slug:"hilde-g.-nielsen",fullName:"Hilde G. Nielsen"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7802",title:"Modern Slavery and Human Trafficking",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"587a0b7fb765f31cc98de33c6c07c2e0",slug:"modern-slavery-and-human-trafficking",bookSignature:"Jane Reeves",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7802.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"211328",title:"Prof.",name:"Jane",middleName:null,surname:"Reeves",slug:"jane-reeves",fullName:"Jane Reeves"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8063",title:"Food Security in Africa",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8cbf3d662b104d19db2efc9d59249efc",slug:"food-security-in-africa",bookSignature:"Barakat Mahmoud",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8063.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"92016",title:"Dr.",name:"Barakat",middleName:null,surname:"Mahmoud",slug:"barakat-mahmoud",fullName:"Barakat Mahmoud"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10118",title:"Plant Stress Physiology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c68b09d2d2634fc719ae3b9a64a27839",slug:"plant-stress-physiology",bookSignature:"Akbar Hossain",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10118.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"280755",title:"Dr.",name:"Akbar",middleName:null,surname:"Hossain",slug:"akbar-hossain",fullName:"Akbar Hossain"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9157",title:"Neurodegenerative Diseases",subtitle:"Molecular Mechanisms and Current Therapeutic Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"bc8be577966ef88735677d7e1e92ed28",slug:"neurodegenerative-diseases-molecular-mechanisms-and-current-therapeutic-approaches",bookSignature:"Nagehan Ersoy Tunalı",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9157.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"82778",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Nagehan",middleName:null,surname:"Ersoy Tunalı",slug:"nagehan-ersoy-tunali",fullName:"Nagehan Ersoy Tunalı"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9961",title:"Data Mining",subtitle:"Methods, Applications and Systems",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ed79fb6364f2caf464079f94a0387146",slug:"data-mining-methods-applications-and-systems",bookSignature:"Derya Birant",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9961.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"15609",title:"Dr.",name:"Derya",middleName:null,surname:"Birant",slug:"derya-birant",fullName:"Derya Birant"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8686",title:"Direct Torque Control Strategies of Electrical Machines",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"b6ad22b14db2b8450228545d3d4f6b1a",slug:"direct-torque-control-strategies-of-electrical-machines",bookSignature:"Fatma Ben Salem",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8686.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"295623",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Fatma",middleName:null,surname:"Ben Salem",slug:"fatma-ben-salem",fullName:"Fatma Ben Salem"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},subject:{topic:{id:"12",title:"Environmental Sciences",slug:"environmental-sciences",parent:{title:"Life Sciences",slug:"life-sciences"},numberOfBooks:174,numberOfAuthorsAndEditors:4701,numberOfWosCitations:4293,numberOfCrossrefCitations:2693,numberOfDimensionsCitations:7277,videoUrl:null,fallbackUrl:null,description:null},booksByTopicFilter:{topicSlug:"environmental-sciences",sort:"-publishedDate",limit:12,offset:0},booksByTopicCollection:[{type:"book",id:"10178",title:"Environmental Emissions",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"febf21ec717bfe20ae25a9dab9b5d438",slug:"environmental-emissions",bookSignature:"Richard Viskup",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10178.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"103742",title:"Dr.",name:"Richard",middleName:null,surname:"Viskup",slug:"richard-viskup",fullName:"Richard Viskup"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9916",title:"Zero-Energy Buildings",subtitle:"New Approaches and Technologies",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"03b533ca4c0a7f4f0307e4e4ec474594",slug:"zero-energy-buildings-new-approaches-and-technologies",bookSignature:"Jesús Alberto Pulido Arcas, Carlos Rubio-Bellido, Alexis Pérez-Fargallo and Ivan Oropeza-Perez",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9916.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"172801",title:"Dr.",name:"Jesus Alberto",middleName:null,surname:"Pulido Arcas",slug:"jesus-alberto-pulido-arcas",fullName:"Jesus Alberto Pulido Arcas"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7831",title:"Sustainability in Urban Planning and Design",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c924420492c8c2c9751e178d025f4066",slug:"sustainability-in-urban-planning-and-design",bookSignature:"Amjad Almusaed, Asaad Almssad and Linh Truong - Hong",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7831.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"110471",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Zaki",surname:"Almusaed",slug:"amjad-almusaed",fullName:"Amjad Almusaed"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8974",title:"Current Topics in Tropical Cyclone Research",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"3bf6428d456edbadac595a8417045865",slug:"current-topics-in-tropical-cyclone-research",bookSignature:"Anthony Lupo",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8974.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"18289",title:"Prof.",name:"Anthony",middleName:"Rocco",surname:"Lupo",slug:"anthony-lupo",fullName:"Anthony Lupo"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9184",title:"Biorefinery Concepts, Energy and Products",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"b97398a8e5c5fef9494e8ef39361a7dd",slug:"biorefinery-concepts-energy-and-products",bookSignature:"Venko Beschkov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9184.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"191530",title:"Prof.",name:"Venko",middleName:null,surname:"Beschkov",slug:"venko-beschkov",fullName:"Venko Beschkov"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8783",title:"Sustainable Sewage Sludge Management and Resource Efficiency",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"12fe51f3000d5a45846a2498e628c32e",slug:"sustainable-sewage-sludge-management-and-resource-efficiency",bookSignature:"Başak Kiliç Taşeli",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8783.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"302014",title:"Prof.",name:"Başak",middleName:null,surname:"Kiliç Taşeli",slug:"basak-kilic-taseli",fullName:"Başak Kiliç Taşeli"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8667",title:"Plant Communities and Their Environment",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"fc25bcd1a48e847f8f7b4e30b4d84641",slug:"plant-communities-and-their-environment",bookSignature:"Manuel T. Oliveira, Feyza Candan and Anabela Fernandes-Silva",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8667.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"181227",title:"Dr.",name:"Manuel",middleName:"T.",surname:"Oliveira",slug:"manuel-oliveira",fullName:"Manuel Oliveira"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8903",title:"Carbon-Based Material for Environmental Protection and Remediation",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"19da699b370f320eca63ef2ba02f745d",slug:"carbon-based-material-for-environmental-protection-and-remediation",bookSignature:"Mattia Bartoli, Marco Frediani and Luca Rosi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8903.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"188999",title:"Dr.",name:"Mattia",middleName:null,surname:"Bartoli",slug:"mattia-bartoli",fullName:"Mattia Bartoli"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7718",title:"Water Quality",subtitle:"Science, Assessments and Policy",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c7433952368240a0d55bfdcb148ff89e",slug:"water-quality-science-assessments-and-policy",bookSignature:"Kevin Summers",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7718.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"197485",title:"Dr.",name:"J. Kevin",middleName:null,surname:"Summers",slug:"j.-kevin-summers",fullName:"J. Kevin Summers"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7720",title:"CO2 Sequestration",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ed248a547024414e5c4fb0b149f8565f",slug:"co2-sequestration",bookSignature:"Leidivan Almeida Frazão, Adriana Marcela Silva-Olaya and Junio Cota Silva",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7720.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"237834",title:"Prof.",name:"Leidivan",middleName:null,surname:"Almeida Frazão",slug:"leidivan-almeida-frazao",fullName:"Leidivan Almeida Frazão"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10005",title:"Applications of Biochar for Environmental Safety",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"b8356a04f22509c43c19b3be88fa79a0",slug:"applications-of-biochar-for-environmental-safety",bookSignature:"Ahmed A. Abdelhafez and Mohammed H. H. Abbas",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10005.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"196849",title:"Dr.",name:"Ahmed",middleName:null,surname:"Abdelhafez",slug:"ahmed-abdelhafez",fullName:"Ahmed Abdelhafez"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8983",title:"Sustainability Concept In Developing Countries",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"2b7e452ede9e56b4a3b7e35c835f8446",slug:"sustainability-concept-in-developing-countries",bookSignature:"Surendra N. Kulshreshtha",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8983.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37057",title:"Dr.",name:"Surendra N.",middleName:null,surname:"Kulshreshtha",slug:"surendra-n.-kulshreshtha",fullName:"Surendra N. Kulshreshtha"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],booksByTopicTotal:174,mostCitedChapters:[{id:"29369",doi:"10.5772/32373",title:"Textile Organic Dyes – Characteristics, Polluting Effects and Separation/Elimination Procedures from Industrial Effluents – A Critical Overview",slug:"textile-organic-dyes-characteristics-polluting-effects-and-separation-elimination-procedures-from-in",totalDownloads:28464,totalCrossrefCites:80,totalDimensionsCites:200,book:{slug:"organic-pollutants-ten-years-after-the-stockholm-convention-environmental-and-analytical-update",title:"Organic Pollutants Ten Years After the Stockholm Convention",fullTitle:"Organic Pollutants Ten Years After the Stockholm Convention - Environmental and Analytical Update"},signatures:"Zaharia Carmen and Suteu Daniela",authors:[{id:"91196",title:"Prof.",name:"Carmen",middleName:null,surname:"Zaharia",slug:"carmen-zaharia",fullName:"Carmen Zaharia"},{id:"92084",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniela",middleName:null,surname:"Suteu",slug:"daniela-suteu",fullName:"Daniela Suteu"}]},{id:"42059",doi:"10.5772/54048",title:"Adsorption Technique for the Removal of Organic Pollutants from Water and Wastewater",slug:"adsorption-technique-for-the-removal-of-organic-pollutants-from-water-and-wastewater",totalDownloads:27723,totalCrossrefCites:26,totalDimensionsCites:114,book:{slug:"organic-pollutants-monitoring-risk-and-treatment",title:"Organic Pollutants",fullTitle:"Organic Pollutants - Monitoring, Risk and Treatment"},signatures:"Mohamed Nageeb Rashed",authors:[{id:"63465",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohamed Nageeb",middleName:null,surname:"Rashed",slug:"mohamed-nageeb-rashed",fullName:"Mohamed Nageeb Rashed"}]},{id:"27305",doi:"10.5772/39363",title:"Water Stress in Plants: Causes, Effects and Responses",slug:"water-stress-in-plants-causes-effects-and-responses",totalDownloads:27669,totalCrossrefCites:38,totalDimensionsCites:112,book:{slug:"water-stress",title:"Water Stress",fullTitle:"Water Stress"},signatures:"Seyed Y. S. Lisar, Rouhollah Motafakkerazad, Mosharraf M. Hossain and Ismail M. M. Rahman",authors:[{id:"110740",title:"Dr.",name:"Ismail M. M.",middleName:null,surname:"Rahman",slug:"ismail-m.-m.-rahman",fullName:"Ismail M. M. Rahman"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"69568",title:"Water Quality Parameters",slug:"water-quality-parameters",totalDownloads:3961,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:6,book:{slug:"water-quality-science-assessments-and-policy",title:"Water Quality",fullTitle:"Water Quality - Science, Assessments and Policy"},signatures:"Nayla Hassan Omer",authors:null},{id:"53211",title:"Biofloc Technology (BFT): A Tool for Water Quality Management in Aquaculture",slug:"biofloc-technology-bft-a-tool-for-water-quality-management-in-aquaculture",totalDownloads:14957,totalCrossrefCites:30,totalDimensionsCites:71,book:{slug:"water-quality",title:"Water Quality",fullTitle:"Water Quality"},signatures:"Maurício Gustavo Coelho Emerenciano, Luis Rafael Martínez-\nCórdova, Marcel Martínez-Porchas and Anselmo Miranda-Baeza",authors:[{id:"146126",title:"Dr.",name:"Maurício Gustavo Coelho",middleName:null,surname:"Emerenciano",slug:"mauricio-gustavo-coelho-emerenciano",fullName:"Maurício Gustavo Coelho Emerenciano"},{id:"186970",title:"Prof.",name:"Marcel",middleName:null,surname:"Martínez-Porchas",slug:"marcel-martinez-porchas",fullName:"Marcel Martínez-Porchas"},{id:"186971",title:"Prof.",name:"Anselmo",middleName:null,surname:"Miranda-Baeza",slug:"anselmo-miranda-baeza",fullName:"Anselmo Miranda-Baeza"},{id:"195101",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis Rafael",middleName:null,surname:"Martínez-Córdoba",slug:"luis-rafael-martinez-cordoba",fullName:"Luis Rafael Martínez-Córdoba"}]},{id:"58138",title:"Water Pollution: Effects, Prevention, and Climatic Impact",slug:"water-pollution-effects-prevention-and-climatic-impact",totalDownloads:19025,totalCrossrefCites:7,totalDimensionsCites:14,book:{slug:"water-challenges-of-an-urbanizing-world",title:"Water Challenges of an Urbanizing World",fullTitle:"Water Challenges of an Urbanizing World"},signatures:"Inyinbor Adejumoke A., Adebesin Babatunde O., Oluyori Abimbola\nP., Adelani-Akande Tabitha A., Dada Adewumi O. and Oreofe Toyin\nA.",authors:[{id:"101570",title:"MSc.",name:"Babatunde Olufemi",middleName:null,surname:"Adebesin",slug:"babatunde-olufemi-adebesin",fullName:"Babatunde Olufemi Adebesin"},{id:"187738",title:"Dr.",name:"Adejumoke",middleName:"Abosede",surname:"Inyinbor",slug:"adejumoke-inyinbor",fullName:"Adejumoke Inyinbor"},{id:"188818",title:"Dr.",name:"Abimbola",middleName:null,surname:"Oluyori",slug:"abimbola-oluyori",fullName:"Abimbola Oluyori"},{id:"188819",title:"Mrs.",name:"Tabitha",middleName:null,surname:"Adelani-Akande",slug:"tabitha-adelani-akande",fullName:"Tabitha Adelani-Akande"},{id:"208501",title:"Dr.",name:"Adewumi",middleName:null,surname:"Dada",slug:"adewumi-dada",fullName:"Adewumi Dada"},{id:"208502",title:"Ms.",name:"Toyin",middleName:null,surname:"Oreofe",slug:"toyin-oreofe",fullName:"Toyin Oreofe"}]},{id:"40529",title:"Solid Waste Management in Malaysia – A Move Towards Sustainability",slug:"solid-waste-management-in-malaysia-a-move-towards-sustainability",totalDownloads:8671,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:16,book:{slug:"waste-management-an-integrated-vision",title:"Waste Management",fullTitle:"Waste Management - An Integrated Vision"},signatures:"Jayashree Sreenivasan, Marthandan Govindan, Malarvizhi Chinnasami and Indrakaran Kadiresu",authors:[{id:"154427",title:"Dr.",name:"Sreenivasan",middleName:null,surname:"Jayashree",slug:"sreenivasan-jayashree",fullName:"Sreenivasan Jayashree"}]},{id:"62247",title:"Application of Biosorption for Removal of Heavy Metals from Wastewater",slug:"application-of-biosorption-for-removal-of-heavy-metals-from-wastewater",totalDownloads:5746,totalCrossrefCites:28,totalDimensionsCites:54,book:{slug:"biosorption",title:"Biosorption",fullTitle:"Biosorption"},signatures:"Sri Lakshmi Ramya Krishna Kanamarlapudi, Vinay Kumar\nChintalpudi and Sudhamani Muddada",authors:[{id:"238433",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Sudhamani",middleName:null,surname:"Muddada",slug:"sudhamani-muddada",fullName:"Sudhamani Muddada"},{id:"244937",title:"Mrs.",name:"S L Ramyakrishna",middleName:null,surname:"Kanamarlapudi",slug:"s-l-ramyakrishna-kanamarlapudi",fullName:"S L Ramyakrishna Kanamarlapudi"},{id:"244938",title:"Mr.",name:"Vinay Kumar",middleName:null,surname:"Chintalpudi",slug:"vinay-kumar-chintalpudi",fullName:"Vinay Kumar Chintalpudi"}]},{id:"58112",title:"Biosorption of Heavy Metals",slug:"biosorption-of-heavy-metals",totalDownloads:3291,totalCrossrefCites:12,totalDimensionsCites:22,book:{slug:"biosorption",title:"Biosorption",fullTitle:"Biosorption"},signatures:"Saba Shamim",authors:[{id:"209771",title:"Dr.",name:"Saba",middleName:null,surname:"Shamim",slug:"saba-shamim",fullName:"Saba Shamim"}]},{id:"42059",title:"Adsorption Technique for the Removal of Organic Pollutants from Water and Wastewater",slug:"adsorption-technique-for-the-removal-of-organic-pollutants-from-water-and-wastewater",totalDownloads:27723,totalCrossrefCites:26,totalDimensionsCites:114,book:{slug:"organic-pollutants-monitoring-risk-and-treatment",title:"Organic Pollutants",fullTitle:"Organic Pollutants - Monitoring, Risk and Treatment"},signatures:"Mohamed Nageeb Rashed",authors:[{id:"63465",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohamed Nageeb",middleName:null,surname:"Rashed",slug:"mohamed-nageeb-rashed",fullName:"Mohamed Nageeb Rashed"}]},{id:"18642",title:"The Effects of Air Pollutants on Vegetation and the Role of Vegetation in Reducing Atmospheric Pollution",slug:"the-effects-of-air-pollutants-on-vegetation-and-the-role-of-vegetation-in-reducing-atmospheric-pollu",totalDownloads:17528,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:36,book:{slug:"the-impact-of-air-pollution-on-health-economy-environment-and-agricultural-sources",title:"The Impact of Air Pollution on Health, Economy, Environment and Agricultural Sources",fullTitle:"The Impact of Air Pollution on Health, Economy, Environment and Agricultural Sources"},signatures:"Iuliana Florentina Gheorghe and Barbu Ion",authors:[{id:"29040",title:"Prof.",name:"Iuliana",middleName:"Florentina",surname:"Gheorghe",slug:"iuliana-gheorghe",fullName:"Iuliana Gheorghe"},{id:"40380",title:"Mr.",name:"Ion",middleName:null,surname:"Barbu",slug:"ion-barbu",fullName:"Ion Barbu"},{id:"127558",title:"Prof.",name:"Iuliana Florentina",middleName:null,surname:"Gheorghe",slug:"iuliana-florentina-gheorghe",fullName:"Iuliana Florentina Gheorghe"}]},{id:"63043",title:"Desalination of Water",slug:"desalination-of-water",totalDownloads:2087,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,book:{slug:"desalination-and-water-treatment",title:"Desalination and Water Treatment",fullTitle:"Desalination and Water Treatment"},signatures:"Manish Thimmaraju, Divya Sreepada, Gummadi Sridhar Babu,\nBharath Kumar Dasari, Sai Kiran Velpula and Nagaraju Vallepu",authors:[{id:"249016",title:"Dr.",name:"Manish Kumar",middleName:null,surname:"Thimmaraju",slug:"manish-kumar-thimmaraju",fullName:"Manish Kumar Thimmaraju"},{id:"256566",title:"Mrs.",name:"Sreepada",middleName:null,surname:"Divya",slug:"sreepada-divya",fullName:"Sreepada Divya"}]},{id:"51114",title:"Overview of Hazardous Waste Management Status in Malaysia",slug:"overview-of-hazardous-waste-management-status-in-malaysia",totalDownloads:4846,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:7,book:{slug:"management-of-hazardous-wastes",title:"Management of Hazardous Wastes",fullTitle:"Management of Hazardous Wastes"},signatures:"Ogboo Chikere Aja, Hussain H. Al-Kayiem, Mesfin Gizaw Zewge and\nMeheron Selowara Joo",authors:[{id:"181768",title:"Dr.",name:"Ogboo Chikere",middleName:null,surname:"Aja",slug:"ogboo-chikere-aja",fullName:"Ogboo Chikere Aja"},{id:"181769",title:"Dr.",name:"Mesfin Gizaw",middleName:null,surname:"Zewge",slug:"mesfin-gizaw-zewge",fullName:"Mesfin Gizaw Zewge"},{id:"182433",title:"Mr.",name:"Meheron",middleName:null,surname:"Selowara Joo",slug:"meheron-selowara-joo",fullName:"Meheron Selowara Joo"},{id:"184186",title:"Prof.",name:"Hussain H.",middleName:null,surname:"Al-Kayiem",slug:"hussain-h.-al-kayiem",fullName:"Hussain H. Al-Kayiem"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicSlug:"environmental-sciences",limit:3,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"74679",title:"Location Analysis and Application of GIS in Site Suitability Study for Biogas Plant",slug:"location-analysis-and-application-of-gis-in-site-suitability-study-for-biogas-plant",totalDownloads:13,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.95508",book:{title:"Biomass"},signatures:"Emmanuel C. Chukwuma, Chinenye F. Okey-Onyesolu, Daniel C. Anizoba and Joseph I. Ubah"},{id:"74629",title:"Rebars for Durable Concrete Construction: Points to Ponder",slug:"rebars-for-durable-concrete-construction-points-to-ponder",totalDownloads:22,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.95401",book:{title:"Design of Cities and Buildings - Intelligence, Sustainable and Resilience Built Environment"},signatures:"Anil K. Kar"},{id:"74763",title:"An Urban Paradox: Urban Resilience or Human Needs",slug:"an-urban-paradox-urban-resilience-or-human-needs",totalDownloads:30,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.95271",book:{title:"Design of Cities and Buildings - Intelligence, Sustainable and Resilience Built Environment"},signatures:"Nilüfer Kart Aktaş and Nazlı Yıldız Dönmez"}],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:123},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[{type:"book",id:"10176",title:"Microgrids and Local Energy Systems",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"c32b4a5351a88f263074b0d0ca813a9c",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Nick Jenkins",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10176.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"55219",title:"Prof.",name:"Nick",middleName:null,surname:"Jenkins",slug:"nick-jenkins",fullName:"Nick Jenkins"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],offset:8,limit:8,total:1},route:{name:"profile.detail",path:"/profiles/155090/zhaojun-yang",hash:"",query:{},params:{id:"155090",slug:"zhaojun-yang"},fullPath:"/profiles/155090/zhaojun-yang",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var e;(e=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(e)}()