Thermophysical properties of some common PCMs with high latent heat.
\r\n\t
",isbn:"978-1-83881-922-4",printIsbn:"978-1-83881-921-7",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83881-923-1",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"dcfc52d92f694b0848977a3c11c13d00",bookSignature:"Dr. Fiaz Ahmad and Prof. Muhammad Sultan",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10454.jpg",keywords:"Agricultural Engineering, Technologies, Application, Sustainable Agriculture, Information Technology in Agriculture, Food Security, Renewable Energies, Precision Farming, Smart Agriculture, Farm Mechanization, Robotics, Post Harvest Technologies",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"November 25th 2020",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"December 23rd 2020",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"February 21st 2021",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"May 12th 2021",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"July 11th 2021",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"a month",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Dr. Ahmad is a researcher in the field of agricultural mechanization and agricultural equipment engineering, in-charge of Farm Machinery Design Laboratory at Bahauddin Zakariya University, with expertise in modeling and simulation. He applied for two patents at the national level.",coeditorOneBiosketch:"Renowned researcher with a focus on developing energy-efficient heat- and/or water-driven temperature and humidity control systems for agricultural storage, greenhouse, agricultural livestock and poultry applications including HVAC, desiccant air-conditioning, adsorption, Maisotsenko cycle (M-cycle), and adsorption desalination.",coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"338219",title:"Dr.",name:"Fiaz",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"fiaz-ahmad",fullName:"Fiaz Ahmad",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/338219/images/system/338219.jpg",biography:"Fiaz Ahmad obtained his Ph.D. (2015) from Nanjing Agriculture University China in the field of Agricultural Bioenvironmental and Energy Engineering and Postdoc (2020) from Jiangsu University China in the field of Plant protection Engineering. He got the Higher Education Commission, Pakistan Scholarship for Ph.D. studies, and Post-Doctoral Fellowship from Jiangsu Government, China. During postdoctoral studies, he worked on the application of unmanned aerial vehicle sprayers for agrochemical applications to control pests and weeds. He passed the B.S. and M.S. degrees in agricultural engineering from the University of Agriculture Faisalabad, Pakistan in 2007. From 2007 to 2008, he was a Lecturer in the Department of Agricultural Engineering, Bahauddin Zakariya University, Multan-Pakistan. Since 2009, he has been an Assistant Professor in the Department of Agricultural Engineering, BZ University Multan, Pakistan. He is the author of 33 journal articles. He also supervised 6 master students and is currently supervising 5 master and 2 Ph.D. students. In addition, Dr. Ahmad completed three university-funded projects. His research interests include the design of agricultural machinery, artificial intelligence, and plant protection environment.",institutionString:"Bahauddin Zakariya University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Bahauddin Zakariya University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Pakistan"}}}],coeditorOne:{id:"199381",title:"Prof.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Sultan",slug:"muhammad-sultan",fullName:"Muhammad Sultan",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/199381/images/system/199381.jpeg",biography:"Muhammad Sultan completed his Ph.D. (2015) and Postdoc (2017) from Kyushu University (Japan) in the field of Energy and Environmental Engineering. He was an awardee of MEXT and JASSO fellowships (from the Japanese Government) during Ph.D. and Postdoc studies, respectively. In 2019, he did Postdoc as a Canadian Queen Elizabeth Advanced Scholar at Simon Fraser University (Canada) in the field of Mechatronic Systems Engineering. He received his Master\\'s in Environmental Engineering (2010) and Bachelor in Agricultural Engineering (2008) with distinctions, from the University of Agriculture, Faisalabad. He worked for Kyushu University International Institute for Carbon-Neutral Energy Research (WPI-I2CNER) for two years. Currently, he is working as an Assistant Professor at the Department of Agricultural Engineering, Bahauddin Zakariya University (Pakistan). He has supervised 10+ M.Eng./Ph.D. students so far and 10+ M.Eng./Ph.D. students are currently working under his supervision. He has published more than 70+ journal articles, 70+ conference articles, and a few magazine articles, with the addition of 2 book chapters and 2 edited/co-edited books. Dr. Sultan is serving as a Leading Guest Editor of a special issue in the Sustainability (MDPI) journal (IF 2.58). In addition, he is appointed as a Regional Editor for the Evergreen Journal of Kyushu University. His research is focused on developing energy-efficient heat- and/or water-driven temperature and humidity control systems for agricultural storage, greenhouse, livestock, and poultry applications. His research keywords include HVAC, desiccant air-conditioning, evaporative cooling, adsorption cooling, energy recovery ventilator, adsorption heat pump, Maisotsenko cycle (M-cycle), wastewater, energy recovery ventilators; adsorption desalination; and agricultural, poultry and livestock applications.",institutionString:"Bahauddin Zakariya University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Bahauddin Zakariya University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"8",title:"Chemistry",slug:"chemistry"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"252211",firstName:"Sara",lastName:"Debeuc",middleName:null,title:"Ms.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252211/images/7239_n.png",email:"sara.d@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review, to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. 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Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"878",title:"Phytochemicals",subtitle:"A Global Perspective of Their Role in Nutrition and Health",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ec77671f63975ef2d16192897deb6835",slug:"phytochemicals-a-global-perspective-of-their-role-in-nutrition-and-health",bookSignature:"Venketeshwer Rao",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/878.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"82663",title:"Dr.",name:"Venketeshwer",surname:"Rao",slug:"venketeshwer-rao",fullName:"Venketeshwer Rao"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"4816",title:"Face Recognition",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"146063b5359146b7718ea86bad47c8eb",slug:"face_recognition",bookSignature:"Kresimir Delac and Mislav Grgic",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/4816.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"528",title:"Dr.",name:"Kresimir",surname:"Delac",slug:"kresimir-delac",fullName:"Kresimir Delac"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3621",title:"Silver Nanoparticles",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:null,slug:"silver-nanoparticles",bookSignature:"David Pozo Perez",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3621.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"6667",title:"Dr.",name:"David",surname:"Pozo",slug:"david-pozo",fullName:"David Pozo"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"18069",title:"Brain Oxytocin is a Main Regulator of Prosocial Behaviour - Link to Psychopathology",doi:"10.5772/18841",slug:"brain-oxytocin-is-a-main-regulator-of-prosocial-behaviour-link-to-psychopathology",body:'The neuropeptide oxytocin (OT) becomes increasingly attractive not only for neurobiologists, psychologists and psychiatrists, but also for sociologists and economists promoted by the discovery of amazing behavioural functions it regulates, especially in the context of social interactions. The discovery of multiple pro-social as well as anti-stress effects of OT, which have been discovered in recent years, makes the OT system of the brain a promising target for psychotherapeutic intervention and treatment of numerous psychiatric illnesses, for example, anxiety disorders, social phobia, depression or autism (Slattery &Neumann, 2010). The endogenous OT system of the brain can be found in different activity forms. Consequently, neuronal OT synthesis, OT release within distinct regions of the brain, OT receptor binding and the intensity of OT behavioural effects can vary in dependence on the physiological (or pathophysiological) activity state, which will be outlined in more detail below. It is generally assumed that psychopathologies associated with impaired social interactions, such as autism, are accompanied by an impaired activity of the brain OT system, which may affect at least one of the above mentioned parameters.
Chemically, OT consists of nine amino acids. Two cystein residues form a disulfid bridge creating the circular structure of the nonapeptide discovered almost 60 years ago (Du Vigneaud et al., 1953). OT and the structural related neuropeptide arginine vasopressin (AVP) belong to the arginine vasotocin family (Acher et al., 1972). Neuropeptides of this family are ubiquitous within vertebrates and evolutionary highly conserved, both in structure and functions (Hoyle, 1999).
Together with AVP, OT is an essential part of the hypothalamo-neurohypophysial system. OT and AVP are mainly synthesized in a well-defined arrangement of magnocellular neurons located within the hypothalamic supraoptic (SON) and paraventriular nuclei (PVN) of the hypothalamus at the base of the brain. Via axonal projections OT and AVP reach the neurohypophysis where they are released into the blood stream.
Originally, OT has been reported as a hormonal key regulator of female reproductive functions in all mammalian species when secreted into blood. Thus, OT accelerates the delivery process as it promotes uterine contractions, and is essential for milk ejection during lactation. However, starting with the fundamental discoveries of David DeWied and Cort Pedersen (De Wied, 1965, Pedersen & Prange, 1979), OT (and also AVP) emerged as a neuromodulator of the brain regulating a broad variety of behaviours. Among the various behavioural effects of OT are prosocial actions such as the promotion of maternal care and aggression, pair-bonding, sexual behaviour in males and females, social cognition, social memory and social support (for review see Bielsky & Young, 2004, Donaldson & Young, 2008, Neumann, 2009). Moreover, OT has the potential to reduce anxiety and to inhibit physiological stress responses which is likely to accompany these prosocial actions (Neumann, 2002, 2009).
In the context of these multiple behavioural effects, neuronal release of OT within the brain is of main relevance and has recently attracted the attention of many neurobiologists. The locally restricted intracerebral release of OT or AVP can be monitored using microdialysis in combination with sensitive radioimmunoassays, even in freely behaving animals (for review see Landgraf & Neumann, 2004, Veenema & Neumann, 2008). Monitoring of central release patterns of OT during ongoing behavioural performance is challenging, but possible. Thus, even during mating, mother-offspring interactions and suckling, or the display of aggressive or defensive behaviours, dialysates can be sampled without interference with the behaviour of the animal. Moreover, using this technique, the dynamic changes in the concentration of OT in the extracellular fluid surrounding oxytocinergic neuronal structures can be correlated with ongoing behavioural performance.
The release of OT and AVP within the brain should occur from dendrites or perikarya of magnocellular neurons described within the hypothalamus (Ludwig & Leng, 2006), but also from axonal or collateral projections of parvo- or magnocellular neurons targeting, for example, regions of the limbic brain (Buijs et al., 1983). OT and AVP systems served as a suitable model arrangement not only for the discovery of important molecular and cellular mechanisms of neuropeptide synthesis, precursor processing, and cellular trafficking, but also for the stimuli and neuronal mechanisms of intracerebral neuropeptide release within distinct brain regions (Landgraf & Neumann, 2004, Ludwig & Leng, 2006, Ludwig & Pittman, 2003, Neumann, 2007). In the context of this chapter it is important to mention that a variety of social stimuli trigger the activation of OT neurons and, thus, local OT release within the brain (see below), in some, but not all, instances accompanying peripheral secretion into blood. We hypothesize that, in humans, lack of OT activation in a social context might be associated with social dys-functions as seen in a variety of psychopathologies.
Various psychiatric disorders are associated not only with emotional disturbances, but also with dysfunctions and deficiencies in social interactions (Kohn & Asnis, 2003, Neumann et al., 2010). Thus, impaired social functions such as social withdrawal, social phobia, aggression and violence, or impaired social cognition are core symptoms for, for example, major depression, anxiety disorder, posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), borderline syndrome, schizophrenia, and autism spectrum disorders (ASD) including the Asperger’s Syndrome. Deficits in sociability seen in ASD become apparent during standard nonverbal social interactions, e.g. eye contact or affective expression. Reduced empathy the inability to share blissful and tearful emotions with others, and a lack of social and emotional reciprocity further demonstrate reduced sociability. Moreover, individuals with ASD fail to recognize faces and to integrate facial expressions of emotions caused by impaired social cognitive abilities (Harony & Wagner, 2010).
Due to its profound pro-social actions discovered in animal studies, OT effects on human social behaviour started to be in the focus of interest of psychologists and psychiatrists, among others. Consequently, a potential involvement of the brain OT system in mal-adaptations during these diseases and the potential of synthetic OT as therapeutic strategy has been suggested (Harony & Wagner, 2010).
This chapter aims at summarizing various activity states of the OT system and provides evidence from both animal and human studies for its role as a key regulator of complex social behaviors.
There are various physiological conditions associated with an altered activity state of the endogenous OT system. These include, for example, the peripartum period in females, sexual activity in both males and females, social interactions between conspecifics, both offensive and friendly, or pairbonding in the female monogamous prairie vole. Under these conditions of a naturally occurring high-activity state, the functional relevance of the endogenous brain OT system can be nicely investigated using various pharmacological tools such as selective receptor antagonists. Moreover, studying the dynamic release patterns of OT within a relevant brain region during such an activity state tells us a lot about the neurobiological activity of the endogenous brain OT system, which is important for the final aim to either use OT as a possible therapeutics or, alternatively, to target the brain OT system therapeutically. Most of our knowledge regarding the intracerebral release of OT during such high-activity states as well as the functional significance for pro-social behaviours arrives from rodent studies.
Physiological and behavioural changes have been extensively described in the mammalian maternal brain occurring in the peripartum period (Neumann, 2001, Slattery & Neumann, 2008). They continue in lactation as a direct result of close social interactions between mother and offspring, for example during suckling, maternal care and protection. The OT system is highly activated peripartum as it plays a predominant role in female reproduction for speeding up birth and facilitating milk ejection. The general activation of the OT system is reflected by increased OT synthesis in neurons of the hypothalamus, OT secretion into blood, and local OT release and OT receptor binding in several brain regions (for review see Neumann, 2003, Numan & Insel, 2003, Slattery & Neumann, 2008).
Using intracerebral microdialysis or push-pull perfusion techniques, local release of OT has been shown, for example, within the hypothalamic SON and PVN, the septum, hippocampus, and the olfactory bulb during parturition and suckling (Kendrick et al., 1988, Neumann et al., 1993, for review see Neumann, 2009). Such centrally released OT has been shown to be involved in several neuroendocrine and behavioural functions: both during birth and in response to suckling, brain OT regulates the pulsatile release of OT into the blood in a positive feedforward mechanism (Moos & Richard, 1989, Neumann et al., 1994). Further, centrally released OT simultaneously promotes the fine-tuned maintenance of mother-offspring interactions, such as offspring recognition (sheep), maternal care, but also maternal defence behaviour (Bosch, 2011, Bosch & Neumann, 2008, Kendrick et al., 1988, Lubin et al., 2003, Pedersen, 1997). Together these physiological functions are important prerequisites for the survivial of the offspring. In addition, OT at this high activity state inhibits emotional, e.g. anxiety-related, and neuroendocrine responses to acute stressful stimuli (Neumann et al., 2000).
Moreover, we could monitor increased release of OT within the hypothalamic PVN and the central amygdala during the defence of the pups against a virgin intruder rat in lactating rats. Intracerebral microdialysis allowed simultaneous monitoring of locally restricted release patterns as well as of various maternal aggressive and non-aggressive aspects of social behaviour of the dam (Bosch et al., 2005). Interestingly, central OT release was found to be correlated with the intensity of maternal aggression, indicating a direct link between local neuropeptide release and behavioural performance (Bosch et al., 2005). In order to reveal the functional significance of locally released OT, we blocked local OT receptors using a specific OT receptor antagonist before behavioural testing. Within the PVN and the central amygdala, bilateral application of the OT antagonist reduced aggressive behaviour towards the virgin intruder (Bosch et al., 2005), but pup-directed maternal behaviour was not altered. Thus, in lactation, OT released within the hypothalamus and amygdala and acting at local receptors fulfils an important role in promoting maternal defence behaviour and offspring protection. Within the amygdala, OT directly regulates neuronal activity (Huber et al., 2005, Neumann, 2002). Moreover, both within the PVN and the amygdala OT exerts anxiolytic effects in female and male rats (Bale et al., 2001, Blume et al., 2008, Neumann, 2002). Therefore, it is tempting to suggest a functional link between locally released OT in response to a social challenge, i.e. exposure to the intruder, the reduction in anxiety and the display of maternal aggressive behaviour. Indeed, different levels of maternal behaviour and maternal aggression have been found in rats selectively bred for high versus low trait anxiety (Bosch, 2011, Bosch & Neumann, 2008).
In addition to the link between the high activity of the brain OT system and respective pro-social and defensive behaviours of the mother, the high activity state of the OT system peripartum has further been associated with a state of anxiolysis and general attenuation of physiological stress responses (Heinrichs et al., 2001, Neumann et al., 2000, Torner et al., 2002, Windle et al., 1997) (for review see Neumann, 2009, Slattery & Neumann, 2008).
OT is also released within the male brain, in response to social and non-social stimuli (for review see Engelmann et al., 2004, Landgraf & Neumann, 2004, Neumann, 2007). As sexual interaction is the most intense social interaction found in males and increased OT secretion into blood has been found during orgasm (Carmichael et al., 1987, Stoneham et al., 1985) we and others have studied the activation of the brain OT system during sexual activity and its role in the regulation of sexual behaviour.
In response to sexual stimuli, there is increased Fos-expression within the hypothalamus reflecting increased neuronal activity in OT neurons of the PVN (Witt & Insel, 1994). This is likely to reflect both increased secretion of OT into blood, but also intracerebral neuropeptide release. Indeed, we could recently demonstrate using intracerebral microdialysis in freely moving male rats that successful mating triggers local release of OT within the PVN (Waldherr & Neumann, 2007). Interestingly, OT release already started to rise during the presence of the primed female behind a perforated wall, which allowed olfactory and visual, but not physical, contact or mating. As males clearly displayed signs of behavioural arousal under these conditions, OT activation may already be induced by the presence of a receptive female even without mating (Waldherr & Neumann, 2007). Within the hypothalamic PVN OT has been shown to play an important role in the regulation of male sexual behaviour (Argiolas & Gessa, 1991), but also of anxiety (Blume et al., 2008). Specifically, during mating, such locally released OT could be shown to exert an anxiolytic effect in male rats (Waldherr & Neumann, 2007).
We therefore conclude that the release of OT within the brain during sexual activity has far reaching behavioural consequences and beneficial effects for the male rat, i.e. reducing the level of anxiety and stress responses for several hours. In humans, there is anecdotal and experimental evidence of a link between sexual activity, and sedation, increased relaxation and calmness in the post-coital period (Brody, 2006, Krüger et al., 2002). Our data show that these effects are mediated, at least in part, by an activated brain OT system. As OT was shown to exert reinforcing and rewarding actions (Liberzon et al., 1997), the possibility further exists that enforced and reinforced trust to the sexual partner also involves brain OT (Kosfeld et al., 2005), although this is still highly speculative.
In summary, the central release of OT during close social interaction, such as suckling the offspring in lactating mammals, or sexual activity in males, is likely to be involved not only in the regulation of the associated particular social behaviours, but also in the beneficial effects of these pro-social interactions. Positive effects such as anxiolysis, attenuated stress responses, increased calmness and sedation (Carter et al., 2001, Heinrichs et al., 2003, Neumann, 2002, Waldherr & Neumann, 2007) are likely to be rewarding and to further promote social interactions (Neumann 2009).
Social interactions, especially long-lasting social bonds, require different forms of social memory and social recognition. As shown in both male and female rodents social recognition largely depends on an intact brain OT system (for review see Bielsky & Young, 2004)
Centrally applied OT facilitates social memory in a dose-dependent manner as shown in male rats. In contrast, infusion of the OT receptor antagonist blocked this effect but was not successful to impair their social memory per se (Benelli et al., 1995). Literatur on male mice seems more straight forward. In male mice lacking the OT gene (Ferguson et al., 2000) or in mice with deficient OT release (Jin et al., 2007) impaired social cognition and social memory skills were found. Importantly, OT bilaterally infused into the amygdala was able to restore the cognitive deficits seen in OT knockout mice, whereas OT receptor antagonist infusions impaired social memory in male wildtype mice (Ferguson et al., 2001). Other regions responsive to synthetic or endogenous OT in the context of social recognition are the lateral septum (Popik et al., 1992), the olfactory bulb (Dluzen et al., 1998, Larrazolo-Lopez et al., 2008), the medial preoptic area (Popik & van Ree, 1991), and the ventral hippocampus (van Wimersma Greidanus & Maigret, 1996).
Also, in female rats brain OT seems to be important for social discrimination of two juvenile rats (Engelmann et al., 1998). The medial amygdala (Choleris et al., 2007) and the olfactory bulb (Larrazolo-Lopez et al., 2008) could be identified as sites of action using microdialysis and local pharmacological blockade or downregulation of OT receptors.
OT seems to be an important factor in female social cognition in a more complex context thus promoting long-lasting bonds such as mother-infant bonding or pair bonding. In ewes, lamb recognition and bonding could clearly be related to the release of OT, for example within the olfactory bulb, during birth and in response to suckling (Kendrick et al., 1988, Lévy et al., 1995). Moreover, in the monogamous prairie vole, social recognition of the mate is a prerequisite for monogamous behaviour and the ability to form a selective pair-bond. Similar to the offspring bonding in ewes, OT plays a critical role in pair-bonding (see below) (Insel & Hulihan, 1995, Young & Wang, 2004). Thus, parturition- and mating-induced stimulation of OT release within distinct brain regions seems to be a promoting factor for social cognition and a requirement for the formation of lasting social bonds.
In female OT knockout mice, the essential role of OT in social memory has also been demonstrated in the context of the Bruce effect. The Bruce effect refers to the ability of a female mouse to discriminate between her mate and a novel mate. Contact with a novel male consequently leads to an interruption of pregnancy. OT knockout females failed to remain pregnant, if re-exposed to either their mate or a novel male. Only females that were allowed to remain with their mate maintained pregnancy (Wersinger et al., 2008). This inability to distinguish between the mate and a novel male in females with deficits in the OT systems further demonstrates the importance of OT in long-term social memory as well as short-term social recognition especially in females.
There is a large body of literature concerning the facilitating effects of the neuropeptides OT and AVP in pair-bonding of monogamous voles (for review see Young & Wang, 2004). Whereas AVP is well established to be involved in pair-bonding and partner preference in male prarie voles, OT seems to play a major role in female pair-bonding (Cho et al., 1999, Cushing & Carter, 2000). This was shown by the facilitating effect of centrally applied OT on the development of partner preference even without prior mating (Williams et al., 1994), and receptor binding studies demonstrated an increased OT receptor binding in the nucleus accumbens and caudate putamen of female monogamous prairie voles compared with non-monogamous vole species (Insel & Shapiro, 1992). The involvement of OT within several brain regions in female pair-bonding was further demonstrated by blockade of mating-induced female pair-bonding following infusion of an OT receptor antagonist into the prefrontal cortex or the nucleus accumbens, but not in the caudate putamen (Young et al., 2001). Recently, we succeeded in demonstrating OT release within the nucleus accumbens during mating in female prarie voles (Ross et al., 2009). Such locally released OT was shown to originate most likely within the hypothalamic SON and PVN. Consequently, activation of magnocellular OT neurons during mating and OT secretion into blood may, simultaneously, result in locally restricted release of OT from neuronal collaterals in dependence on gender and species.
In this context, it is important to mention that the nucleus accumbens is part of the mesolimbic dopamine reward system (Wise, 2002). As mating is a rewarding stimulus, and was shown to induce pair-bonding in female voles, endogenous OT release triggered by sexual stimuli may potentially mediate its facilitating effects on partner formation and pair-bonding via these circuitries (Neumann, 2009, Wang & Aragona, 2004).
The OT system is highly responsive to all kind of stressors, both being non-social and social in nature (Engelmann et al., 2004, Landgraf & Neumann, 2004, Neumann, 2007) For example, exposure to forced swimming or to a larger and aggressive conspecifics during the social defeat are both stimuli for OT release in selected brain target regions (Ebner et al., 2000, Engelmann et al., 1999, Wigger & Neumann, 2002, Wotjak et al., 1998).
Exposure of male rats to social defeat selectively stimulates OT release within the hypothalamic SON (Engelmann et al., 1999) and the septal area (Ebner et al., 2000). In contrast, OT secretion into blood remains unchanged in response to this social stressor indicating independent release patterns into blood and within the brain.
Also, in virgin female rats, social defeat is a stimulus for the brain OT system and triggers OT release within the hypothalamic PVN, but not the amygdala or the lateral septum (Bosch et al., 2004). In females, social defeat can be achieved by exposure to a lactating dam in the presence of her litter (Neumann et al., 2001). During lactation, dams are highly aggressive protecting their offspring. Maternal defence behaviour is also stressful for the lactating dam resulting in elevated stress responses and an increased release of OT within the PVN and amygdala, especially in dams displaying highly aggressive behaviour (Bosch et al., 2005, Neumann et al., 2001). Interestingly, the amount of OT locally released within these regions was found to be directly correlated with the total amount of aggression displayed by the dam during the maternal defence test (Bosch et al., 2005).
Thus, both in males and females, aversive social interactions as seen during social defeat and maternal defence, respectively, are strong stimuli for the brain OT system. In lactation, brain OT strongly promotes maternal aggression (Bosch et al., 2005), but we have to keep in mind that maternal aggression is a defensive strategy important for the protection of the offspring. The neurobiological mechanisms of maternal defensive aggression and intermale aggression, for example, are almost completely independently regulated. However, to which extend central OT regulates aggressive behaviour in males is rather unclear (Ebner et al., 2000); so far, we could not reveal a clear effect of OT on aggression in male rats (unpublished observation).
In humans, intranasal or intravenous application of OT was reported to improve a broad variety of complex social behaviours (for reviews see Heinrichs et al., 2009, MacDonald & MacDonald, 2010, Meyer-Lindenberg, 2008).
Specifically, intranasal OT increased trust in healthy men (Kosfeld et al., 2005) and even prevented betrayal-triggered decrease in trust (Baumgartner et al., 2008). In this context, OT increased ratings for trustworthiness and attractiveness of unfamiliar faces (Theodoridou et al., 2009). Moreover, OT–treated subjects were significantly more generous than placebo-treated men during a generosity game (Zak et al., 2007). In general, OT seems to improve the interpretation of social cues (Domes et al., 2007b, Kosfeld et al., 2005), especially the recognition of fear (Fischer-Shofty el al., 2010).. OT also facilitates the recognition of faces (Rimmele et al., 2009) most effectively when they express positive emotion (Guastella et al., 2008b, Savaskan et al., 2008). In the context of ASD associated with avoidance of eye contact it is important to mention that OT promotes a gaze-shift towards the eye region of presented faces (Guastella et al., 2008a) also independent of their valence as this normally occurs during presentation of fearful faces (Gamer & Buchel, 2009). In the context of OT promoting social bondings it is of interest to mention initial studies demonstrating that OT enhanced attachment security (Buchheim et al., 2009)
On a more neurophysiological level, human functional imaging studies (fMRI) indicated that OT reduces amygdala responses to threatening, non-social scenes and to angry and fearful faces (Kirsch et al., 2005). More specifically, it could be shown that OT promotes the activity in amygdala regions involved in the processing of positive social stimuli (Gamer et al., 2010), an effect that was shown to generalize to facial expressions, irrespective of their valence (Domes et al., 2007a).
These studies show that OT promontes trust and generosity, improves “mind-reading” and facilitates the ability to recognize faces and facial expressions of social cues. Thus, there is substantial evidence for complex behavioural effects of OT, as a result of acute intranasal application, on social competence. These prosocial effects give hope for OT as a potential treatment option under condition of social dysfunctions as seen in ASD.
Various animal and human studies strongly support the hypothesis of an involvement of OT in complex social interactions, both under healthy and pathological conditions associated with social dysfunctions. Therefore the following paragraph will summarize human data concerning OT actions within the amygdala in the context of ASD.
The amygdala as part of the limbic brain has been implicated in the neurobiology of autism as seen from morphometric data (Dalton et al., 2007, Dalton et al., 2005, Dziobek et al., 2006). The subnuclei of the amygdala are key areas regulating arousal and vigilance to emotionally relevant stimuli (Davis & Whalen, 2001, Fitzgerald et al., 2006, Hsu et al., 2005, Yang et al., 2002), and spontaneous social cognition by processing the rapid evaluation of social stimuli. Thus, it is very likely that the amygdala is significantly involved in the processing of both social as well as non-social, e.g. stressful and emotional stimuli, both being of high relevance for the individual. However, the amygdala is also likely to be involved in complex emotional and cognitive processes such as empathy and affiliation.
Various neurotransmitters and neuromodulators are involved in the neuronal processing within the amygdala, among them the neuropeptides OT and AVP. OT receptors were localized within the central and medial amygdala (Lukas et al., 2010, Tribollet et al., 1988), OT is locally released (Bosch et al., 2005, Ebner et al., 2005) and exerts local neuronal effects regulating the electrophysiological activity of central amygdala neurons (Huber et al., 2005). In this way, OT might be involved in the complex regulation of social behaviour and emotional responses to various social and stressful cues both under healthy and pathological conditions also in humans.
Indeed, dysfunctions of the brain OT system have been intensively discussed to contribute to the development of social deficits in autism (Carter, 2007, Hammock & Young, 2006, Harony & Wagner, 2010). For example, plasma OT concentrations, although reflecting central OT system activity only to a certain degree, were found to be attenuated in individuals with ASD (Green et al., 2001, Lane, 2009). More and more studies indicate the potential use of OT applied intravenously or intranasally in the treatment of ASD. Thus, OT reduced repetitive behaviors in patients with Asperger or autism (Hollander et al., 2002) and promoted prosocial behaviors in high-functioning autism (Andari et al., 2010). Moreover, OT improved affective speech comprehension in adults (Hollander et al., 2007) and emotion recognition in youths with ASD (Guastella et al., 2010). Furthermore, OT was used as an adjunct to exposure therapy (Guastella et al., 2009) and was shown to attenuate amygdala reactivity to fear (Labuschagne et al., 2010) in social anxiety, another core symptom of ASD.
Association studies on several ethnic groups linked polymorphisms in the OT receptor gene with ASD (Jacob et al., 2007, Lerer et al., 2007, Wu et al., 2005). Furthermore another study was able to detect epigenetic modifications within the OT receptor promotor region of ASD patients indicating altered levels of OT receptor expression (Gregory et al., 2009).
Our chapter summarizes our knowledge about different activity states of the brain OT system in the context of varying social interactions. Increased OT system activity triggered by social interactions is linked to high levels of OT release within distinct brain regions, which, in turn, is involved in the promotion of these social interactions, as seen during maternal and sexual behavior, pair-bonding or social memory functions. Moreover, high OT activity and release of OT, for example within regions of the reward circuitry, further promote social interactions as they are experienced as being rewarding. Indeed, a high activity state of the OT system is associated with calmness, anxiolysis and attenuated stress responsiveness, as seen during lactation and after sexual activity, further contributing to feeling of wellness. In contrast, although experimental evidence is extremely limited, the present data give support to the hypothesis that social dysfunctions are associated with lack of brain OT system activation, either under basal conditions or in reposnse to social stimuli, or both. Thus, appropriate brain OT system activation seems a prerequisite for healthy and normal sociability. We also discuss that translation of these findings mainly from rodents to human studies is possible. Effects of intranasal OT could be directly related to the promotion of complex human social behaviors, also under conditions of disease like autism. Consequently, targeting the brain OT system or application of synthetic OT to compensate for deficits in endogenous OT system activity in combimnation with psychotherapy, appears to be a promising treatment option promoting pro-social behaviors in humans especially under pathological conditions of impaired sociability.
There may not be a precise background to the first discovery and application of phase change materials (PCMs). Perhaps, from the earliest days where human has acquired the intellect, he has realized the existence of these substances or, maybe, has used them without recognizing their nature. Throughout science and technology evolution, more precisely, since the heat capacity of materials and sensible or latent heats have been known, their ability to store and release thermal energy has also been considered. However, A. T. Waterman submitted the first report of discovery in the early 1900s. In recent years, scientists have paid particular attention to these materials, and their commercialization began from those years.
Perhaps the main reason for this attention was the problems caused by energy mismanagement and improper use of it. Today, inadequate energy management, especially fossil fuels, has caused many environmental and economic problems. Therefore, the necessity of efficient energy demand as well as development of renewable energies and energy storage systems is highly significant. One of the important topics in this field is the design of special energy storage equipment to other types. Energy storage not only reduces the discrepancy between energy supply and demand but also indirectly improves the performance of energy generation systems as well as plays a vital role in saving of energy by converting it into other reliable forms. Hence, this matter saves high-quality fuels and reduces energy wastes [1, 2, 3].
Energy storage is one of the important parts of renewable energies. Energy can be stored in several ways such as mechanical (e.g., compressed air, flywheel, etc.), electrical (e.g., double-layer capacitors), electrochemical (e.g., batteries), chemical (e.g., fuels), and thermal energy storages [4].
Among several methods of energy storage, thermal energy storage (TES) is very crucial due to its advantages. TES is accomplished by changing the internal energy of materials, such as sensible heat, chemical heat, latent heat, or a combination of them.
In sensible heat storage (SHS) systems, heat can be stored by increasing the temperature of a material. Hence, this system exploits both the temperature changes and the heat capacity of the material to store energy. The amount of heat stored in this system depends on the specific heat, temperature differences, and amount of material; thus it requires a large amount of materials, whereas Latent heat storage (LHS) is generally based on the amount of heat absorbed or released during the phase transformation of a material. Lastly, In the chemical heat storage (CHS), heat is stored by enthalpy change of a chemical reaction.
Among the aforementioned heat storage systems, the LHS is particularly noteworthy. One of the special reasons is its ability to store large amount of energy at an isothermal process [5, 6, 7].
Any high-performance LHS system should contain at least one of the following terms:
Appropriate PCM with optimum melting temperature range
Desirable and sufficient surface area proportional to the amount of heat exchange
Optimal capacity compatible with PCM
Phase change materials perform energy storage in LHS method. In this case, a material during the phase change absorbs thermal energy from surrounding to change its state, and in the reverse process, the stored energy is released to the surrounding. PCMs initially behave likewise to other conventional materials as the temperature increases, but energy is absorbed when the material receives heat at higher temperatures and close to the phase transformation. Unlike conventional materials, in PCMs absorption or release of thermal energy is performed at a constant temperature. A PCM normally absorbs and releases thermal energy 5–14 times more than other storage materials such as water or rock [8, 9].
PCMs can store thermal energy in one of the following phase transformation methods: solid-solid, solid-liquid, solid-gas, and liquid-gas. In the solid-solid phase change, a certain solid material absorbs heat by changing a crystalline, semicrystalline, or amorphous structure to another solid structure and vice versa [10]. This type of phase change, usually called phase transitions, generally has less latent heat and smaller volume change comparing to the other types. Recently, this type of PCM has been used in nonvolatile memories [11].
Solid-liquid phase change is a common type of commercial PCMs. This type of PCM absorbs thermal energy to change its crystalline molecular arrangement to a disordered one when the temperature reaches the melting point. Unlike solid-solid, solid-liquid PCMs contain higher latent heat and sensible volumetric change. Solid-gas and liquid-gas phase changes contain higher latent heat, but their phase changes are associated with large volumetric changes, which cause many problems in TES systems [8]. Although the latent heat of solid-liquid is less than liquid-gas, their volumetric change is much lower (about 10% or less). Therefore, employing PCMs based on solid-liquid phase change in TES systems would be more economically feasible.
The overall classification of energy storage systems as well as phase change materials is given in Figure 1.
Overview of energy storage and classification of phase change materials.
As mentioned in the previous section, despite the high thermal energy absorption capacity, PCMs in liquid-gas and solid-gas transitions have extremely high volume changes. On the other hand, solid-solid PCMs also have a lower thermal energy storage capacity. Therefore, the abovementioned PCMs, with the exception of specific cases, have not received much attention to commercialization. Currently, the most common type of transition that has been mass-marketed is solid-liquid PCMs. The classification of phase change materials is schematically given in Figure 1. Solid-liquid PCMs are generally classified as three general organics, inorganic, and eutectics [12, 13]. However, in some references they are classified into two major organics and inorganics.
Inorganic PCMs mainly have high capacity for thermal energy storage (about twice as much as organic PCMs) as well as have higher thermal conductivity. They are often classified as salt hydrates and metals.
Salt hydrates are the most important group of inorganic PCMs, which is widely employed for the latent heat energy storage systems. Salt hydrates are described as a mixture of inorganic salts and water (AB × nH2O). The phase change in salt hydrates actually involves the loss of all or plenty of their water, which is roughly equivalent to the thermodynamic process of melting in other materials.
At the phase transition, the hydrate crystals are subdivided into anhydrous (or less aqueous) salt and water. Although salt hydrates have several advantages, some deficiencies make restrictions in their application. One of these problems is incongruent melting behavior of salt hydrates. In this problem the released water from dehydration process is not sufficient for the complete dissolution of the salts. In this case, the salts precipitate and as a result phase separation occurs. In order to prevent this problem, an additional material such as thickener agent is added to salt hydrates. Another major problem with salt hydrates is the supercooling phenomenon. In this phenomenon, when crystallization process occurs, the nucleus formation is delayed; therefore, even at temperatures below freezing, the material remains liquid [7, 11, 14].
Overall, the most attractive properties of salt hydrate are (i) high alloy latent temperature, (ii) relatively high thermal conductivity (almost two to five times more than paraffin), and (iii) small volume changes in melting. They are also very low emitting and toxic, adaptable to plastic packaging, and cheap enough to use [15].
Metalsare another part of the inorganic PCMs. Perhaps the most prominent advantages of metals are their high thermal conductivity and high mechanical properties. Metals are available over a wide range of melting temperatures. They are also used as high-temperature PCMs.
Some metals such as indium, cesium, gallium, etc. are used for low-temperature PCMs, while others such as Zn, Mg, Al, etc. are used for high temperatures. Some metal alloys with high melting points (in the range of 400–1000°C) have been used for extremely high temperature systems. These metal alloys as high-temperature PCMs can be used in the field of solar power systems [16, 17]. They can also be used in industries that require temperature regulation in furnaces or reactors with high operating temperatures.
Perhaps the most important fragment is the organic PCMs. Organic PCMs show no change in performance or structure (e.g., phase separation) over numerous phase change cycles. In addition, supercooling phenomena cannot be observed in organic PCMs. The classification of organic PCMs is unique. This division is mainly based on their application contexts. In general, they are classified into two major paraffin and non-paraffin sections.
Paraffins are the most common PCMs. Since this book is about paraffin, to avoid duplication, this section will briefly discuss the chemistry (structure and properties) of paraffin, but their ability as phase change materials will be reviewed in detail.
Non-paraffinic organic PCMs are known to be the most widely used families. In addition to their different properties compared to paraffins, they have very similar properties to each other. Researchers have used various types of ether, fatty acid, alcohol, and glycol as thermal energy storage materials. These materials are generally flammable and less resistant to oxidation [18, 19, 20].
Although non-paraffin organic PCMs have high latent heat capacity, they have weaknesses such as flammability, low thermal conductivity, low combustion temperatures, and transient toxicity. The most important non-paraffinic PCMs are fatty acids, glycols, polyalcohols, and sugar alcohols.
Fatty acids [CH3(CH2)2nCOOH] also have high latent heat. They can be used in combination with paraffin. Fatty acids exhibit high stability to deformation and phase separations for many cycles and also crystallize without supercooling. Their main disadvantages are their costs. They are 2–2.5 times more expensive than technical grade paraffins. Unlike paraffins, fatty acids are of animal or plant origin. Their properties are similar to those of paraffins, but the melting process is slower. On the other hand, they are moderately corrosive as well as generally odorous [21].
A eutectic contains at least two types of phase change materials. Eutectics have exceptional properties. In eutectics, the melting-solidification temperatures are generally lower than the constituents and do not separate into the components through the phase change. Therefore, phase separation and supercooling phenomena are not observed in these materials.
Eutectics typically have a high thermal cycle than salt hydrates. Inorganic-inorganic eutectics are the most common type of them. However, in recent studies, organic-inorganic and organic-organic varieties have received more attention. The major problem of eutectics is their commercialization. Their cost is usually two to three times higher than commercial PCMs [22, 23].
Some of the above PCMs and their thermal properties, which are competitive with paraffins in terms of latent heat capacity, are summarized in Table 1.
Type of PCMs | Materials | Melting point (°C) | Latent heat (kJ/kg) | Density* (kg/m3) | Thermal conductivity (W/mK)** | Ref. | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Inorganic salt hydrates | LiClO3·3H2O | 8 | 253 | 1720 | [24, 25] | ||
K2HPO4·6H2O | 14 | 109 | [24] | ||||
Mn(NO3)2·6H2O | 25.8 | 126 | 1600 | [14, 25] | |||
CaCl2·6H2O | 29.8 | 191 | 1802 | 1.08 | [24, 25] | ||
Na2CO3·10H2O | 32–34 | 246–267 | [14, 24] | ||||
Na2SO4·10H2O | 32.4 | 248, 254 | 1490 | 0.544 | [14, 26] | ||
Na2HPO4·12H2O | 34–35 | 280 | 1522 | 0.514 | [15, 26] | ||
FeCl3·6H2O | 36–37 | 200, 226 | 1820 | [25, 26] | |||
Na2S2O3·5H2O | 48–49 | 200, 220 | 1600 | 1.46 | [15, 26] | ||
CH3COONa·3H2O | 58 | 226, 265 | 1450 | 1.97 | [15, 26] | ||
Non-paraffinic organic PCMs | Fatty acids | Formic acid | 8.3 | 247 | 1220 | — | [1, 25] |
n-Octanoic acid | 16 | 149 | 910 | 0.148 | [21, 27] | ||
Lauric acid | 43.6 | 184.4 | 867 | [21, 25] | |||
Palmitic acid | 61.3 | 198 | 989 | 0.162 | [21, 27] | ||
Stearic acid | 66.8 | 259 | 965 | 0.172 | [21, 25] | ||
Polyalcohols | Glycerin | 18 | 199 | 1250 | 0.285 | [1, 25] | |
PEG E600 | 22 | 127.2 | 1126 | 0.189 | [27] | ||
PEG E6000 | 66 | 190 | 1212 | [27] | |||
Xylitol | 95 | 236 | 1520 | 0.40 | [28] | ||
Erythritol | 119 | 338 | 1361 | 0.38 | [28] | ||
Others | 2-Pentadecanone | 39 | 241 | [1, 25] | |||
4-Heptadekanon | 41 | 197 | [1, 25] | ||||
D-Lactic acid | 52–54 | 126, 185 | 1220 | [1, 25] | |||
Eutectics | O-O, O-I, I-I *** | CaCl2·6H2O + MgCl2·6H2O | 25 | 127 | 1590 | [27] | |
Mg(NO3)2·6H2O + MgCl2·6H2O | 59 | 144 | 1630 | 0.51 | [27] | ||
Trimethylolethane + urea | 29.8 | 218 | [21] | ||||
CH3COONa·3H2O + Urea (60:40) | 31 | 226 | [27] | ||||
Metals | Mg-Zn (72:28) | 342 | 155 | 2850 | 67 | [16, 17] | |
Al-Mg-Zn (60:34:6) | 450 | 329 | 2380 | [16, 17] | |||
Al-Cu (82:18) | 550 | 318 | 3170 | [16, 17] | |||
Al-Si (87.8:12.2) | 580 | 499 | 2620 | [16, 17] |
Thermophysical properties of some common PCMs with high latent heat.
At 20°C.
Just above melting point (liquid phase).
Inorganic-inorganic (I-I), organic-inorganic (O-I), and organic-organic (O-O).
Paraffin is usually a mixture of straight-chain n-alkanes with the general formula CH3-(CH2)n-CH3. However, in some cases, paraffin is used as another name for alkanes. Gulfam R. et al. in their article have classified paraffins based on the number of carbon atoms as well as their physical states. According to this classification, at room temperature, 1–4 numbers of carbons refer to pure alkanes in a gas phase, 5–17 carbons are liquid paraffins, and more than 17 is known as solid waxes. These waxy solids refer to a mixture of saturated hydrocarbons such as linear, iso, high branched, and cycloalkanes [29]. Generally, paraffin-based PCMs are known as waxy solid paraffins. Commercial paraffins contain mixture of isomers, and therefore, they have a range of melting temperatures.
Paraffins typically have high latent heat capacity. If the length of the chain increases, the melting ranges of waxes also increase, while the latent heat capacity of melting is not subject to any particular order (Table 2).
Materials | Melting point (°C) | Latent heat (kJ/kg) | Density* (kg/m3) | Thermal conductivity** (W/mK) |
---|---|---|---|---|
n-Tetradecane (C14) | 6 | 228–230 | 763 | 0.14 |
n-Pentadecane (C15) | 10 | 205 | 770 | 0.2 |
n-Hexadecane (C16) | 18 | 237 | 770 | 0.2 |
n-Heptadecane (C17) | 22 | 213 | 760 | 0145 |
n-Octadecane (C18) | 28 | 245 | 865 | 0.148 |
n-Nonadecane (C19) | 32 | 222 | 830 | 0.22 |
n-Eicosane (C20) | 37 | 246 | ||
n-Henicosane (C21) | 40 | 200, 213 | 778 | |
n-Docosane (C22) | 44.5 | 249 | 880 | 0.2 |
n-Tricosane (C23) | 47.5 | 232 | ||
n-Tetracosane (C24) | 52 | 255 | ||
n-Pentacosane (C25) | 54 | 238 | ||
n-Hexacosane (C26) | 56.5 | 256 | ||
n-Heptacosane (C27) | 59 | 236 | ||
n-Octacosane (C28) | 64.5 | 253 | ||
n-Nonacosane (C29) | 65 | 240 | ||
n-Triacontane (C30) | 66 | 251 | ||
n-Hentriacontane (C31) | 67 | 242 | ||
n-Dotriacontane (C32) | 69 | 170 | ||
n-Triatriacontane (C33) | 71 | 268 | 880 | 0.2 |
Paraffin C16-C18 | 20–22 | 152 | ||
Paraffin C13-C24 | 22–24 | 189 | 900 | 0.21 |
RT 35 HC | 35 | 240 | 880 | 0.2 |
Paraffin C16-C28 | 42–44 | 189 | 910 | |
Paraffin C20-C33 | 48–50 | 189 | 912 | |
Paraffin C22-C45 | 58–60 | 189 | 920 | 0.2 |
Paraffin C21-C50 | 66–68 | 189 | 930 | |
RT 70 HC | 69–71 | 260 | 880 | 0.2 |
Paraffin natural wax 811 | 82–86 | 85 | 0.72 (solid) | |
Paraffin natural wax 106 | 101–108 | 80 | 0.65 (solid) |
In general, paraffin waxes are safe, reliable, inexpensive, and non-irritating substances, relatively obtained in a wide range of temperatures. As far as economic issues are concerned, most technical grade waxes can be used as PCMs in latent heat storage systems. From the chemical point of view, paraffin waxes are inactive and stable. They exhibit moderate volume changes (10–20%) during melting but have low vapor pressure.
The paraffin-based PCMs usually have high stability for very long crystallization-melting cycles. Table 2 illustrates the thermal properties of some paraffin waxes.
Besides the favorable properties, paraffins also show some undesirable properties such as low thermal conductivity, low melting temperatures, and moderate-high flammability. Some of these disadvantages especially thermal conductivity and flammability can be partially eliminated with the help of additives or paraffin composites.
Measures must be taken to make the solid-liquid PCMs usable. For this purpose, there are several methods for stabilizing the shapes of paraffinic PCMs. Two main methods of them are discussed below.
Encapsulation is generally a worthy method to protect and prevent leakage of PCMs in the liquid state. The capsules consist of two parts, the shell and the core. The core part contains PCMs, whereas the shell part is usually composed of polymeric materials with improved mechanical and thermal properties. The shell part plays the role of protection, heat transfer, and sometimes preventing the release of toxic materials into the environment. In these cases, the shell must have appropriate thermal conductivity. Polymeric shells are also commonly used in encapsulating PPCMs. The choice of core part depends on its application field. The encapsulation of PPCMs is classified into three major parts: bulk or macroencapsulation, microencapsulation, and nano-encapsulation.
Macroencapsulation is one of the simplest ways to encapsulate paraffins. This method has a lower cost than other methods. These products are used in transportation, buildings, solar energy storage systems, and heat exchangers. Sometimes metals are also used as shell materials [30].
In order to increase the efficiency of heat transfer in these types of capsules, either the size of the capsules should be appropriately selected or suitable modifiers should be used. In general, the smaller the diameter of spherical capsules or cylinders, the better the heat transfer. In some cases, metal foams are used to improve the heat transfer properties of paraffin. Aluminum and copper open-cell foams are among the most studied, whereas, in other cases metal oxides, metals and graphite are used [30, 31].
There are various forms of macroencapsulation, such as ball shape, spherical shape, cylindrical, flat sheets, tubular, etc. [31]. Cylindrical tubes are one of the famous forms of macroencapsulated PPCMs. This type of encapsulation is most commonly used in buildings or in solar energy storage systems.
Most of the research carried out on macroencapsulated PPCMs has been focused on improving their thermal conductivity. In one of these studies, different metal oxide nanoparticles such as aluminum oxide, titanium oxide, silicon oxide, and zinc oxide were used to improve the thermal conductivity of paraffin. The results show that titanium oxide performs better under the same conditions than the other oxides [32]. In a similar study, copper oxide nanoparticles were used to improve thermal conductivity and performance of paraffin in solar energy storage systems [33]. In some studies, graphite flakes and expanded graphite have also been used as improving agent for heat conductivity [31].
Hong et al. have used polyethylene terephthalate pipes as a shell for paraffin. In this macroencapsulated system, introduced as cylinder modules, float stone has been added to paraffin as an enhancer of thermal conductivity. In this study, the effect of various parameters such as pipe diameter on heat transfer is investigated, and the results of experimental section are compared with modeling [34].
D. Etansova et al. studied numerical computation and heat transfer modeling of paraffin-embedded stainless steel macroencapsulates for use in solar energy storage systems. In this study, the effect of geometric size and shape on heat transfer was investigated [35].
Microencapsulation of PCMs is another suitable way to improve efficiency and increase thermal conductivity. The size of the microencapsulates usually ranges from 1 μm to 1 mm. Microencapsulation of paraffins is a relatively difficult process, but it performs better than macroencapsulates. This is due to increased contact surface area, shorter discharge and loading times, and improved thermal conductivity. Different materials are used for the shell part of the microencapsulates.
In general, there are two major physical and chemical methods for microencapsulation. The most important physical methods are fluidized bed, spray dryer, centrifuge extruder, and similar processes. However, chemical methods are often based on polymerization. The most important techniques include in situ suspension and emulsion polymerization, interfacial condensation polymerization, and sol-gel method. The latter is sometimes known as the physicochemical method [12, 29].
In the suspension or emulsion polymerization method, the insoluble paraffin is first emulsified or suspended in a polar medium, which is predominantly aqueous phase, by means of high-speed stirring. Surfactants are used to stabilize the particles. Then, lipophilic monomers are added to the medium, and the conditions are prepared for polymerization. This polymer, which is insoluble in both aqueous and paraffin phases, is formed on the outer surface of paraffin particles and finally, after polymerization, encapsulates the paraffin as a shell. The size of these capsules depends on the size of emulsion or suspension of paraffin droplets. Sometimes certain additives are added to the medium to improve some of the polymer properties. For instance, in some studies, polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) has been added to the medium with methyl-methacrylate monomer, which is known as one of the most important shell materials. As a result, paraffin has been encapsulated by PVA modified polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA). Adding this modifier forms a smooth surface of the microencapsulates [36, 37].
In the interfacial method, soluble monomers in the organic phase with other monomers in the aqueous phase at the droplet interface form a polymer that precipitates on the outer layer of the organic phase.
The sol-gel method is a multi-step procedure. In this method, firstly, an organosilicon compound such as tetraethoxysilane (TEOS) is hydrolyzed in an acidic medium at low pH. The prepared homogenous solution is known as the sol part. Then, the paraffin emulsion is prepared in an aqueous medium and stabilized by special emulsifiers. Actually, these emulsifiers are the first layer of the shell. Subsequently, the sol solution is slowly added to the aqueous phase containing paraffin. The silicon compounds containing OH groups (silanols) form hydrogen bonding with polar side of emulsifiers, and finally the condensation process is carried out on the first layer interface. As a result, paraffin microencapsulates with an inorganic material that is often silica. Silica is one of the significant materials used as a shell for micro and nano-encapsulation. Silica has high thermal conductivity and on the other hand has better mechanical properties than some polymers [38, 39, 40, 41].
As mentioned, most of the materials used to microencapsulation are polymers. The main polymers used as shell materials are polymethyl methacrylate [42], polystyrene [43], urea-formaldehyde [44], urea-melamine-formaldehyde [45], polyaniline [46], etc. However, in many cases, these polymers are used in modified form. For example, polymethyl methacrylate modified with polyvinyl alcohol or with other methacrylates [36, 37], polystyrene copolymers [47], and melamine modified-formaldehyde with methanol [48] can be considered. Table 3 shows the most common polymers used as shell materials.
Core material PPCM | Shell material | Encapsulation method | Particle size (μm) | Recommended application | Ref |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
n-Nonadecane | Polymethyl methacrylate | Emulsion | ~ 8 | Smart building and textiles | [42] |
n-Heptadecane | Polystyrene | Emulsion | <2 | General fields | [43] |
Commercial paraffin wax | Polystyrene-co-PMMA | Suspension | ~ 20 | [50] | |
Commercial RT21 | PMMA | Suspension | 20–40 | [36] | |
Commercial RT21 | PMMA modified with PVA | Emulsion | 15 | Building | [37] |
Commercial paraffin wax | Polyaniline | Emulsion | <1 | [46] | |
Commercial paraffin wax | Urea-formaldehyde | In situ | ~ 20 | [44] | |
n-Octadecane, n-nonadecane | Urea-melamine-formaldehyde | In situ | 0.3-0.6 | [45] | |
Commercial paraffin wax | Methanol-melamine-formaldehyde | In situ | 10–30 | Building | [48] |
Commercial paraffin wax | Silica | Sol-gel | 4–10 | Textile | [38] |
Commercial paraffin wax | Silica | Sol-gel | 0.2–0.5 | [39] | |
n-Octadecane | Silica | Sol-gel | 7–16 | [40] | |
n-Pentadecane | Silica | Sol-gel | 4–8 | [41] |
Common materials for microencapsulation of PPCMs.
In addition to the aforementioned microencapsulation approaches, which mainly form polymeric materials as shells, other materials have been also recommended. For example, Singh and colleagues have used silver metal as a shell for paraffin microencapsulates. They first emulsified paraffin into small particles in water and then converted silver salts to metallic silver via an in situ reduction reaction. The average particle size of 329 μm has been reported, and the thermal properties of paraffin have been investigated using DSC and TGA. This type of metal shell microencapsulates has been suggested for use in microelectronics heat management systems [49].
There are several techniques to study the properties of micro and nano-encapsulates. In all studies, differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) and thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) have been used to determine the thermal properties of PPCMs, such as enthalpy of fusion, melting temperature, weight loss, degradation, etc. Various methods such as XRD, FTIR, and 12C NMR have been used to study the structure and chemical composition of PPCMs. The morphology and diameters of the microcapsules have often been studied by scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and particle size analyzer.
The latter technique is used to study the influence of different variables on the diameter of the microcapsules. One of these variables is the effect of stirring speed on emulsification of paraffin. The results of some studies show that higher stirring speed of emulsification process leads to decrease of the mean size of paraffin droplets [48].
Along with studies on the type of microcapsules, many studies have been conducted to improve thermal conductivity and mechanical properties of microencapsulates. Part of these studies has been dedicated to the effect of graphene and graphene oxide on the improvement of thermal conductivity [51]. L. Zhang et al. investigated the effect of graphene oxide on improving the mechanical properties and leakage protection as well as improving the thermal conductivity of melamine-formaldehyde as shell materials of PPCM microencapsulates [52]. In another part of studies, metals and metal oxides have been used. For example, 10 and 20 wt% of nanomagnetite (Fe3O4) with particle size from 40 to 75 nm increase the thermal conductivity by 48 and 60%, respectively [53]. Also, addition of TiO2 and Al2O3 nanoparticles in a mass fraction of 5% with respect to PPCM at the size range of 30–60 nm increases the thermal conductivity by 40 and 65%, respectively [54].
Nano-encapsulation of PPCM is very similar to the microencapsulation process. However, these types of encapsulation specific techniques, such as ultrasonic, are used to adjust the size of the paraffin droplets to less than 1 micron. In the next step, using the chemical methods mentioned in the microencapsulation method, the shell formation is performed. The most common method for nano-encapsulation is the emulsion polymerization method. However, although limited, interfacial and sol-gel methods have also been reported.
In recent years, research on polymeric matrix-based shape-stable PCMs has gained great importance. Among these types of phase change materials, the paraffin-polymer composite is particularly attractive. The combination of paraffin and polymers as new PCMs with a unique controllable structure can be widely used. This compound remains solid at paraffin melting point and even above without any softening, which is why this type of PCM is called shape-stable. These materials are well formed and have high-energy absorption capacity; hence they can be widely used as stable PCMs with specific properties. On the other hand, some problems such as high cost and difficulty of encapsulating processes could be resolved. Despite these advantages, some common disadvantages such as low thermal stability, low thermal conductivity, and relatively high flammability can restrict their application, particularly in building materials. For this reason, further studies are required to eliminate these disadvantages and improve the properties of these materials. A large part of research is relevant to increase or improve their thermal conductivity, flame retardation, and thermophysical and mechanical properties. Suitable additives are proposed to improve these properties [55, 56].
In some articles, a simple method involves mixing-melting of polyethylene and paraffin, consequently cooling the composite, or using a simple twin extruder to prepare a shape-stable PCM has been reported [57, 58]. When this compound contains sufficient polymer, a homogeneous mixture remains solid at temperatures above the melting point of paraffin and below the polymer melting point. During the preparation of these composites, no chemical reaction or chemical bonds are formed between the polymers and paraffin; therefore these types of compounds are considered as physical mixtures. Shape-stable PPCMs can be used in all previously described areas. Due to the thermoplastic properties of these composites, it is possible to melt and crystalize them for many cycle numbers. Shape-stable PPCMs have several advantages over other PCMs. They are also nontoxic and do not require high-energy consumption during production process.
Inaba and Tu [59] developed a new type of shape-stable PPCM and determined their thermophysical properties. These materials can be used without encapsulation. Feldman et al. [60] prepared plates of shape-stable PCM and determined their high thermal energy storage capacity when used in small chambers. In this type of polymer-based plates, fatty acids are used as PCMs that absorb or releases large amounts of heat during melting and solidification, without altering the composition of the shape-stable PCM. The same researchers determined the role of polymer-PCM sheets in stabilizing the shape and size of the plates when PCM was liquefied. The composition of paraffin and high-density polyethylene (HDPE) has been studied by Lee and Choi [61] and has been introduced as a shape-stable energy storage material. In this study, the amount of energy stored by the mentioned composites is also studied. They also studied the morphology of the high-density polyethylene crystal lattice (HDPE) and its effect on paraffin through scanning electron microscopy and optical microscopy (OM) analysis. On the other hand, they also reported of high thermal energy storage capacity of the prepared paraffin/HDPE-based shape-stable PCMs. Hong and Xin-Shi [62] synthesized polyethylene-paraffin as a shape-stable PCM and characterized its morphology and structure by scanning electron microscopy and its latent heat of melting by differential scanning calorimetry. In this study, a composition consisting of 75% paraffin as a cheap, effective, easy-to-prepare, low-temperature shape-stable PPCM is recommended. In another study, Xiao et al. [63] prepared a shape-stable PCM based on the composition of paraffin with a thermoplastic elastomer (styrene butadiene rubber) and determined its thermal properties. The obtained results show that the stable mixture has the phase changing property and the amount of latent heat of melting stored in this compound is estimated to be 80% of pure paraffin. In another part of this study, the thermal conductivity of PCMs was significantly increased by using graphite.
Despite the above benefits, some disadvantages of shape-stable PPCMs are also reported. One of the major problems is the softening and paraffin leakage phenomenon at elevated temperatures. Seiler partly resolved this problem by adding a different ratio of silica and copolymers to the polyethylene-paraffin composition [64]. Another problem is the low thermal conductivity of the polyethylene-paraffin compound. A lot of research has been conducted to increase this property. A. Sari [65] prepared two types of paraffin with different melting temperatures (42–44°C and 56–58°C) and combined each with HDPE as phase modifier. By addition of 3% expanded graphite, the thermal conductivity of composites increased by 14 and 24%, respectively. Zhang et al. [66] developed new PCMS based on graphite and paraffin with high thermal energy storage capacity and high thermal conductivity. Zhang and Ding et al. [67] have used various additives such as diatomite, Wollastonite, organic modified bentonite, calcium carbonate, and graphite to improve the thermal conductivity of shape-stable PCMs.
It should be noted that metal particles and metal oxides due to their higher thermal conductivity are widely used to improve this property of PCMs. One of the materials that has received more attention in recent years is alumina. Aluminum oxide nanoparticles were added to paraffin to increase its thermal conductivity in both liquid and solid states [57, 68]. This compound coupled with its high thermal conductivity is cheaper and more abundant than other metal oxides.
Another problem with shape-stable PPCMs is their flammability. The effect of various additives has been studied by scientists to eliminate this problem. One of the most effective of these substances is halogenated compounds, but they cause environmental pollution and also release toxic compounds while burning. Researchers have used hybrid and environmentally friendly materials to enhance the durability of flame retardant materials. They studied the effect of clay nanoparticles and organo-modified montmorillonite. Adding these materials not only increases their resistance to burning but also increases their mechanical and thermal properties [69, 70, 71]. In another study, Y. Cai et al. added paraffin, HDPE, and graphite, then added ammonium polyphosphate and zinc borate separately, and studied their resistance to burning. The results show that the addition of ammonium polyphosphate decreases flammability, while zinc borate increases the flammability risk [72]. One of the most interesting and harmless fire retardant compounds is metal hydroxides, especially aluminum hydroxide, magnesium hydroxide, or their combination [73, 74, 75].
Some researchers have used other advanced materials as supporting materials to prepare shape-stable PPCMs instead of using the polymer matrix [76, 77, 78]. Rawi et al. used acid-treated multi-walled carbon nanotubes (A-CNT). They reported that adding 5% by weight A-CNT to paraffin decreases 25% of the latent heat while increasing heat conductivity up to 84% [79]. Y. Wan et al. used pinecone biochar as the supporting matrix for PCMs. They prepared shape-stable PCM materials at different ratios and studied the leakage behavior. The optimal ratio is suggested as 60% of the PCM. For the above ratio, no PCM leakage was observed after the melting temperature. The results showed that the thermal conductivity of the same ratio shape-stable PCM increased by 44% compared to the pure PCM [80].
PCMs are available in a wide range of desired temperature ranges. Obviously, a PCM may not have all the properties required to store heat energy as an ideal material. Therefore, it would be more appropriate to use these materials in combination with either other PCMs or various additives to achieve the required features. However, as latent heat storage materials, while using PCMs, the thermodynamic, kinetic, and chemical properties as well as the economic and availability issues of them must be taken into account. Employed PCMs must have the optimum phase change temperature. On the other hand, the higher the latent heat of the material, the lower its physical size. High thermal conductivity also helps to save and release energy. From the physical and kinetic point of view, the phase stability of PCMs during melting and crystallization contributes to optimum thermal energy storage. Their high density also enables high storage at smaller material sizes. During phase change, smaller volume changes and lower vapor pressures are appropriate for continuous applications.
H. Nazir et al. in their review article [12] have explained the criteria for selection of PCMs as a pyramid. In this pyramid, at the bottom, known as the fundamentals, there are several items such as cost, regularity compliance, and safety. In the next section, the thermophysical properties such as energy storage capacity and runtime are discussed. In the upper section, reliability and operating environment consist of degradation, cycle life, shelf life, and thermal limits are reflected. Finally, at the top section of pyramid, user perception and convenience are located. These criteria help us to find a proper PCM for certain application fields.
These criteria may also be extended to paraffinic PCMs. Nowadays, paraffinic PCMs (PPCMs) are widely used as thermal energy storage materials, including solar energy storage systems, food industries, medical fields, electrical equipment protection, vehicles, buildings, automotive industries, etc. [24, 29, 81, 82, 83, 84, 85].
Generally, application fields of PPCMs can be considered in two main sections: thermal protection and energy storage purposes. The major difference between these two areas of application is in thermal conductivity of the PPCMs.
Protection and transportation of temperature-sensitive materials is one the mentioned area. Sometimes a certain temperature is required to transport sensitive medicines, medical equipment, food, etc. In all cases, using of PPCMs would be appropriate as they can regulate and stabilize the temperature over a given range. Similarly, in sensitive electrical equipment, these materials are also essential to prevent the maximum operating temperature. On the other hand, they can be used to prevent possible engine damage at high temperatures [86, 87].
One of the studies related to these issues is the use of paraffin containing heavy alkanes to protect electronic devices against overheating. In this study, paraffin has been used as a protective coating for the resistor chip, and its effect on cooling of the devices has been investigated. Experimental results show that paraffin coating increases the relative duration of overheating by 50 to 150% over the temperature range of 110–140°C [88]. In another study, a mixture of paraffin and polypropylene has been used as an overheating protector in solar thermal collectors [89].
However, energy storage purposes are the most important part of PPCM application. In general, PCMs act as passive elements and therefore do not require any additional energy source. Most studies on the application of energy storage properties of PPCMs have been confined to buildings, textiles, and solar systems. In the following, building applications will be further attended.
One of the main drawbacks of lightweight building materials is their low thermal storage capacity, which results in extensive temperature fluctuations as a result of intense heating and cooling. Therefore, PPCMs have been used in buildings due to their ability to regulate and stabilize indoor temperatures at higher or lower outdoor temperatures [90].
Generally, PPCMs in buildings are used as thermal energy storage at daytime peak temperature, and they released the stored energy at night when temperatures are low. The result of this application is to set the comfort condition for a circadian period. This application minimizes the amount of energy consumed for cooling during the day and warming up at night.
In contrast, in order to stabilize the ambient conditions at low temperatures, some special PCMs are also used in air conditioner systems. In this case, cool air is stored during the night and released into the warm hours of the day.
Y. Cui et al. [91] in a review article categorized PPCM application methods based on their location of use such as PCMs in walls, floor heating systems, ceiling boards, air-based solar heating systems, free cooling systems (with ventilation systems), and PCM shutter (in windows). Both types of encapsulation and shape-stable PPCMs could be used in all of the above classification of building applications. Sometimes these materials can be added directly to concrete, gypsum, etc. [90, 92, 93, 94, 95].
In order to increase the performance of PPCMs in this application field, great deals of studies have also been done on improving their thermal conductivity. On the other hand, extensive research into safety issues has been done to reduce the flammability of PPCMs by adding flame retardants to these materials.
Overall, these studies cover the importance of using PPCMs in heating and cooling as well as indicate the general characteristics, advantages, and disadvantages of these materials used for thermal storage in buildings.
It is clear that at this time, where renewable energy is particularly important, the use of PPCMs is on the rise. As it has been mentioned, PPCMs have many application fields due to their advantages. For example, they can be used in the construction, pharmaceutical and medical industries, textiles, automobiles, solar power systems, transportation, thermal batteries, heat exchangers, and so on.
This chapter of the book has attempted to focus more on how to use paraffins. For this reason, two methods, namely, encapsulation and shape-constant, have been widely discussed. In addition, improving their weak properties such as thermal conductivity and flammability has also been studied. Depending on the benefits of paraffins, new applications are suggested every day. Extensive studies are underway on other new applications in recent years.
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\n\n3.4 The Corresponding Author and any Co-Author shall respect confidentiality rights during and after the termination of this Agreement. The information contained in all correspondence and documents as part of the publishing activity between IntechOpen and the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author are confidential and are intended only for the recipient. The contents may not be disclosed publicly and are not intended for unauthorized use or distribution. Any use, disclosure, copying, or distribution is prohibited and may be unlawful.
\n\n4. CORRESPONDING AUTHOR'S WARRANTY
\n\n4.1 The Corresponding Author represents and warrants that the Chapter does not and will not breach any applicable law or the rights of any third party and, specifically, that the Chapter contains no matter that is defamatory or that infringes any literary or proprietary rights, intellectual property rights, or any rights of privacy. The Corresponding Author warrants and represents that: (i) the Chapter is the original work of themselves and any Co-Author and is not copied wholly or substantially from any other work or material or any other source; (ii) the Chapter has not been formally published in any other peer-reviewed journal or in a book or edited collection, and is not under consideration for any such publication; (iii) they themselves and any Co-Author are qualifying persons under section 154 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988; (iv) they themselves and any Co-Author have not assigned and will not during the term of this Publication Agreement purport to assign any of the rights granted to IntechOpen under this Publication Agreement; and (v) the rights granted by this Publication Agreement are free from any security interest, option, mortgage, charge or lien.
\n\nThe Corresponding Author also warrants and represents that: (i) they have the full power to enter into this Publication Agreement on their own behalf and on behalf of each Co-Author; and (ii) they have the necessary rights and/or title in and to the Chapter to grant IntechOpen, on behalf of themselves and any Co-Author, the rights and licenses expressed to be granted in this Publication Agreement. If the Chapter was prepared jointly by the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author, the Corresponding Author warrants and represents that: (i) each Co-Author agrees to the submission, license and publication of the Chapter on the terms of this Publication Agreement; and (ii) they have the authority to enter into this Publication Agreement on behalf of and bind each Co-Author. The Corresponding Author shall: (i) ensure each Co-Author complies with all relevant provisions of this Publication Agreement, including those relating to confidentiality, performance and standards, as if a party to this Publication Agreement; and (ii) remain primarily liable for all acts and/or omissions of each such Co-Author.
\n\nThe Corresponding Author agrees to indemnify and hold IntechOpen harmless against all liabilities, costs, expenses, damages and losses and all reasonable legal costs and expenses suffered or incurred by IntechOpen arising out of or in connection with any breach of the aforementioned representations and warranties. This indemnity shall not cover IntechOpen to the extent that a claim under it results from IntechOpen's negligence or willful misconduct.
\n\n4.2 Nothing in this Publication Agreement shall have the effect of excluding or limiting any liability for death or personal injury caused by negligence or any other liability that cannot be excluded or limited by applicable law.
\n\n5. TERMINATION
\n\n5.1 IntechOpen has a right to terminate this Publication Agreement for quality, program, technical or other reasons with immediate effect, including without limitation (i) if the Corresponding Author or any Co-Author commits a material breach of this Publication Agreement; (ii) if the Corresponding Author or any Co-Author (being an individual) is the subject of a bankruptcy petition, application or order; or (iii) if the Corresponding Author or any Co-Author (being a company) commences negotiations with all or any class of its creditors with a view to rescheduling any of its debts, or makes a proposal for or enters into any compromise or arrangement with any of its creditors.
\n\nIn case of termination, IntechOpen will notify the Corresponding Author, in writing, of the decision.
\n\n6. INTECHOPEN’S DUTIES AND RIGHTS
\n\n6.1 Unless prevented from doing so by events outside its reasonable control, IntechOpen, in its discretion, agrees to publish the Chapter attributing it to the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author.
\n\n6.2 IntechOpen has the right to use the Corresponding Author’s and any Co-Author’s names and likeness in connection with scientific dissemination, retrieval, archiving, web hosting and promotion and marketing of the Chapter and has the right to contact the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author until the Chapter is publicly available on any platform owned and/or operated by IntechOpen.
\n\n6.3 IntechOpen is granted the authority to enforce the rights from this Publication Agreement, on behalf of the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author, against third parties (for example in cases of plagiarism or copyright infringements). In respect of any such infringement or suspected infringement of the copyright in the Chapter, IntechOpen shall have absolute discretion in addressing any such infringement which is likely to affect IntechOpen's rights under this Publication Agreement, including issuing and conducting proceedings against the suspected infringer.
\n\n7. MISCELLANEOUS
\n\n7.1 Further Assurance: The Corresponding Author shall and will ensure that any relevant third party (including any Co-Author) shall, execute and deliver whatever further documents or deeds and perform such acts as IntechOpen reasonably requires from time to time for the purpose of giving IntechOpen the full benefit of the provisions of this Publication Agreement.
\n\n7.2 Third Party Rights: A person who is not a party to this Publication Agreement may not enforce any of its provisions under the Contracts (Rights of Third Parties) Act 1999.
\n\n7.3 Entire Agreement: This Publication Agreement constitutes the entire agreement between the parties in relation to its subject matter. It replaces and extinguishes all prior agreements, draft agreements, arrangements, collateral warranties, collateral contracts, statements, assurances, representations and undertakings of any nature made by or on behalf of the parties, whether oral or written, in relation to that subject matter. Each party acknowledges that in entering into this Publication Agreement it has not relied upon any oral or written statements, collateral or other warranties, assurances, representations or undertakings which were made by or on behalf of the other party in relation to the subject matter of this Publication Agreement at any time before its signature (together "Pre-Contractual Statements"), other than those which are set out in this Publication Agreement. Each party hereby waives all rights and remedies which might otherwise be available to it in relation to such Pre-Contractual Statements. Nothing in this clause shall exclude or restrict the liability of either party arising out of its pre-contract fraudulent misrepresentation or fraudulent concealment.
\n\n7.4 Waiver: No failure or delay by a party to exercise any right or remedy provided under this Publication Agreement or by law shall constitute a waiver of that or any other right or remedy, nor shall it preclude or restrict the further exercise of that or any other right or remedy. No single or partial exercise of such right or remedy shall preclude or restrict the further exercise of that or any other right or remedy.
\n\n7.5 Variation: No variation of this Publication Agreement shall be effective unless it is in writing and signed by the parties (or their duly authorized representatives).
\n\n7.6 Severance: If any provision or part-provision of this Publication Agreement is or becomes invalid, illegal or unenforceable, it shall be deemed modified to the minimum extent necessary to make it valid, legal and enforceable. If such modification is not possible, the relevant provision or part-provision shall be deemed deleted.
\n\nAny modification to or deletion of a provision or part-provision under this clause shall not affect the validity and enforceability of the rest of this Publication Agreement.
\n\n7.7 No partnership: Nothing in this Publication Agreement is intended to, or shall be deemed to, establish or create any partnership or joint venture or the relationship of principal and agent or employer and employee between IntechOpen and the Corresponding Author or any Co-Author, nor authorize any party to make or enter into any commitments for or on behalf of any other party.
\n\n7.8 Governing law: This Publication Agreement and any dispute or claim (including non-contractual disputes or claims) arising out of or in connection with it or its subject matter or formation shall be governed by and construed in accordance with the law of England and Wales. The parties submit to the exclusive jurisdiction of the English courts to settle any dispute or claim arising out of or in connection with this Publication Agreement (including any non-contractual disputes or claims).
\n\nLast updated: 2020-11-27
\n\n\n\n
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