\r\n\tSQL is worth learning because it’s a programming language that’s in demand in the tech industry and in other sectors that need technology. Most software developers who know SQL earn respectable salaries. Learning SQL can not only enhance your skills, but it can also give you a better understanding of the applications you work with daily. In this book, we will go through the details of SQL and how to use it effectively. The goal of this book is to have many practical application examples that will help learners easily acquire and self-study SQL.
",isbn:"978-1-83969-946-7",printIsbn:"978-1-83969-945-0",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83969-947-4",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"d1d908cd61561c1e813552fbd6cb9ed1",bookSignature:"Ph.D. Duc-Man Nguyen and Dr. Van-Loi Nguyen",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11919.jpg",keywords:"Database Classification, Types of Databases, SQL Basic, Drop Statement, Aggregate Functions, Conversion Function, Date Function, Mathematical Functions, User-Defined Types, User-Defined Functions, String Data Type, Pivoting Data in SQL",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"May 3rd 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"July 6th 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"September 4th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"November 23rd 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"January 22nd 2023",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"a month",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!1,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Dr. Nguyen Duc Man is a member of the DSA-Da Nang Software Association, Vietnam. He was awarded the Award for Excellent effort in Training and Management by the Duy Tan University, Vietnam for several years in a row, and received the Certificate of Merit for Excellent effort in Training and Management by the Ministry of Education and Training, Vietnam. His current research interests are software testing, mobile testing, test automation, test case generation, context-driven testing, and ML for testing.",coeditorOneBiosketch:"Dr. Van-Loi Nguyen received his Master of Engineering in Computer Science from the University of Danang, Vietnam in 2010, and a Ph.D. degree from Soongsil University, Korea, in 2017. He is currently a lecturer at the Vietnam - Korea University of Information and Communication Technology, the University of Danang. He has over 18 years of experience teaching and researching programming, databases, machine learning, information retrieval, multimedia, and artificial intelligence.",coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"227628",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Duc-Man",middleName:null,surname:"Nguyen",slug:"duc-man-nguyen",fullName:"Duc-Man Nguyen",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/227628/images/system/227628.jpg",biography:'1.\tName:\tNguyen Duc Man\n\tOffice: Room 601, 254 Nguyen Van Linh, Danang, Vietnam\n\tTel: +84-2363 650 403 (Ext 601)\n Mobi: 0904 235 945\n\tEmail: mannd@duytan.edu.vn\n\n2.\tEducation:\nBSc.\tInformation Technology\tDuy Tan University, Vietnam\t1999\nMSc.\tComputer Science\tDanang University, Vietnam\t2009\nPhD.\tComputer Science\tDuy Tan University, Vietnam\t2020\n\n3.\tAcademic experience:\nDuy Tan University, Vietnam\tTeaching\tLecturer\t2004- Present\tFT\n\t\n4.\tNon-academic experience:\nHSD Corporation, Ho Chi Minh, Vietnam\tAnalysis, Design and Code, DB Design\tSoftware Developer\t1999-2001\tFT\nDuy Tan Software Center, Vietnam\tTeam leader, Planning, A&D\tProject Lead\t2001-2003\tFT\n\n5.\tCertifications or professional registrations:\n-\tCertificate for completion of Train the Trainer courses (Software Capstone Project, Requirements Engineering, Software Architecture, Software Project management, software Process and Quality management, Software Integration Practices). Institute of Software Research, Carnegie Mellon University, USA. (2010, 2014, 2016, 2017, 2018, 2019).\n-\t7 Professional Development Hours for participation in the Fundamentals of Program Assessment Workshop, ABET Symposium (2017)\n-\t7 Professional Development Hours for participation in the Self-Study Development Workshop ABET Symposium (2017)\n-\t14 Professional Development Hours for participation at the 2017 ABET\nSymposium, ABET Symposium (2017)\n-\tSoftware Testing and Automation Conference. VISTACON 2011, Ho Chi Minh, Vietnam (2011).\n-\tFagan Software Inspection Method. ECCI Group, Vietnam (2011).\n-\tHP Train the Trainer courses: HP QTP, LoadRunner, Quality Center (2011).\n\n6.\tMembership in professional organizations:\n-\tMember of DSA-Da Nang Software Association, Vietnam.\n\n7.\tHonors and awards:\n-\tAwards for Excellent effort in Training and Management. Duy Tan University, Vietnam (2003, 2006, 2007, 2008, 2009, 2010, 2012).\n-\tCertificate of Merit for Excellent effort in Training and Management. Ministry of Education and Training, Vietnam (2008- 2009, 2010- 2011, 2013- 2014).\n-\tCertificate of Merit of the People Committee of Da Nang. Danang, Vietnam (2011-2012).\n\n8.\tService activities:\n-\tInstitutional service: \n•\tStudents’ Awards Committee \n•\tFaculty Development Committee \n•\tScholarship Committee \n•\tFaculty Council \n\n9.\tPublications and presentations from the past five years:\n\n1.\t\tCheng, Y. H., Chang, P. C., Nguyen, D. M., & Kuo, C. N. (2020). Automatic Music Genre Classification Based on CRNN. Engineering Letters, 29(1).\n2.\t\tHuynh, Q. T., Pham, L. T., Ha, N. H., & Nguyen, D. M. (2020). An Effective Approach for Context Driven Testing in Practice—A Case Study. International Journal of Software Engineering and Knowledge Engineering, 30(09), 1245-1262.\n3.\t\tNguyen, D. M., Huynh, Q. T., Ha, N. H., & Nguyen, T. H. (2020). Automated test input generation via model inference based on user story and acceptance criteria for mobile application development. International Journal of Software Engineering and Knowledge Engineering, 30(03), 399-425.\n4.\t \tNguyen, D. M., Do, H. N., Huynh, Q. T., Vo, D. T., & Ha, N. H. (2018, August). Shinobi: A Novel Approach for Context-Driven Testing (CDT) Using Heuristics and Machine Learning for Web Applications. In International Conference on Industrial Networks and Intelligent Systems (pp. 86-102). Springer, Cham.\n5.\t\tHoang-Nhat, D. O., NGUYEN, D. M., HUYNH, Q. T., & Nhu-Hang, H. A. (2018). One2Explore-Graph Builder for Exploratory Testing from a Novel Approach.\n6.\t\tNguyen, M. D., Huynh, T. Q., & Nguyen, T. H. (2016, November). Improve the Performance of Mobile Applications Based on Code Optimization Techniques Using PMD and Android Lint. In International Symposium on Integrated Uncertainty in Knowledge Modelling and Decision Making (pp. 343-356). Springer, Cham.\n7.\t\tBao Le Nguyen, Nguyen Duc Man, Minh Nguyen Cong and Luong Vo Van (2013). Difficulties in the Operation of an International Program in Vietnam. FICAP-1 Proceedings, BrownWalker Press, 2013, ISBN-13: 9781612337043.\n8.\t\tDuc Nguyen Duc Man, Tien Vu Truong, Nguyen Bao Le (2013). Deployment of Capstone Projects in Software Engineering Education at Duy Tan University as Part of a University-wide Project-based Learning Effort. Learning and Teaching in Computing and Engineering (LaTiCE), IEEE Computer Society -CPS, 2013, E-ISBN :978-0-7695-4960-6 (pp. 184 -191).\n9.\t\tGia Nhu Nguyen, Nhat Tan Tran, Thanh Trung Nguyen and Nguyen Duc Man (2014). The Benefits of CDIO for ABET Preparation from a Hands-on Study in Vietnam. Proceedings of the 10th International CDIO Conference. Barcelona \n10.\t\tVu T Truong, Bao N Le, Man N Duc, Thang M Nguyen (2014). Accessing the Maturity of Teamwork Capabilities through CDIO Projects. Proceedings of the 10th Annual International CDIO Conference. Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya, Barcelona, Spain.\n11.\t\tPhuong A Pham, Man D Nguyen, Long Q Nguyen, Thang M Nguyen, Bao N Le (2014). Learning Computer Programming In Cdio’s Team Settings. Proceedings of the 10th Annual International CDIO Conference. Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya, Barcelona, Spain.\n12.\t\tVo, Q. N., Tran, N. P., Van Dat Ngo, V. H. T., Huynh, Q. T., Ha, N. H., & Nguyen, D. M. LEVERAGE THE BLOCKCHAIN TECHNOLOGY TO MANAGE SMART CONTRACT IN ASSET TRADING. Kỷ yếu Hội nghị KHCN Quốc gia lần thứ XII về Nghiên cứu cơ bản và ứng dụng Công nghệ thông tin (FAIR); Huế, ngày 07-08/6/2019 DOI: 10.15625/vap.2019.00032\n\n13.\t\tHa, N. H., Nguyen, D. M., Liu, C. A., Van Van, T., Nguyen, A. D., & Huynh, Q. T. AN EMPIRICAL STUDY OF THE IMPACT OF THE MPOS SYSTEM ON THE PROCESS CHANGE OF RESTAURANTS. Kỷ yếu Hội nghị KHCN Quốc gia lần thứ XII về Nghiên cứu cơ bản và ứng dụng Công nghệ thông tin (FAIR); Huế, ngày 07-08/6/2019 DOI: 10.15625/vap.2019.00032\n\n14.\t\tNguyễn Thanh Hùng, Nguyễn Đức Mận, Huỳnh Quyết Thắng (2019), Thử Nghiệm Đánh Giá Áp Dụng Một Số Kỹ Thuật Kiểm Thử Để Nâng Cao Độ Tin Cậy Cho Ứng Dụng Di Động Trong Môi Trường Phát Triển Linh Hoạt. Section on Information and Communication Technology (ICT) - No. 13, Journal of Science and Technique - Le Quy Don Technical University - No. 199, ISSN 1859-0209\n15.\t\tHuỳnh Quyết Thắng, Nguyễn Đức Mận, Nguyễn Thị Bảo Trang, Nguyễn Thị Anh Đào (2016). Kỹ thuật kiểm thử hồi qui hiệu quả cho phát triển ứng dụng di động. Kỷ yếu Hội nghị khoa học công nghệ quốc gia lần thứ IX, ngày 4-5/8/2016 - "Nghiên cứu cơ bản và ứng dụng Công nghệ thông tin" (FAIR 2016), trang 255-265. Nhà xuất bản Khoa học tự nhiên và Công nghệ. ISBN 978-604-913-472-2\n\n10.\tRecent professional development activities:\n-\tCoordinator and Assistant Director of ACM/ICPC Asia Regional Contest, Danang, Vietnam (2013). \n-\tParticipated in the 7th National Conference on Fundamental and Applied IT Research (2014).\n-\tAttended the 7 Professional Development Hours the Fundamentals of Program Assessment Workshop (2017).\n-\tParticipated in the 12th National Conference on Fundamental and Applied IT Research (2019).\n-\tINISCOM 2018, INISCOM 2019, KSE 2019, CITA2021, CITA2022\n-\tAttended the CDIO Regional Meeting - Asia-Pacific (2019).',institutionString:"Duy Tan University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Duy Tan University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Vietnam"}}}],coeditorOne:{id:"473326",title:"Dr.",name:"Van-Loi",middleName:null,surname:"Nguyen",slug:"van-loi-nguyen",fullName:"Van-Loi Nguyen",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003Sa5QKQAZ/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:01:50.jpg",biography:"Dr. Van-Loi Nguyen received his Master of Engineering in Computer Science from the University of Danang, Vietnam in 2010, and a Ph.D. degree from Soongsil University, Korea in 2017. He is currently a lecturer at the Vietnam - Korea University of Information and Communication Technology, the University of Danang. He has over 18 years of experience teaching and researching in the fields of programming, databases, machine learning, information retrieval, multimedia, and artificial intelligence.",institutionString:"University of Danang",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:null},coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"9",title:"Computer and Information Science",slug:"computer-and-information-science"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"429342",firstName:"Zrinka",lastName:"Tomicic",middleName:null,title:"Ms.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/429342/images/20008_n.jpg",email:"zrinka@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager, my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. 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1. Introduction
High-throughput next-generation sequencing (NGS) technologies have evolved rapidly and are reshaping the scope of genomics research [1, 2] and drug development [3, 4]. The significant advances in NGS technologies, and consequently, the exponential expansion of biological data have created a huge gap between the computer capabilities and sequencing throughput [5, 6]. Technical improvements have greatly decreased the sequencing costs and, as a result, the size and number of datasets generated by large sequencing centers have increased dramatically. The lower cost also made the sequencing data more affordable to small and midsize research groups. As always, digging out the “treasure” from NGS data is the primary challenge in bioinformatics, which places unprecedented demands on big data storage and analysis. It is becoming increasingly daunting for small laboratories or even large institutions to establish and maintain their own computational infrastructures for large-scale NGS data analysis.
A promising solution to address this computational challenge is cloud computing [7–10], where CPU, memory, and storage are accessible in the form of virtual machines (VMs). In recent years, cloud computing has spread very rapidly for the supply of IT resources (hardware and software) of different nature, and is emerging as a viable option to quickly and easily acquire the computational resources for large-scale NGS data analyses. Cloud computing offers a wide selection of VMs with different hardware specifications and users can choose and configure these VMs to meet their computational demands. With the massive scale of users, cloud computing providers, such as Amazon, are continuously driving costs down, which in turn has led to the use of cloud computing for NGS data analyses attractive within the bioinformatics community. Despite the apparent benefits associated with cloud computing, there are also issues to be addressed. Data privacy and security are particularly important when managing sensitive data, such as the patients’ information from clinical genomics studies [11].
The aim of this chapter is to describe the application of cloud computing in large-scale NGS data analysis and to help scientists to understand advantages and disadvantages of cloud computing, and to make an informed-choice on whether to perform NGS analysis on cloud services or to build the infrastructure themselves. It is organized as follows. First, we give a brief introduction to NGS technology, including DNA sequencing, RNA sequencing, and ChIP-sequencing. Secondly, we briefly introduce cloud computing and its services. Thirdly, we summarize and review publicly available cloud-based NGS tools and systems, with some particular emphasis on “Rainbow” [12], a cloud-based tool for large-scale whole-genome sequencing. Finally, we will discuss the challenges and remaining problems related to the full adoption of cloud computing in the NGS data analysis.
2. Next-generation sequencing
Next-generation sequencing [13] platforms allow researchers to ask virtually any question related to the genome, transcriptome, or epigenome of any organism. It has already profoundly changed the nature and scope of genomic research in the past few years. Sequencing methods differ primarily by how the DNA or RNA samples are obtained (e.g., organism, tissue type, normal vs. affected, experimental conditions) and by the data analysis options used. After the sequencing libraries are prepared, the actual sequencing processes are similar regardless of the method. There are a number of standard library preparation kits from different vendors that offer solutions for whole-genome sequencing (WGS), RNA sequencing (RNA-seq), targeted sequencing (such as exome sequencing, targeted RNA-seq or 16S sequencing), and detection of DNA methylation and protein-DNA interactions. As the number of NGS methods is constantly growing, a brief overview covering the most common methods is presented below.
2.1. Genomics
A breakthrough in NGS in the last decade has provided an unprecedented opportunity to investigate the contribution of genetic variation to health and disease [14]. WGS and whole-exome capture sequencing (WES) have emerged as compelling paradigms for routine clinical diagnosis, genetic risk prediction, and rare diseases [15–18]. WGS of tumors [19] is an unbiased approach that provides extensive genomic information about a tumor at the single nucleotide level as well as structural variations such as large insertions, genomic rearrangements, gross deletions, and duplications. Using low-coverage WGS of many individuals from diverse human populations, the 1000 Genomes Project [20] has characterized common variations and a considerable proportion of rare variations present in human genomes. With falling costs, it is now possible to sequence genomes of many individuals for association studies and other genomic analyses [21].
The WGS workflow is depicted in Figure 1. A human genome is fragmented into many short pieces that are sequenced by a sequencer. The sequencing step typically generates billions of short reads. All short reads are mapped to a reference genome, and genetic and structural variants can be identified with respect to the reference genome sequence. Human DNA is comprised of approximately 3 billion base pairs. 30× coverage sequencing of a personal genome will produce approximately 100 gigabytes (GB) of nucleotide bases, and its corresponding FASTQ file will be about 250 GB. For a WGS project consisting of 400 subjects, 100 terabytes of disk space is required to store the raw reads alone. Additional space is required for storing intermediate files generated during data analyses. Transferring and processing a dataset of such size would be extremely time-consuming and heavily computation-intensive and thus they pose huge practical challenges in data analyses.
Figure 1.
WGS workflow. A human genome is fragmented and sequenced, and billions of short reads are generated by a sequencer. All short reads are aligned to the reference genome and genetic variants are identified accordingly.
2.2. Transcriptomics
RNA sequencing (RNA-seq) has emerged as a powerful technology for transcriptome profiling [22–25]. It allows both quantification of known or predefined RNA transcripts and the capability to detect and quantify rare and novel transcripts within a sample. Compared to microarray, RNA-seq has a broader dynamic range, which allows for the detection of more differentially expressed genes with higher fold-change [26]. It is also superior in detecting low abundance transcripts, differentiating biologically critical isoforms, and allowing the identification of genetic variants. Not only RNA-seq can detect underlying genomic alterations at single-nucleotide resolution within expressed regions of the genome, but also it can quantify expression levels and capture variation not detected at the genomic level, including the expression of alternative transcripts. In the past decade, RNA-seq has become one of the most versatile applications of NGS technology and has revolutionized the researches on transcriptome [27]. As in WGS, RNA-seq generates vast number of short reads that must be computationally aligned or assembled to quantify expression of hundreds of thousands of RNA transcripts. Similar to DNA sequencing, the enormous data from large-scale RNA-seq studies poses a fundamental challenge for data management and analysis in a local environment [28–30]. Consequently, limited access to computational infrastructure and high-quality bioinformatics tools, and the demand for personnel skilled in data analysis and interpretation, remains a serious bottleneck for most researchers.
2.3. Epigenomics and protein-DNA interactions
While genomics involves the study of heritable or acquired alterations in the DNA sequence, epigenetics is the study of heritable changes in gene activity caused by mechanisms other than DNA sequence changes [31, 32]. Mechanisms of epigenetic activity include DNA methylation, histone modification and more. A focus in epigenetics is the study of cytosine methylation (5-mC) states across specific areas of regulation such as promotors or heterochromatin. Cytosine methylation can significantly modify temporal and spatial gene expression and chromatin remodelling. Two methylation sequencing methods are widely used: whole-genome bisulfite sequencing (WGBS) and reduced representation bisulfite sequencing (RRBS). With WGBS-seq, sodium bisulfite chemistry converts nonmethylated cytosines to uracils, which are then converted to thymines in the sequence reads. In RRBS-seq, DNA is digested with MspI—a restriction enzyme unaffected by methylation status. Fragments in the 100–150 bp size range are isolated to enrich CpG and promotor containing DNA regions. Sequencing libraries are then constructed using the standard NGS protocols.
ChIP-sequencing, also known as ChIP-seq [33, 34], is a method used to analyze protein interactions with DNA. ChIP-seq combines chromatin immunoprecipitation (ChIP) with massively parallel DNA sequencing to identify the binding sites of DNA-associated proteins. It can be used for genome-wide mapping of transcription factor binding sites. Protein-DNA interactions have a significant impact on many biological processes and disease states. The sequence reads generated by ChIP-seq are massive and need to be aligned to reference genome first, and then the locations of protein-DNA interactions are inferred based on enrichment of sequence reads along the genome.
3. Cloud computing
"Cloud Computing," by definition, refers to the on-demand delivery of IT resources and applications via the Internet with pay-as-you-go pricing. Cloud computing is a model for enabling ubiquitous, on-demand access to a shared pool of configurable computing resources (e.g., networks, servers, storage, applications, and services), which can be rapidly provisioned and released with minimal management effort. With cloud computing, you do not need to make large upfront investments in hardware and spend a lot of time on the heavy lifting of managing hardware. Instead, cloud computing providers such as Amazon Web Services own and maintain the network-connected hardware, and you can provision exactly the right type and size of computing resources you need. You can access as many resources as you need, almost instantly, and only pay for what you request and own. These computing resources include networks, servers, storage, applications, and services. There are several essential characteristics of the cloud computing model.
Rapid elasticity: you only allocate resources when you need them, and you are able to dynamically scale-up and -down your allocated resources as your needs change over time.
Pay-as-you-go: you only pay when you consume computing resources, and only pay for how much you consume.
On-demand self-service: the user can request and manage the computing resources without help from the service providers.
Cost-effective: classical computational infrastructure for data processing has become ineffective and difficult to easily scale-up and -down, and cloud computing is a viable and even a cheaper technology that enables large-scale data analysis.
Existing cloud-based services can be classified into four categories or layers (see Figure 2). The first one is Infrastructure as a Service (IaaS). This service model is offered in a computing infrastructure that includes servers (typically virtualized) with specific computational capability and/or storage. The user has full control on the operating system and applications that are deployed to, but with limited control, over the network settings. A good example is Amazon elastic compute cloud (EC2), which allows the user to request and manage virtual machines, and Amazon simple storage service (S3), which allows storing and accessing data. The second category of service is Platform as a Service (PaaS) in which the provider offers the customer the authority to create applications using developing tools supported by the provider. PaaS features rapid application development and good scalability, presenting usefulness in developing specific applications for big biological data analysis. Typically, the environment delivered by PaaS includes programming language environments, web servers, and databases. The Amazon Web Services (AWS) software development kit (AWS SDK) and Google App Engine are good examples of this service.
Figure 2.
Illustration of cloud services [8]. Cloud-based services in are grouped into Data as a Service (DaaS), Software as a Service (SaaS), Platform as a Service (PaaS), and Infrastructure as a Service (IaaS).
The third service is Software as a Service (SaaS). SaaS eliminates the need for local installation and eases software maintenances and updates, providing up-to-date cloud-based services for data analysis. Customers do not manage the cloud infrastructure or network components, servers, operating systems, or storage, and can use the applications provided by the cloud provider. Most bioinformatics applications are open-source projects, and difficult to build, configure and maintain, primarily because they lack good documentation and have complex library dependencies. However, as all software applications are installed and configured within the VM, SaaS provides the perfect solution. The fourth layer is Data as a Service (DaaS). Bioinformatics clouds are heavily dependent on data, as data are fundamentally crucial for downstream analyses and knowledge discovery. Due to such unprecedented growth in biological data, delivering Data as a Service (DaaS) via the Internet is of utmost importance. DaaS enables dynamic data access and provides up-to-date data that are accessible by a wide range of devices that are connected over the web. AWS provides a centralized repository of public data sets, including GenBank [35], 1000 Genomes [20], encyclopedia of DNA elements [36], etc., and all public datasets are delivered as services in AWS and thus can be seamlessly integrated into cloud-based applications.
4. NGS data analysis on cloud computing
In recent years, cloud computing offers an alternative approach to quickly and easily acquire computational resources for large-scale NGS data analysis. As a result, many cloud-based services and bioinformatics platforms (see Table 1), applications (see Table 2), and resources have been developed to address the specific challenges of working with the large volumes of data generated by NGS technology. Cloud computing has created new possibilities to analyze NGS data at reasonable costs, especially for laboratories lacking a dedicated bioinformatics infrastructure. From the perspective of end users, there are three options to analyze NGS data on cloud computing (Tables 1 and 2). First, commercial systems such as DNAnexus and Seven Bridges can be used out of box to carry out the entire NGS data analysis. Second, commercial or open bioinformatics platforms are further customized to meet users’ computational needs. Third, open-source tools (Table 2) can be deployed into the cloud for any customized data analysis.
Commercial services provide the users with well-established pipelines, user interfaces, and even application programming interfaces (APIs), and can reduce the time and effort required for setting up pipelines for NGS data analysis. For instance, DNAnexus and Seven Bridges offer various customizable NGS data analysis pipelines. In addition, DNAnexus also provides software that can directly upload the sequencing data produced. BaseSpace, launched by Illumina in collaboration with Amazon, is a genomics cloud computing platform that provides NGS data analysis services, such as mapping, de novo assembling, small RNA analysis, library quality control (QC), metagenomics analysis, and data storage. It is designed to bring simplified data management and analytical sequencing tools directly to researchers in a user-friendly manner. BaseSpace provides flexibility and convenience with an array of tools, significantly simplifying the process of yielding meaningful results from NGS data. Bina Technologies offers a service that is composed of a specialized hardware called Bina Box and a cloud service. Bina Box can employ accelerated BWA [54] and GATK [55] for data analyses.
Some commercial services also provide APIs with which the users can manage their jobs or build their own applications. Variant calling on datasets of hundreds or thousands of genomes is time-consuming, expensive, and not easily reproducible given the myriad components of a variant calling pipeline. To address these challenges, the Mercury [47] analysis pipeline was developed on top of the DNAnexus platform. It integrates multiple sequence analysis components across various computational steps, from obtaining patient samples to providing a fully annotated list of variant sites for clinical applications. Mercury is an automated, flexible, and extensible analysis workflow that provides accurate and reproducible genomic results at scales ranging from individuals to large cohorts.
Although a number of cloud-based pipelines are available for analyses of sequencing data in massively parallel DNA sequencing, the majority of them can only identify variants within a single sample. While this approach has enough power for detecting variants in high-coverage sequencing, it performs worse than multiple-sample calling when applied to low-coverage sequencing data. To this end, another scalable DNAnexus-based pipeline for joint variant calling in large samples was developed and deployed to the Amazon cloud. Using this pipeline, Shringarpure et al. [21] identified 68.3 million variants in 2535 samples from Phase 3 of the 1000 Genomes Project. By performing the variant calling in a parallel manner, the data was processed within 5 days at a compute cost of just $7.33 per sample (a total cost of $18,590 for completed jobs and $21,805 for all jobs).
Despite their merits, these commercial services also have several disadvantages. First, the use of a commercial service requires extra expenses for the convenience of NGS data analysis and user-friendly interfaces. Second, compared to open-source tools on the cloud, the commercial services are less customizable with respect to the use of the services and access to the cloud service. Although DNAnexus and Seven Bridges provide APIs to access and control their cloud services, their functionalities are restricted and the users have to request the service provider to set up new application software on their cloud services.
4.2. Bioinformatics platforms
CloudBioLinux [56] is a publicly accessible virtual machine (VM) that is based on an Ubuntu Linux distribution and is available to all Amazon EC2 users for free. It comes with a user-friendly graphical user interface (GUI), along with over 135 preinstalled bioinformatics packages. CloudBioLinux instances provide an excellent environment for users to become familiar with BioLinux and cloud computing. Galaxy is an open, web-based platform for data-intensive biomedical research. Whether on the free public server or your own instance, you can perform, reproduce, and share the entire data analyses. Galaxy Cloud [57], a cloud-based Galaxy platform for the analysis of data at a large scale, is the most used platform for bioinformatics. Unlike commercial software service solutions, users can customize their deployment and have complete control over their instances and associated data. Currently, a public Galaxy Cloud deployment, called CloudMan [57], is provided on the AWS cloud, enables bioinformatics researchers to easily deploy, customize, and share their cloud analysis environment, including data, tools, and configurations. By combining three platforms, CloudBioLinux, CloudMan, and Galaxy, into a cohesive unit, researchers can gain access to more than 135 preconfigured bioinformatics tools and gigabytes of reference genomes on top of the flexible cloud computing infrastructure [56].
Although Galaxy cloud provides a convenient platform for researchers, challenges remain in moving large amounts of data reliably and efficiently and in adding domain-specific tools for specific analyses. To address these challenges, Globus Genomics [58, 59] was developed at the Computation Institute (CI), a joint institute between the University of Chicago and Argonne National Laboratory. Globus Genomics is a cloud-based integrated solution for NGS data analysis. It extends the existing Galaxy workflow system by adding data management capabilities for transferring large quantities of data efficiently and reliably (via Globus Transfer), domain-specific analyses tools preconfigured for immediate use by researchers (via user-specific tools integration), automatic deployment on cloud for on-demand resource allocation and pay-as-you-go pricing (via Globus Provision), and a cloud provisioning tool for auto-scaling (via HTCondor scheduler). Genome sequencing is notoriously data-intensive, and Globus Transfer [59] is designed for fast and secure movement of large amounts of data. Setting up a production instance of Galaxy is a nontrivial task that involves a number of manual installation and configuration steps for both the platform and any dependent software packages—steps that can be both error-prone and time-consuming. Globus Provision addresses the above issues by providing on-demand cluster reconfiguration, user-specific node provisioning, and automatic instance deployment on Amazon EC2.
GenomeCloud (http://www.genome-cloud.com/) is another on-demand Galaxy cloud. It was built upon Galaxy, and is composed of g-Analysis, g-Cluster, g-Storage, and g-Insight services, providing convenient services to the researchers and other users. GenomeCloud is a complete and integrated platform for analyzing genome data to the interpretation of analysis results. It combines the idea of cloud computing with bioinformatics to generate an integrated solution for data storage and sharing, database management, continuously updated computing and analysis tools, and security. GenomeCloud is designed to help researchers perform bioinformatics tasks more easily, as well as to support laboratories without the computational resources to conduct research without hurdles.
4.3. Open-source tools
The development of tools supporting NGS data analysis with cloud computing has recently become popular in the open-source community [8]. Currently, there are many pipelines and workflows that support cloud computing (Table 2). Despite their advantages in cost and flexibility, open-source tools on the cloud also have substantial drawbacks. The users are responsible for designing/setting up the entire analysis pipeline, the data management and hardware configuration, such as CPUs, memory, storage, and security. Quite often, the users have to overcome a laborious series of trial and error before setting up the proper configuration. Although several tools have been developed to date, in most cases, their cloud computing support is incomplete and their functionality is under-developed. Here, we will briefly report some existing bioinformatics tools and then describe Rainbow, a cloud-based tool for large-scale WGS data analysis, in detail in the next section.
CloudAligner [38] and CloudBurst [39] are parallel read mapping algorithms optimized for mapping short reads to human and other reference genomes and can produce alignments for a variety of downstream biological analyses including SNP discovery, genotyping, and personal genomics. Crossbow is a Hadoop- [60] based tool that combines the speed of the short read aligner bowtie [61], with the accuracy of the SNP caller SOAPsnp [62] to perform alignment and SNP detection from WGS data in parallel. Scalable tools for open-source read mapping (STORMseq) [45] is a graphical interface cloud computing solution that performs read mapping, read cleaning, variant calling, and annotation using personal genome data. Variant annotation tool (VAT) [49] has been developed to annotate variants from multiple personal genomes at the transcript level as well as to obtain summary statistics across multiple genes and individuals.
FX [42] is an RNA-seq analysis tool, which runs in parallel on cloud computing infrastructure, for the estimation of gene expression levels and genomic variant calling. Another cloud computing pipeline for calculating differential gene expression in large RNA-seq datasets is Myrna [43]. Myrna uses bowtie [61] for short read alignment and R/bioconductor for quantification, normalization, and statistical testing. These tools are combined in an automatic, parallel pipeline that runs in the cloud, exploiting the availability of multiple computers and processors wherever possible. Stormbow [44] is a scalable, cost-effective, and open-source-based tool for large-scale RNA-seq data analysis. Its performance has been tested by applying it to analyze 178 RNA-seq samples in the cloud. In the test, it took 6–8 h to process each RNA-seq sample with 100 million pair-ended reads in the m1.xlarge instance, and the average cost was only $3.50 per sample. BioVLAB-MMIA-NGS [51, 52] offers the integrated miRNA-mRNA analysis and can be used to identify the “many-to-many” relationship between miRNAs and target genes with high accuracy. PeakRanger [48] is a software package for the analysis of ChIP-seq data. It can be run in a parallel cloud computing environment to obtain extremely high performance on large data sets. Unbiased NGS approaches enable comprehensive pathogen detection in the clinical microbiology laboratory [63] and have numerous applications for public health surveillance, outbreak investigation, and the diagnosis of infectious diseases. Sequence-based ultra rapid pathogen identification (SURPI™) [53] is a computational pipeline for pathogen identification from complex metagenomic NGS data generated.
4.4. Rainbow
Crossbow is a software tool that can detect SNPs in WGS data from a single subject; however, it has a number of limitations when applied to large-scale WGS projects. Rainbow [12] is a cloud-based software package that can assist in the automation of large-scale WGS data analyses. Rainbow was built upon Crossbow. By hiding the complexity of the Crossbow command-line options, Rainbow facilitates the application of Crossbow for large-scale WGS analysis in the cloud. Compared with Crossbow, the main improvements incorporated into Rainbow include the ability: (1) to handle BAM as well as FASTQ input files, (2) to split large sequence files for better load balance in downstream clusters, (3) to collect and track the running metrics of data processing and monitoring multiple Amazon EC2 instances, and (4) to merge SOAPsnp outputs from multiple individuals into a single file to facilitate downstream genome-wide association studies.
The workflow of Rainbow is shown in Figure 3. Multiple data drives are shipped to Amazon. After the BAM or FASTQ files have been uploaded to S3, large FASTQ files are split into smaller files in parallel. Then multiple clusters are launched in the cloud, with each cluster processing a single sample. Crossbow is responsible for mapping reads to the reference sequence and for SNP calling. The SNPs for all samples are then combined by a Perl script. When the analysis is complete, the results can either be downloaded directly or exported via Amazon Export. We applied Rainbow to analyze the 44 subjects, with 0.55–1 billion pair-ended 100 bp short reads per sample. The running environments were as follows. For step #1 in Figure 3, we chose the Amazon m1.large instance, which has two CPUs, 7.5 GB memory, and two 420 GB instance drives. For Crossbow run, each compute cluster has 40 c1.xlarge nodes as recommended by the Crossbow developers. Each c1.xlarge node has 8 CPUs, 7 GB memory, and 1690 GB instance storage.
Figure 3.
The Rainbow pipeline. S3 centralizes data storage, including inputs, intermediate results, and outputs. Alignment and SNP call are performed by Crossbow in a cluster with multiple nodes.
The performance of Rainbow is summarized in Figure 4. In a 320-CPU (=40 × 8) cluster, the alignment of billions of reads takes between 0.8 and 1.6 h. The linear relationship shown in Figure 4 indicates that the sequence data blocks in the Hadoop distributed file system (HDFS) are physically local to the nodes that processed them, which reduces virtual I/O delays. The SOAPsnp running time ranges from 1 to 1.8 h, which takes a little longer than the alignment. All EC2 instances and clusters are terminated immediately after the jobs are finished. On average, it costs less than 120 US dollars to analyze each subject, and the total cost for analyzing those 44 subjects was 5800 US dollars, including data import. More important than the cost is the ability to scale Rainbow up or down, so that the analyses can be accomplished in a reasonably short amount time, regardless of sample size. No upfront investment in infrastructure is required and there is no additional administrative costs involved using Amazon cloud. Rainbow is a scalable, cost-effective, and open-source tool for large-scale WGS data analysis. It is available for third-party implementation and use, and can be downloaded from the Rainbow website.
Figure 4.
Top panel: running time of bowtie alignment vs. the number of paired sequence reads. Bottom panel: running time of SOAPsnp vs. the number of paired mapped reads. Note: each cluster consists of 40 c1.xlarge instances (8 CPUs per c1.xlarge instance).
In order to access the Rainbow cloud pipeline, the user must first set up an AWS account (http://aws.amazon.com/). Once registered, the user needs to sign up for Amazon EC2, S3, EMR, and SES services. The user can then start an instance based on the public AMI: ami-0f1f9866 in US-East (N. Virginia); or ami-b6bc89f3 in US-West (N. California). All required software is already preinstalled and configured in the AMI. Then, the user can connect to the instance and configure EC2, EMR, and S3cmd command-line tools. After a successful connection to the instance has been established, the user needs to prepare a sample manifest file in order to run Rainbow. A master manifest file is a plain text file to describe all subjects in a WGS project. Each subject has a corresponding entry in the manifest file and each entry consists of three fields separated by spaces or tabs: (1) a unique identifier; (2) locations of the raw reads in S3; and (3) an output folder in S3. Each individual step in the Rainbow workflow uses this same manifest file as input, thus all output files are named and stored consistently. After the creation of the manifest file, the user just needs to run a couple of command lines and all the analyses will be done automatically in the cloud.
Analyzing large datasets in the cloud is different from performing the same analysis in a local environment. When developing Rainbow, we have learned the following lessons.
It is not trivial to move large datasets around within the cloud. Users should be prepared to handle network congestion or failures, never assuming data transfer is always successful. If data move fails, it is a good practice to wait a couple of minutes and then try to transfer data again. Repeat the “wait-and-transfer” cycle till data transfer is successful.
Boot time should be taken into account when new resources are starting up. It is recommended to give cloud providers 10–15 min grace period (waiting time) before attempting to use a newly requested resource, for instance, elastic block store (EBS).
Cloud providers typically offer a variety of compute instances to choose from. To choose the best option, it is important to understand the bottleneck (CPU, I/O, or network) for the algorithm that is to be run.
When large amounts of data are moved between cloud resources, it is essential to ensure that they are in the same location or data center.
It is difficult to debug workflows in the cloud without heavy logging.
5. Cloud computing hurdles
Albeit relatively new, cloud computing holds great promise in effectively addressing big data storage and analysis problems in NGS data analysis. Despite the potential gains achieved, there are also several important issues that need to be addressed. Below, we present the main hurdles on the adoption of cloud computing.
5.1. Big data transfer
To analyze the NGS data in the cloud, data have to be transferred across the wired network and uploaded onto AWS. The volume and complexity of NGS data have exponentially increased, giving rise to issues related to data analysis, management, and transfer to the cloud [64–66]. For example, WGS of 400 subjects at 30× coverage will generate approximately 100 TB raw sequence reads in FASTQ format. In the future, more and more sequencing projects would generate ultra-large volumes of biological data and thus require bioinformatics clouds for big data storage, sharing, and analysis. One of the most challenging issues of cloud computing is data transfer. Transferring vast amounts of biological data to the cloud is a significant bottleneck in cloud computing.
The speed of data transfer is usually slow and at present there are not many solutions available for moving the huge amount of data to cloud. Therefore, we need more efficient data transfer technologies in cloud computing. According to CloudHarmoy’s report on download speed relative to the year 2010 (http://blog.cloudharmony.com/2010/02/cloud-speed-test-results.html), the download speed from Amazon AWS EC2 in North Virginia (U.S.) was 2.95 Mb/s, which corresponds to downloading a 10 GB file in 29,116 s (*8 h). Therefore, data transfer is a serious bottleneck in NGS data analysis on cloud service. To deal with the data transfer issue, Aspera (http://www.asperasoft.com/) has developed the fast and secure protocol (FASP) for data transfer with a speed of up to 5 GB/s. Ideally, using FASP, the user can download a 10 GB file in 17.2 s, which is a revolutionary improvement. But still it cannot transfer data at the TB scale. Alternatively, sequencing service providers such as BGI and Illumina offer a service in which they deliver a hard disk drive (HDD) containing the sequencing data. However, the shipping has limitations aside from the time taken up by travel, and once a package (of hard drives) is stamped and sealed, researchers cannot control when (and sometimes if) the parcel arrived or what condition it arrived. This service cannot guarantee safe transfer of data, since the HDD can get lost, stolen, or physical errors can occur.
5.2. Most bioinformatics tools are not cloud-aware
Most bioinformatics software tools are written for desktop (rather than cloud) applications and are therefore not provided as cloud-based web services accessible via the Web, making it infeasible to perform complex bioinformatics tasks in the cloud. For instance, bowtie [61] is one of the most popular mapping algorithms, but it requires that input files are stored on local disk when mapping reads and is not compatible with Amazon S3. Even if you run bowtie in an EC2 instance, the raw FASTQ files have to be fetched to an elastic block store (EBS) volume that is attached to the EC2 instance. In other words, bowtie does not have built-in support for S3. Spliced transcripts alignment to a reference (STAR) [67–69] is a popular RNA-seq mapper that performs highly accurate spliced sequence alignment at an ultrafast speed. However, it is not cloud-friendly either. Like bowtie, STAR does not take advantage of AWS cloud services, and cannot work with S3 either. Unfortunately, the majority of bioinformatics tools are developed without native support for cloud computing.
MapReduce [70, 71], developed by Google, is an easy-to-use and general-purpose parallel programming model that is suitable for large data set analysis on a commodity hardware cluster. MapReduce is a software framework, written in Java, designed to run over a cluster of machines in a distributed way. A MapReduce program is composed of a user-defined map function and a reduce function. When a program that is implemented with the map and reduce functions has been launched, the map function processes each key/value pair and produces a list of intermediate key/value pairs, while the reduce function aggregates all the intermediate values with the same keys. MapReduce is an important advancement in cloud computing because it can process huge data sets quickly and safely using commodity hardware.
Hadoop, comprised of MapReduce and the Hadoop distributed file system (HDFS), is based on a strategy of colocating data and processing to significantly accelerate computing performance [60]. Hadoop allows for the distributed processing of large datasets across multiple computer nodes, supports big data scaling, and enables fault-tolerant parallel analysis. The Hadoop framework has been recently deemed as the most suitable method for handling bioinformatics data [70]. Unfortunately, many traditional bioinformatics tools and algorithms have to be redesigned and implemented in order to support and benefit from Hadoop MapReduce infrastructure. Even with the help of the corresponding developers, it will take a while for most bioinformatics tools currently available to add this feature.
Apache Spark™ (https://spark.apache.org/) is a fast and general engine for large-scale data processing, natively supported in Amazon EMR. Apache Spark supports a variety of languages, including Java, Scala, and Python, for developers to build applications. Hadoop and Apache Spark are both big data frameworks, but they do not really serve the same purposes. Hadoop is essentially a distributed data infrastructure. It distributes massive data collections across multiple nodes within a cluster of commodity servers, Spark, on the other hand, is a data-processing tool that operates on those distributed data collections; it does not do distributed storage. To study the utility of Apache Spark in the genomic context, SparkSeq was created [72]. It is a general-purpose, flexible, and easily extendable library for genomic cloud computing, and can be used to build genomic analysis pipelines in Scala and run them in an interactive way. Recently, SparkBWA [73] was introduced; a new tool that exploits Spark to boost the performance of one of the most widely adopted sequence aligner, the Burrows-Wheeler Aligner (BWA). It is hoped more Apache Spark-based bioinformatics algorithms will be developed for large-scale genomic data analysis in the future.
5.3. Open clouds for bioinformatics
Currently, the largest cloud computing provider is Amazon, which provides commercial clouds for processing big data. Additionally, Google also provides a cloud platform to allow users to develop and host applications, and to store and analyze data. However, commercial clouds are not yet able to provide ample data and software for bioinformatics analysis. By placing public biological database and software into the cloud and delivering them as services, data and software can be seamlessly and easily integrated into the cloud. AWS hosts a variety of public data sets for free access (https://aws.amazon.com/public-data-sets/). All public datasets in AWS are delivered as services. Previously, large data sets, such as the mapping of the human genome, required hours or days to locate, download, customize, and analyze. Now, anyone can access these data sets via the AWS centralized data repository from any Amazon EC2 instance or Amazon EMR cluster. Google Genomics also helps the life science community organize the world’s genomic data and make them accessible and useful.
In the era of big data, however, only a tiny amount of biological data is accessible in the cloud at present (only AWS, including GenBank [35], Ensembl [74], 1000 Genomes [20], etc.) and the vast majority of data are still deposited in conventional biological databases. It is difficult for commercial clouds to keep pace with the emerging needs from academic research, opening up the demand for specific open clouds for bioinformatics studies. Needless to say, open access and public availability of data and software are of great significance to biological science. To satisfy the need for big data storage, sharing, and analysis with lower cost and higher efficiency, it is essential that a large number of biological data as well as a wide variety of bioinformatics tools should be publicly accessible in the cloud and delivered as services. Therefore, future efforts should be devoted to building open bioinformatics clouds for the bioinformatics community. GenomeSpace [75] is a cloud-based, cooperative community resource that currently supports the streamlined interaction of 20 bioinformatics tools and data resources. To facilitate integrative analysis by nonprogrammers, it offers a growing set of \'recipes\', short workflows to guide investigators through high-utility analysis tasks. The potential benefits of open bioinformatics clouds include maximizing the scope for data sharing, easing large-scale data integration, and harnessing collective intelligence for knowledge discovery.
5.4. Security and privacy
The many characteristics of cloud computing have made the long-dreamed vision of “computing as a utility” a reality. The cloud computing offers scalable and competitively priced computing resources for the analysis and storage of data from large-scale genomics studies, but it must also ensure that genetic data coming from human subjects are hosted in a context that is both secure and compliant with regulations [76]. When deciding whether to move the analyses into the cloud or not, potential cloud users need to weigh all the factors including system performance, service availability, cost, and most importantly, data security. Genomics data extracted from clinical samples are sensitive data and present unprecedented requirements of privacy and security [11, 77]. In general, there are concerns that genomics and clinical data managed through a cloud are susceptible to loss, leakage, theft, unauthorized access, and attacks. The centralized storage and shared tenancy of physical storage space means the cloud users are at higher risk of disclosure of their sensitive data to unwanted parties. A secure protection scheme will be necessary to protect the sensitive information from medical records. There is considerable amount of work to enforce data protection against security attacks.
However, the question of security in cloud computing is intrinsically complicated. Cloud computing is built on the top of existing architectures and techniques such as SaaS and distributed computing. When combining all the benefits of these architectures and techniques, cloud computing also inherits almost all of their security issues at various levels of the system stack. When cloud users move their applications from within their enterprise/organization boundary into the open cloud, they will lose physical control over their data, and traditional security protection mechanisms such as firewalls are no longer applicable to cloud applications. As a result, cloud users have to heavily rely upon the service providers for data privacy and security protection. In cloud computing, the data and applications from different customers reside on the same physical computing resources. This fact will inevitably bring forth more security risks in the sense that any intentional or inadvertent misbehavior by one cloud user would make other coresidences victims.
6. Conclusion
Pharmacogenomics is an important branch of genomics that studies the impact of SNP on drug response in patients, the toxicity or efficacy of a drug, and the development of diseases [78, 79]. Pharmacogenomics aims to improve drug therapy with respect to the patients’ genotype, to ensure maximum efficacy with minimal adverse effects, and is at the basis of the idea of “precision medicine” where drugs are chosen or optimized to meet the genetic profile of each patient. Thus, the presence (or the absence) of specific SNPs may be used as a clinical marker to predict drug effectiveness, and to foresee the drug responses of individuals with different SNPs. Precision medicine also opens up the possibility to treat diseases based on the genetic makeup of the patient. Identification of the genetic defect underlying early-onset diabetes is important for determining the specific diabetes subtype, providing personalized treatment. The study by Artuso et al. [14] has revealed that NGS provides a highly sensitive method for identification of variants in a new-set of “driver genes” causing diabetes. NGS can be used to analyze the comprehensive landscape of genetic alterations, including known disease-causing gene fusions in transcripts, which brings new insights to study diseases with a highly complex and heterogeneous genetic composition such as cancer [19]. Therefore, NGS facilitates precision medicine and changes the paradigm of cancer therapy, and holds expanded promise for its diagnostic, prognostic, and therapeutic applicability in various diseases.
The substantial decrease in the cost of NGS techniques in the past decade has dramatically reshaped the biomedical research and has led to its rapid adoption in biological research and drug development [3, 4]. Nowadays, massive amount of data, targeting a variety of biological questions, can be generated quickly using NGS platforms. These data range from the function and regulation of genes, the clinical diagnosis and treatment of diseases, to the omics profiling of individual patients for precision medicine. To better understand the association between SNPs and diseases, and to gain deeper insights into the relation between drug response and genetic variations, large-scale sequencing projects are continuously being initiated in research institutes and pharmaceutical companies. The availability of NGS and the genomics studies of large populations are producing an increasing amount of data. However, the storage, preprocessing, and analysis of NGS data are becoming the main bottleneck in the analysis pipeline. With the exponential increase in volume and complexity of NGS data, cluster or high performance computing (HPC) systems are essential for the analysis of large amounts of NGS data. But the associated costs with the infrastructure itself and the maintenance personnel will likely be prohibitive for small institutions or laboratories, and even too much to swallow for big institutions and pharmaceutical companies.
This chapter provides a useful perspective on cloud computing and helps researchers, who plan to analyze their NGS data on cloud services, to gain an understanding of the basic concept. As discussed earlier, cloud computing drives down infrastructure costs both up-front and on an on-going basis. It offers many operational advantages, such as fast completion of massive computational projects and infrastructures can be set up in minutes rather than months. There are growing demands for cloud-based NGS data analysis, which constitutes a good alternative for researchers with little interest in investing in a cluster system. Cloud computing is becoming a technology mature enough for its use in genomic researches. The use of large datasets, the demanding analysis algorithms, and the urgent need for computational resources, make large-scale sequencing projects an attractive test-case for cloud computing. It is likely that in the future, researchers will be able to analyze their NGS data on cloud services for a cost low enough to eliminate the need to introduce clusters into their laboratories. However, we must emphasize that there are a number of open issues and problems associated with the use of cloud, such as privacy and security, especially when managing patients’ clinical data. Data transfer of large amounts of NGS data to the cloud remains a challenge and bottleneck in NGS data analysis. Furthermore, many traditional NGS tools are not designed to use in cloud environment, and thus cannot harness the benefits of cloud services. With the ever-increasing demand, commercial companies and bioinformaticians will develop more NGS analysis tools, using APIs offered by service providers, in the foreseeable future, making NGS data analysis in the cloud more efficient, friendly, and secure.
\n',keywords:"next-generation sequencing, cloud computing, data analysis, workflow, pipeline",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/53334.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/53334.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/53334",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/53334",totalDownloads:4429,totalViews:1445,totalCrossrefCites:7,totalDimensionsCites:14,totalAltmetricsMentions:0,introChapter:null,impactScore:5,impactScorePercentile:94,impactScoreQuartile:4,hasAltmetrics:0,dateSubmitted:"April 1st 2016",dateReviewed:"November 4th 2016",datePrePublished:null,datePublished:"June 14th 2017",dateFinished:"December 8th 2016",readingETA:"0",abstract:"High-throughput next-generation sequencing (NGS) technologies have evolved rapidly and are reshaping the scope of genomics research. The substantial decrease in the cost of NGS techniques in the past decade has led to its rapid adoption in biological research and drug development. Genomics studies of large populations are producing a huge amount of data, giving rise to computational issues around the storage, transfer, and analysis of the data. Fortunately, cloud computing has recently emerged as a viable option to quickly and easily acquire the computational resources for large-scale NGS data analyses. Some cloud-based applications and resources have been developed specifically to address the computational challenges of working with very large volumes of data generated by NGS technology. In this chapter, we will review some cloud-based systems and solutions for NGS data analysis, discuss the practical hurdles and limitations in cloud computing, including data transfer and security, and share the lessons we learned from the implementation of Rainbow, a cloud-based tool for large-scale genome sequencing data analysis.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/53334",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/53334",book:{id:"5416",slug:"cloud-computing-architecture-and-applications"},signatures:"Shanrong Zhao, Kirk Watrous, Chi Zhang and Baohong Zhang",authors:[{id:"176364",title:"Dr.",name:"Shanrong",middleName:null,surname:"Zhao",fullName:"Shanrong Zhao",slug:"shanrong-zhao",email:"shanrong.zhao@pfizer.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"Pfizer (United States)",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Next-generation sequencing",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"2.1. Genomics",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"2.2. Transcriptomics",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"2.3. Epigenomics and protein-DNA interactions",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6",title:"3. Cloud computing",level:"1"},{id:"sec_7",title:"4. NGS data analysis on cloud computing",level:"1"},{id:"sec_7_2",title:"4.1. Commercial services",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8_2",title:"4.2. Bioinformatics platforms",level:"2"},{id:"sec_9_2",title:"4.3. Open-source tools",level:"2"},{id:"sec_10_2",title:"4.4. Rainbow",level:"2"},{id:"sec_12",title:"5. Cloud computing hurdles",level:"1"},{id:"sec_12_2",title:"5.1. Big data transfer",level:"2"},{id:"sec_13_2",title:"5.2. Most bioinformatics tools are not cloud-aware",level:"2"},{id:"sec_14_2",title:"5.3. Open clouds for bioinformatics",level:"2"},{id:"sec_15_2",title:"5.4. Security and privacy",level:"2"},{id:"sec_17",title:"6. 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Early Clinical Development, Pfizer Worldwide Research and Development, Cambridge, MA, USA
Early Clinical Development, Pfizer Worldwide Research and Development, Cambridge, MA, USA
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1. Introduction
Orthodontics and orthodontists have always worked towards delivering better care for patients. This has led to the invention of various bracket systems along with the changes in the protocol of management of extraction cases.
The Self Ligating Brackets (SLB) has come into orthodontic practice since 1930’s with the invention of Boydband bracket. These bracket systems along with the thermally activated NiTi wires have reduced the treatment duration, chair-side time, and improved the treatment efficacy and patient co-operation. This led to the invention of Damon’s system by Dr. Dwight Damon in the year 1996. It is called as “System” rather than “Brackets” because it utilizes the benefits of both the brackets and copper NiTi wires, thus delivering a “low force- low friction” mechanics for the management of dental malocclusion [1].
There has been lot of evidence in literature which states that “atraumatic” remodeling of periodontal tissues was rarely achieved using conventional orthodontic bracket system. This is mainly because the tooth was always moved in group. In Damon’s system, the tooth is allowed to move individually, yet stay in the group. The bracket system allows for easy sliding of the tooth along the path of least or no resistance thus leading to faster leveling and alignment and reduced treatment duration [2]. The aim of this chapter is to describe the bracket prescription, efficiency of the appliance, the possible outcomes and its influence on orthodontic therapy.
2. Why choose Damon?
Damon philosophy uses the concept of passive self-ligation technique which claims to have the lowest frictional resistance of any ligation system. Reduction in friction helps the force to transmit directly from the arch wires to the teeth and its supporting structures without any force dissipation by the ligature system [3].
Comparing the other prescriptions, Damon system has lots of benefits:
Limitations in the use of intraoral expansion appliances such as quad-helix or jack-screw as the optimal forces from the arch wires completely allows the connective tissue and alveolar bone to follow tooth movement with uninterrupted vascular supply to the tooth and its surrounding system thereby providing the necessary expansion [3, 4, 5].
In a study stated that Damon System produced a significant transversal increase in the posterior region of the arches with differences in teeth buccolingual inclinations at post-treatment [6].
Faster alignment of teeth as passive self-ligation produces lower resistance thus allowing a wire to slide.
Reduced amount of pain experienced by patients, and higher treatment efficiency as this friction-free system produces less forces on the teeth [4, 5].
Reduction in the need for extraction as the force applied is minimal that the pressure from lips can control unwanted tipping of incisors during alignment stage [5].
Decreased demand for the use of anchorage devices comparing the conventional appliances as there is reduced friction between the ligation for better tooth control [7].
Reduction in the overall duration of orthodontic treatment up to 7 months and also reduced number of appointments have been found in few researches [8, 9].
Control of tooth position because there is an edgewise slot of adequate width and depth [3].
Decreased discomfort experienced by the patients with the Damon prescription as the forces applied to the teeth are kept minimal throughout the treatment [4].
More efficient chair-side due to reduced ligation time [10].
Promotes periodontal health with better infection control [11].
3. Classification of Damon’s system
In orthodontics achieving ideal inclination of anterior using the edgewise system is challenging. In an attempt to overcome this drawback, Damon’s system has different torque prescription. This includes:
3.1 High torque brackets
These brackets can be used in cases where the incisors or cuspids are severely retroclined or palatally placed. Examples are:
Class I extraction cases with proclined of anterior.
Class II division 1 malocclusion.
Class II division 2 malocclusion with retroclined incisors.
Palatally placed incisors or cuspids.
3.2 Standard torque brackets
These brackets can be used in cases where the inclination of anterior is satisfactory and when there will not be any obvious change in the inclination during the course of the treatment.
3.3 Low torque brackets
Examples of the cases include:
Anterior open bite cases with severe proclination of anteriors.
Moderate and severe crowding.
Treatment mechanics which may result in proclination of anteriors.
Incisors with palatally positioned roots.
In class II fixed functional cases or class II elastics cases where control of lower incisor proclination is necessary.
The tip and torque values of Damon’s system are as in Tables 1 and 2.
Upper arch
U1
U2
U3
U4
U5
U6
U7
+5°
+9°
+6°
+2°
+2°
Lower arch
L1
L2
L3
L4
L5
L6
L7
+2°
+2°
+5°
+2°
+2°
Table 1.
Tip values in Damon’s system.
Upper arch
U1
U2
U3
U4
U5
U6
U7
High torque
+17°
+10°
+7°
Standard torque
+12°
+8°
0°
−7°
−7°
−18°
−27°
Low torque
+7°
+3°
Lower arch
L1
L2
L3
L4
L5
L6
L7
High torque
+7°
Standard torque
−1°
−1°
0°
−12°
−17°
−28°
−10°
Low torque
−6°
−6°
Table 2.
Torque values in Damon’s system.
5. Advantages and disadvantages
5.1 Advantages
Clinically proven
Enhances facial esthetics
More comfortable than traditional braces
Reduced friction and faster tooth movement
Shorter treatment duration
Lesser visits
5.2 Disadvantages
Expensive than traditional braces
“Metal Mouth” look
6. Arch wire sequencing
The phases of tooth movement are generally.
Initial leveling and aligning – where initial round wires made of multistranded steel or NiTi are used, starting from the smaller dimensions then proceeded with the larger dimensions.
Retraction and space closure – where rigid rectangular wires are used for major mechanics like torque expression and space closure.
Finishing and detailing – round steel wires are usually used.
There are two sequences which are generally followed in pre-adjusted edgewise prescription.
6.1 Universal arch wire sequencing
An older concept of a sequence which initially uses round steel wires from sizes.014, .016, .018 and .020 followed by rectangular steel wires from dimensions.018 × .025, .019 × .025 and.021 × .025 in.022 slots.
Multi-stranded wires of dimensions .015 and .0175 were used for initial aligning before .014 round Steel wire came into practice and finishing and detailing was done with.014 steel wires.
Later with the introduction of MBT prescription, arch wire sequencing started with initial .016 CuNiTi wire followed by .019 × .025 CuNiTi and then .019 × .025 Steel wire was used for major biomechanics and detailing was done with .014 round steel wire [12, 13].
A clinical research by Mandall, in which three wire sequences were randomly allocated to patients to compare are as follows:
Group A - 0.016 NiTi, 0.018 × 0.025nNiTi, and .019 × 0.025 Steel wires.
Group B- 0.016 Niti, 0.016 SS and finally 0.020-inch Steel wires.
Group C - 0.016 × 0.022 CuNiTi wire, followed by 0.019 × 0.025 CuNiTi, and ending with 0.019 × 0.025 Steel wire,
And found that all sequences were equally effective. However, the CuNiTi may be preferred by the clinicians as it reduces the number of appointments [14].
In another study by Ong, the three different archwire sequences were applied are as follows:
0.014 Niti, 0.017×0.017 HANT, 0.016×0.022 Steel
0.014 Sentalloy, 0.016×0.022 Bio force, 0.016×0.022 Steel
And found that there were no differences among the archwire sequences in terms of aligning or discomfort [15].
6.2 Damon arch wire sequencing
Phase 1: Light Round Wires
This phase of treatment uses 0.013, 0.014, or 0.016 CuNiTi arch wires. The aim of this first phase of treatment is to achieve tooth alignment including rotation correction except second molars, level the arches and initiate arch development with light forces to permit the soft tissues to desired arch shape. This phase of treatment normally extends from 10 to 20 weeks and the intervals between appointments are about 10 weeks.
Phase 2: High Rectangular Wires
Phase 2 uses two arch wires: 0.014 × 0.025 CuNiTi followed by 0.018 × 0.025 CuNiTi wires. In case of well aligned arches only 0.016 × 0.025 CuNiTi are used in this phase. If intrusion of anteriors is planned, 0.017× 0.025 or 0.019× 0.025 CuNiTi arch wires with preformed curves or reverse curves of Spee or additional torque can be applied anteriorly in this stage.
The main purposes of this phase are:
Continue arch development
achieve complete alignment of all teeth including second molars,
consolidate anterior spaces and maintain tooth contact,
Initiate torque control and bite opening,
The duration of this phase ranges from 20 to 30 weeks. The first archwire is placed from 8 to 10 weeks and the second is from 4 to 6 weeks.
Phase 3: Major Mechanics
Preposted stainless steel arch wires of size 0.019 × .025 are used. Presence of cross bite at this stage when persisted can be corrected with the use of 0.016 × 0.025 preposted stainless steel arch wire with the use of cross elastics where buccal and lingual tipping can be achieved at this stage.
The main purposes of this phase are:
Finish torque control,
Consolidate posterior space and
Maintain the arch form which developed during the initial two phases,
Completely correct the tooth position in all the three relationships.
This phase of treatment extends from 8 to 10 weeks with an interval about 10-weeks between appointments.
Phase 4: Finishing and Detailing
The stainless steel arch wires continued in this phase with elastics for achieving proper interdigitation. But for individual teeth position 0.019× 0.025 ß-titanium arch wires may also be used [2, 3, 16].
In a study by Handem, used the arch sequence with initial round wires 0.014 or 0.016, followed by rectangular 0.016 × 0.025, 0.018 × 0.025, and 0.019 × 0.025 CuNiTi arch wires subsequently, rectangular 0.017 × 0.025 or 0.019 × 0.025 Steel arch wires [17].
7. Bracket placement in Damon system
Various clinicians have put forth bracket placement methodologies of the Damon bracket system to achieve the desired smile arc protection, functional occlusion and enhancing the facial esthetics.
According to him, the arch wire slot should be at the distances mentioned below from the incisal edge.
Maxillary
U-l 4.75 mm.
U-2 4.50 mm.
U-3 5.00 mm.
U-4 4.50 mm.
U-5 4.25 mm.
Mandibular
L-l 4.75 mm.
L-2 4.50 mm.
L-3 5.00 mm.
L-4 4.50 mm.
L-5 4.25 mm.
7.1 Placement tips
The upper brackets open occlusally and the lower brackets open gingivally.
The mesiodistal width of the pad and the mesiodistal edges of the teeth should be given importance.
Panorex view prior to bracket placement allows to identify root position.
The internal slot and the horizontal components should be parallel to the occlusal plane. This is of greater importance in the lower anteriors.
The scribe line of the bracket and crown long axis should be focused while placing the bracket.
Dr. Dwight Damon advises placement of the bracket within the green zone (in between the green lines). The Damon prescription has variable torque prescriptions to foster the need for different clinical cases. A clinician can place the upper and lower mid-bracket slot within the green lines without dramatically impacting torque.
Dr. Thomas. R. Pitts worked with a philosophy of “beginning with the end in mind”. He believed that developing acumen in precise bracket placement is the single most important protocol to achieve an esthetically pleasing smile and functional occlusion.
Basic principles of the Pitts placement protocol:
Detailed bonding plan before the day of bonding and to select brackets of appropriate torque based on the demand of the case.
Ensure tray setup entails all items for an efficient bonding.
Use two assistants to assist in bonding.
Recontour teeth for esthetics and bracket fit.
Follow an exacting placement protocol to achieve an ideal smile arc in the anteriors and leveling buccal cusps and marginal ridges in the posteriors.
Dr. Pitts bonds the maxillary anteriors to achieve a consonant smile arc at the end of the treatment, the mandibular anteriors for overjet and overbite and the remaining teeth for a good occlusion. He first bonds the mandibular teeth, from the second molar to canine on one side, and repeats the same on the opposite side, followed by lateral to lateral. This is followed to achieve symmetry on either side. The same sequence is repeated in the upper arch. He believed in keying off the maxillary canine to ensure that the canine-lateral and canine- premolar contacts are esthetic and functional.
In the posteriors, to achieve leveled marginal ridges and contact points, the teeth are bonded using the contact points as reference. This is done up to the canine and then the incisors are bonded based on the slot of the maxillary canine to give a sweep in the smile arc which gives a pleasing appearance Figures 1 and 2.
Figure 1.
Standard bracket placement of damon bracket.
Figure 2.
Picture depicting the “green zone” for bracket placement in the Damon system.
Dr. Pitt’s occluso gingival positioning of brackets is slightly more gingival to the conventional placement on both arches. He believed positioning the brackets more incisally will prevent us from achieving the ideal smile arc and hinders torque control (Figure 3). Dr. Pitts along with Dr. Mike Steffan developed a method to making the bracket positioning easier by drawing lines on the stone models from contact points for the canine, premolars and molars to prevent mistakes in bracket positioning in the transition of contact points from posteriors to anteriors (Figure 4).
Figure 3.
Gingival bracket placement for smile arc protection by Dr. Thomas Pitts.
Figure 4.
Marking the contact points reference for establishing occlusogingival positioning of brackets.
7.2 Maxillary anteriors
The position of the maxillary canine is given the prime importance for the sweep in the smile arc. Based on the positioning of this bracket, other anterior brackets were placed. In this method, the incisal edge of the canine bracket wing needs to be placed on a line drawn from mesial to distal contact at the height of contour interproximally. This line was called the mesiodistal (M-D) contact line. The level of the slot of this bracket was used as a reference for maxillary central and lateral incisor positioning. The maxillary lateral incisor bracket is placed 0.5 mm gingival to the canine bracket and central incisor bracket 0.25 mm gingival to this to achieve the ideal smile arc (Figure 5) Further to avoid the bracket positioning error, the author advises the use of a two inch large front surface mirror to avoid any error in bracket positioning (Figure 6).
Figure 5.
Bracket positioning in the maxillary incisors and canines.
Figure 6.
Use of a large front surface mirror to prevent errors in bracket positioning.
7.3 Maxillary premolars
The maxillary premolars are positioned by aligning the scribe line with the crown long axis at the height of contour paralleling the central groove and the M-D buccal line angle. Following correct bracket placement, the bracket on the first premolar would seem too distal to the height of contour and the second premolar at times would appear mesial to the height of contour when viewed from the buccal aspect. The occlusal edge of the brackets should touch the M-D contact line (Figure 7).
Figure 7.
Bracket positioning in the maxillary premolars.
7.4 Maxillary molars
The mesiodistal positioning of the buccal tube is done by centering the buccal tube pad over the buccal groove of the teeth and the occluso gingival positioning is done by placing the occlusal edge of the pad on the M-D contact line of the first molar. The second molars follows the same rule for mesiodistal positioning but placed 1.5 mm more occlusally to the first molar tube (Figure 8).
Figure 8.
Bracket positioning in the maxillary molars.
7.5 Mandibular incisors
The mandibular incisors are placed such that the scribe line is aligned with the long axis of the tooth. The bracket position is viewed from the incisal aspect. For deep bite, the position of the top of the slot is 3.5 mm from the incisal edge to reverse the curve of spee and for open bite; the position of the top of the slot is 5 mm from the incisal edge to open the curve of spee (Figure 9).
Figure 9.
Bracket positioning in the mandibular anteriors.
7.6 Mandibular canines
The mesiodistal positioning is done by aligning the scribe line to the long axis of the crown at the height of contour. The position is verified by viewing from the incisal aspect. The occluso gingival positioning is placing the incisal edge of the bracket wing at the M-D contact line (Figure 10).
Figure 10.
Bracket positioning in the mandibular canine.
7.7 Mandibular premolars
The mesiodistal positioning is done by aligning the scribe line to the crown long axis and viewed from the occlusal aspect. The occluso gingival positioning is based on positioning the occlusal edge of the bracket wing 0.5 mm gingival to the M-D contact line (Figure 11).
Figure 11.
Bracket positioning in the mandibular premolars.
7.8 Mandibular molars
The mandibular molars are placed in the same way as the maxillary molars in terms of mesiodistal positioning by orienting the center of the buccal tip of the buccal tube with that of the buccal groove of the tooth. Unlike the maxillary molars, both the mandibular molars are placed at the same height, which is 0.5 mm gingival to the M-D contact line (Figure 12).
Figure 12.
Bracket positioning in the mandibular molars.
Another technique that was proposed was the bracket placement in Beethoven’s Orthodontic center. The bracket placement was similar to that given by Dr. Pitts except some modifications that were made in the maxillary canines. According to him, the maxillary canine bracket is placed by aligning it 1 mm mesially away from the long axis of the crown. The slot of the canine was used as a reference for placing the incisor brackets. The slots of the central and lateral incisor brackets are raised 0.5 mm consecutively (Figure 13).
Figure 13.
Figure showing placement of brackets in the maxillary anteriors.
8. Ideal cases for Damon
Dr. Damon has said that force applied to the bracket should be as light as possible to stimulate tooth movement. His philosophy was to employ the concept of biological adaptation and facially driven treatment plan that focuses on facial esthetics as a critical foundation for diagnosis.
The treatment objective in Damon cases is to
Gain maxillary and mandibular arch length.
Establish upper and lower incisor position to give lip support.
Establish maxillary and mandibular posterior arch width to support mid-face.
Design treatment mechanics to eliminate need for higher force rapid palatal expansion.
With low-force mechanics to work with the orofacial muscle complex, bone, and tissue to establish a physiologic tooth position
Damon system can be used in the following cases
Class I- Non Extraction- Young patient with severe crowding and a flat profile
Class I- Non Extraction- Adult patient with severe crowding and a flat profile
Class I- Non Extraction- Young patient- Open bite with posterior crossbite and very narrow deep palate.
Class I- Non Extraction- Adult patient- Open bite with posterior crossbite and very narrow deep palate.
Class I- Extraction- Bimaxillary protrusion and crowding.
Class II division I subdivision with functional shift- Non Extraction
Class II division I- Severe crowding and deep bite
Class II division II- Severe crowding and deep bite
Class III- Severe crowding.
Using the light forces from the Copper NiTi wires and friction less passive self-ligating brackets along with Superelastic NiTi open coil springs wherever required we can achieve a desired treatment outcome with the Damon system.
In case of Class II patients with retrognathic mandibles we can go for Phase 1 therapy with functional appliances or fixed functional appliances.
9. Recent advances
The Damon self-ligating appliances have certain characteristics such as ease in ligation, wire engagement without undesirable force relaxation of elastomeric modules, which helps in maintaining a constant active status of engaged wires. This makes the Damon appliance more suitable than conventional appliances. This is in agreement with the findings by various other orthodontists, Berger [20], Harradine [9], Turnbull and Birnie [4].
They are completely esthetic passive self-ligating brackets made of polycrystalline alumina (PCA) material, which is resistant to staining from coffee, mustard, red wine and other agents. It eliminates the need for the use of elastomers (modules) which generally stain and collect bacteria during the course of the treatment.
Removable positioning gauge with scaler notch is present in each of the clear brackets for easy and efficient placement of the bracket (Figure 19). There are color-coded positioning gauges on brackets (13–23) present that denote torque values.
Figure 19.
Removable position gauge with scalar notch.
For a higher efficient and quality treatment, proper wire sequencing must be employed. The initial arch wires being the Damon Optimal-Force Copper Ni-Ti® to low-friction TMA and stainless-steel arch wires. Each wire must have sufficient time to express itself before progression to the next wire. For anterior torque expression, either pre-torqued nickel titanium arch wires or TMA arch wires are to be used. For rotational bends, TMA arch wires or titanium niobium arch wires are to be used. However, care should be taken in employing finishing bends in stainless steel wires, since such bends may result in fractures.
Completely re-engineered tie-wing is said to improve the ability to engage and ligate elastomeric chains (Figure 20).
Smoother tie wings were designed for a better patient comfort and minimal occlusal interference (Figure 21).
The base of the bracket with 80 gauge mesh designed for reliable and increased bond strength throughout treatment and for a predictable debonding experience (Figure 22).
Easy to open and close the slot door design with low reciprocal forces and tactile feedback. The bracket door and wire are designed to reduce door closure interference (Figure 23).
Rhomboid shaped pad with enhanced scribe line help in guiding bracket placement (Figure 24).
Presence of vertical slot for convenient placement of drop-in hooks (Figure 25).
The retrocline and procline bracket options were introduced for enhanced torque control. Brackets were designed from the centre point of the clot to the line-up with the FA point to express desired torque and provide easier and more precise placement (Figure 26).
Additionally, extra arch wire options were included, for torque control when needed. Sizes available are: 0.019*0.0275, 0.0020*0.0275, and 0.021*0.0275 in Copper NiTi, TMA and SS (Figure 27).
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He received M.D. and Ph.D. degrees. In 2012, Oiso serves as an Associate Professor at the Departments of Dermatology and Patient Safety & Management, Kinki University Faculty of Medicine, in Osaka-Sayama, Osaka, Japan. In 1988, he was a student at Osaka City University School of Medicine in Osaka, Japan. In 1997, Dr. Oiso was a graduate student at Osaka City University Graduate School of Medicine in Osaka, Japan. In 2001, he was a Postdoctoral Fellow at the Human Medical Genetics Program, University of Colorado Health Sciences Center in Denver, USA. In 2005, Oiso served as an Assistant Professor at the Department of Dermatology, Kinki University Faculty of Medicine, in Osaka-Sayama, Osaka, Japan.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Kindai University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"94422",title:"Prof.",name:"Akira",surname:"Kawada",slug:"akira-kawada",fullName:"Akira Kawada",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Kindai University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"152922",title:"Prof.",name:"Yutaka",surname:"Shimomura",slug:"yutaka-shimomura",fullName:"Yutaka Shimomura",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Institute of Radiological Sciences",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"152977",title:"Dr.",name:"Ken",surname:"Natsuga",slug:"ken-natsuga",fullName:"Ken Natsuga",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Hokkaido University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"153541",title:"Dr.",name:"Tomoki",surname:"Kosho",slug:"tomoki-kosho",fullName:"Tomoki Kosho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Shinshu University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"153567",title:"Dr.",name:"Miki",surname:"Tanioka",slug:"miki-tanioka",fullName:"Miki Tanioka",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Kyoto University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"153614",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Masaaki",surname:"Kawase",slug:"masaaki-kawase",fullName:"Masaaki Kawase",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Jikei University School of Medicine University Hospital",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"153851",title:"M.D.",name:"Daisuke",surname:"Tsuruta",slug:"daisuke-tsuruta",fullName:"Daisuke Tsuruta",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Osaka City University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"154682",title:"Dr.",name:"Teruhiko",surname:"Makino",slug:"teruhiko-makino",fullName:"Teruhiko Makino",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Toyama",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"155091",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Tamihiro",surname:"Kawakami",slug:"tamihiro-kawakami",fullName:"Tamihiro Kawakami",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:"Tamihiro Kawakami\r\nSt. Marianna University, Japan \r\nTamihiro Kawakami received his M.D. degree from Chiba University School of Medicine, Chiba, Japan, in 1989, and Ph.D. degree from Toho University School of Medicine, Tokyo, Japan, in 1998. He was a resident at the Department of Dermatology, Chiba University School of Medicine, Chiba, Japan, in 1989 and at the National Hospital Organization Chiba Medical Hospital, Chiba, Japan, in 1991. He was a staff dermatologist at Self-Defense Forces Central Hospital, Tokyo, Japan, in 1991; Second Department of Dermatology, Toho University School of Medicine, Tokyo, Japan, in 1992; and Tokyo Metropolitan Police Hospital, Tokyo, Japan, in 1993. Moreover, he was a Visiting Research Fellow at the Department of Cell Biology and Anatomy, University of Miami School of Medicine, Miami, USA, in 1995 and at the Division of Rheumatology and Immunology, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, USA, in 1996. In addition, he was a staff dermatologist at the Second Department of Dermatology, Toho University School of Medicine, Tokyo, Japan, in 1997 and the Department of Dermatology, St. Marianna University School of Medicine, Kawasaki, Japan, in 2000. In 2002, he was an Assistant Professor at the Department of Dermatology, St. Marianna University School of Medicine, Kawasaki, Japan, and since 2006, he has been an Associate Professor. His research interests include vasculitis, connective tissue disease, atopic dermatitis, melanocyte, and fibroblast. Kawakami received the 2nd International Conference on Cutaneous Lupus Erythematosus (ICCLE) Awards (2008), The first Eastern Asia Dermatology Congress (EADC) Award (2010), and the Japanese Society of Investigative Dermatology (JSID) Award (2010). He is a Section Editor of The Journal of Dermatology (2010).\r\nBiography Updated on 5 November 2010\r\n\r\nTamihiro Kawakami, M.D., Ph. D.\r\nDepartment of Dermatology, St. Marianna University School of Medicine, \r\n2-16-1 Sugao, Miyamae-ku, Kawasaki, Kanagawa 216-8511, Japan\r\nTel: +81-44-977-8111\r\nFax: +81-44-977-3540\r\nE-mail: tami@marianna-u.ac.jp",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"St. Marianna University School of Medicine",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}}]},generic:{page:{slug:"open-access-funding",title:"Open Access Funding",intro:"
IntechOpen’s Academic Editors and Authors have received funding for their work through many well-known funders, including: the European Commission, Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation, Wellcome Trust, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Natural Science Foundation of China (NSFC), CGIAR Consortium of International Agricultural Research Centers, National Institute of Health (NIH), National Science Foundation (NSF), National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST), German Research Foundation (DFG), Research Councils United Kingdom (RCUK), Oswaldo Cruz Foundation, Austrian Science Fund (FWF), Foundation for Science and Technology (FCT), Australian Research Council (ARC).
Open Access publication costs can often be designated directly in the grants or in specific budgets allocated for that purpose. Many of the most important funding organisations encourage, and even request, that the projects they fund are made available at no cost to the wider public. IntechOpen strives to maintain excellent relationships with these funders and ensures compliance with mandates.
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Does your institution already have a budget for covering Open Access publication costs?
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Does your grant list Open Access publication fees as legitimate direct/indirect costs?
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If you are associated with any of the institutions in our list below, you can apply to receive OA publication funds by following the instructions provided in the links. Please consult the Open Access policies or grant Terms and Conditions of any institution with which you are linked to explore ways to cover your publication costs (also accessible by clicking on the link in their title).
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Please be aware that you must be a member, or grantee, of the institutions/funders listed in order to apply for their Open Access publication funds.
Open Access publication costs can often be designated directly in the grants or in specific budgets allocated for that purpose. Many of the most important funding organisations encourage, and even request, that the projects they fund are made available at no cost to the wider public. IntechOpen strives to maintain excellent relationships with these funders and ensures compliance with mandates.
\n\n
In order to help Authors identify appropriate funding agencies and institutions, we have created a list, based on extensive research on various OA resources (including ROARMAP and SHERPA/JULIET) of organizations that have funds available. Before consulting our list we encourage you to petition your own institution or organization for Open Access funds or check the specifications of your grant with your funder to ascertain if publication costs are included. Where you are in receipt of a grant you should clarify:
\n\n
\n\t
Does your institution already have a budget for covering Open Access publication costs?
\n\t
Does your grant list Open Access publication fees as legitimate direct/indirect costs?
\n
\n\n
If you are associated with any of the institutions in our list below, you can apply to receive OA publication funds by following the instructions provided in the links. Please consult the Open Access policies or grant Terms and Conditions of any institution with which you are linked to explore ways to cover your publication costs (also accessible by clicking on the link in their title).
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Other positions she has held at the university include Vice-Dean of Master Programs, Vice-Dean of the Degree in Biology and Vice-Dean for Mobility and Enterprise and Engagement at the Faculty of Science (University of Alicante). She received her Bachelor in Biology in 1998 (University of Alicante) and her PhD in 2003 (Biochemistry, University of Alicante). She undertook post-doctoral research at the University of East Anglia (Norwich, U.K. 2004-2005; 2007-2008).\nHer multidisciplinary research focuses on investigating archaea and their potential applications in biotechnology. She has an H-index of 21. She has authored one patent and has published more than 70 indexed papers and around 60 book chapters.\nShe has contributed to more than 150 national and international meetings during the last 15 years. Her research interests include archaea metabolism, enzymes purification and characterization, gene regulation, carotenoids and bioplastics production, antioxidant\ncompounds, waste water treatments, and brines bioremediation.\nRosa María’s other roles include editorial board member for several journals related\nto biochemistry, reviewer for more than 60 journals (biochemistry, molecular biology, biotechnology, chemistry and microbiology) and president of several organizing committees in international meetings related to the N-cycle or respiratory processes.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"441442",title:"Dr.",name:"Şükrü",middleName:null,surname:"Beydemir",slug:"sukru-beydemir",fullName:"Şükrü Beydemir",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003GsUoIQAV/Profile_Picture_1634557147521",biography:"Dr. Şükrü Beydemir obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 1995 from Yüzüncü Yıl University, MSc in Biochemistry in 1998, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2002 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He performed post-doctoral studies at Max-Planck Institute, Germany, and University of Florence, Italy in addition to making several scientific visits abroad. He currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Anadolu University, Turkey. Dr. Beydemir has published over a hundred scientific papers spanning protein biochemistry, enzymology and medicinal chemistry, reviews, book chapters and presented several conferences to scientists worldwide. He has received numerous publication awards from various international scientific councils. He serves in the Editorial Board of several international journals. 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He is a member of the Turkish Biochemical Society, American Chemical Society, and German Genetics society. Dr. Ekinci published around ninety scientific papers, reviews and book chapters, and presented several conferences to scientists. He has received numerous publication awards from several scientific councils. 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He worked on the structure-function relationships of glycoconjugates and his main project was the investigations on the biological roles of the de-N-glycosylation enzymes (Endo-N-acetyl-β-D-glucosaminidase and peptide-N4-(N-acetyl-β-glucosaminyl) asparagine amidase). From 2002 he contributes to the understanding of the Blood-brain barrier functioning using proteomics approaches. He has published more than 70 papers. 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Since then, he has been working as an Adjunct Professor in the same Department at the University of Pavia. His research activity during the first years was primarily focused on the purification and structural characterization of enzymes from animal and plant sources. During this period, Prof. Iadarola familiarized himself with the conventional techniques used in column chromatography, spectrophotometry, manual Edman degradation, and electrophoresis). Since 1995, he has been working on: i) the determination in biological fluids (serum, urine, bronchoalveolar lavage, sputum) of proteolytic activities involved in the degradation processes of connective tissue matrix, and ii) on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. 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Possible contributions can address (but are not limited to) the following research topics: Bioinspired design and control of exoskeletons, orthoses, and prostheses; Experimental evaluation of the effect of assistive devices (e.g., influence on gait, balance, and neuromuscular system); Bioinspired technologies for rehabilitation, including clinical studies reporting evaluations; Application of neuromuscular and biomechanical models to the development of bioinspired technology.',annualVolume:11404,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/8.jpg",editor:{id:"144937",title:"Prof.",name:"Adriano",middleName:"De Oliveira",surname:"Andrade",fullName:"Adriano Andrade",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRC8QQAW/Profile_Picture_1625219101815",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Federal University of Uberlândia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"49517",title:"Prof.",name:"Hitoshi",middleName:null,surname:"Tsunashima",fullName:"Hitoshi Tsunashima",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYTP4QAO/Profile_Picture_1625819726528",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nihon University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"425354",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcus",middleName:"Fraga",surname:"Vieira",fullName:"Marcus Vieira",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003BJSgIQAX/Profile_Picture_1627904687309",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Goiás",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"196746",title:"Dr.",name:"Ramana",middleName:null,surname:"Vinjamuri",fullName:"Ramana Vinjamuri",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/196746/images/system/196746.jpeg",institutionString:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institution:{name:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]},{id:"9",title:"Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering",keywords:"Biotechnology, Biosensors, Biomaterials, Tissue Engineering",scope:"The Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering topic within the Biomedical Engineering Series aims to rapidly publish contributions on all aspects of biotechnology, biosensors, biomaterial and tissue engineering. We encourage the submission of manuscripts that provide novel and mechanistic insights that report significant advances in the fields. Topics can include but are not limited to: Biotechnology such as biotechnological products and process engineering; Biotechnologically relevant enzymes and proteins; Bioenergy and biofuels; Applied genetics and molecular biotechnology; Genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics; Applied microbial and cell physiology; Environmental biotechnology; Methods and protocols. Moreover, topics in biosensor technology, like sensors that incorporate enzymes, antibodies, nucleic acids, whole cells, tissues and organelles, and other biological or biologically inspired components will be considered, and topics exploring transducers, including those based on electrochemical and optical piezoelectric, thermal, magnetic, and micromechanical elements. Chapters exploring biomaterial approaches such as polymer synthesis and characterization, drug and gene vector design, biocompatibility, immunology and toxicology, and self-assembly at the nanoscale, are welcome. Finally, the tissue engineering subcategory will support topics such as the fundamentals of stem cells and progenitor cells and their proliferation, differentiation, bioreactors for three-dimensional culture and studies of phenotypic changes, stem and progenitor cells, both short and long term, ex vivo and in vivo implantation both in preclinical models and also in clinical trials.",annualVolume:11405,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/9.jpg",editor:{id:"126286",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",middleName:"Jesús",surname:"Villarreal-Gómez",fullName:"Luis Villarreal-Gómez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/126286/images/system/126286.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Baja California",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"35539",title:"Dr.",name:"Cecilia",middleName:null,surname:"Cristea",fullName:"Cecilia Cristea",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYQ65QAG/Profile_Picture_1621007741527",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Iuliu Hațieganu University of Medicine and Pharmacy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"40735",title:"Dr.",name:"Gil",middleName:"Alberto Batista",surname:"Gonçalves",fullName:"Gil Gonçalves",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYRLGQA4/Profile_Picture_1628492612759",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Aveiro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"211725",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Johann F.",middleName:null,surname:"Osma",fullName:"Johann F. 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