Chemical composition of different
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Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\\n\\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"Highly Cited",originalUrl:"/media/original/117"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'IntechOpen is proud to announce that 191 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nThroughout the years, the list has named a total of 261 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\nReleased this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-supports-asapbio-s-new-initiative-publish-your-reviews-20220729",title:"IntechOpen Supports ASAPbio’s New Initiative Publish Your Reviews"},{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"2061",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Salmonella - Distribution, Adaptation, Control Measures and Molecular Technologies",title:"Salmonella",subtitle:"Distribution, Adaptation, Control Measures and Molecular Technologies",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"The discovery of Salmonella in swine in 1885 marked the beginning of intense efforts to control salmonellae that have continued for the past 127 years. The majority of foodborne outbreaks are caused by only a few of the 2500+ known serovars. While progress has been made on many fronts, salmonellosis has yet to be eliminated in either developed or in developing nations. This work represents the collective contributions of authors from all around the world. Chapters in this book address a wide array of topics related to understanding and controlling this pathogen, including: Salmonella as studied in the environment, air and in food products; virulence and pathogenicity; control by bacteriophages and other antimicrobials; bacterial adaptation; etc.",isbn:null,printIsbn:"978-953-51-0661-6",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-4289-8",doi:"10.5772/2470",price:159,priceEur:175,priceUsd:205,slug:"salmonella-distribution-adaptation-control-measures-and-molecular-technologies",numberOfPages:518,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:1,isInBkci:!0,hash:"64584b0d61f32814e0ed682bf052b088",bookSignature:"Bassam A. Annous and Joshua B. 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Annous is a Research Microbiologist at the USDA – ARS – Eastern Regional Research Center, in Wyndmoor, PA. He earned a B.S. and a M.S. from the American University of Beirut, and a Ph.D. from the University of Illinois. His research experience has been in the areas of microbial food safety, food science, food engineering, and microbial biotechnology. He has designed and validated novel thermal and non-thermal surface pasteurization technologies capable of reaching and inactivating human pathogens attached to inaccessible sites within biofilms on produce surfaces. He has authored 60+ peer-reviewed publications, review articles, and book chapters. He presented 40+ invited talks at scientific meetings and universities in USA, Japan, Canada, Australia, and Mexico. He served by invitation as an expert on three Food Safety and Security panels convened by FAO and WHO of the United Nations.",institutionString:null,position:"Research Microbiologist",outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:null}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:{id:"166183",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Joshua",middleName:"B.",surname:"Gurtler",slug:"joshua-gurtler",fullName:"Joshua Gurtler",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/166183/images/3057_n.jpg",biography:"Joshua Gurtler is a research scientist at the Eastern Regional Research Center of the USDA Agricultural Research Service in Wyndmoor, PA. He conducted his undergraduate and M.S. work at Auburn University, and completed his Ph.D. and post-doctoral work in food microbiology at the University of Georgia. Dr. Gurtler’s current work involves innovative interventions for the inactivation of Salmonella, enteric viruses and other foodborne pathogens in fresh produce, crops and soil, and he is currently developing new antimicrobial washes for fresh fruits and vegetables. Previous work evaluated the behavior and elimination of Salmonella, E. coli O157:H7, Yersinia, Cronobacter sakazakii, and spoilage microorganisms in products such as liquid and shell eggs, infant formulas and cereals, and fruit juices. He feels honored to work on this project with Dr. Annous.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"United States Department of Agriculture",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"1046",title:"Infectious Diseases",slug:"infectious-diseases"}],chapters:[{id:"37791",title:"Elucidating the Epidemiology of Human Salmonellosis: The Value of Systematic Laboratory Characterisation of Isolates",doi:"10.5772/30851",slug:"elucidating-the-epidemiology-of-human-salmonellosis-the-value-of-systematic-laboratory-characterisat",totalDownloads:2754,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"P. McKeown, P. Garvey and M. 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From chapter submission and review, to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. 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Plants have enormous potential to biosynthesize the most varied types of molecular structures that perform various functions in your body. The substances responsible for ensuring the cells development and maintenance are called primary metabolites. From these compounds, through very complex biosynthetic routes, plants produce secondary metabolites, which help in the defense and adaptation of plants to the environment.
\nComposed of several secondary metabolites synthesized by plants, we highlight the essential oils that are characterized by being a complex mixture of low molecular weight liposoluble constituents with strong aroma. Essential oils stand out for their great therapeutic and economic importance, occupying a preponderant place in the pharmaceutical, cosmetic, and agri-food industries due to their high biological activity [1].
\nAlthough plants have been used since ancient times for spice and medicinal purposes, only in recent decades research has been intensifying for application of these compounds in food preservation and control of diseases of microbial origin.
\nNowadays, there is a serious problem of bacterial resistance to commercially available antibiotics that occurs due to the wide distribution of antimicrobials and easy access to consumption by the population, which leads to indiscriminate use and self-medication. The uncertain diagnosis, the absence of a rational program for antimicrobial use, and subdoses of antimicrobial are also factors that contribute to the increased prevalence of drug-resistant microorganisms, rendering antibiotics ineffective [2].
\nAssuming the resistance of microorganisms to available drugs, the toxicity of synthetic antimicrobials, and the growing consumer awareness of the use of environmentally safe and health-friendly products, natural products emerge as a potential alternative for the replacement of synthetic antimicrobial agents.
\nOne of the largest sources of research in this area is the evaluation of antimicrobial activity of plants popularly used for medicinal purposes.
Thus, this review chapter aims to discuss the antimicrobial activity of ginger essential oil evaluated by various in vitro microbiological techniques against pathogenic microorganisms. This book chapter reviews the real contribution of ginger as a naturally occurring antimicrobial.
\nThe bibliographic search was performed from May 2019 by a single researcher, searching for keywords such as antimicrobial, ginger, antibacterial, antifungal,
Ginger, scientifically named
Ginger has been known and used practically worldwide and in all medicines. It has been cultivated for thousands of years in China and India, reaching the West for at least 2000 years. The name of this genus,
In Brazil, its cultivation was introduced shortly after the beginning of European colonization. However, only in the 1980s, with the introduction of giant rhizome varieties by Japanese farmers, ginger cultivation became effectively commercial in Brazil, especially in the coasts of Santa Catarina, Sao Paulo, and Paraná [7].
\nGinger has a herbaceous habit, is perennial, produces articulated rhizome, and has adventitious roots and distal leaves, with the basilars reduced and floral bracts obliterated, each involving a single flower [8]. The ginger rhizome has an elongated, slightly flattened body, with a color ranging from yellow to bright brown leather, striated longitudinally, with endings known as “fingers” that arise obliquely from the rhizomes. Internally yellowish brown, it has a yellow endoderm, with numerous fibrovascular bundles and abundant oil cells. It presents pleasant and aromatic odor and strongly pungent taste [7].
\nAs a medicinal plant, ginger is one of the oldest and most popular in the world. It is used to relieve symptoms of inflammation, rheumatic diseases, and gastrointestinal discomfort [9]. Its root has carminative, digestive, sweat, anti-influenza, and stimulating properties [8]. In gastronomy, ginger is used as a seasoning and flavoring, giving spicy and refreshing characteristics. It is a raw material for the manufacture of beverages and bakery products such as breads, cakes, cookies, and jams. In the cosmetics industry, its use is due to its fragrance [10].
\nGinger has shown a variety of biological activities such as antifungal [11, 12], anti-inflammatory [13], antiviral [14], antimicrobial [3, 15], antioxidant [16], and antitumor [17, 18, 19]. Due to these properties, the use of rhizomes to obtain ginger essential oils, extracts, and concentrates has attracted interest from the pharmaceutical and food industries.
\nChemical analysis of ginger shows that it contains over 400 different compounds where the main components of ginger rhizomes are carbohydrates (50–70%), lipids (3–8%), terpenes, and phenolic compounds. Terpenes include zingiberene, β-bisabolene, α-farnesene, β-sesquifelenolene, and α-curcumene, while phenolic compounds include gingerol, paradols, and shogaol [20], as shown in Table 1.
\nReference | \nMajor compounds | \n% | \n
---|---|---|
[12] | \nα-Zingiber | \n24.0 | \n
Geraniale | \n15.0 | \n|
β-Phellandrene | \n8.0 | \n|
[21] | \nComphene | \n12.0 | \n
β-Phellandrene | \n11.0 | \n|
1,8-cineal | \n10.0 | \n|
α-Zingiberene | \n7.0 | \n|
[22] | \nα-Zingiberene | \n25.0 | \n
β-Sesquiphellan | \n18.0 | \n|
β-Bisobeolene | \n12.5 | \n|
[16] | \nGeraniale | \n26.0 | \n
α-Zingiberene | \n9.5 | \n|
α-Farnesene | \n7.6 | \n|
Neral | \n7.4 | \n|
[23] | \nGeraniale | \n16.0 | \n
z-Citral | \n9.2 | \n|
β-Cedrene | \n8.6 | \n|
Geranyl acetate | \n8.4 | \n|
[24] | \nGeraniale | \n26.0 | \n
α-Zingibere | \n9.5 | \n|
Farnesene | \n7.6 | \n|
Neral | \n7.4 | \n|
[25] | \nβ-Sesquiphellandrene | \n27.0 | \n
Caryophyllene | \n15.3 | \n|
Zingiberene | \n14.0 | \n|
α-Farnesense | \n10.5 | \n|
[26] | \nar-Curcumene | \n11.3 | \n
Geraniale | \n11.0 | \n|
Camphene | \n5.0 | \n|
Eucalypto | \n3.0 | \n|
[27] | \nα-Zingiberene | \n20.0 | \n
ar-Curcumene | \n15.0 | \n|
β-Bisabalene | \n11.0 | \n|
β-Sesquiphellandrene | \n13.0 | \n|
[28] | \nar-Curamene | \n59.0 | \n
1,8-Cinerol | \n8.0 | \n|
Citral | \n7.5 | \n|
α-Zingiberene | \n7.5 | \n
Chemical composition of different
In studies from 2006 to 2018 with
The variation in the composition of the essential oils obtained from this species may be due to genetic and/or environmental factors, plant age, and different extraction methods. The composition of essential oils directly influences their antimicrobial activity, as each secondary metabolite has a specific ability to break or penetrate the structure of the microorganism [24].
\nThe most used methods for the determination of antimicrobial activity of
Method | \nDilution | \nReference | \n
---|---|---|
Disk and well diffusion agar | \nDMSO | \n[16] | \n
Broth microdilution MIC and MBC | \nDMSO 5% | \n[21] | \n
MIC—diffusion agar | \nEthanol | \n[29] | \n
Agar disk diffusion | \nAcetone | \n[30] | \n
MIC—broth microdilution | \nGinger essential oil | \n[31] | \n
Agar disk diffusion | \nEssential oil | \n[32] | \n
MIC—broth microdilution | \nTween 80 | \n[33] | \n
Agar disk diffusion | \nGinger essential oil | \n[34] | \n
MIC-broth microdilution | \nTween 126 | \n[35] | \n
Agar-agar diffusion | \nDMSO | \n[36] | \n
Broth microdilution MIC and MBC | \nDMSO | \n[37] | \n
Methods used to establish antimicrobial activity of
DMSO, dimethyl sulfoxide; MIC, minimum inhibitory concentration; MBC, minimum bactericidal concentration.
It was verified [16] that the
The disk diffusion and well diffusion tests have been used to evidence antimicrobial activities, assuming that all components of the oil have the same solubility, but as verified in Tables 3 and 4, the diffusion of oil in the agar, during the test, may not diffuse into the agar, limiting the use of this method. However, the use of several methods to determine antimicrobial activity, as verified in [16], can directly interfere with the result. Although interference of chemical composition is possible, the MIC values found in several studies do not demonstrate a reproducibility using broth dilutions [21, 31, 33, 35, 37].
\nReference | \nCountry | \nBacteria | \nMIC | \nMBC | \nHalo (mm) | \n
---|---|---|---|---|---|
[16] | \nIndia | \n\n | \n | 18.4 | \n|
\n | \n | 20.5 | \n|||
[21] | \nTunisia | \n\n | >25 | \n\n | |
[23] | \nBrazil | \n250 μg/mL | \n500 μg/mL | \n\n | |
[29] | \nSaudi Arabia | \n\n | \n | 15.8 | \n|
\n | \n | 8.3 | \n|||
\n | \n | 0.0 | \n|||
\n | \n | 0.0 | \n|||
\n | \n | 11.2 | \n|||
[30] | \nBrazil | \n\n | \n | 8.8 | \n|
\n | \n | 7.0 | \n|||
[32] | \nSaudi Arabia | \n61.94% | \n\n | \n | |
21.65% | \n\n | \n | |||
106.02% | \n\n | \n | |||
119.79% | \n\n | \n | |||
[37] | \nCanada | \n>1000 μg/mL | \n>1000 μg/mL | \n\n | |
[33] | \nBrazil | \n4.7 μL/mL | \n9.4 μL/mL | \n\n | |
2.3 μL/mL | \n4.7 μL/mL | \n\n | |||
9.4 μL/mL | \n18.7 μL/mL | \n\n | |||
9.4 μL/mL | \n18.7 μL/mL | \n\n | |||
2.3 μL/mL | \n4.7 μL/mL | \n\n | |||
[38] | \nIndia | \n\n | \n | 9.11 | \n|
\n | \n | 9.00 | \n|||
\n | \n | 6.86 | \n|||
\n | \n | 8.90 | \n|||
\n | \n | 8.00 | \n|||
\n | \n | 6.61 | \n|||
[39] | \nNegeri Sembilan | \n0.16 mg/mL | \n\n | \n | |
0.24 mg/mL | \n\n | \n | |||
0.31 mg/mL | \n\n | \n | |||
0.47 mg/mL | \n\n | \n | |||
0.63 mg/mL | \n\n | \n | |||
[40] | \nMexico | \n0.25 mg/mL | \n\n | \n | |
\n | \n | 0.5 mg/mL | \n\n | \n | |
\n | \n | 1.0 mg/mL | \n\n | \n |
Antibacterial activity of
Reference | \nFungi | \nMIC | \nDisk diffusion | \n|
---|---|---|---|---|
Halo | \nConcentration | \n|||
[16] | \n\n | 20.6 mm | \n6 μg/mL | \n|
\n | 66.3 mm | \n|||
\n | 51.3 mm | \n|||
\n | 66.7 mm | \n|||
\n | 100 mm | \n|||
[35] | \n\n | 25 mm | \n100 μg/mL | \n|
\n | 21 mm | \n|||
\n | 22 mm | \n|||
\n | 20 mm | \n|||
[36] | \n2500 μg/mL | \n\n | \n | |
[41] | \n\n | 50% | \n10 μL | \n|
\n | 31.3% | \n|||
\n | 87.5% | \n|||
\n | 87.5% | \n|||
\n | 87.5% | \n|||
\n | 100% | \n|||
\n | 62.5% | \n|||
\n | 75% | \n|||
[42] | \n869.2 mg/mL | \n\n | \n |
Essential oils have a chemical composition rich in volatile and odorous secondary metabolites, mainly monoterpenes and sesquiterpenes. Several studies reported the antimicrobial properties of
A research showed that
The description of a moderate activity, with MIC values of 0.16–0.63 mg/mL, against Gram-positive bacteria indicates that Gram-negative bacteria are more resistant to
However, the essential oil showed activity against
A research conducted in Brazil with a substance (zerumbone) isolated from ginger essential oil showed its efficacy against
We found that the studies reported in this review show that the antibacterial effect of essential oil has significant differences according to the collection site, its genetic and environmental composition of the plant, and extraction methods, as well as significant differences in the inhibition of Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria. Gram-positive strains are more sensitive, suggesting that the cell wall composed of a thick layer of peptidoglycan surrounding the cytoplasmic membrane would be the microbial target of essential oil [43].
\nHowever, the possibility of another target is not ruled out, as we found that, depending on the location, the oil tested demonstrates a better effect on Gram-negative, suggesting other microbial targets, such as the plasma membrane, since the constituents of essential oils have lipophilic properties that interact with membranes by changing their fluidity and permeability [44].
\nIn the evaluation of antifungal activity, we found that antifungal tests with
A study with oils obtained by different drying methods against six fungi (
The activity against
The antimicrobial activity of ginger oil can be attributed to its constituent monoterpenes and sesquiterpenes, as they are capable of altering the permeability and fluidity of the plasma membrane of microorganisms. The lipophilic character of its hydrocarbon skeleton and the hydrophilic character of some of its functional groups confer this property [40].
\nThe studies reported in this literature review made the determination of the species, the indication of the place of collection, and the extraction method, since these data are fundamental for adequate comparison of the results, as well as a secondary metabolite identification technique where we found that the most used techniques were gas chromatography (GC) and liquid chromatography (HPLC) to indicate the present compounds. Geographical location, oil extraction method, techniques, media types, dilution used in antimicrobial activity at different concentrations, and microorganisms can certainly lead to different results. Ginger essential oil has compounds that are present in varying proportions as verified in this review; therefore, there is no parameter for their composition as they have several chemotypes. The lack of oil standardization makes it difficult to compare the work done and to obtain an adequate result of the antimicrobial activity of the oil. However, numerous reports of antimicrobial activity, even with the various variables described above, lead us to believe that ginger essential oil has a potential antimicrobial activity to be explored, and further studies are needed to ensure this activity.
\nAs a perennial fruit crop, the grapevine (
The microvine ML1 is a somatic variant obtained though somatic embryogenesis from Pinot Meunier cultivar. This phenotype results from a somatic mutation in the
The small size of the microvine renders this grapevine model very convenient for experiments in usual growth chambers, where a tight control of environmental factors (radiation, vapor pressure deficit (VPD), temperature, water and nutrient supplies) is possible, in contrast with experiments under vineyard conditions. Indeed, it is possible to grow the vines up to densities of 15–30 plants/m2 and to limit their height to 1.2 m. Under such conditions, the most advanced fruits are mature 5–6 months after plantation of cuttings or seedlings, and the vegetative axis displays all developmental stages from young inflorescences (distal phytomers) to flowering, berry growth, and ripening (proximal phytomers). Under stable controlled conditions, the spatial gradients of vegetative and reproductive development of the microvine mimic well the temporal development of each phytomer, which allows to infer kinetic data from one-off spatial information along the proleptic axis.
\nIn controlled conditions, microvine allows to experiment on berry development all year long, which greatly accelerates studies on physiology and molecular biology. Furthermore, by reducing the time lag between two generations and by increasing the precision of phenotyping, genetic approaches are much more efficient than the ones generally performed with macrovines. In the first section of the paper, we describe the genetic and molecular mechanisms underlying the phenotypes of the microvine and derived lines. Then, we review typical experimental designs that can be designed with the microvine. In the last section, we review recent project using this model to study grapevine development and fruit physiology and to identify quantitative trait loci (QTLs) of agronomic traits.
\nThe meristem of higher plants is organized in several cell layers. The outermost, which corresponds to epidermal cells, results from anticlinal divisions (i.e., following a plane of division perpendicular to the surface). This tissue which covers all the organs of the shoot system develops as a single cell layer [1]. Underneath, a multicellular zone, called L2 cell layer, is at the origin of all subepidermal tissues, following multidirectional divisions (i.e., primary structures but also lateral meristems, vascular cambium, phellogen, and their derivative tissues). No further, deeper cell layer (L3 cell layer), which forms in some species the core of shoot organs (pith), has been clearly identified in the grapevine yet [2].
\nIn general, these cell lines that derive from initial cells located at the tip of the apical dome do not mix, unless there is an accident during cells multiplication. The organization in L1 and L2 cell layers is found in the various organs that derive from the shoot apical meristem (SAM) and in particular in the axillary meristems at the origin of caulinar organs. Because a somatic mutation is initially a single cellular event, it leads to the setting of chimeric tissues or organs, i.e., composed of cells of different genotypes and potentially displaying some phenotypic diversity [2]. When a somatic mutation appears laterally to a meristem, changes can only be distributed in the sector of the mutated organ. If the mutation occurs in an initial cell of a meristem, it can spread to all the tissues derived from the mutated cell. The resulting structure is a chimeric and periclinal genotype, i.e., including cell layers that are not all genetically identical. Periclinal chimeras can be stabilized by vegetative propagation, i.e., by cuttings or by grafting.
\nA somatic mutation can invade all the cell layers and spread uniformly to all derivative tissues, provided that the three following conditions are fulfilled: (i) the mutation is not lethal for the plant, (ii) the mutation appears in an initial cell within a meristem, and (iii) the mutation is established, by cell substitution in both L1 and L2 cell layers [2]. The probability of simultaneous occurrence of these three conditions being very low, most of the mutations therefore develop sectorially or periclinally and give rise to chimeric tissues and organs.
\nIn the 1990s, thanks to the use of codominant genetic markers (microsatellites, RFLP), the existence of genetic chimerism has been demonstrated in several vine varieties. As such, Franks et al. [3] showed that Pinot Meunier can display up to three alleles for some loci, whereas a vine, having a diploid genome, can theoretically only show one allelic form per homozygous locus and two allelic forms for a heterozygous locus. Boss and Thomas [4] were able to de-chimerise Pinot Meunier by somatic embryogenesis. They characterized the resulting L1 and L2 genotypes and studied the associated phenotypes. This work showed that Pinot Meunier carries a mutation in
Genetic structures of pinot noir and pinot Meunier and their respective apex phenotypes. Pinot Meunier is a somatic variant of pinot noir, which carries the mutation (
Plants regenerated from L1 or L2 cells exhibited very different phenotypes. The plants obtained from the deepest cell layer (L2) no longer had a mutation at
By somatic embryogenesis from anthers of pinot Meunier, it is possible to obtain two types of plants. One, which no longer carries the mutation of
Thus, the microvine has the
Homozygous
Heterozygote
Homozygotous
The three genotypes/phenotypes that can be obtained by selfing from the microvine (
Another interesting feature, linked to the heterozygous status
The comparison of the allelic VvGAI forms present in Pinot Meunier and the microvine [4, 5] showed that the mutation corresponds to a modification of a single nucleotide in the DELLA motif of the protein, which is important for gibberellin signaling.
\nAfter transient transformation of epidermal onion cells, green fluorescent protein (GFP) fusions to
The GAI gene is known to be an important regulator of vegetative growth and reproductive development [6]. In grapevine, gibberellins, produced under shade, stimulate growth and inhibit the formation of inflorescences [7]. This effect is mediated by the nuclear protein GAI1, which, in its mutated form gai1, no longer transmits the hormonal signaling [5]. Thus, vegetative growth and the inhibition of the conversion of tendrils into inflorescences are no longer maintained which explains the dwarf phenotype and the continuous fructification along the stems. The characterization of the expression profiles of different isogenes of
Several experiments have been conducted outdoor and in controlled environments to characterize the vegetative development of the proleptic axis of the microvine [8]. Different day/night temperature treatments were applied (22/12, 25/15, 30/15, 30/20, 30/25°C), while VPD was maintained constant (about 1 kPa). These experiments showed that the vegetative organogenesis rhythm of the microvine is similar to that of non-dwarf vines. Indeed, its phyllochron (leaf emission rate) is around 24°C, similarly to other varieties of
The duration of leaf and internode growth of the microvine is also similar to that of non-dwarf vines, lasting ca. 220°C (i.e., 20 days at 25/15°C) for leaves and ca. 150°C (i.e., 14 days under the same conditions) for internodes [9, 10]. The most significant phenotypic difference, induced by
However, the shortening of the internodes increases leaf shading and promotes the development of fungal diseases as compared to non-dwarf vine. The control of powdery mildew (
The reproductive development of the microvine is divided into two distinct and simultaneously occurring patterns: (i) the fructification of proleptic shoots from preformed inflorescence primordia within winter buds and (ii) the continuous fruiting of proleptic and sylleptic axes resulting from the conversion of tendrils into inflorescences.
\nIn the grapevine, as for many other perennial fruit crops, fruit formation occurs during 2 consecutive years. The first step starts with the initiation and differentiation of inflorescence primordia in the winter buds prior to endo-dormancy until approximately the end of summer or beginning of autumn. During the subsequent cycle after the break of dormancy, approximately 2 weeks before budburst, the inflorescences resume their development and complete flower organogenesis and subsequently flowering in spring [6]. The level of differentiation of microvine winter buds (i.e., the number of preformed phytomers and inflorescence primordia) was analyzed during 80 days of growth under controlled environmental conditions (25/15°C day/night temperature, VPD 1 kPa, photoperiod 12 h). Two imaging methods were compared, the classic microscopy dissection and the noninvasive X-ray micro-tomography [11], with a resolution of 9 𝝁m. These observations showed that winter buds of the microvine harbor a complex formed of primary, secondary, and tertiary buds of decreasing fertility, as non-dwarf vines [12]. The maximum fertility of the primary buds is two inflorescences in the microvine, whereas it can reach three or even four in some non-dwarf varieties. These inflorescences are inserted into phytomers n°4 to n°6 with an acropetal development as for macrovines [12, 13]. The lignification of the stem which develops from the vegetative axis base is concomitant with the slowdown of bud development and probably its entry into endo-dormancy, similarly as for non-dwarf vines [14].
\nThe microvine has the particularity to develop inflorescences from tendrils along proleptic and sylleptic axes (Figure 4), which result in a continuous flowering and fruiting processes. A gradient of reproductive development stages is thus present simultaneously along the proleptic axis from the differentiation of inflorescences until maturity. This characteristic offers the opportunity to evaluate abiotic or biotic stress impacts on all reproductive stages of development along the proleptic axis simultaneously.
\nVegetative and reproductive development of the ML1 somaclone n°7, a microvine line regenerated from pinot Meunier cl. ENTAV 8 according to the method described by Torregrosa [
Top right, section of a winter bud analyzed by tomography. Bottom right, a longitudinal section of a winter bud exhibiting a lateral inflorescence primordium (IP) on the primary bud axis and a secondary preformed vegetative axis on the left side.
\nThe synchronism between vegetative development and fruiting of the microvine also simplifies the study of their interactions compared to macrovines. The impact of contrasted source/sink balance on fruiting can be easily studied by manipulating shoot or fruit load (number of growing axes and/or number of leaves/inflorescence per axis). The continuous fruiting was found to be stable under standard environmental conditions (25/15°C day/night temperature, VPD 1 kPa, photoperiod 12 h) and when the leaf area to fruit fresh weight was less than 1 m2.kg−1. On the contrary, the capacity of flowering is strongly altered in the presence of abiotic or biotic stresses. High temperature (> 33°C), low radiation levels (PAR < 15 mol.m−2.j−1), or high VPD (>3 kPa) can induce inflorescences abortion and disrupt the continuity of the reproductive gradient along stem axes. The sensitivity of inflorescence development was found higher when the C reserves (starch) were reduced, in particular, in young plants. Thus, although it is possible to obtain fruiting organs from 5-month-old microvine cuttings, it is advisable to use 1-year-old or older plants that are much less susceptible to inflorescence abortion [16]. In experiments conducted in our lab, we obtained successive cycles of fruiting for at least 5 years without repotting.
\nThe size of inflorescences of microvines is smaller (10–50 berries per cluster in average) than that of macrovines [17, 18, 19]. However, flowers and young fruits of the microvine do not display a very high abscission rate as observed in non-dwarf varieties. The development of flowers and berries is identical to non-dwarf vines. Flowering (50% of open flowers) occurs 320°C GDD (growing degree days) after the phytomer emission (i.e., 30 days at 25/15°C), which is comparable to the duration between budburst and flowering in the non-dwarf vines [18]. Ripening (onset of sugar loading) starts at ca. 500°C GDD (i.e., 47 days at 25/15°C) after flowering, and the physiological ripening (when metabolite loading stops) is reached at ca. 900°C GDD (i.e., 80 days at 25/15°C) after flowering or 30 days after the start of sugar loading. This behavior is similar in macrovines [18, 20]. Thus, berries of the ML1 microvine reach a final individual size of 1.2 g, comparable to that of cv. Pinot meunier, from which this line derives. At physiological ripening, berries contain about 0.8 mmol berry-1 of soluble sugars in non-limiting water supply conditions which is similar to other varieties of
Spatiotemporal distribution of the reproductive developmental stages from flowering to ripening. On the abscissa, the calendar time in DAF (days after flowering) was recalculated for each phytomer converting the corresponding plastochron index in thermal time and inferred in calendar time with the phyllochron. Kinetics of fresh fruit weight and the contents of major primary metabolites and potassium are presented in quantity per fruit unit.
The microvine provides different advantages over non-dwarf vines to speed up or facilitate genetics. Since the mutation is transmissible by hybridization and has a codominant effect, it is possible to cross microvines (
The
This progeny is composed of 100% microvines (since the female parent has a
As the microvine produces inflorescences as long as vegetative growth is maintained, it becomes possible to cross all year around without being hampered by seasonality. Under standard thermal and photoperiodic conditions (25/15°C day/night temperature, VPD 1 kPa, photoperiod 12 h), the microvine produces two to three new inflorescences per week, which enables to make hybridizations during long periods in repeating the crosses on the same plants. This also reduces the number of plants required for crosses and therefore experimental space while spreading the hybridization effort over selected and potentially long periods.
\nOne to two months after a cross, it is possible to start harvesting seeds [22] to rescue zygotic embryos, which makes possible to establish a population maintained and amplifiable by micropropagation or microcuttings [23]. After a few micropropagation cycles, in vitro plants can be acclimatized to greenhouse conditions, and the first grapes are obtained within 12 months after the crosses. Thus, in less than a year, it is possible to start the study of the characteristics of the fruits and to proceed to new crossings to recover F2 populations. These speed up genetic mapping studies because it becomes possible to link a genotype and a phenotype in either F1 or F2 progenies in a few months instead of several years when using macrovines [23, 24].
\nMoreover, if a trait can be inherited through such crosses, it is possible to recover non-dwarf phenotypes (
The biological properties of the microvine are also of great interest for functional genomics [26]. Indeed, grapevine, as other perennial plants, is a difficult plant model to study the genes regulating the development of reproductive organs. The difficulty comes from its long juvenile period, its discontinuous fructification from winter buds, and the handling of large plants. The genetic transformation of classical varieties [28] requires several years to obtain adult plants and study the phenotypes linked to the ectopic expression of candidate genes.
\nWith microvine, starting from embryogenic tissues compatible to
From competent embryogenic tissues (top left), it is possible to regenerate transgenic plants in a few months and obtain reproductive organs in less than a year. This allows the study of the regulation of flower and fruit development within shorter delays than with the non-dwarf vines. On the right, a microvine line V9 overexpressing the gene
We have tested the possibility of converting spatial observations (along the proleptic axis) into temporal dynamics at a given stage of vegetative or reproductive development.
\nUnder controlled and stable environment (25/15°C day/night temperature, VPD 1 kPa, photoperiod 12 h), the development of the proleptic axis of the microvine is stable. The phyllochron is constant reaching ca. 24°C. The growing dynamics of leaves (surface) and berries (volume) from continuous fructification was found to be constant at a given level of phytomer, regardless of the date of bud break [20]. The growth durations of leaves and berries (herbaceous phase) are ca. 220°C after the emission of the phytomer and 500°C after flowering, respectively, as mentioned in Section 2.2. The development of these organs is also spatially stable: the dynamics of leaf area and berry volumes (herbaceous phase) for all levels of phytomer are superimposed when they are represented as a function of cumulative thermal time after the emission of the corresponding phytomer.
\nBased on these outcomes, the conversion of spatial dynamics of leaf and berry development along the stems into time profiles was tested (Figure 7). For this purpose, the positions of the phytomers along the axis were converted into cumulated thermal time after their emission by multiplying their plastochron index (or rank position from the apex) by the phyllochron. The temporal profiles of leaf area and berry volume (green growth phase) resulting from this spatiotemporal conversion are similar to the real temporal profiles obtained at a given level of phytomer [8, 20, 31]. This property makes it possible to reconstruct temporal dynamics of development from a single spatial observation of the axis at a given stage. The flow of biomass or metabolites within the organs and their responses to environmental constraints were then addressed using those calculated temporal profiles (Section 5.1).
\nConversion of leaf and young berry growth data collected from the position along the microvine main shoot (plastochron index) into cumulated thermal time after phytomer emergence.
The spatiotemporal conversion approach presented above can also be used to characterize the evolution of winter bud development along the proleptic axis of the microvine [12]. Bud development was analyzed on microvines grown under standard environmental conditions (25/15°C day/night temperature, VPD 1 kPa, photoperiod 12 h), as explained in Section 3.2.1. The number of preformed phytomers initiated by primary axes within buds increases linearly as a function of the plastochron index (PI) of the proleptic axis in the non-lignified zone (PI < 25). The temporal dynamics of bud development were calculated from the spatial profiles using the proleptic axis PI x phyllochron. The primary axis of the bud displayed a maximum of six phytomers from IP 25 (lignified zone), i.e., 625°C or 57 days after its initiation (phyllochron of 24°C). A maximum of two inflorescence primordia was observed in this zone. The primordia of the first and second inflorescences, located between the preformed phytomers n°4 and n°6 of the primary axis, were initiated from IP 13 and 26 of the proleptic axis, respectively, corresponding to 325°C (or 30 days) and 650°C (or 60 days) after bud initiation. The timing of inflorescence primordium development in winter buds in non-dwarf vines [32] is similar to our observations on microvines. This pattern of winter bud development parameterized for the microvine can be used to evaluate, and potentially predict, the environmental stress impacts during the season 1 on the fructification potential of the season 2.
\nThe primary characterization of fruit development along a microvine axis showed that the microvine berry displays the two classical growth phases as observed for berries of macrovines [32, 33]. Microvine berry growth and metabolite accumulation were analyzed in details [34]. Ten microvines were grown under controlled conditions in a climatic room (30/22°C day/night temperature, photoperiod 14 h, VPD 1 kPa, PAR 400 mmol.m−2 s−1). Sampling was performed when proximal fruits attained physiological maturity and when maximum berry volume was reached. Sampling of the present reproductive organs from fruit set to maturity was performed at the same time for each plant. Analysis of the main berry compounds (malic acid, tartaric acid, glucose, fructose, proline) has been carried out. To normalize the stages of development between plants, the spatiotemporal conversion described above was applied using the individual phyllochron of each plant.
\nThe data presented in Rienth et al. [35, 36] shows that microvine fruit accumulates malic acid during the green growth stage for about 40 days after fruit set, until it ceases when the lag phase (herbaceous plateau), which separates the two growth phases, is reached. At the end of the herbaceous phase, at the 24 hours lasting véraison phase, the degradation of malic acid is triggered simultaneously with the accumulation of sugars and proline, which is often used as an indicator of ripening. These processes proceed throughout the second growth or ripening phase. With regard to tartaric acid, we found that it is also accumulated only during the first growth phase as for macrovines and that its amount remains quasi-constant during the ripening phase. The slight decreases in tartaric observed during ripening might be attributed either to enhanced tartaric precipitations as shown by Rosti et al. [37] or variations of microenvironment depending on bunche rank. At the end of green growth stage, the two major organic acids represent approximately 500 mEq, which is comparable to the acidity of the fruit of macrovines. The accumulation of sugars, triggered from the
The impact of elevated temperature on growth and carbon distribution between vegetative and reproductive organs was investigated. Two contrasting thermal regimes with a difference of 8° C (30/20°C vs. 22/12°C day/night temperature) were imposed during a period of 450°C GDD. The VPD was 1 kPa and the PAR 19 mol.m−2.d−1 for the two thermal regimes. The biomass, size, and carbon contents of the leaves, internodes, and berries were characterized from spatial observations at harvest and converted into temporal profiles according to the method described in Section 4. Only the organs that developed during heat treatments, i.e., vegetative phytomers younger than 450°C GDD at harvest and the reproductive phytomers, which were at pre-flowering stage at the beginning of experiments, were retained for analysis. Luchaire et al. [20, 36] have shown that high temperature accelerates the growth and the accumulation of biomass in vegetative organs (leaves and internodes) in thermal time, at the expense of the accumulation of sugars in internodes and the surface area to mass of the leaves (thinner leaves).
\nUnder high temperature, the growth and accumulation of biomass of the fruit slowed down on a thermal time basis. Sugar loading of proximal phytomers (from the post-flowering stage to onset of heat treatment) was also delayed by ca. 400°C GDD at high temperatures. High temperatures increased inflorescence abortion rate (+ 20%) at pre-flowering stages, concomitantly with the beginning of sugar loading in the proximal clusters ripening [20, 36, 38]. These results suggest that high temperature decouples vegetative and reproductive development, increasing the total biomass of vegetative organs while reducing the accumulation of carbon reserves and hampering continuous fruiting.
\nTranscriptomic studies are difficult to run with macrovines grown outdoor because of the seasonality of fruiting and the day-to-day environment fluctuations. Thus, while transcriptomics is a very common approach today to understand the genetic mechanisms regulating grape development, no work has attempted to describe the circadian evolution of the grape transcriptome. The results published by Rienth et al. [39] were the first for a perennial fleshly fruit that addressed this topic. For this experiment microvines were grown in climatic growth chambers [40] under controlled environments (30/20°C day/night temperature, photoperiod 14 h, VPD 1kPA) for 3 months to encompass a complete reproductive cycle from flowering to ripening. When most proximal grapes reached physiological maturity, berry samples from two green and two ripening developmental stages were collected at different periods of the photo and nyctiperiod, and a whole genome transcriptomic analysis was carried out by Nimblegen® Vitis 12x microarrays.
\nAll genes modulated during the day also showed some variation of expression at night, with 1843 genes that are only regulated at night. The detection of this very large number of specifically regulated genes during the night emphasized the importance of the regulatory mechanisms associated with the nocturnal fruit development. The comparison of differentially modulated transcripts between day and night at different stages showed that circadian regulation was very specific to the stage of development with only nine commonly deregulated genes between day and night at all stages. With respect to activated or deactivated functional categories, genes related to photosynthesis appear strongly repressed at night, in particular in young green berry, and several functional categories related to secondary metabolism (phenylalanine) and abiotic stress have shown strong overexpression at night at all developmental stages.
\nUntil recently, the studies on the effect of temperature on grape development have only been performed using non-dwarf varieties, with the experimental limits associated with this model. Rienth et al. [41, 42] were the first to perform temperature experiments using microvines grown under tightly controlled environmental factors (photoperiod, light intensity, temperature, VPD, water, and mineral supply). This study was carried out with the ML1 microvine applying temperature gradients ranging from 12 to 35°C during 2 h to 4 weeks.
\nA first series of experiments focused on short-term stress effects (2 h, 35°C) of microvine fruits at different stages between green growth and ripening sampled during day and night. Nimblegen® Vitis 12x microarray assays revealed that a large number of genes (5653) respond to the increase in temperature, at all stages of development (Figure 8). Temperature effect was time and mainly development stage specific, with berries close to
Schema of the expression changes induced by temperature elevation for some genes of the central metabolism during the grapevine fruit development.
Long-term thermal stresses (> 30 days) were also experimented using various temperature charts to several stages of grape development, taking into account circadian variations of the transcriptome [41]. In these studies, we used high-throughput transcriptomic analysis through RNA-seq (Illumina technology). A total of 10,788 genes could be detected as a function of stage, temperature regime, and photoperiod. The importance of “heat shock”-type genes with highly variable expression patterns as a function of the duration of the stress, the circadian cycle, and the stage of development of the fruit has been highlighted. The rise in temperature led to an acceleration of fruit growth during the green growth phase. In fruit at the onset of ripening, the temperature increased the respiration of malic acid and delayed the accumulation of sugars and downregulating key genes of the flavonoid pathway. For the first time, a decoupling of sugar accumulation and malic acid respiration during ripening could be observed and related to the change in carbohydrate status of the plant as a function of temperature [9].
\nA number of genes known to display an induction at veraison and thereafter were confirmed in microvines displaying a remarkably stable expression pattern with respect to temperature (SPS1, sucrose phosphate synthase 1; XET, xyloglucanendotransglucosidase; thaumatin; MRIP, ripening-induced protein1-like precursor (proline-rich cell wall). However, other well-known ripening-induced proteins were induced in the cold in green stage (GRIP3/4, grape ripening-induced protein ¾, ethylene-responsive 1B, putative extensin proline-rich, cell wall chitinase). During the long-term low T° treatment, fruit transcriptomic analyses showed an overexpression of key enzymes linked to both glycolysis (PK, pyruvate kinase) and malic acid synthesis (PEPce, phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase; MDH, malate dehydrogenase). Temperature variation also impacted posttranscriptional regulation mechanism such as the PPCK (phosphoenol pyruvate carboxylase kinase) which is overexpressed under heat. This gene expression pattern confirmed physiological observations of sugar-acid decoupling and suggests that under cool condition, where the plant energetic status is more comfortable due to lower vegetative growth and cellular respiration rate, malic acid respiration, as a supplemental energy source in the fruit, is not compulsory. In cool climate, the allocation of carbon to the fruit can support glycolysis, malate synthesis, and sugar accumulation into the vacuole. Conversely, under hot climate, cytoplasmic sugars could be limiting when the cell starts to accumulate sugar in the vacuole at the onset of ripening. Thus, the malate would be drained from the vacuole to supply energy through respiration and/or through H+/sugar exchange at the tonoplast.
\nAir temperature elevation combined with the shift of all phenological stages to warmer period is causing critical changes on vine yield and grape composition. Plant breeding has the potential to offer new cultivars with stable yield and quality under warmer conditions, but this requires the identification of stable genetic traits. The investigation about the stability of developmental QTLs with regard to abiotic factors is complicated with the non-dwarf varieties, because of its biological properties (long juvenile period, big size of the plants). Most of previous studies were carried out outdoors, in uncontrolled environmental conditions and with a relatively low experimental flow.
\nHouel et al. [25] reported the first experiment performed with microvines, to identify QTLs of vegetative and reproductive development, testing their stability under fluctuating environments. A F1 mapping population consisting of 129 microvines derived from the PV00C001V0008 x ugni blanc fleshless berry mutant was genotyped using an Illumina® 18 K SNPs chip (single-nucleotide polymorphism). Forty-three vegetative and reproductive traits were phenotyped over four vegetative cycles in the field, and a subset of 22 characters were measured over two climatic chamber culture cycles under two contrasting temperature regimes. Ten stable QTLs were identified for the development and composition of the berry and the leaf area on the parental genetic maps. A new major QTL accounting for up to 44% of variance of the berry weight was identified on the chromosome 7 in the ugni blanc parent. This QTL co-locates with QTLs of number of seeds per berry (accounting for up to 76% of the total variance), QTLs of fruit acidity before maturation (up to 35% of explained variance), and yield components such as the number of clusters and berries per cluster (up to 25% explained variance). In addition, a minor leaf surface QTL was found on the chromosome 4 in the same parent. This study which combined the use of microvine population to boost and facilitate the phenotyping with high-throughput genotyping technologies was innovative in grapevine genetics and also for perennial fruit crops. It allowed the identification of 10 stable QTLs, including the first QTLs of
This progeny was also included in a study addressing the diversity for fruit volume, main sugar, and organic acid amounts in
These studies which (i) identified genotypes with contrasted fruit composition for compounds controlled by environmental factors and (ii) mapped QTLs of development, including for berry composition, provide interesting prospects to mitigate some adverse effects of climate warming on viticulture.
\nMethoxypyrazines are a family of volatile compounds found in many fruits and vegetables and especially in grapes, providing herbaceous flavors (green capsicum aroma) to the wines of some varieties such as Cabernet Sauvignon or sauvignon blanc. While several methoxypyrazine biosynthetic pathways have been proposed, none of the metabolic steps have been genetically confirmed. Dunlevy et al. [24] used a F2 population derived from a F1 microvine obtained by crossing the Cabernet Sauvignon and a picovine. The Cabernet Sauvignon variety is capable of producing the molecule 3-isobutyl-2-methoxypyrazine (IBMP), the major compound associated with capsicum flavors, while the microvine that derives from Pinot Meunier produces very little amount of this compound. In F1 offspring, all individuals produced IBMP, suggesting a homozygote dominant genotypic status for this trait in Cabernet Sauvignon. The phenotyping of the F2 individuals identified 43 lines able to accumulate IBMP, while 21 individuals lacked this compound confirming the dominant homozygous genotype for Cabernet Sauvignon and the homozygous recessive genotype for picovine progenitor.
\nAfter genotyping and phenotyping, the entire F2 progeny, a 2.3 Mb locus determining IBMP accumulation in grape berries, was found on chromosome n°3. Of the 261 genes identified in the corresponding QTL, two candidate methyltransferase genes have been identified,
The microvine plant model which displays unique reproductive organ behavior offers new experimental options for grapevine fruit physiological studies, not only because of the size of the plants which facilitate experimental handling in greenhouse or growth cabinet but also because it is possible to study several developmental stages at once. Taking advantage of the biological properties of the microvine, two studies were recently performed to study the impact of exogenous compound application to the ML1 microvine grapes on the aroma accumulation during ripening. The first study was about the impact of vine-shoot aqueous extracts, which have been proposed as bio-stimulants to be sprayed to the canopy to modify wine aromatic profile. Sanchez-Gomez et al. [44] experimented the effect of vine-shoot extract foliar application on the composition of the grapes at 21 stages of development. The application was carried out from BBCH53 (detached inflorescences) to BBCH85 (berry softening) to reveal stage-specific responses of the accumulation of glycosylated aroma precursors at BBCH89 (ripe stage). Fifty grape sampling time points spreading to 86 days were established and normalized using the cumulative growing degree days parameter. The results confirmed that vine-shoot extract treatment had a positive impact on the accumulation of glycosylated compounds [45], especially aglycones such as alcohols, terpenes, and C13-norisoprenoids, with a higher impact when the treatment was applied at grape ripening stage.
\nThe same approach was carried out to characterize the behavior of glycosylated aroma precursors in microvine fruits after foliar application of guaiacol. Previous outdoor experiments have showed that spraying guaiacol on vines could modify the contents of aroma compounds in grape and grape-derived wines. It was shown that such treatments could increase guaiacol glycoconjugates in leaves, shoots, and fruits of Monastrell variety, where there was a release of aglycone compounds during wine processing. However, the effect of such application and its timing on glycosylated aroma precursor pool remained unstudied. Sanchez-Gomez [46] studied the effect of guaiacol sprays when applied at several fruit developmental stages on glycosylated compound accumulation. The applications were carried out from phenological stage BBCH71 (fruit set) to BBCH85 (berry softening), to reveal stage-specific responses of the accumulation of glycosylated aroma precursors at BBCH89 (ripe stage). Data confirmed that guaiacol is an elicitor of the accumulation of glycosylated aromatic compounds in the microvine fruit, with a higher efficiency of application during ripening stages of the fruits. Geraniol, a terpene compound, exhibited the higher increase increment with up to 50-fold high concentration after guaiacol spraying than in the control.
\nThe studies summarized here have shown that at a given phytomer level, the development of the vegetative and reproductive organs of the microvine exhibits comparable kinetics to those of non-dwarf vines grown outdoor. Given its original biological properties (small size, continuous fructification, possibility of inferring temporal observations from spatial data), this model can be used in fundamental studies on vine response to abiotic constraints or on fruit physiology under well-controlled environments. Thus, the microvine has already been used as a model in several scientific experiments on the effect of temperature on the vegetative and reproductive development, on changes in gene expression in grapes, and their plasticity under high temperature. This model has also shown its potential to accelerate conventional and reverse genetic approaches, including the identification of genetic determinants of developmental traits stable under fluctuating thermal conditions or major loci controlling the composition of the grapes. Studies are underway to use this model to study the impact of physical factors (drought, CO2 concentration, temperature, etc.) on the development of the vine and the quality of the grapes but also to develop tools (markers of QTLs, pre-breeding lines pyramiding several agronomic traits of interest) for the selection of new varieties displaying original properties, i.e., traits of adaptation to climate changes.
\nThese studies were supported by fundings from the following agencies or institutions: National Research Agency—Genopole (DURAVITIS project ANR-2010-GENM-004-01), Montpellier SupAgro, the departments EA (Environment-Agronomy) and BAP (Plant Biology and Improvement) of INRA, the Poupelain Foundation, the European Eurasia 2 thesis mobility programs, EulaLink, and the Brazilian CNPq scientific cooperation program. Special thanks to Mark Thomas, Pat Corena, Don MacKenzy, and Ian Dry from CSIRO Agriculture (Adelaide) for mentoring and helping during some important steps of these experiments.
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\n\nThe University of Massachusetts, Amherst is pledging funds via the Knowledge Unlatched program to ensure academics can publish Open Access content more easily.
\n\nCorresponding authors will receive a 10% discount on their Open Access Publication Fees (OAPF) for Open Access book chapters or monograph publications. To use the discount you will need to verify your institutional email address. These discounts are valid from 2020 to 2022.
\n\nThe University of Surrey is pledging funds via the Knowledge Unlatched program to ensure academics can publish Open Access content more easily.
\n\nCorresponding authors will receive a 10% discount on their Open Access Publication Fees (OAPF) for Open Access book chapters or monograph publications. To use the discount you will need to verify your institutional email address. These discounts are valid from 2020 to 2022.
\n\nMonographs Only
\n\n\n\nImportant: You must be a member or grantee of the above listed institutions in order to apply for their Open Access publication funds.
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Various technical variants of this test can detect antigen (native or foreign) or antibody, determine the intensity of the immune response whether pathological or not; the type of induced immune response as well as the innate immunity potential; and much more. These capabilities, as well as the high sensitivity and robustness of the test and a small price, make it possible to quickly and reliably diagnose diseases in most laboratories. Besides, ELISA is a test that is also used in veterinary medicine, toxicology, allergology, food industry, etc. Despite the fact that it has existed for almost 50 years, different ELISA tests with different technical solutions are still being developed, which improves and expands the application of the this exceptional test. The aim of this chapter is to empower the rider to optimize, standardize and validate an enzyme linked immunosorbent assay.",book:{id:"9850",slug:"norovirus",title:"Norovirus",fullTitle:"Norovirus"},signatures:"Rajna Minic and Irena Zivkovic",authors:[{id:"325806",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Irena",middleName:null,surname:"Zivkovic",slug:"irena-zivkovic",fullName:"Irena Zivkovic"},{id:"325839",title:"Dr.",name:"Rajna",middleName:null,surname:"Minic",slug:"rajna-minic",fullName:"Rajna Minic"}]},{id:"56750",title:"Laboratory Approach to Anemia",slug:"laboratory-approach-to-anemia",totalDownloads:6255,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:"Anemia is a major cause of morbidity and mortality worldwide and can be defined as a decreased quantity of circulating red blood cells (RBCs). The epidemiological studies suggested that one-third of the world’s population is affected with anemia. Anemia is not a disease, but it is instead the sign of an underlying basic pathological process. However, the sign may function as a compass in the search for the cause. Therefore, the prediagnosis revealed by thorough investigation of this sign should be supported by laboratory parameters according to the underlying pathological process. We expect that this review will provide guidance to clinicians with findings and laboratory tests that can be followed from the initial stage in the anemia search.",book:{id:"5942",slug:"current-topics-in-anemia",title:"Current Topics in Anemia",fullTitle:"Current Topics in Anemia"},signatures:"Ebru Dündar Yenilmez and Abdullah Tuli",authors:[{id:"183998",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Ebru",middleName:null,surname:"Dündar Yenilmez",slug:"ebru-dundar-yenilmez",fullName:"Ebru Dündar Yenilmez"},{id:"209103",title:"Prof.",name:"Abdullah",middleName:null,surname:"Tuli",slug:"abdullah-tuli",fullName:"Abdullah Tuli"}]},{id:"33133",title:"Waist Circumference in Children and Adolescents from Different Ethnicities",slug:"waist-circumference-in-children-and-adolescents-from-different-ethnicities",totalDownloads:8023,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:7,abstract:null,book:{id:"642",slug:"childhood-obesity",title:"Childhood Obesity",fullTitle:"Childhood Obesity"},signatures:"Peter Schwandt and Gerda-Maria Haas",authors:[{id:"29867",title:"Prof.",name:"Peter",middleName:null,surname:"Schwandt",slug:"peter-schwandt",fullName:"Peter Schwandt"}]},{id:"54411",title:"Isolation and Characterization of Escherichia coli from Animals, Humans, and Environment",slug:"isolation-and-characterization-of-i-escherichia-coli-i-from-animals-humans-and-environment",totalDownloads:6182,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:8,abstract:"Working on a diverse species of bacteria that have hundreds of pathotypes representing hundreds of strains and many closely related family members is a challenge. 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He completed a one-year Post-Doctoral Fellowship awarded by the DFAIT (Foreign Affairs and International Trade Canada) at the Institute of Biomedical Engineering of the University of New Brunswick (Canada) in 2010. Currently, he is Professor in the Faculty of Electrical Engineering (UFU). He has authored and co-authored more than 200 peer-reviewed publications in Biomedical Engineering. He has been a researcher of The National Council for Scientific and Technological Development (CNPq-Brazil) since 2009. He has served as an ad-hoc consultant for CNPq, CAPES (Coordination for the Improvement of Higher Education Personnel), FINEP (Brazilian Innovation Agency), and other funding bodies on several occasions. He was the Secretary of the Brazilian Society of Biomedical Engineering (SBEB) from 2015 to 2016, President of SBEB (2017-2018) and Vice-President of SBEB (2019-2020). 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