\r\n\tThe objective of this book is to provide a state-of-the-art review of the use of timber in building construction from various perspectives, including manufacturing, fabrication, modeling, design, and construction of residential and other types of buildings. Of special interest will be contributions related to new developments in timber technologies, design, construction, testing, sustainability, LCA, building envelope, and the performance of timber buildings in natural and man-made hazard conditions.
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1. Introduction
Radiation sources are known to be basically of two origins, that is, the natural or background radiation and artificial or man-made radiation. Natural or background radiation sources are grouped as those from cosmic; these are radiation from the space. The dose from cosmic source of radiation could vary from one location to another, i.e., the dose values vary in different parts of the world and also change with altitude. The exposure also decreases in intensity with depth in the atmosphere or increase with increase altitude [1].
Other natural source group is the terrestrial radiation, which is from soil, water and vegetation. These are radionuclides such as 238U, 234Th and 40K, and they contribute mostly to the external dose to human body. Radon is another example of naturally occurring radionuclide which is found in rock formations and can release higher levels of radiation that can pose health risks particularly lung cancer.
The third source of natural radiation is the internal radiation, and these are 40K, 14C and 210Pb inside the body. These radionuclides enter the body through the ingestion of food, milk and water or by inhalation.
The artificial or man-made radiations are those that originate from various activities of man such as in consumer products, examples which include building materials, television receivers and tobacco products. Other activities are nuclear power plants for electricity/power generation, testing and using of nuclear bombs, decommissioning of radioactive waste, and industrial activities such as mining, security inspection systems use in cargo scanners and personnel security systems and medical purposes.
Also radiation can be categorized into types; they are ionizing and nonionizing radiation. Nonionizing radiation is the type of electromagnetic radiation with no enough energy to ionize atom, while ionizing radiation is radiation that carries enough energy to detach electrons from atoms causing the atom to become charged or ionized. Ionizing radiation has more energy than nonionizing radiation, that is, enough to cause chemical changes, and thereby causing damage to tissue. The ionizing radiation is further categorized into four types: alpha particles, beta particles, gamma rays and X-rays. The effects of ionizing radiation at high-dose levels are well known, while the effects of ionizing radiation at low doses are not yet clear. Ionizing radiation is used for diagnostic and therapeutic medical purposes, and there are advantages and disadvantages attached to the use of ionizing radiation for this purpose; the advantage lies in being able to diagnose and treat diseases; however, it can damage human cells and cause harm. Radiation doses of about 10 Sv and above received in a short period can cause the organs and tissues in the body to cease to function and may lead to death [2].
These two categories of radiation, ionizing and nonionizing, can cause damage to humans. Ionizing radiation can cause cancer, heart and brain problems, while nonionizing radiation can cause burning of retinas, skin cancer as a result of long exposure to the sun [3].
Examples of natural sources of ionizing radiation include metal mining, radon exposure, cosmic rays from the sun and radioactive rocks and soils, while examples of artificial sources of ionizing radiation includes nuclear reactors, medical equipment such as X-rays. Sources of natural nonionizing radiation are sunlight and thermal radiation, while man-made sources of nonionizing radiation are microwave oven, cell phones and power lines.
Most of the man-made exposure to radiation is from medical procedures. This can be shown from the NCRP Report No. 93, 1987, on the ionizing radiation exposure of the population of the United States. Natural sources of radiation accounted for 82%, and medical sources are responsible for 11% of the remaining and 18% from man-made radiation (NCRP Report No. 160), and most of the exposure is from diagnostic X-rays such as examinations of computed tomography, conventional radiography and fluoroscopy and interventional fluoroscopy. The average dose from the use of radiation for treatment purposes is much less than that from diagnostic purposes even though quite a number of exposures may be used in certain treatments such as cancer; only a small number of people are involved, and exposures are limited to small areas where treatment is necessary [4].
Medical use of radiation is known to be the greatest artificial source of doses to human beings at large. Following the improvement in technology and healthcare, this has led to an increase in the usage of radiation; this can be measured by the frequency of procedures and by the levels of individual and collective doses. Medical X-rays are responsible, in Western countries, for at least some 300 man Sv per million inhabitants, representing approximately 90% of man-made source. The common sources of radiation exposure to the population are the natural sources and medical irradiation [5].
The risk of radiation exposure from X-ray such as malignancy, skin damage and cataract is high with increasing number of examination performed. There is an increase in the number of procedures performed and the possibility of more complicated procedures such as interventional procedures that can lead to higher doses to patients and staff. The increasing number of computed tomography (CT) procedures performed also can lead to increase in the collective dose.
Since the diagnostic X-rays take the highest portion of the medical use of radiation or in which human are exposed apart from the natural sources, it is therefore necessary that people or the population are protected which therefore necessitate the need for a radiation protection to be considered in order to eliminate the damage from unnecessary exposure. Even though, the doses from diagnostic radiology are much less than in the treatment of diseases, there is a need to monitor that the dose to the patient is not too low or too high for a particular procedure. According to the International Commission on Radiation Protection (ICRP), radiation protection involves the use of three techniques, and these are justification of practices, optimization of protection and the use of dose limits/levels. Since dose limits do not apply to medical exposure, optimization and justification are therefore important in patients using radiation for medical purposes.
The European Union Council Directive 97/43/Euratom (the Council of the European Union, 1997) also laid emphasis on the need of these two principles of justification and optimization. The principle of justification implies that the advantages to the patient and the society during a radiological procedure must be more than the risks for the patient and the need to consider alternative techniques that do not involve medical radiation exposure [6].
The principle of optimization is to keep the dose ‘as low as reasonably achievable’ (ALARA principle) economic and social factors being taken into consideration (ICRP 60) [7]. Also ICRP in its recommendation in Publication 73 (ICRP 73) introduced the need for establishment and use of diagnostic reference levels (DRLs) to ensure that implementation guidance is available. The purpose of DRLs is not to be used when considering the dose to individual patients but to prevent delivery of unnecessary high doses as well as to be used in estimating radiation doses as a form of quality assurance [7].
The International Commission on Radiological Protection (ICRP) defined DRL as ‘a form of investigation level, applied to an easily measured quantity, usually the absorbed dose in air, or tissue-equivalent material at the surface of a simple phantom or a representative patient,’ while the Council of the European Union defined DRL as ‘dose levels in medical radiodiagnostic practices or, in case of radiopharmaceuticals, levels of activity, for typical examinations for groups of standard-sized patients or standard phantoms for broadly defined types of equipment.’
DRLs settings for diagnostic radiology should not be based on patient’s doses measured from only well-equipped hospitals but in all types of different hospitals, clinics and practices. DRL values are to be established by using the 75th percentile, taking into account of values that are too low or too high. DRLs are to be set locally, regionally or nationally and recorded on regular basis to allow for comparison over some time and also for the purpose of establishing database. According to Vassileva and Rehani [8], DRLs are indicators for a typical practice in a country or in a region, and since equipment and procedures can vary between different facilities in countries or regions, it is therefore a good practice to establish national or regional DRLS. DRLs should be reviewed wherever DRLs are constantly exceeded and that corrective actions are taken when appropriate.
In most countries with established National Diagnostic Reference Levels (nDRLs), the responsibility lies with the government national authorities and institutes responsible for radiological protection and nuclear safety. They perform the function of collecting data from different hospitals or clinics with medical imaging facilities, analysis of the data and then give update on the DRL values. The established DRL values are reviewed periodically, and recommendations are made based on the findings.
2. Reason for DRLs
From the article on historical background on DRLs, Wall and Shrimpton [9] reported that national surveys of patient doses on X-ray examinations conducted in Europe and the USA in the 1950s showed high variations in doses from different hospitals which came about the need for quantitative guidance on patient exposure. It was reported that in the late 1980s, the dose guidelines started first in the USA and then in the UK and then followed in Europe, and the reference doses were incorporated into working documents giving Quality Criteria for Diagnostic Radiographic Images for adult and pediatric by European countries study groups of radiologists and physicists.
In 1997, the need to develop the DRLs then followed, (Council Directive 97/43/EURATOM, 1997) which is defined as dose levels in diagnostic radiology to patients of standard-sized groups or standard phantoms, for particular examinations and as well considering different types of equipment [6]. The DRL values should not be exceeded for standard procedures when good and normal practice is applied. The main aim of a DRL is to serve as a control in using radiation for diagnostic purposes and by avoiding unnecessary exposure to radiation. In 1989, national reference doses were first suggested for some radiographic examinations. This was followed by the investigation in the levels in patient doses by ICRP in 1990 and further developed into development of DRLs in ICRP Publication 73.
The list of medical exposure according to the United Kingdom nDRLs required by the Ionizing Radiation Regulations in 2000 include adult and pediatric computer tomography examinations, general radiography and fluoroscopy which include diagnostic examinations on adult and pediatrics and interventional procedures on adult and dental radiography.
3. Regulatory bodies on the use of ionizing radiation and DRLs
The regulatory bodies on the use of radiation include the following organizations:
3.1 United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation, UNSCEAR
UNSCEAR, which was established in 1955 with the mandate to undertake broad assessments of the sources of ionizing radiation and its effects on human health and the environment, provides the service of assessing global levels and effects of ionizing radiation as well as providing scientific basis for radiation protection. The use of radiation for medical purposes could be of positive applications; it is a reality that X-rays can cause biological harm or injury to humans [10]. Reports from developed countries indicated that the use of ionizing radiation for diagnostic purpose is estimated to be about 1 mSv per capital annual. At this dose level, the estimated annual additional cancer mortality is 0.5 per 10,000 persons of a general population basing on the additive risk model of the United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effect of Atomic Radiation (UNSCEAR). In its report in 2008, UNSCEAR Report No. 1 reported an increase in the total number of diagnostic medical examinations from 2.4 to 3.6 billion; this is an increase of almost 50% from its previous study in 1991–1996. The use of high-dose X-ray techniques such as the computed tomography scanning is leading to growth in the annual number of procedures in many countries thereby increasing the collective dose. It is estimated that the total collective effective dose from medical diagnostic examinations have increased by 1.7 million man Sv, that is, it rises from about 2.3 million to about 4 million man Sv, which gives an increase of about 70% [11].
3.2 International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA)
IAEA develops safety standards to protect the health and minimize the danger to people’s life and property associated with the use of ionizing radiation in medicine, etc. IAEA focuses on ensuring that radiation doses to patients commensurate with the medical purpose, thereby preventing patients from being exposed to unnecessary and unintended radiation. To ensure that radiation protection and safety of radiation sources in medical uses of ionizing radiation, the IAEA Safety Guide on Radiation Protection and Safety in Medical Uses of Ionizing Radiation (2018) was published to provide recommendations and guidance on fulfilling the requirements of IAEA Safety Standards series No GSR Part 3 [12].
According to the report from the IAEA office of Public Information and Communication, DRLs is a tool for comparing diagnostic imaging procedures in a country which include adults and children of different ages and weights in examinations in X-rays, CT, image-guided interventional procedures or nuclear medicine procedure. Each facility needs to set their DRL and then compare with local, national or regional doses. The newsletter report also mentioned the need to track radiation dose data to improve practice and reduce doses without loss of diagnostic quality. As well as prevent unnecessary exposures.
International Atomic Energy Agency also states that DRLs should be set locally, regionally or even nationally. IAEA also agreed to set the nDRLs at the third quartile values, and they could not be considered as optimum dose but in identifying unusual practices. According to IAEA, the government is responsible for the establishment of DRLs and to involve health authority, the professional bodies and the regulatory body. IAEA also identifies DRLs as a tool in radiation protection of the patients.
3.3 The International Commission on Radiological Protection (ICRP)
The primary aim of radiological protection, as stated in ICRP Publication 60, is ‘to provide an appropriate standard of protection for mankind without unduly limiting the beneficial practices giving rise to radiation exposure’ [13].
According to the International Commission on Radiological Protection (ICRP) in its international recommendations, ICRP 60, (ICRP 19), the focus is on the principles of justification and optimization of all radiation exposures in diagnostic radiology. Another recommendation, which is the ICRP 85, [14], focused on the risk of skin damage from interventional radiology. In 2007 in its publication (ICRP Publication 103), ICRP presented the revised recommendations for radiological protection followed by ICRP Publication 118 (2012) published on deterministic effects of ionizing radiation. ICRP makes recommendations only, and it is the responsibility of government of individual countries to implement those recommendations through legislation appropriate for their own country.
3.4 World Health Organization (WHO)
According to the World Health Organization (WHO), there are established relevant guidelines that have to be considered in each type of diagnostic procedure [15, 16, 17]. Human exposure to radiation for medical research is considered as not justified unless it is in accordance with the provisions of the Helsinki Declaration [18] and follows the guidelines for its application prepared by the Council for International Organizations of Medical Sciences [19] and WHO [20].
The WHO in 2008 launched a Global Initiative on Radiation Safety in Health Care Settings (GIRSHCS), thereby facilitating the adoption and applications of regulations, in the evaluation of radiation medicine and medical imaging procedures. WHO also facilitates training on the use of appropriate technologies as well as publishing and disseminating guidance tools and technical documents. In 2012, the WHO presented report of its Radiation Risk Communication in pediatric imaging workshop on the need to develop and implement a risk communication tool in order to create the awareness of radiation risks and exposure in pediatric procedures [21].
3.5 National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurements (NCRP)
National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurements Report No. 160 (1993) focused on the biological effects of ionizing radiation such as cancer, cardiovascular disease and cataracts, while its Report No. 180 focused on the management of exposure to ionizing radiation and expressed radiation protection principles as justification, optimization of protection and numeric protection criteria, i.e., the management of dose to an individual. This means that the protection criteria is the first objective when there is a numeric protection for a specific exposure; then the optimization of protection should follow [22, 23].
4. Conclusion
The use and exposure of humans to ionizing and nonionizing form of radiation is of various purposes. Radiation exposure cannot be entirely avoided on this planet, taking into account how much radiation people receive from natural sources. The proper use of radiation can be of immense benefits. The sources and categories of radiation exposure, the various use of ionizing radiation and the principles of radiation protection to avoid unnecessary exposure to high level of radiation dose from the use of ionizing radiation have been discussed in this chapter.
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Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Reason for DRLs",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Regulatory bodies on the use of ionizing radiation and DRLs",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"3.1 United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation, UNSCEAR",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"3.2 International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA)",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"3.3 The International Commission on Radiological Protection (ICRP)",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"3.4 World Health Organization (WHO)",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7_2",title:"3.5 National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurements (NCRP)",level:"2"},{id:"sec_9",title:"4. Conclusion",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'United States Environmental Protection Agency. Radiation sources and doses. Available from: https://www.epa.gov/radiation/radiation-sources-and-doses'},{id:"B2",body:'Australian radiation protection and Nuclear Safety- Health Effects of Ionizing Radiation. Available from: https://www.arpansa.gov.au/understanding-radiation/what-is-radiation/ionising-radiation/health-effects'},{id:"B3",body:'EMF Academy. Difference Between Ionizing and Non-Ionizing Radiation Written by Christian. 2018. Available from: https://emfacademy.com/difference-ionizing-non-ionizing-radiation/'},{id:"B4",body:'National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurement NCRP Report No. 93. Ionizing Radiation Exposure of the Population of the United States'},{id:"B5",body:'Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). The Electromagnetic Spectrum: Ionizing Radiation. 2015. Available from: https://www.cdc.gov/nceh/radiation/ionizing_radiation.html'},{id:"B6",body:'European Commission. Council Directive 97/43/EURATOM of 30 June 1997 on health protection of individuals against the danger of ionizing radiation in relation to medical exposure. Official Journal of the European Commission. 180'},{id:"B7",body:'ICRP. Radiological protection and safety in medicine. ICRP Publication 73. Annals of the ICRP. 1996;26(2)'},{id:"B8",body:'Vassileva J, Rehani M. Diagnostic reference levels. American Journal of Roentgenology 2015;204:W1-W3'},{id:"B9",body:'Wall BF, Shrimpton PC. The historical development of reference doses in diagnostic radiology. Radiation Protection Dosimetry. 1998;80(1-3):15-20'},{id:"B10",body:'United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation. UNSCEAR 1993 Report to the General Assembly. Sources and Effects of Ionizing Radiation'},{id:"B11",body:'United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation. UNSCEAR 2008, Report No. 1. Report to the General Assembly. Sources and Effects of Ionizing Radiation'},{id:"B12",body:'International Atomic Energy Agency Safety Standards: Radiation Protection and Safety in Medical Uses of Ionizing Radiation. Specific Safety Guide No SSG-48. 2018'},{id:"B13",body:'ICRP. 1990 Recommendations of the International Commission on Radiological Protection. ICRP Publication 60. Annals of the ICRP. 1991;21(1-3)'},{id:"B14",body:'ICRP. Avoidance of Radiation Injuries from Medical Interventional Procedures. ICRP Publication 85. Annals of the ICRP. 2000;30(2)'},{id:"B15",body:'World Health Organization (WHO). A rational approach to radiodiagnostic investigations. Technical Report Series No. 689. Geneva: WHO; 1983'},{id:"B16",body:'World Health Organization (WHO). Effective choices for diagnostic imaging in clinical practices. Technical Report Series No. 795. Geneva: WHO; 1990'},{id:"B17",body:'World Health Organization (WHO). Rational use of diagnostic imaging in paediatrics. Technical Report Series No. 757. Geneva: WHO; 1987'},{id:"B18",body:'Helsinki Declaration 1964. Adopted by the 18th World Medical Assembly and as amended by the 29th World Medical Assembly, Tokyo, 1975, the 35th World Medical Assembly, Venice, 1983, and the 41st World Medical Assembly, Hong Kong'},{id:"B19",body:'Council for International Organizations of Medical Sciences (CIOMS), in collaboration with World Health Organization. International Ethical Guidelines for Biomedical Research Involving Human Subjects. Geneva; 1993'},{id:"B20",body:'World Health Organization (WHO). Use of ionizing radiation and radionuclides on human beings for medical research, training and non-medical purposes. Technical Report Series No. 611. Geneva: WHO; 1977'},{id:"B21",body:'World Health Organization. Radiation risk communication in paediatric imaging. Global initiative on radiation safety in health care settings workshop report. 2012'},{id:"B22",body:'National Council on Radiation Protection (NCRP) Report No. 180—Management of Exposure to Ionizing Radiation: Radiation Protection Guidance for the United States; 2018'},{id:"B23",body:'NCRP Report No. 160. Ionizing Radiation Exposure of the Population of the United States'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Otolorin Adelaja Osibote",address:"osibotea@cput.ac.za",affiliation:'
Department of Mathematics and Physics, Cape Peninsula University of Technology, Cape Town, South Africa
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1. Introduction
Bridges are engineering structures which are subjected to dynamic actions, variable in time—repeated millions of times, and inconsistently. The endurance of steel bridges in service is determined mainly by fatigue, which usually causes catastrophic failures, and corrosion, which ordinarily results in degradation failures [1, 2, 3]. Many early welded bridges in Europe were fractured over the period 1925–1936 and later [4]. Many failures and catastrophic events happened due to fatigue and fracture despite the pioneering works of August Wöhler and other scientists [5, 6]. As a result, the limit state analysis of structures with a probabilistic approach became necessary.
Fractures led to a prohibition on using welding for early high-strength steels [7, 8]. As a result, welding was allowed only on mild steels. It was not until the late 1950s that some fatigue requirements were introduced into the design of steel railway bridges. It took another decade for these to be considered for road bridges; this started the modern approach to fatigue.
Each welded structure possesses discontinuity, or cracks and other imperfections resulting from manufacture or welding. These do not show any growth or instability while the loading rate is relatively low, below threshold fatigue strength. This means that such a stress range does not cause crack propagation. The endurance of steel structures or fatigue details with imperfections may be determined by testing small specimens or numerical analysis.
There are still many welded steel bridges in service which were manufactured in periods of poor quality of both materials and welded joints as well as few requirements for fatigue. After many years in service, each steel structure also undergoes what is known as functional aging, and its structural steel is subjected to structural aging. The mechanism of the aging process may be described by the classical separation theory or the newer dislocation blocking theory.
The quantitative results of welded butt splice quality obtained over 37 years of the testing of welded railway bridges in Poland are given. The radiographic examinations were conducted by the Steel Construction Chair at the West Pomeranian University of Technology in Szczecin [3]. The radiographic tests on the welded joints were supplemented by laboratory fatigue tests and more recently by Finite Element Method (FEM) analysis.
2. Fatigue-induced structural changes in steels
It is assumed that the basic factor describing the properties of a material is the changes in internal material structure resulting from the structural degradation processes described among other things in [3, 9, 10, 11]. This is mainly concerned with the decreasing value of the impact strength, sometimes even by several times. The comparison level for such a phenomenon is the difference in material properties of actual steel versus normalized, as the other has material properties from the time of the structure’s construction. The simulation of these properties is carried out by thermal annealing. For this purpose, specimens are annealed at a temperature of 930°C (steels of C ≤ 0.26%) for an hour and then cooled in air. This way the minimal possible grain size in the steel is achieved.
This process increases yield strength and at the same time lowers the ductile-brittle transition temperature, i.e. significantly increases mechanical properties (Figure 1). Sometimes, astonishing results are obtained. For example, from the railway bridge over the Warta River in Gorzów Wielkopolski (western Poland), two types of steel specimens were tested for Charpy impact energy.
Figure 1.
Impact energy KV(T) for naturally aged (S) and normalized (N) specimens from a plate girder railway bridge constructed in 1938.
The bridge was constructed for the German Railways in 1938, using German normalized mild steel St37-12 (Figure 1). The tests refer to specimens which were
naturally aged S without any measures;
normalized N, i.e. annealed at 930°C for an hour and then cooled in air.
A significant aging effect was found in the structural steel after 77 years in service. At −20°C, the impact energy was 19.2 times higher.
The results of impact energy tests at temperature −20°C for nine steel grades from eight bridges constructed in the years 1887–1938 are shown in Figure 2. Two types of specimens were tested: naturally aged and normalized. The steel in post-service conditions showed a very small KV impact energy value.
Figure 2.
Notch toughness of tested bridge steels at temperature −20°C for naturally aged (S) and normalized (N) specimens.
The actual ascertained KV values are only from 4 to 12 J. This dependence concerns all the steels tested independently of carbon content from 0.016% to 0.258%.
Such a condition shows brittleness in the material; this is a particular danger when it is located in areas of stress concentrations, for example around welding imperfections (WIs) in a weld – Figure 3. Welding imperfections (WIs) are crack initiators when the loads reach a prescribed critical value. The largest concentration of normal stresses σx is caused by ellipsoidal welding imperfections and longitudinal ones with elliptical cross sections. For these two groups of welding imperfections, the maximum stress gradient increases as the curvature radius value of the sharpest shape of welding imperfections lowers.
Figure 3.
Stress distribution σx near welding imperfections: longitudinal – I, ellipsoidal – II, and globular – III [3, 12].
For example, for welding imperfections with shape characteristic t/ρ = 100, the shape coefficient values u = y/t = 1 are 13.63 and 21.00 Figure 3. In the case of globular welding imperfections of a small stress concentration—class III with a sharp shape—it is independent from the imperfection size and is σx = 2.04·σ [3, 12], where σ is the design stress.
Tensile stresses near a notch may be the effect of external loading, residual stresses, or both simultaneously [13]. It is not possible to exclude brittle fracture even if there is no external loading.
According to the literature [14], the fatigue strength at 105 cycles to strength at 2·106 cycles ratio is in the range 1.44–2.45, with the average value 1.85. Similar values of 1.75 and 1.73 were obtained for Polish mild steel (St3SX: C = 0.160%, Mn = 0.498%) [15] – Figure 4. Tested were as follows:
naturally aged specimens S, for 35 years (fy = 260 MPa, fu = 405 MPa),
artificially overaged specimens NN (fy = 495 MPa, fu = 515 MPa).
Figure 4.
Regression straights obtained from fatigue tests on: naturally aged specimens (S) and additionally aged specimens (NN) [15].
Specimens NN were cold-deformed up to 10% relative elongation and then heated up to temperature 250°C, kept at this temperature for an hour, and then cooled in air.
The value of the infinitive fatigue strength Zrj = 145.3 MPa of naturally aged steel for 35 years is 55.9% of its yield strength fy = 260 MPa and for the overaged steel this value is Zrj = 157.3 MPa which constitutes only 31.8% of its yield strength. As a result of additional aging (specimens NN), there was an unexpected very large increase in steel yield strength fy of 90.4%, and ultimate strength fu increased by 27.1%.
The specific character of bridge loadings and the structural changes in steels due to aging are the main reasons why a general hypothesis for their fatigue estimation has yet to be proposed [16]. Phenomenological models are still used despite the significant number of studies undertaken, especially for riveted structures, and more excellent research tools for testing have appeared as well as the possibility of numerical analysis. A problem has arisen as to how to adapt the information from laboratory fatigue tests to the design for the durability of structures in service. Knowledge of both the loading spectrum which a structure will be carrying and problems with butt splices have become necessary.
Welded structures under high stresses are damaged mainly by fatigue crack growth or brittleness. Hence, fracture mechanics has recognized the most important issues:
discovering and locating flat welding imperfections in a welded joint,
determining flat welding imperfection dimensions precisely, especially in the joint depth.
Over the years 1970–1980, the International Welding Institute introduced the “fitness for purpose” criterion, which relies on the formulation of fracture mechanics calculations for determining the permissible size of welding imperfections, thereby confirming the required quality and durability of structures according to standards and technical requirements. The determination of specific quality levels and example calculations as well as the determination of safety coefficients are given in [17, 18].
3. Quality of welds in railway bridges according to Non-Destructive Testing (NDT)
The aging of metallic materials favors the formation of brittle cracks as the ductile-brittle transition temperature clearly approaches higher values. Strains associated with aging depend on the location in the structure. They are particularly dangerous in stress concentration areas, e.g. around welding imperfections (WIs) and in heat-affected zones (HAZs). According to Neuber [3, 12], the largest concentration of stresses is associated with ellipsoidal and longitudinal welding imperfections with an elliptical cross section (Figure 3).These types of imperfections include cracks and lack of fusion, as well as band slag intrusion and incomplete side fusion. This issue is becoming particularly significant for bridges constructed after 1936, considering the poor quality of connecting welds. This has been confirmed by radiographic tests performed on bridges in service on Polish railway lines [3].
The Steel Structure Chair at the Technical University in Szczecin (now WPUT) carried out radiological tests on butt splices in the steel girders of around 200 railway bridges on the Polish railway network. For 154 bridges, including 124 plate girder bridges and 30 truss bridges, the exact time of construction was also established.
The range and results of in situ nondestructive radiological tests on the railway bridges are given in two histograms (Figures 5 and 6). The tests consist of the sum of 5-year intervals which take into account the bridge construction period from 1936 to 1975. Figure 5, in the upper part of the histogram, shows the number of bridges tested and the number of X-rays taken over a particular 5-year interval. At the same time, the number of internal structural cracks in connecting welds is given. These cracks were discovered on 437 X-rays. They constitute 2.8% of the total number of welds tested, equaling 15,875 units. This number includes 10,507 X-rays on butt joints in tensile components and the remaining 5368 X-rays on compress components. Simultaneously, the lower part of the histogram gives the number of welded joints tested over given 5-year intervals.
Figure 5.
Numerical specification of the bridges and welded joints tested.
Figure 6.
Specification for bridges and joints with hot cracks.
Figure 6 shows the proportional and numerical specification of hot cracks detected in bridge structures for given 5-year intervals of construction. Apart from one crack from 1974, the remaining cracks were ascertained in bridges constructed before 1960. According to Eurocode 1993-1-9 for the design of steel structures, such cracks do not exclude structures from service. The upper parts of the histogram (Figure 6) show the proportional and numerical specification of bridges with internal cracks in welded butt splices. Of note is that the majority of cracks were found in the oldest historical bridges from the years 1936–1940. For the seven bridges from that period tested, cracks were discovered in six structures, which constitute 85.7%. They were discovered on 124 welded butt splices from the general lot of 696 pieces tested.
Similar unfavorable test results were obtained during examination of the bridges constructed over the years 1946–1950. Cracks were found in 18 structures (37.5%) on 270 X-rays (5.5%).
4. Fatigue tests on butt welds
All the cracks in the butt splices of the bridge structures are internal hot cracks. They arise in the weld metal and HAZ of a joint during the crystallization process in the liquidus–solidus temperature range (Figure 3).
Service fatigue cracks appear in stress concentration zones caused by structural details and increase their value by a concentration factor caused by nonmetallic inclusions. Therefore, the development of a fatigue crack depends on many factors: the shape and dimensions of a structural component as well as the way and magnitude of loading. The larger the structure, the smaller the critical crack length necessary to cause the final brittle fracture [3, 18]. Development of fatigue cracking appears in stages under fluctuating loads, and their increase is caused by the weakening of a structure’s strength. This is why, in the literature, the stress is put down to the influence of the imperfection’s geometry and its location in the weld.
The literature gives different models for the initiation and proliferation of fatigue cracks in a nondeterministic approach. Despite many attempts to describe the fatigue mechanism, given in 64 hypotheses [19], no general hypothesis has yet to be formulated [18, 20, 21]. We are still stuck in the phenological description, despite having more and better research tools and numerical calculations. It appears that when assessing the endurance of bridges with cracks in their welded joints, it is highly useful to analyze their service behavior and the results of laboratory tests.
In Poland, the pioneer of the in situ field testing of welded butt splices on railway bridges was Professor Andrzej Fabiszewski from the Technical University of Szczecin. The procedure understood the principle that a weld is the weakest point in welded structures. The results of these tests were a great surprise to the organizers. In 34 bridges, internal technological cracks and hot cracks were ascertained in 437 welded butt splices (Figure 6).
To answer the question, “What do we do with theses bridges?”, laboratory fatigue strength tests were carried out on three typical structural solutions which reflected the details in the early welded bridges. Specimens U, C, and P and the test results are given in Figure 7. The tests were carried out on 60 specimens, each time loaded at 5 loading levels. The tests are presented more precisely in [3]. They allowed, using the least-square method, fatigue class values according to EN ISO 5817: 2014 to be estimated [22, 23]. The following fatigue classes (ΔσC) were obtained for individual specimens from different constructions:
specimens U with butt welds of an acceptable quality level, fatigue class ΔσC = 125 MPa.
specimens C with an internal crack in the butt welds, fatigue class ΔσC = 90 MPa.
specimens P with butt welds covered by one-sided rhombic cover plates, fatigue class ΔσC = 79 MPa.
Figure 7.
Fatigue strength test results for U – Sound welds (uncracked), C – Welds with internal cracks, and P – Welds covered by one-sided rhomboid cover plates.
The tests were carried out using a pulsator of frequency 5 Hz and stress ratio R = 0.1. Of note is the low fatigue class ΔσC = 79 MPa for specimens “strengthened” with rhombic cover plates. The rhombic cover plates had been intended to secure welded butt splices in early welded bridges, but the fatigue effects appeared to be quite the opposite. The results of the tests (Figure 7) clearly show that for the number of load cycles Ni larger than 1.1·106, the fatigue strength of the specimens with cover plates is lower than the fatigue strength of the specimens with cracked butt welds (type C).
The results of fatigue tests on 16 specimens with rhomboid cover plates give cause for reflection (Figure 8). Specimens with dimensions 180×12×720 mm were manufactured from Polish mild steel St3M for bridges (C = 0.19%, Mn = 0.66%) of fy = 312 MPa and fu = 452 MPa. The tests were carried out according to the Polish standard on fatigue tests on metals using five stress levels: 75, 80, 100, 120, and 140 MPa. The tests were performed on a pulsator with 5-Hz frequency. The first cracks appeared near the welded end of the cover plate and spread toward the specimen edges. In three specimens with stress levels 80, 100, and 140 MPa, the cracks appeared at 99·103, 168.9·103, and 20·103 cycles before total fracture. However, two specimens at stress level 80 MPa were not damaged, despite being loaded by 1819.8·103 and 836.8·103 cycles after the first cracks appeared (Figure 9). The test results for 13 damaged specimens allow us to work out the logarithmic regression equation.
Figure 8.
Fatigue test results on 16 specimens and regression analysis.
Figure 9.
Undamaged specimens after 3637·103 and 2827·103 load cycles (cracks after 1817.2·103 and 1990.2·103 load cycles).
The tests show stress concentrations by rhomboid cover plates mainly at their ends [14]. The fatigue strength value resulting from using cover plates depends on their shapes, as well as their length (Table 1). The lowest value is reached when the additional element is shortened up to 300 mm.
Table 1.
Effect of cover plates on the fatigue strength.
5. Stresses in welds with cracks
The fatigue behavior of metals is determined precisely in [20, 24, 25, 26]. Fatigue hypotheses, dislocation structures, fatigue cracking, and their fractures are given there. The issue of no crack growth in existing structures in service is also discussed there. Such cracks appear when the initiation crack stress is lower than the value of stress necessary for crack propagation. The undamaged service of these structures and the lack of propagation cracks is because no situation has arisen during service which would lead to their appearance. Many hypotheses resulting from laboratory tests have been put forward, including the oldest tests on wagon axle models (Ø 50 mm), carried out by T.V. Buchwalter as early as 1938 [27, 28]. Generally, there is no one solution for the three-dimensional problem of fatigue fractures. However, a material experiment review laid out the directions for further research to find a more precise solution to the problem. There is the optimistic fact that as early as 1965, Kudriawcew [29] stated “structural sections in which non-propagating cracks develop may be stronger than sections constructed with notches.”
The prediction of eventual fatigue cracking in welded butt splices in the railway bridges tested was assessed on the basis of strength analysis for three selected bridges. These are plate girder bridges constructed in 1938, 1938, and 1947 on different railway lines. Their technical characteristics are given in Table 2. This is a compilation of requirements collated in two papers [7, 16] relating to the structures.
Bridge No. (year built)
Number
Span length l, m
Stress σ, MPa
Girder (tested)
X-rays (cracks)
Dead load
Live actions
Dead + measured
LM 71
Service
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
I (1938)
6 (2)
128 (8)
22.40
a = 10/14
81/108
47/63
b = 12/14
94/111
54/64
c = 13/15
99/114
57/65
II (1939)
6 (1)
144 (39)
20.20
a = 14/17
116/137
68/80
b = 15/17
122/138
74/84
c = 15/17
124/137
72/80
III (1947)
12 (3)
360 (5)
21.20
a = 9/10
80/93
47/55
50/59
b = 10/11
89/101
52/59
52/61
Table 2.
Bridges, their technical data, and normal stresses in butt welds with cracks as well as behind cover plates.
The analysis was undertaken on the three bridges. They were constructed either side of WWII. In total, there were six examinations of the welded butt splices, and three additional tests limited to the testing of splices with cracks. The additional examinations were executed in 5–8-year time intervals. Overall, 632 X-rays were taken and 49 technological hot cracks were discovered. The calculated stress values at the butt splice locations in the lower chords of the plate girders are given in columns 5–7 in Table 2. Column 8 shows the results of service stresses measured on the welded joints of bridge III located on the Katowice–Tczew coal railway line. The permanent load and the electric locomotive ST-21 (live load) are taken into account. The great similarity of stresses calculated theoretically (column 7) and stresses measured “in situ” on bridge III (column 8) are of note.
Locations of welded butt splices:
The calculations assume the creation of a national set of standards, i.e. Polish bridge standards: PN-85/S-10030 and PN-82/S-10052 for actions and steel bridges, respectively. The characteristic values of the live action effects with dynamic factor Φ are taken into account. The standard load model in the form of the contemporary Eurocode railway traffic model LM 71 for loading class k = +2 is under consideration. The stresses were determined on the butt weld and cover plate axis as well as in the flange plates just behind the ends of the rhombic plates (values in denominators). It is easy to see that the service values of stresses in column 7 are from 60 to 70% of the stress values for the standard loading (LM 71) in column 6. This means that they are also lower than the values of Zrj = ΔσC = 79 MPa determined according to Figure 7, i.e. the service stresses are lower than the limit value for such joints determined in [3].
Considering the load spectra recommended by the JRC (Joint Research Centre) for railway bridges [1], the above value of loading will be smaller. The authors conducted such analyses and described them in [2, 30].
The load spectrum given in Figure 10 according to the old British standard BS 153 was established in structural calculations [29, 30, 31]. The method allows the service life of bridge structures to be prolonged by as much as three times. The authors recommend this method for the endurance assessment of historical bridges.
Figure 10.
Stress ratio frequency.
In some countries, the results of traffic load measurements have been published, giving the load spectra for analyzing existing bridges [32, 33]. New standards and guides for the testing and assessment of existing bridges have appeared [19, 34, 35, 36, 37].
6. Numerical analysis of welded butt splices with cover plates in bridges
The first welded bridge designers were aware that “a weld is the weakest place in the structure.” Because of welding imperfections, their resistance is lower than that of the welded material. The simplest and the most economical way to eliminate these differences seemed to be enlargement of the welded joint section by adding cover plates which compensated for the weakened section. In the welded plate girders of railway bridges constructed up to 1939 and in the period from 1945 to 1953, the butt splices of webs and flanges were covered with one- or two-sided cover plates [3].
In the 154 railway bridges which were checked radiographically, internal cracking was discovered in 438 welded joints. In this group, there were 28 plate girder structures; the constructions of their lower flanges are shown in Figure 11. In 18 structures, their butt splices are covered with one-sided rhomboid cover plates from the side of the girder longitudinal axis. The rhomboid cover plates are from 90 to 200 mm in width and from 160 to 340 mm long.
Figure 11.
Details of welded butt splices with cracks in 28 plate girder bridges.
To assess the endurance of such types of joints, fatigue strength tests were undertaken, which were discussed in Section 4. The results of the tests and the regression line are given in Figure 8. The determined infinitive fatigue strength value Zrj = 79 MPa at Ni = 2·106 load cycles constitutes only 26% of yield strength fy = 302 MPa for the steel of the specimens tested. It is worth mentioning that for three stress levels σ = 80, 100, and 140 MPa, on five specimens seven cracks appeared, as shown in Figure 12.
Figure 12.
Cracks in flanges with rhomboid cover plates after fatigue tests: The top three specimens – Damaged and the bottom two specimens – Undamaged.
The results of the fatigue tests show a very low fatigue limit value for the welded butt splices covered with rhomboid plates. The problem was solved numerically using an FEM model as shown in Figure 13. More details of the numerical analysis are given in [38, 39].
Figure 13.
Numerical model for analysis of a welded butt splice with cover plates.
For the numerical analysis, the welded splice was modeled using the FEM method (Figure 14) with Inventor Nastran software. Material parameters for structural steel are fy = 249 MPa and fu = 360 MPa. The stresses were calculated in four cross sections and on nine points for each section. Loading was modeled as 162, 173, 216, 260, and 303 kN tensile forces with 75, 80, 100, 120, and 140 MPa course tensile stresses in the flange. The same stress levels were formulated as for the laboratory fatigue tests.
Figure 14.
Details of the numerical model with cracks and structural steel material data.
Analysis of the tensile stresses in the welded joint allowed us to formulate some remarks:
rhomboid cover plates do not lower the stresses in a butt weld as was initially assumed (see Table 1); it was expected that the resistance of the joint would be increased by 25.9%;
cover plates appeared to be unnecessary components, causing some additional fatigue problems;
at the ends of the cover plates, the concentration of stresses appear within a range of 1.47–1.69;
the stress concentration together with the smallest concentration factor for globular (spherical) nonmetallic inclusions of 2.04 are the reasons for the formation of one-sided stochastic cracking already at the 80-MPa stress level (Figure 13); thus σ = 80.1.69.2.04 = 275 MPa which is greater than the steel yield strength fy = 249 MPa [39].
Cracks appeared at three stress levels, σ = 80, 100, and 140 MPa, with a varied number of load cycles from 535,000 to 990,200.
These are fatigue cracks developing in stages, as opposed to the rapidly developing cracks in the fatigue tests of welded joints on specimens U, C, and P (Figure 8). All the cracks had a similar fracture as shown in Figure 15, with three developing trajectories: I – crack initiations, II – growth, and III – final fracture. The scheme of fatigue crack zones is shown in Figure 16.
Figure 15.
Fracture surface of a broken specimen after the fatigue testing (see Figure 13).
Figure 16.
Scheme of a fatigue crack: Zone I – Origin, zone II – Fatigue zone and zone III – Final fracture.
The stress distribution on the circumference of the cracks is similar, with the smallest values in the upper zone. The values are equal to the upper values of yield strength fy = 280 MPa, while the maximum stress σ ∼ 306 MPa appeared at the crack tip.
A study of the literature shows that no direct criterion has been established for precise cracking in zones I and II, e.g. the zones of settled crack growth, and zone III (unstable crack growth). This has not been achieved since 1913 (C. E. Inglis) despite the development of 64 growing hypotheses at the microstructure level and thousands of publications [27, 28, 40, 41]. For example, after the chapter, “Fatigue crack growth” in [27], there is a list of 469 supplementary readings. Crack growth is described there probabilistically in a way that is comprehensible only for specialists.
Considering the results of the numerical calculations of stresses in cracked joints in Figure 17, a new way for describing ductile fracture growth (zone II) may be suggested. The analysis takes into account two laws of physics:
ductile fracture growth may be restrained at any moment by lowering stresses below the material’s yield strength;
the moving peaks of the upper size of the fracture with length 2 t on the top surface will first reach the elastic stress area σ = 99–100 and 100–104 MPa at stress level 100 MPa as well as σ = 172–180 and 176–180 MPa at stress level 140 MPa – see Figure 17. This is guaranteed by the geometry of the fracture t/h ∼ 2 and is assured by fracture surface analysis which shows that the fracture growth is along the top surface rather than into the material.
Figure 17.
Concentration of stresses at the ends of cover plates for stress levels: 100 and 140 MPa.
There is a reduction in edge surface stresses on the top surface to the measured values 274–310 MPa, i.e. to the upper yield strength of the material fyH = 280 MPa. The growth of ductile fracture disappears at the edge points on the top surface. This phenomenon evolves in the nearby “deep” points of the fracture and according to the stress equalizing rule, it gradually restrains a two-sided fracture from proceeding to the tip of the fracture. The cracking growth in zone II disappears totally.
Generally, it should be stated that no comprehensive model for a general description of fatigue fractures has yet been devised. All models described in the literature relate only to growth zones I and II. The only known model for transition from fracture zone to final fracture, zone III, was devised by A.H. Cottrel and N.J. Petch [40, 42]. The Cottrel–Petch theory describes the ductile-brittle transition properties of steel. A basis for the transition is assumed yield strength σpl.
When the yield strength is larger than the fracture growth stress, then the material is brittle and vice versa. “Brittle fracture will occur when the work of applied stress σ during fracture growth reaches the effective energy of newly formed surfaces.” This means that brittle fracture will occur under stress σ = σpl (Figure 17).
An explanation for this phenomenon in relation to the five cracks in the three damaged joints (Figure 12) is given in [38]. In the analysis, the results obtained during fatigue strength tests for three types of joints were used (Figure 7). Practically, this applies to the infinitive fatigue strength values Zrj given as a function of load cycles Ni.
7. Conclusions
During their service life, bridges, like other structures, undergo functional and material degradation. In many cases, tests show that despite non-strict conformity with actual design standards, they are able to carry actual service loadings. According to [1], calculations of existing steel bridges resistance should be carried out more precisely and in a more readable manner following a three-phase assessment: a preliminary evaluation, a detailed investigation, and an expert investigation. Some other studies have recommended using five assessment levels: a bridge rating, a preliminary evaluation, a detailed investigation, an expert investigation, and advance testing [16, 35, 36, 37]. Application of the assessment procedure led to improvements in knowledge and a calibration of confidence factors.
At the same time, the project “Sustainable bridges – assessment for future traffic demands and longer lives” with nine packages, deals with the increasing capacity and service life of existing railway bridges [35]. New methods for the resistance assessment of existing bridges were developed in standards and guidelines using calibrated partial safety coefficients.
The Steel Structure Chair at the Technical University in Szczecin (now WPUT) contributed to these issues by carrying out a multiyear program for the quality-level assessment of welded butt splices in existing railway bridges in service in Poland. Radiological tests on butt splices in the steel girders of around 200 railway bridges were carried out. Nearly, 200 bridges were tested using X-ray examination over a 37-year period. The number of joints tested was over 15,000; cracks were discovered in 400 welded joints in 34 bridges tested. Repeated tests on welded joints with cracks were undertaken as well as laboratory investigations for their complex assessment. Partial results of the laboratory fatigue testing are given in the paper.
Numerical analysis of tensile stresses in welded splices was undertaken to support and confirm the results of laboratory fatigue tests. The results of the FEM analysis of tensile stresses in welded joints with rhomboid cover plates are given. The FEM method allowed us to determine tensile stresses at each service stage. The analysis allowed for:
negative assessment of the welded joint type with cover plates – total disqualification of cover plates;
suggesting a new hypothesis for the initiation and growth of the surface fatigue fractures;
conformity assessment for the Cottrell–Petch theory for the transition from ductile fracture to brittle state at the final fracture.
\n',keywords:"welded bridges, reliability, welded joints, fatigue, NDT, imperfections",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/81426.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/81426.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/81426",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/81426",totalDownloads:31,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:"December 19th 2021",dateReviewed:"March 9th 2022",datePrePublished:"April 21st 2022",datePublished:"June 23rd 2022",dateFinished:"April 21st 2022",readingETA:"0",abstract:"During a decades-long program from 1953 to 1990, the quality of welded joints in railway bridges in Poland was assessed and quantified. It was discovered that many welded joints have technological cracks, and their quality is poor, especially in old constructions. Nearly, 200 bridges were tested using X-ray examination. The number of joints tested was over 15,000; cracks were discovered in 400 welded joints in the 34 bridges tested. To solve the problem, repeated examinations on welded joints with imperfections were undertaken and laboratory fatigue tests were performed. The tests and numerical analysis allowed fatigue behavior and tensile stresses in welded butt splices with cover plates to be recognized and excluded such a structural solution in bridges. The existing discontinuities and imperfections in welded joints following many years in service show no growths or forming of new cracks, as the applied stresses are below the threshold fatigue strength. As a result of decades of service, steel bridges undergo functional aging, and their structural steels undergo structural aging. There is a need to both harmonize differentiated procedures and create national recommendations to assess their safe endurance. Therefore, of use may be the findings presented in the chapter.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/81426",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/81426",signatures:"Janusz Hołowaty and Bernard Wichtowski",book:{id:"11080",type:"book",title:"Engineering Principles",subtitle:"Welding and Residual Stresses",fullTitle:"Engineering Principles - Welding and Residual Stresses",slug:"engineering-principles-welding-and-residual-stresses",publishedDate:"June 23rd 2022",bookSignature:"Kavian Omar Cooke and Ronaldo Câmara Cozza",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11080.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",isbn:"978-1-80355-385-6",printIsbn:"978-1-80355-384-9",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80355-386-3",isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"138778",title:"Dr.",name:"Kavian",middleName:"Omar",surname:"Cooke",slug:"kavian-cooke",fullName:"Kavian Cooke"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"440473",title:"Dr.Ing.",name:"Janusz",middleName:null,surname:"Hołowaty",fullName:"Janusz Hołowaty",slug:"janusz-holowaty",email:"jah@wp.pl",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"440478",title:"Prof.",name:"Bernard",middleName:null,surname:"Wichtowski",fullName:"Bernard Wichtowski",slug:"bernard-wichtowski",email:"marek.wichtowski@zut.edu.pl",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"West Pomeranian University of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Fatigue-induced structural changes in steels",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Quality of welds in railway bridges according to Non-Destructive Testing (NDT)",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4",title:"4. Fatigue tests on butt welds",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5",title:"5. Stresses in welds with cracks",level:"1"},{id:"sec_6",title:"6. Numerical analysis of welded butt splices with cover plates in bridges",level:"1"},{id:"sec_7",title:"7. Conclusions",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Kühn B, Lukic M, Nussbaumer A, Günther H, Helmerich R, Herion S, et al. . In: Sedlacek G, Bijlaard F, Geradin M, Pinto Vieira A, Dimova S, editors. Assessment of Existing Steel Structures—Recommendations for Estimation of the Remaining Fatigue Life. EUR 23252 EN. Luxembourg (Luxembourg): Office for Official Publications of the European Communities; 2008 89 p. JRC43401'},{id:"B2",body:'Scheer J. Failed Bridges. Case Studies, Causes and Consequences. Berlin: Ernst &Sohn; 2010 307 p'},{id:"B3",body:'Wichtowski B. Fatigue Strength of Welded Butt Joints in Steel Railway Bridges. Szczecin: PS Scientific Works No. 572; 2002 203 p'},{id:"B4",body:'Barsom JM, Rolfe ST. Fracture and Fatigue Control in Structures. Applications of Fracture Mechanics. 3rd ed. Philadelphia: ASTM; 1999. 516 p. DOI: 10.1520/MNL41-3RD-EB'},{id:"B5",body:'Zenner H, Hinkelmann K. August Wöhler – Founder of fatigue strength research. On the 200th anniversary of August Wohler birth. Steel Construction. 2019;2:156-162. DOI: 10.1002/stco.201900011'},{id:"B6",body:'Hołowaty J, Wichtowski B. Properties of structural steels in bridges on a railway line No. 275—The line of August Wöhler fatigue research. Inżynieriai Budownictwo. 2020;1-2:31-35'},{id:"B7",body:'Hołowaty J. Properties of high tensile steels in historical railway bridges. Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers—Construction Materials. 2018;171(6):234-245. 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Chalmers University of Technology; 2014 156 p'},{id:"B37",body:'Lukić M, Al-Amrani M, Aygül M, Bokesjö M, Urushadze S, Frýba L, et al. Bridge fatigue guidance—Meeting sustainable design and assessment (BRiFaG). In: Final Report EUR 25866 EN. Luxembourg: Publication Office of the European Union; 2013 158 p'},{id:"B38",body:'Wichtowski B, Konecki K. Fatigue strength of steel plate girder railway bridges with butt joints reinforced with one-sided rhomb-shaped cover plates. Welded Technology Review. 2021;93(3):31-40. DOI: 10.26628/wtr.v93i3.1139'},{id:"B39",body:'Wichtowski B, Konecki K. The finite element analysis of fatigue cracks in a welded butt splice with one-sided rhomboid cover plates. Inżynieriai Budownictwo. 2021;3:107-113'},{id:"B40",body:'Wyrzykowski JW, Pleszakow E, Sieniawski J. Deformations and Cracking of Metals. Warszawa: WNT; 1999 491 p'},{id:"B41",body:'Neville W, Sachs PE. Understanding the surface features of fatigue fractures: How they describe the failure cause and the failure history. Journal of Failure Analysis and Prevention. 2005;5(4):11-15'},{id:"B42",body:'Amstrong A. 60 years of hall-Petch: Past to present nano-scale connections. Materials Transactions. 2014;55:2-12'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Janusz Hołowaty",address:"jah@wp.pl",affiliation:'
West Pomeranian University of Technology in Szczecin, Poland
West Pomeranian University of Technology in Szczecin, Poland
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is a Professor of Statistics and Dean of the School of Mathematics and Statistics, Yunnan University, China. He was elected a Yangtze River Scholars Distinguished Professor in 2013, a member of the International Statistical Institute (ISI) in 2016, a member of the board of the International Chinese Statistical Association (ICSA) in 2018, and a fellow of the Institute of Mathematical Statistics (IMS) in 2021. He received the ICSA Outstanding Service Award in 2018 and the National Science Foundation for Distinguished Young Scholars of China in 2012. He serves as a member of the editorial board of Statistics and Its Interface and Journal of Systems Science and Complexity. He is also a field editor for Communications in Mathematics and Statistics. His research interests include biostatistics, empirical likelihood, missing data analysis, variable selection, high-dimensional data analysis, Bayesian statistics, and data science. He has published more than 190 research papers and authored five books.",institutionString:"Yunnan University",institution:{name:"Yunnan University",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"1177",title:"Prof.",name:"António",middleName:"J. R.",surname:"José Ribeiro Neves",slug:"antonio-jose-ribeiro-neves",fullName:"António José Ribeiro Neves",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/1177/images/system/1177.jpg",biography:"Prof. António J. R. Neves received a Ph.D. in Electrical Engineering from the University of Aveiro, Portugal, in 2007. Since 2002, he has been a researcher at the Institute of Electronics and Informatics Engineering of Aveiro. Since 2007, he has been an assistant professor in the Department of Electronics, Telecommunications, and Informatics, University of Aveiro. He is the director of the undergraduate course on Electrical and Computers Engineering and the vice-director of the master’s degree in Electronics and Telecommunications Engineering. He is an IEEE Senior Member and a member of several other research organizations worldwide. His main research interests are computer vision, intelligent systems, robotics, and image and video processing. He has participated in or coordinated several research projects and received more than thirty-five awards. He has 161 publications to his credit, including books, book chapters, journal articles, and conference papers. He has vast experience as a reviewer of several journals and conferences. As a professor, Dr. Neves has supervised several Ph.D. and master’s students and was involved in more than twenty-five different courses.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Aveiro",country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"11317",title:"Dr.",name:"Francisco",middleName:null,surname:"Javier Gallegos-Funes",slug:"francisco-javier-gallegos-funes",fullName:"Francisco Javier Gallegos-Funes",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/11317/images/system/11317.png",biography:"Francisco J. Gallegos-Funes received his Ph.D. in Communications and Electronics from the Instituto Politécnico Nacional de México (National Polytechnic Institute of Mexico) in 2003. He is currently an associate professor in the Escuela Superior de Ingeniería Mecánica y Eléctrica (Mechanical and Electrical Engineering Higher School) at the same institute. His areas of scientific interest are signal and image processing, filtering, steganography, segmentation, pattern recognition, biomedical signal processing, sensors, and real-time applications.",institutionString:"Instituto Politécnico Nacional",institution:{name:"Instituto Politécnico Nacional",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"428449",title:"Dr.",name:"Ronaldo",middleName:null,surname:"Ferreira",slug:"ronaldo-ferreira",fullName:"Ronaldo Ferreira",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/428449/images/21449_n.png",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Aveiro",country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"165328",title:"Dr.",name:"Vahid",middleName:null,surname:"Asadpour",slug:"vahid-asadpour",fullName:"Vahid Asadpour",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/165328/images/system/165328.jpg",biography:"Vahid Asadpour, MS, Ph.D., is currently with the Department of Research and Evaluation, Kaiser Permanente Southern California. He has both an MS and Ph.D. in Biomedical Engineering. He was previously a research scientist at the University of California Los Angeles (UCLA) and visiting professor and researcher at the University of North Dakota. He is currently working in artificial intelligence and its applications in medical signal processing. In addition, he is using digital signal processing in medical imaging and speech processing. Dr. Asadpour has developed brain-computer interfacing algorithms and has published books, book chapters, and several journal and conference papers in this field and other areas of intelligent signal processing. He has also designed medical devices, including a laser Doppler monitoring system.",institutionString:"Kaiser Permanente Southern California",institution:null},{id:"169608",title:"Prof.",name:"Marian",middleName:null,surname:"Găiceanu",slug:"marian-gaiceanu",fullName:"Marian Găiceanu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/169608/images/system/169608.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Marian Gaiceanu graduated from the Naval and Electrical Engineering Faculty, Dunarea de Jos University of Galati, Romania, in 1997. He received a Ph.D. (Magna Cum Laude) in Electrical Engineering in 2002. Since 2017, Dr. Gaiceanu has been a Ph.D. supervisor for students in Electrical Engineering. He has been employed at Dunarea de Jos University of Galati since 1996, where he is currently a professor. Dr. Gaiceanu is a member of the National Council for Attesting Titles, Diplomas and Certificates, an expert of the Executive Agency for Higher Education, Research Funding, and a member of the Senate of the Dunarea de Jos University of Galati. He has been the head of the Integrated Energy Conversion Systems and Advanced Control of Complex Processes Research Center, Romania, since 2016. He has conducted several projects in power converter systems for electrical drives, power quality, PEM and SOFC fuel cell power converters for utilities, electric vehicles, and marine applications with the Department of Regulation and Control, SIEI S.pA. (2002–2004) and the Polytechnic University of Turin, Italy (2002–2004, 2006–2007). He is a member of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) and cofounder-member of the IEEE Power Electronics Romanian Chapter. He is a guest editor at Energies and an academic book editor for IntechOpen. He is also a member of the editorial boards of the Journal of Electrical Engineering, Electronics, Control and Computer Science and Sustainability. Dr. Gaiceanu has been General Chairman of the IEEE International Symposium on Electrical and Electronics Engineering in the last six editions.",institutionString:'"Dunarea de Jos" University of Galati',institution:{name:'"Dunarea de Jos" University of Galati',country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"4519",title:"Prof.",name:"Jaydip",middleName:null,surname:"Sen",slug:"jaydip-sen",fullName:"Jaydip Sen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/4519/images/system/4519.jpeg",biography:"Jaydip Sen is associated with Praxis Business School, Kolkata, India, as a professor in the Department of Data Science. His research areas include security and privacy issues in computing and communication, intrusion detection systems, machine learning, deep learning, and artificial intelligence in the financial domain. He has more than 200 publications in reputed international journals, refereed conference proceedings, and 20 book chapters in books published by internationally renowned publishing houses, such as Springer, CRC press, IGI Global, etc. Currently, he is serving on the editorial board of the prestigious journal Frontiers in Communications and Networks and in the technical program committees of a number of high-ranked international conferences organized by the IEEE, USA, and the ACM, USA. He has been listed among the top 2% of scientists in the world for the last three consecutive years, 2019 to 2021 as per studies conducted by the Stanford University, USA.",institutionString:"Praxis Business School",institution:null},{id:"320071",title:"Dr.",name:"Sidra",middleName:null,surname:"Mehtab",slug:"sidra-mehtab",fullName:"Sidra Mehtab",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00002v6KHoQAM/Profile_Picture_1584512086360",biography:"Sidra Mehtab has completed her BS with honors in Physics from Calcutta University, India in 2018. She has done MS in Data Science and Analytics from Maulana Abul Kalam Azad University of Technology (MAKAUT), Kolkata, India in 2020. Her research areas include Econometrics, Time Series Analysis, Machine Learning, Deep Learning, Artificial Intelligence, and Computer and Network Security with a particular focus on Cyber Security Analytics. Ms. Mehtab has published seven papers in international conferences and one of her papers has been accepted for publication in a reputable international journal. She has won the best paper awards in two prestigious international conferences – BAICONF 2019, and ICADCML 2021, organized in the Indian Institute of Management, Bangalore, India in December 2019, and SOA University, Bhubaneswar, India in January 2021. Besides, Ms. Mehtab has also published two book chapters in two books. Seven of her book chapters will be published in a volume shortly in 2021 by Cambridge Scholars’ Press, UK. Currently, she is working as the joint editor of two edited volumes on Time Series Analysis and Forecasting to be published in the first half of 2021 by an international house. Currently, she is working as a Data Scientist with an MNC in Delhi, India.",institutionString:"NSHM College of Management and Technology",institution:{name:"Association for Computing Machinery",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"226240",title:"Dr.",name:"Andri Irfan",middleName:null,surname:"Rifai",slug:"andri-irfan-rifai",fullName:"Andri Irfan Rifai",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/226240/images/7412_n.jpg",biography:"Andri IRFAN is a Senior Lecturer of Civil Engineering and Planning. He completed the PhD at the Universitas Indonesia & Universidade do Minho with Sandwich Program Scholarship from the Directorate General of Higher Education and LPDP scholarship. He has been teaching for more than 19 years and much active to applied his knowledge in the project construction in Indonesia. His research interest ranges from pavement management system to advanced data mining techniques for transportation engineering. He has published more than 50 papers in journals and 2 books.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universitas Internasional Batam",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"314576",title:"Dr.",name:"Ibai",middleName:null,surname:"Laña",slug:"ibai-lana",fullName:"Ibai Laña",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/314576/images/system/314576.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ibai Laña works at TECNALIA as a data analyst. He received his Ph.D. in Artificial Intelligence from the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU), Spain, in 2018. He is currently a senior researcher at TECNALIA. His research interests fall within the intersection of intelligent transportation systems, machine learning, traffic data analysis, and data science. He has dealt with urban traffic forecasting problems, applying machine learning models and evolutionary algorithms. He has experience in origin-destination matrix estimation or point of interest and trajectory detection. Working with large volumes of data has given him a good command of big data processing tools and NoSQL databases. He has also been a visiting scholar at the Knowledge Engineering and Discovery Research Institute, Auckland University of Technology.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"314575",title:"Dr.",name:"Jesus",middleName:null,surname:"L. Lobo",slug:"jesus-l.-lobo",fullName:"Jesus L. Lobo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/314575/images/system/314575.png",biography:"Dr. Jesús López is currently based in Bilbao (Spain) working at TECNALIA as Artificial Intelligence Research Scientist. In most cases, a project idea or a new research line needs to be investigated to see if it is good enough to take into production or to focus on it. That is exactly what he does, diving into Machine Learning algorithms and technologies to help TECNALIA to decide whether something is great in theory or will actually impact on the product or processes of its projects. So, he is expert at framing experiments, developing hypotheses, and proving whether they’re true or not, in order to investigate fundamental problems with a longer time horizon. He is also able to design and develop PoCs and system prototypes in simulation. He has participated in several national and internacional R&D projects.\n\nAs another relevant part of his everyday research work, he usually publishes his findings in reputed scientific refereed journals and international conferences, occasionally acting as reviewer and Programme Commitee member. Concretely, since 2018 he has published 9 JCR (8 Q1) journal papers, 9 conference papers (e.g. ECML PKDD 2021), and he has co-edited a book. He is also active in popular science writing data science stories for reputed blogs (KDNuggets, TowardsDataScience, Naukas). Besides, he has recently embarked on mentoring programmes as mentor, and has also worked as data science trainer.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"103779",title:"Prof.",name:"Yalcin",middleName:null,surname:"Isler",slug:"yalcin-isler",fullName:"Yalcin Isler",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRyQ8QAK/Profile_Picture_1628834958734",biography:"Yalcin Isler (1971 - Burdur / Turkey) received the B.Sc. degree in the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering from Anadolu University, Eskisehir, Turkey, in 1993, the M.Sc. degree from the Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, Suleyman Demirel University, Isparta, Turkey, in 1996, the Ph.D. degree from the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey, in 2009, and the Competence of Associate Professorship from the Turkish Interuniversity Council in 2019.\n\nHe was Lecturer at Burdur Vocational School in Suleyman Demirel University (1993-2000, Burdur / Turkey), Software Engineer (2000-2002, Izmir / Turkey), Research Assistant in Bulent Ecevit University (2002-2003, Zonguldak / Turkey), Research Assistant in Dokuz Eylul University (2003-2010, Izmir / Turkey), Assistant Professor at the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering in Bulent Ecevit University (2010-2012, Zonguldak / Turkey), Assistant Professor at the Department of Biomedical Engineering in Izmir Katip Celebi University (2012-2019, Izmir / Turkey). He is an Associate Professor at the Department of Biomedical Engineering at Izmir Katip Celebi University, Izmir / Turkey, since 2019. In addition to academics, he has also founded Islerya Medical and Information Technologies Company, Izmir / Turkey, since 2017.\n\nHis main research interests cover biomedical signal processing, pattern recognition, medical device design, programming, and embedded systems. He has many scientific papers and participated in several projects in these study fields. He was an IEEE Student Member (2009-2011) and IEEE Member (2011-2014) and has been IEEE Senior Member since 2014.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Izmir Kâtip Çelebi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"339677",title:"Dr.",name:"Mrinmoy",middleName:null,surname:"Roy",slug:"mrinmoy-roy",fullName:"Mrinmoy Roy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/339677/images/16768_n.jpg",biography:"An accomplished Sales & Marketing professional with 12 years of cross-functional experience in well-known organisations such as CIPLA, LUPIN, GLENMARK, ASTRAZENECA across different segment of Sales & Marketing, International Business, Institutional Business, Product Management, Strategic Marketing of HIV, Oncology, Derma, Respiratory, Anti-Diabetic, Nutraceutical & Stomatological Product Portfolio and Generic as well as Chronic Critical Care Portfolio. A First Class MBA in International Business & Strategic Marketing, B.Pharm, D.Pharm, Google Certified Digital Marketing Professional. Qualified PhD Candidate in Operations and Management with special focus on Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning adoption, analysis and use in Healthcare, Hospital & Pharma Domain. Seasoned with diverse therapy area of Pharmaceutical Sales & Marketing ranging from generating revenue through generating prescriptions, launching new products, and making them big brands with continuous strategy execution at the Physician and Patients level. Moved from Sales to Marketing and Business Development for 3.5 years in South East Asian Market operating from Manila, Philippines. Came back to India and handled and developed Brands such as Gluconorm, Lupisulin, Supracal, Absolut Woman, Hemozink, Fabiflu (For COVID 19), and many more. In my previous assignment I used to develop and execute strategies on Sales & Marketing, Commercialization & Business Development for Institution and Corporate Hospital Business portfolio of Oncology Therapy Area for AstraZeneca Pharma India Ltd. Being a Research Scholar and Student of ‘Operations Research & Management: Artificial Intelligence’ I published several pioneer research papers and book chapters on the same in Internationally reputed journals and Books indexed in Scopus, Springer and Ei Compendex, Google Scholar etc. Currently, I am launching PGDM Pharmaceutical Management Program in IIHMR Bangalore and spearheading the course curriculum and structure of the same. I am interested in Collaboration for Healthcare Innovation, Pharma AI Innovation, Future trend in Marketing and Management with incubation on Healthcare, Healthcare IT startups, AI-ML Modelling and Healthcare Algorithm based training module development. I am also an affiliated member of the Institute of Management Consultant of India, looking forward to Healthcare, Healthcare IT and Innovation, Pharma and Hospital Management Consulting works.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Lovely Professional University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"1063",title:"Prof.",name:"Constantin",middleName:null,surname:"Volosencu",slug:"constantin-volosencu",fullName:"Constantin Volosencu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/1063/images/system/1063.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Constantin Voloşencu graduated as an engineer from\nPolitehnica University of Timișoara, Romania, where he also\nobtained a doctorate degree. He is currently a full professor in\nthe Department of Automation and Applied Informatics at the\nsame university. Dr. Voloşencu is the author of ten books, seven\nbook chapters, and more than 160 papers published in journals\nand conference proceedings. He has also edited twelve books and\nhas twenty-seven patents to his name. He is a manager of research grants, editor in\nchief and member of international journal editorial boards, a former plenary speaker, a member of scientific committees, and chair at international conferences. His\nresearch is in the fields of control systems, control of electric drives, fuzzy control\nsystems, neural network applications, fault detection and diagnosis, sensor network\napplications, monitoring of distributed parameter systems, and power ultrasound\napplications. He has developed automation equipment for machine tools, spooling\nmachines, high-power ultrasound processes, and more.",institutionString:'"Politechnica" University Timişoara',institution:null},{id:"221364",title:"Dr.",name:"Eneko",middleName:null,surname:"Osaba",slug:"eneko-osaba",fullName:"Eneko Osaba",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/221364/images/system/221364.jpg",biography:"Dr. Eneko Osaba works at TECNALIA as a senior researcher. He obtained his Ph.D. in Artificial Intelligence in 2015. He has participated in more than twenty-five local and European research projects, and in the publication of more than 130 papers. He has performed several stays at universities in the United Kingdom, Italy, and Malta. Dr. Osaba has served as a program committee member in more than forty international conferences and participated in organizing activities in more than ten international conferences. He is a member of the editorial board of the International Journal of Artificial Intelligence, Data in Brief, and Journal of Advanced Transportation. He is also a guest editor for the Journal of Computational Science, Neurocomputing, Swarm, and Evolutionary Computation and IEEE ITS Magazine.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"275829",title:"Dr.",name:"Esther",middleName:null,surname:"Villar-Rodriguez",slug:"esther-villar-rodriguez",fullName:"Esther Villar-Rodriguez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/275829/images/system/275829.jpg",biography:"Dr. Esther Villar obtained a Ph.D. in Information and Communication Technologies from the University of Alcalá, Spain, in 2015. She obtained a degree in Computer Science from the University of Deusto, Spain, in 2010, and an MSc in Computer Languages and Systems from the National University of Distance Education, Spain, in 2012. Her areas of interest and knowledge include natural language processing (NLP), detection of impersonation in social networks, semantic web, and machine learning. Dr. Esther Villar made several contributions at conferences and publishing in various journals in those fields. Currently, she is working within the OPTIMA (Optimization Modeling & Analytics) business of TECNALIA’s ICT Division as a data scientist in projects related to the prediction and optimization of management and industrial processes (resource planning, energy efficiency, etc).",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"49813",title:"Dr.",name:"Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Del Ser",slug:"javier-del-ser",fullName:"Javier Del Ser",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49813/images/system/49813.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Javier Del Ser received his first PhD in Telecommunication Engineering (Cum Laude) from the University of Navarra, Spain, in 2006, and a second PhD in Computational Intelligence (Summa Cum Laude) from the University of Alcala, Spain, in 2013. He is currently a principal researcher in data analytics and optimisation at TECNALIA (Spain), a visiting fellow at the Basque Center for Applied Mathematics (BCAM) and a part-time lecturer at the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU). His research interests gravitate on the use of descriptive, prescriptive and predictive algorithms for data mining and optimization in a diverse range of application fields such as Energy, Transport, Telecommunications, Health and Industry, among others. In these fields he has published more than 240 articles, co-supervised 8 Ph.D. theses, edited 6 books, coauthored 7 patents and participated/led more than 40 research projects. He is a Senior Member of the IEEE, and a recipient of the Biscay Talent prize for his academic career.",institutionString:"Tecnalia Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"278948",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos Pedro",middleName:null,surname:"Gonçalves",slug:"carlos-pedro-goncalves",fullName:"Carlos Pedro Gonçalves",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRcmyQAC/Profile_Picture_1564224512145",biography:'Carlos Pedro Gonçalves (PhD) is an Associate Professor at Lusophone University of Humanities and Technologies and a researcher on Complexity Sciences, Quantum Technologies, Artificial Intelligence, Strategic Studies, Studies in Intelligence and Security, FinTech and Financial Risk Modeling. 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\r\n\tThe era of antibiotics led us to the illusion that the problem of bacterial infection is over. However, bacterial flexibility and adaptation mechanisms allow them to survive and grow in extreme conditions. The best example is the formation of a sophisticated society of bacteria defined as a biofilm. Understanding the mechanism of bacterial biofilm formation has changed our perception of the development of bacterial infection but successfully eradicating biofilm remains a challenge. Considering the above, it is not surprising that bacteria remain a major public health threat despite the development of many groups of antibiotics. Additionally, increasing prevalence of acquired antibiotic resistance forces us to realize that we are far from controlling the development of bacterial infections. On the other hand, many infections are endogenous and result from an unbalanced relationship between the host and the microorganism. The increasing use of immunosuppressants, such as chemotherapy or organ transplantation, increases the incidence of patients highly susceptible to bacterial infections in the population.
\r\n
\r\n\tThis topic will focus on the current challenges and advantages in the diagnosis and treatment of bacterial infections. We will discuss the host-microbiota relationship, the treatment of chronic infections due to biofilm formation, and the development of new diagnostic tools to rapidly distinguish between colonization and probable infection.
",annualVolume:11399,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/3.jpg",editor:{id:"205604",title:"Dr.",name:"Tomas",middleName:null,surname:"Jarzembowski",fullName:"Tomas Jarzembowski",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRKriQAG/Profile_Picture_2022-06-16T11:01:31.jpg",institutionString:"Medical University of Gdańsk, Poland",institution:null},editorTwo:{id:"484980",title:"Dr.",name:"Katarzyna",middleName:null,surname:"Garbacz",fullName:"Katarzyna Garbacz",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003St8TAQAZ/Profile_Picture_2022-07-07T09:45:16.jpg",institutionString:"Medical University of Gdańsk, Poland",institution:null},editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"190041",title:"Dr.",name:"Jose",middleName:null,surname:"Gutierrez Fernandez",fullName:"Jose Gutierrez Fernandez",profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Granada",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"156556",title:"Prof.",name:"Maria Teresa",middleName:null,surname:"Mascellino",fullName:"Maria Teresa Mascellino",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/156556/images/system/156556.jpg",institutionString:"Sapienza University",institution:{name:"Sapienza University of Rome",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},{id:"164933",title:"Prof.",name:"Mónica Alexandra",middleName:null,surname:"Sousa Oleastro",fullName:"Mónica Alexandra Sousa Oleastro",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/164933/images/system/164933.jpeg",institutionString:"National Institute of Health Dr Ricardo Jorge",institution:{name:"National Institute of Health Dr. Ricardo Jorge",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}}]},{id:"4",title:"Fungal Infectious Diseases",keywords:"Emerging Fungal Pathogens, Invasive Infections, Epidemiology, Cell Membrane, Fungal Virulence, Diagnosis, Treatment",scope:"Fungi are ubiquitous and there are almost no non-pathogenic fungi. Fungal infectious illness prevalence and prognosis are determined by the exposure between fungi and host, host immunological state, fungal virulence, and early and accurate diagnosis and treatment. \r\nPatients with both congenital and acquired immunodeficiency are more likely to be infected with opportunistic mycosis. Fungal infectious disease outbreaks are common during the post- disaster rebuilding era, which is characterised by high population density, migration, and poor health and medical conditions.\r\nSystemic or local fungal infection is mainly associated with the fungi directly inhaled or inoculated in the environment during the disaster. The most common fungal infection pathways are human to human (anthropophilic), animal to human (zoophilic), and environment to human (soilophile). Diseases are common as a result of widespread exposure to pathogenic fungus dispersed into the environment. \r\nFungi that are both common and emerging are intertwined. In Southeast Asia, for example, Talaromyces marneffei is an important pathogenic thermally dimorphic fungus that causes systemic mycosis. Widespread fungal infections with complicated and variable clinical manifestations, such as Candida auris infection resistant to several antifungal medicines, Covid-19 associated with Trichoderma, and terbinafine resistant dermatophytosis in India, are among the most serious disorders. \r\nInappropriate local or systemic use of glucocorticoids, as well as their immunosuppressive effects, may lead to changes in fungal infection spectrum and clinical characteristics. Hematogenous candidiasis is a worrisome issue that affects people all over the world, particularly ICU patients. CARD9 deficiency and fungal infection have been major issues in recent years. Invasive aspergillosis is associated with a significant death rate. Special attention should be given to endemic fungal infections, identification of important clinical fungal infections advanced in yeasts, filamentous fungal infections, skin mycobiome and fungal genomes, and immunity to fungal infections.\r\nIn addition, endemic fungal diseases or uncommon fungal infections caused by Mucor irregularis, dermatophytosis, Malassezia, cryptococcosis, chromoblastomycosis, coccidiosis, blastomycosis, histoplasmosis, sporotrichosis, and other fungi, should be monitored. \r\nThis topic includes the research progress on the etiology and pathogenesis of fungal infections, new methods of isolation and identification, rapid detection, drug sensitivity testing, new antifungal drugs, schemes and case series reports. It will provide significant opportunities and support for scientists, clinical doctors, mycologists, antifungal drug researchers, public health practitioners, and epidemiologists from all over the world to share new research, ideas and solutions to promote the development and progress of medical mycology.",annualVolume:11400,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/4.jpg",editor:{id:"174134",title:"Dr.",name:"Yuping",middleName:null,surname:"Ran",fullName:"Yuping Ran",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bS9d6QAC/Profile_Picture_1630330675373",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sichuan University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"302145",title:"Dr.",name:"Felix",middleName:null,surname:"Bongomin",fullName:"Felix Bongomin",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/302145/images/system/302145.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Gulu University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Uganda"}}},{id:"45803",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Payam",middleName:null,surname:"Behzadi",fullName:"Payam Behzadi",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/45803/images/system/45803.jpg",institutionString:"Islamic Azad University, Tehran",institution:{name:"Islamic Azad University, Tehran",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Iran"}}}]},{id:"5",title:"Parasitic Infectious Diseases",keywords:"Blood Borne Parasites, Intestinal Parasites, Protozoa, Helminths, Arthropods, Water Born Parasites, Epidemiology, Molecular Biology, Systematics, Genomics, Proteomics, Ecology",scope:"Parasitic diseases have evolved alongside their human hosts. In many cases, these diseases have adapted so well that they have developed efficient resilience methods in the human host and can live in the host for years. Others, particularly some blood parasites, can cause very acute diseases and are responsible for millions of deaths yearly. Many parasitic diseases are classified as neglected tropical diseases because they have received minimal funding over recent years and, in many cases, are under-reported despite the critical role they play in morbidity and mortality among human and animal hosts. The current topic, Parasitic Infectious Diseases, in the Infectious Diseases Series aims to publish studies on the systematics, epidemiology, molecular biology, genomics, pathogenesis, genetics, and clinical significance of parasitic diseases from blood borne to intestinal parasites as well as zoonotic parasites. We hope to cover all aspects of parasitic diseases to provide current and relevant research data on these very important diseases. In the current atmosphere of the Coronavirus pandemic, communities around the world, particularly those in different underdeveloped areas, are faced with the growing challenges of the high burden of parasitic diseases. At the same time, they are faced with the Covid-19 pandemic leading to what some authors have called potential syndemics that might worsen the outcome of such infections. Therefore, it is important to conduct studies that examine parasitic infections in the context of the coronavirus pandemic for the benefit of all communities to help foster more informed decisions for the betterment of human and animal health.",annualVolume:11401,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/5.jpg",editor:{id:"67907",title:"Dr.",name:"Amidou",middleName:null,surname:"Samie",fullName:"Amidou Samie",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/67907/images/system/67907.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Venda",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"South Africa"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"188881",title:"Dr.",name:"Fernando José",middleName:null,surname:"Andrade-Narváez",fullName:"Fernando José Andrade-Narváez",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRIV7QAO/Profile_Picture_1628834308121",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Yucatán",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"269120",title:"Dr.",name:"Rajeev",middleName:"K.",surname:"Tyagi",fullName:"Rajeev Tyagi",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRaBqQAK/Profile_Picture_1644331884726",institutionString:"CSIR - Institute of Microbial Technology, India",institution:null},{id:"336849",title:"Prof.",name:"Ricardo",middleName:null,surname:"Izurieta",fullName:"Ricardo Izurieta",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/293169/images/system/293169.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of South Florida",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]},{id:"6",title:"Viral Infectious Diseases",keywords:"Novel Viruses, Virus Transmission, Virus Evolution, Molecular Virology, Control and Prevention, Virus-host Interaction",scope:"The Viral Infectious Diseases Book Series aims to provide a comprehensive overview of recent research trends and discoveries in various viral infectious diseases emerging around the globe. The emergence of any viral disease is hard to anticipate, which often contributes to death. A viral disease can be defined as an infectious disease that has recently appeared within a population or exists in nature with the rapid expansion of incident or geographic range. This series will focus on various crucial factors related to emerging viral infectious diseases, including epidemiology, pathogenesis, host immune response, clinical manifestations, diagnosis, treatment, and clinical recommendations for managing viral infectious diseases, highlighting the recent issues with future directions for effective therapeutic strategies.",annualVolume:11402,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/6.jpg",editor:{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"188773",title:"Prof.",name:"Emmanuel",middleName:null,surname:"Drouet",fullName:"Emmanuel Drouet",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/188773/images/system/188773.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Grenoble Alpes University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"188219",title:"Prof.",name:"Imran",middleName:null,surname:"Shahid",fullName:"Imran Shahid",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/188219/images/system/188219.jpeg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Umm al-Qura University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"214235",title:"Dr.",name:"Lynn",middleName:"S.",surname:"Zijenah",fullName:"Lynn Zijenah",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSEJGQA4/Profile_Picture_1636699126852",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Zimbabwe",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Zimbabwe"}}},{id:"178641",title:"Dr.",name:"Samuel Ikwaras",middleName:null,surname:"Okware",fullName:"Samuel Ikwaras Okware",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178641/images/system/178641.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Uganda Christian University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Uganda"}}}]}]}},libraryRecommendation:{success:null,errors:{},institutions:[]},route:{name:"profile.detail",path:"/profiles/15420",hash:"",query:{},params:{id:"15420"},fullPath:"/profiles/15420",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var e;(e=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(e)}()