\r\n\tgas sensors.
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D in Physics in 2012 from Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati, India. Presently, he is associated with the Faculty of Science, Sri Sri University, India as an Assistant Professor in Physics. Prior to joining the current\naffiliation, he was a postdoctoral fellow at different renowned institutions, Kobe University Japan, S. N. Bose National Centre for Basic Sciences, India and Cardiff University, United Kingdom. He was awarded prestigious JSPS postdoctoral fellowship based on his research contribution on semiconducting nanowires. He has published more than 32 research articles including 1 review article in high profile international journals and 3 book chapters to his credit. 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His research interests include the design and characterization of portable\r\nbiosensors, biodevices and sensor interfaces for miniaturized systems and biomedical applications for point-of-care testing. He received his Ph.D in Biosensor and Electrochemistry from Pusan National University, South Korea,\r\nwhere he developed different class of electrochemical sensors and studied the electrochemical properties of gold, platinum, and palladium based metal electrodes. He completed his Post-doctoral fellowships in the Department of\r\nMechanical Engineering, Michigan State University, USA and Department of Electronic and Electrical Engineering at University of Bath, UK. 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They are expected to make significant contributions to the quality of life, improve patient healthcare, and reduce the related costs. Advancement of data acquisition techniques is a key prerequisite for the development in biomedical engineering. Recent advances in data acquisition systems, sensor design, and sensor networks allow collection of large volumes of detailed biomedical data. For instance, body area networks with wireless sensors can be used to non-invasively and continuously monitor several physiological parameters and recognize human activities [1]. Other examples are visual sensor networks for supervision of patients during rehabilitation and Internet of Things (IoT) systems with medical devices connected to the internet that can collect valuable data, enable detailed analysis of symptoms and facilitate remote healthcare. Valuable biomedical data can be also acquired using image processing methods for micrographs analysis [2]. This book intends to provide the reader with an insight into the current state-of-the-art in biomedical data acquisition and focuses on the most important developments in this highly important area.
Few examples of the aforementioned data acquisition techniques are discussed in the introductory chapter. In particular, this chapter concisely reviews the selected approaches that utilize network-connected sensors.
Different types of sensors can be connected by a wireless body area network (WBAN) in order to monitor various body functions. Usually, the sensors in WBANs are placed on the body. Another approach is to implant small sensors inside the human body. Such approach reduces the impact of WBAN on normal activities of the monitored person. Operations performed by the WBAN sensors include collecting data readings of physical body parameters as well as preprocessing and transmitting the data. The preprocessing operations can be implemented to aggregate, compress or denoise raw sensor readings. A wireless communication is used to transmit the preprocessed data from sensors to a remote destination for further processing or storing. The general concept of WBAN operation is illustrated in Figure 1.
Wireless body area network (white circles depicts sensors, arrows correspond to data transfers).
The WBAN platforms enable development of ubiquitous medical records in the cloud and on-line healthcare services with disease-alert systems. This technology can contribute to early diagnosis and personalized treatment of patients. It allows the patients to be continuously monitored in all locations. In case of health emergency, an alert can be immediately generated to inform the medical staff that urgent intervention is necessary. The data collected by WBANs can also be used to localize person [3] and analyze movement of the body and recognize human activities. On this basis it is possible to develop systems that provide care and security for elderly persons. Moreover, the WBANs found applications in sports for performance monitoring of training activities, rehabilitation, disability assistance, and human–machine interfaces [4].
The above-discussed wireless sensor networks are usually built up with sensors that have the ability to sense physical parameters, perform basic processing tasks and transmit the collected data. More sophisticated solutions are equipped with smart sensors that have extended data processing capabilities. The smart sensors are capable of performing advanced data processing in order to make decisions and recognize relevant events [5]. This kind of sensors may use embedded machine learning algorithms to learn from collected data and to autonomously make assessments or predictions. In case of smart sensors, the data are processed locally. The sensor transmits results of information processing instead of the collected data. This approach leads to reduced data traffic, lower power consumption and latency, as well as to enhanced data privacy.
An example of smart sensor is the solution discussed in [6] which uses a modified support-vector machine classifier for arrhythmia detection based on electrocardiogram signals and for seizure detection based on electroencephalogram signals. It was shown that the above-mentioned detection tasks can be performed by low power wearable sensors in real time.
Another wearable smart sensor was proposed in [7] to detect and categorize cardiac arrhythmias from electrocardiogram readings. A convolutional-recurrent neural network was used in this solution. The neural network was adapted to perform the detection and classification tasks on embedded low-power processors with a small memory footprint.
A special type of smart sensors are visual sensors, i.e., camera nodes equipped with embedded processor, and wireless communication module. The smart visual sensors have a number of potential applications, from security and patient monitoring to rehabilitation. For instance, in [8] a visual sensor was introduced for baby behavior monitoring in healthcare centers. This sensor detects abnormal motion of a baby and sends alerts to a user.
Visual sensors can be connected in visual sensor network (VSN). The camera nodes in VSN process image data locally, extract useful information, and exchange the information with other nodes. Using multiple camera nodes in the VSN provides different views of a monitored object, which improves the reliability of the recognized events [9].
In [10] a wireless VSN was proposed for supervision of patient rehabilitation. Results reported in the literature confirms that the VSN concept enables a low cost, light-weight and easy to use monitoring applications that meets tracking and localization needs of rehabilitation centers. An interesting example is the VSN, which was used to collect data for robot automation in rehabilitation of young children [11].
In recent years, the set of technologies encompassed under the name of the Internet of Things has experienced its greatest evolution and is currently approaching the slope of enlightenment of the hype cycle according to Gartner [1]. It has been applied in numerous areas, notably changing and improving the way in which different tasks and activities, both business and personal, are approached in daily life. Devices such as home assistants, home automation devices, and activity monitors are used more and more widely, providing information and functionalities that can be used quickly and easily.
One of the fields where there is more expectation about the application of this set of technologies is that related to healthcare and telehealth. Currently, there are several problems inherent in the health field that can be addressed thanks to the remote communication offered by the IoT. Advances in telehealth allow medical consultations and follow-up of patients in remote and isolated places, or with the limited mobility [2]. On the other hand, they enable the interconnection between health centers and remote systems that monitor elderly or disabled people who live alone or spend part of the time without company at all times, controlling vital signs or possible events such as falls that could endanger their lives [3].
Likewise, health services can be improved and optimized when health centers are provided with the capacity to integrate and interconnect devices that collect biomedical information with electronic health records [4]. Diagnosis, treatment, and follow-up in recovery from illnesses can be benefited in many cases by the continuous collection of these data [5], which complements the information obtained with specific observations that the medical professional can make during consultations, often limited in time. In addition, the data collected are a valuable source of information that can be used by Big Data and Artificial Intelligence applications to make new discoveries.
Although the advantages of these technologies applied to healthcare are clearly beneficial in many areas, there are also many aspects that make their implementation a challenging task. Due to the sensitive nature of the information, the technologies that must be implemented are those with characteristics that allow compliance with data privacy and security policies and standards [6]. On the other hand, they require health systems to have an appropriate infrastructure to accommodate these new technologies, as well as the adaptation of their protocols [7]. The training of health technicians, professionals, and patients to adapt them to these new systems is another relevant factor, and one that is related to usability and user experience [8].
Our purpose with this work is to analyze the evolution of IoT applied to healthcare and telehealth in recent years, the trends in application and what challenges currently exist. To address this objective, we will analyze the most relevant works in the recent years to draw conclusions about the global evolution of these technologies, check in more detail the problems they face, and identify whether there are standards, norms, or common complementary technologies to give a solution.
The rest of the article is divided as follows: In section two, the methodology of collection and analysis carried out are presented, detailing the aspects and characteristics on which we focus, in section three the results obtained are presented, and finally, the last section presents the conclusions.
The criteria established for the inclusion of studies in the analysis were that they had to be published in journals that appeared in the Journal Citation Reports (JCR) or in conferences included in prestigious journal editorials and digital libraries. The search engine used for the search engine was Google Scholar. The search was limited considering articles published in the last 5 completed years, that is, from January 2017 to December 2021 inclusive. The queries created to be used in the search engine consisted of the combinations of the term “IoT” with “healthcare,” “ehealth,” and “telehealth.” The search for these terms was established to be carried out on the full text of each work, not only on the title and abstract. Since the purpose is to collect current advances and trends, we exclude from the analysis those articles with a scoping review nature. Similarly, we exclude studies that were written in a language other than English.
Regarding the results obtained after carrying out the search, the first three hundred were taken for each year in order of relevance, and one hundred for each of the three keywords considered in combination with “IoT,” that is, “healthcare,” “telehealth,” and “ehealth.” It was established to do a sequential filtering on the set, checking on each result that it meets each of the established inclusion requirements; otherwise, it will be discarded from the final set of results to be considered in the analysis. In the first place, the character of a high-impact journal paper or publication presented at a conference contemplated in prestigious digital libraries was verified, for which those results that were books or book chapters were also discarded. Next, the discarding of articles that were not written in English was applied. We considered that, to have a meaningful sample of current trends, a sample of 25 results would be taken for each combination of keyword and year. The most cited articles were used as a selection criterion. On this sample, studies consisting of bibliographic reviews were discarded. This last-filtering process was carried out firstly by analyzing the title of each publication and secondly by analyzing the abstract. Additionally, it was observed whether any study was replicated in the set or belonged to the same authors and the purpose was the same, in which case the study with the latest publication date was discarded.
For the initial purpose of filtering, basic information about these works was collected, specifically the title of the article, abstract, authors, access link to the publication, the number of citations, and character of the document according to Google Scholar. All the analyses of the information and filtering process were carried out jointly by the authors and verified between them.
Once the filtering process was carried out, the next step was to extract the relevant information for the analysis of the current situation, limitations, challenges, solutions, and current trends of IoT applied to healthcare and telemedicine. Mainly, we focus on extracting the most used communication technologies to provide solutions or address current problems in this area of research. Other relevant characteristics extracted were the scope of application from the point of view of what aspect of healthcare is intended to address or what characteristics of the infrastructure are intended to be addressed in the study. Related to the field, we also extract information on the technological aspects of the solution provided. Additionally, the country of the institution that supports each investigation was taken, in order to identify those countries that have the greatest impact worldwide in IoT for ehealth and telehealth fields.
After the filtering process, 186 [9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 58, 59, 60, 61, 62, 63, 64, 65, 66, 67, 68, 69, 70, 71, 72, 73, 74, 75, 76, 77, 78, 79, 80, 81, 82, 83, 84, 85, 86, 87, 88, 89, 90, 91, 92, 93, 94, 95, 96, 97, 98, 99, 100, 101, 102, 103, 104, 105, 106, 107, 108, 109, 110, 111, 112, 113, 114, 115, 116, 117, 118, 119, 120, 121, 122, 123, 124, 125, 126, 127, 128, 129, 130, 131, 132, 133, 134, 135, 136, 137, 138, 139, 140, 141, 142, 143, 144, 145, 146, 147, 148, 149, 150, 151, 152, 153, 154, 155, 156, 157, 158, 159, 160, 161, 162, 163, 164, 165, 166, 167, 168, 169, 170, 171, 172, 173, 174, 175, 176, 177, 178, 179, 180, 181, 182, 183, 184, 185, 186, 187, 188, 189, 190, 191, 192, 193, 194] results were obtained, 69 with healthcare and another 69 with ehealth. The article analysis screening process resulted in a greater elimination of works related to telehealth, obtaining 48 results. This is mainly associated with the fact that after analyzing the title and abstract, it was detected that several articles did not fit in the field of healthcare using IoT. However, the cause of the greatest impact on the screening of results was the nature of the scoping review of several studies. Around eight publications per keyword and year on average were removed for this reason. Analyzing by year, the appearance of reviews was greater in the most recent years, discarding approximately 35 of 75 results of the year 2021. This reveals the progress of previous years and the current trend in analyzing the actual scope of IoT and limitations, which is consistent with the status of this area on hype-cycle curve.
Figure 1 illustrates the percentage of publications according to the country of the institution of the corresponding author. In those cases in which the corresponding author was not reflected, the institution of the main author was taken as reference. The graph shows that the institutions with the greatest impact in recent years are India (19.3%) and China (13.4%). The rest of Asian countries (including those located in the Persian Gulf and Russia) contribute 25.8% to this statistic. Approximately 21% corresponds to institutions in European countries, approximately 6% to entities in Africa (mainly Egypt and Tunisia), and 4% to countries in Central and South America. The United States and Canada add 7.5% and Australia and New Zealand approximately 4.8%.
Publications with more impact per country (N = 186).
With the term “scope,” we refer to the topics on which each study focuses on contributing to the area of IoT systems applied to ehealth and telemedicine. After the analysis, we have found studies whose scope is related to the provision of a health service, proposing models, system designs, and/or implementations of a complete system or a component of an IoT system. On the other hand, scopes focused on improving some characteristic of IoT systems that are relevant when applied to healthcare have also been identified.
Figure 2 illustrates the scopes in the analysis. It can be seen that the majority of studies focus on providing solutions for the field of monitoring. The reader should know that a division has been made in this scope, distinguishing between studies that explicitly indicated or from which the character of real-time monitoring could be clearly inferred. The total number of studies that fit this domain was 83. These data show that the main purpose of the application of IoT to healthcare is to monitor patients, ubiquitously or integrated into rooms, for better control of vital signs or physiological parameters. This result is consistent with the main use for which IoT systems are used. Continuing with the analysis focused on areas of application, the next most common are those related to diagnosis. The creation of models that help the medical professional to give a diagnosis stands out mainly Machine Learning models that can be integrated into the system, sometimes complemented with architectures equipped with resources to apply Fog computing, as well as with the decentralization of processing with computing at the edge, trend that is currently increasing with the optimization of hardware and AI frameworks for model integration and consumption reduction [195]. Additionally, the applications are not restricted to the field of healthcare in the personal context, but also in the workplace [196]. To a lesser extent, we also find the use of IoT to facilitate the remote diagnosis of the patient. This last result may be related to the existing limitations to provide appropriate resources to remote centers or isolated areas that allow establishing reliable connections with sufficient transmission quality. The least relevant areas currently are self-care and remote rehabilitation. The first of these two areas mentioned was the one that had the greatest impact at the beginning of the use of IoT for healthcare, currently being on the slope of enlightenment or plateau of productivity in the hype-cycle curve. The low frequency of appearance of rehabilitation as a field of study may be due to the difficulty in carrying out rehabilitation tasks remotely.
Scope of the studies considered in the analysis.
Focusing on areas related to the improvement of system features, studies focused on maintaining the security of the IoT system are more frequent, that is, on avoiding transmission failures, network hacks, or data corruption. Additionally, we find studies focused on providing encryption protocols to ensure the authenticity and privacy of the patient. These last two scopes are often intrinsically related to system security. These results reveal the great challenges that exist in the integration of IoT systems in the Electronic Health Records of health systems: to be able to relate the data to the patient without compromising their privacy, as well as to manage the enormous amount of information collected avoiding losses, falsification information, and other security breaches. Very close in relevance we find the improvement of the performance of the system, that is, looking for better response times in the transmission and processing of information. Again, it is a challenging topic, especially in combination with equipping the system with authentication, privacy, and security protocols, which slows down IoT systems, which must be addressed for this type of system to be useful in terms of practicality.
In the results, we also observe that the studies related to the study of interoperability and the analysis of usability, user experience, and degree of acceptance have very little impact. These types of studies are not frequent, and yet, they address determining aspects in the adequacy of IoT systems to the health environment; its correct application depends on the fact that the implemented system is practical and perceived as useful. The little research on these issues may be the greatest limitation of these systems in the future.
Figure 3 shows the trend of these areas in the years considered for the analysis. Although a drop in the number of papers is perceived in 2021, this may be due to the fact that there has not yet been a stabilization in the number of citations on studies that contribute novelties to the field of research. Both graphs show how in recent years there has been a decrease in the impact of research aimed at providing solutions with IoT systems, and instead, there has been an increase in interest in research that focuses on improving some characteristics of the system architecture, mainly in security and privacy. This result again reveals indications of the situation of these systems in the hype-cycle curve, seeing reduced interest in deepen for new applications and consolidating their use by focusing on the greatest limitations that this set of technologies has, that is, aspects of security, privacy, and performance.
Scope trends. At top, classification grouped by year analyzed in the study. At left, scopes related to the system’s application approach. On the right, scopes focused on improving the characteristics of the IoT system.
Paying attention to communication technologies, the charts in Figure 4 reveal a varied set of alternatives. In these graphs, only those studies that have used and revealed the technologies applied in the implementation of IoT systems are taken into consideration. As a result, 87 articles were considered. The charts highlight the use of Bluetooth technology, in both its older versions and BLE, and Wi-Fi. Despite being a technology adapted to IoT, the use of LoRa is not frequent. GSM and GPRS technologies continue to be used, mainly because they have a greater network infrastructure for these technologies and because they are more in line with the user profile that these systems are aimed at, mainly older people or those who are not familiar with new technologies.
Most common communication technologies in studies that carry out an implementation of an IoT system (N = 87). Top-right chart considers only those studies whose sensing acquisition devices are wearable (N = 36).
Among the studies that reveal the communication technologies used, only 36 focus on the use of systems with exclusively wearable devices for data acquisition. In these studies, a lower use of MQTT is revealed in favor of the use of technologies such as Zigbee. Wi-Fi technology is still the most frequently used; however, there is a remarkable decrease.
The most frequent technologies identified in the analyzed studies include Machine Learning and Deep Learning for the fields of monitoring and diagnostic support. In the fields of security, privacy, and authentication, the use of Blockchain stands out. On the other hand, Fog computing and edge computing are the technologies for which the greatest interest is shown in the field of performance improvement. This is one of the most current trends, driven by systems equipped with more specialized hardware processing units [197].
The results obtained from the analysis of impact studies in recent years regarding IoT in healthcare show that Asian and Middle Eastern countries contribute to this area to a greater extent, especially India and China. With regard to the areas with the greatest impact today, we find the application to monitoring as the greatest representative. However, this type of study has reduced its relevance in recent years and instead has grown interest in the integration of security, privacy, and authentication measures to IoT systems, which gives indications of the stabilization of IoT technologies, and there is a tendency to investigate the improvement of the most important weaknesses. Infrequent and low-impact study topics are the analysis of the perceived usefulness of these systems, as well as interoperability, which may imply limitations and obstacles in the future in the implementation and use of these systems. The most used communication technologies are Bluetooth and Wi-Fi, with a smaller representation of technologies such as LoRa, Zigbee, and mobile data transfer technologies. The design and implementation of systems exclusively equipped with wearable acquisition devices is reduced. Machine Learning, Blockchain as well as edge and fog computing are the most trending technologies.
This work has been supported by “Fondo Europeo de Desarrollo Regional” (FEDER) and “Consejería de Economía, Conocimiento, Empresas y Universidad” of the Junta de Andalucía, under Programa Operativo FEDER 2014-2020 (Project US-1263715).
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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On September, 29th 2006 he has won a post PhD fellowship from the university of Bologna (from October 2006 to October 2008), at the competitive examination he was ranked first in the industrial engineering area. He extensively served as referee for several international journals. He is author/coauthor of more than 100 research papers. He has been involved in some projects supported by MURST and European Community. 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Delac received his B.Sc.E.E. degree in 2003 and is currentlypursuing a Ph.D. degree at the University of Zagreb, Faculty of Electrical Engineering andComputing. His current research interests are digital image analysis, pattern recognition andbiometrics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Zagreb",country:{name:"Croatia"}}},{id:"557",title:"Dr.",name:"Andon",middleName:"Venelinov",surname:"Topalov",slug:"andon-topalov",fullName:"Andon Topalov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/557/images/1927_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Andon V. Topalov received the MSc degree in Control Engineering from the Faculty of Information Systems, Technologies, and Automation at Moscow State University of Civil Engineering (MGGU) in 1979. He then received his PhD degree in Control Engineering from the Department of Automation and Remote Control at Moscow State Mining University (MGSU), Moscow, in 1984. 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Aalborg University has Two Satellite Campuses, one in Copenhagen (Aalborg University Copenhagen) and the other in Esbjerg (Aalborg University Esbjerg).\n· He is a member of prestigious IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers), and IAENG (International Association of Engineers) organizations. \n· He is the chief Editor of the Journal of Software Engineering.\n· He is the member of the Editorial Board of International Journal of Computer Science and Software Technology (IJCSST) and International Journal of Computer Engineering and Information Technology. \n· He is also the Editor of Communication in Computer and Information Science CCIS-20 by Springer.\n· Reviewer For Many Conferences\nHe is the lead person in making collaboration agreements between Aalborg University and many universities of Pakistan, for which the MOU’s (Memorandum of Understanding) have been signed.\nProfessor Akbar is working in Academia since 1990, he started his career as a Lab demonstrator/TA at the University of Sussex. After finishing his P. hD degree in 1992, he served in the Industry as a Scientific Officer and continued his academic career as a visiting scholar for a number of educational institutions. In 1996 he joined National University of Science & Technology Pakistan (NUST) as an Associate Professor; NUST is one of the top few universities in Pakistan. In 1999 he joined an International Company Lineo Inc, Canada as Manager Compiler Group, where he headed the group for developing Compiler Tool Chain and Porting of Operating Systems for the BLACKfin processor. The processor development was a joint venture by Intel and Analog Devices. In 2002 Lineo Inc., was taken over by another company, so he joined Aalborg University Denmark as an Assistant Professor.\nProfessor Akbar has truly a multi-disciplined career and he continued his legacy and making progress in many areas of his interests both in teaching and research. 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Singh",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329385/images/system/329385.png",institutionString:"Punjab Technical University",institution:{name:"Punjab Technical University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"8018",title:"Extracellular Matrix",subtitle:"Developments and Therapeutics",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8018.jpg",slug:"extracellular-matrix-developments-and-therapeutics",publishedDate:"October 27th 2021",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Rama Sashank Madhurapantula, Joseph Orgel P.R.O. and Zvi Loewy",hash:"c85e82851e80b40282ff9be99ddf2046",volumeInSeries:23,fullTitle:"Extracellular Matrix - Developments and Therapeutics",editors:[{id:"212416",title:"Dr.",name:"Rama Sashank",middleName:null,surname:"Madhurapantula",slug:"rama-sashank-madhurapantula",fullName:"Rama Sashank Madhurapantula",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/212416/images/system/212416.jpg",institutionString:"Illinois Institute of Technology",institution:{name:"Illinois Institute of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null}]},subseriesFiltersForPublishedBooks:[{group:"subseries",caption:"Proteomics",value:18,count:4},{group:"subseries",caption:"Metabolism",value:17,count:6},{group:"subseries",caption:"Cell and Molecular Biology",value:14,count:9},{group:"subseries",caption:"Chemical Biology",value:15,count:14}],publicationYearFilters:[{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2022",value:2022,count:9},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2021",value:2021,count:7},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2020",value:2020,count:12},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2019",value:2019,count:3},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2018",value:2018,count:2}],authors:{paginationCount:303,paginationItems:[{id:"280338",title:"Dr.",name:"Yutaka",middleName:null,surname:"Tsutsumi",slug:"yutaka-tsutsumi",fullName:"Yutaka Tsutsumi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/280338/images/7961_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Fujita Health University",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"116250",title:"Dr.",name:"Nima",middleName:null,surname:"Rezaei",slug:"nima-rezaei",fullName:"Nima Rezaei",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/116250/images/system/116250.jpg",biography:"Professor Nima Rezaei obtained an MD from Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Iran. He also obtained an MSc in Molecular and Genetic Medicine, and a Ph.D. in Clinical Immunology and Human Genetics from the University of Sheffield, UK. He also completed a short-term fellowship in Pediatric Clinical Immunology and Bone Marrow Transplantation at Newcastle General Hospital, England. Dr. Rezaei is a Full Professor of Immunology and Vice Dean of International Affairs and Research, at the School of Medicine, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, and the co-founder and head of the Research Center for Immunodeficiencies. He is also the founding president of the Universal Scientific Education and Research Network (USERN). Dr. Rezaei has directed more than 100 research projects and has designed and participated in several international collaborative projects. He is an editor, editorial assistant, or editorial board member of more than forty international journals. He has edited more than 50 international books, presented more than 500 lectures/posters in congresses/meetings, and published more than 1,100 scientific papers in international journals.",institutionString:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",institution:{name:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"180733",title:"Dr.",name:"Jean",middleName:null,surname:"Engohang-Ndong",slug:"jean-engohang-ndong",fullName:"Jean Engohang-Ndong",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180733/images/system/180733.png",biography:"Dr. Jean Engohang-Ndong was born and raised in Gabon. After obtaining his Associate Degree of Science at the University of Science and Technology of Masuku, Gabon, he continued his education in France where he obtained his BS, MS, and Ph.D. in Medical Microbiology. He worked as a post-doctoral fellow at the Public Health Research Institute (PHRI), Newark, NJ for four years before accepting a three-year faculty position at Brigham Young University-Hawaii. Dr. Engohang-Ndong is a tenured faculty member with the academic rank of Full Professor at Kent State University, Ohio, where he teaches a wide range of biological science courses and pursues his research in medical and environmental microbiology. Recently, he expanded his research interest to epidemiology and biostatistics of chronic diseases in Gabon.",institutionString:"Kent State University",institution:{name:"Kent State University",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"188773",title:"Prof.",name:"Emmanuel",middleName:null,surname:"Drouet",slug:"emmanuel-drouet",fullName:"Emmanuel Drouet",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/188773/images/system/188773.png",biography:"Emmanuel Drouet, PharmD, is a Professor of Virology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, the University Grenoble-Alpes, France. As a head scientist at the Institute of Structural Biology in Grenoble, Dr. Drouet’s research investigates persisting viruses in humans (RNA and DNA viruses) and the balance with our host immune system. He focuses on these viruses’ effects on humans (both their impact on pathology and their symbiotic relationships in humans). He has an excellent track record in the herpesvirus field, and his group is engaged in clinical research in the field of Epstein-Barr virus diseases. He is the editor of the online Encyclopedia of Environment and he coordinates the Universal Health Coverage education program for the BioHealth Computing Schools of the European Institute of Science.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Grenoble Alpes University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",biography:"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (especially arboviral diseases). He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},{id:"332819",title:"Dr.",name:"Chukwudi Michael",middleName:"Michael",surname:"Egbuche",slug:"chukwudi-michael-egbuche",fullName:"Chukwudi Michael Egbuche",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/332819/images/14624_n.jpg",biography:"I an Dr. Chukwudi Michael Egbuche. I am a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Parasitology and Entomology, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nnamdi Azikiwe University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"284232",title:"Mr.",name:"Nikunj",middleName:"U",surname:"Tandel",slug:"nikunj-tandel",fullName:"Nikunj Tandel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/284232/images/8275_n.jpg",biography:'Mr. Nikunj Tandel has completed his Master\'s degree in Biotechnology from VIT University, India in the year of 2012. He is having 8 years of research experience especially in the field of malaria epidemiology, immunology, and nanoparticle-based drug delivery system against the infectious diseases, autoimmune disorders and cancer. He has worked for the NIH funded-International Center of Excellence in Malaria Research project "Center for the study of complex malaria in India (CSCMi)" in collaboration with New York University. The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. Received the CSIR-SRF (Senior Research Fellow) award-2018, FIMSA (Federation of Immunological Societies of Asia-Oceania) Travel Bursary award to attend the IUIS-IIS-FIMSA Immunology course-2019',institutionString:"Nirma University",institution:{name:"Nirma University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334383",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Simone",middleName:"Ulrich",surname:"Ulrich Picoli",slug:"simone-ulrich-picoli",fullName:"Simone Ulrich Picoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334383/images/15919_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from Universidade Luterana do Brasil (1999), Master in Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology from Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (2002), Specialization in Clinical Microbiology from Universidade de São Paulo, USP (2007) and PhD in Sciences in Gastroenterology and Hepatology (2012). She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"333753",title:"Dr.",name:"Rais",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"rais-ahmed",fullName:"Rais Ahmed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333753/images/20168_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). He was also awarded 'Outstanding Clinician in General Medicine” by Venus International Foundation for his extensive research expertise and services, perform over and above the standard expected in the advancement of healthcare, patient safety and quality of care.",institutionString:"Interfaith Medical Center",institution:{name:"Interfaith Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"93517",title:"Dr.",name:"Clement",middleName:"Adebajo",surname:"Meseko",slug:"clement-meseko",fullName:"Clement Meseko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/93517/images/system/93517.jpg",biography:"Dr. Clement Meseko obtained DVM and PhD degree in Veterinary Medicine and Virology respectively. He has worked for over 20 years in both private and public sectors including the academia, contributing to knowledge and control of infectious disease. Through the application of epidemiological skill, classical and molecular virological skills, he investigates viruses of economic and public health importance for the mitigation of the negative impact on people, animal and the environment in the context of Onehealth. \r\nDr. Meseko’s field experience on animal and zoonotic diseases and pathogen dynamics at the human-animal interface over the years shaped his carrier in research and scientific inquiries. He has been part of the investigation of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza incursions in sub Saharan Africa and monitors swine Influenza (Pandemic influenza Virus) agro-ecology and potential for interspecies transmission. He has authored and reviewed a number of journal articles and book chapters.",institutionString:"National Veterinary Research Institute",institution:{name:"National Veterinary Research Institute",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"94928",title:"Dr.",name:"Takuo",middleName:null,surname:"Mizukami",slug:"takuo-mizukami",fullName:"Takuo Mizukami",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94928/images/6402_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Institute of Infectious Diseases",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"233433",title:"Dr.",name:"Yulia",middleName:null,surname:"Desheva",slug:"yulia-desheva",fullName:"Yulia Desheva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/233433/images/system/233433.png",biography:"Dr. Yulia Desheva is a leading researcher at the Institute of Experimental Medicine, St. Petersburg, Russia. She is a professor in the Stomatology Faculty, St. Petersburg State University. She has expertise in the development and evaluation of a wide range of live mucosal vaccines against influenza and bacterial complications. Her research interests include immunity against influenza and COVID-19 and the development of immunization schemes for high-risk individuals.",institutionString:'Federal State Budgetary Scientific Institution "Institute of Experimental Medicine"',institution:null},{id:"238958",title:"Mr.",name:"Atamjit",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"atamjit-singh",fullName:"Atamjit Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/238958/images/6575_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"252058",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"Sulca",slug:"juan-sulca",fullName:"Juan Sulca",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252058/images/12834_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"191392",title:"Dr.",name:"Marimuthu",middleName:null,surname:"Govindarajan",slug:"marimuthu-govindarajan",fullName:"Marimuthu Govindarajan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/191392/images/5828_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. M. Govindarajan completed his BSc degree in Zoology at Government Arts College (Autonomous), Kumbakonam, and MSc, MPhil, and PhD degrees at Annamalai University, Annamalai Nagar, Tamil Nadu, India. He is serving as an assistant professor at the Department of Zoology, Annamalai University. His research interests include isolation, identification, and characterization of biologically active molecules from plants and microbes. He has identified more than 20 pure compounds with high mosquitocidal activity and also conducted high-quality research on photochemistry and nanosynthesis. He has published more than 150 studies in journals with impact factor and 2 books in Lambert Academic Publishing, Germany. 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