\\n\\n
These books synthesize perspectives of renowned scientists from the world’s most prestigious institutions - from Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute in Japan to Stanford University in the United States, including Columbia University (US), University of Sidney (AU), University of Miami (USA), Cardiff University (UK), and many others.
\\n\\nThis collaboration embodied the true essence of Open Access by simplifying the approach to OA publishing for Academic editors and authors who contributed their research and allowed the new research to be made available free and open to anyone anywhere in the world.
\\n\\nTo celebrate the 50 books published, we have gathered them at one location - just one click away, so that you can easily browse the subjects of your interest, download the content directly, share it or read online.
\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:null},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched formed a partnership to support researchers working in engineering sciences by enabling an easier approach to publishing Open Access content. Using the Knowledge Unlatched crowdfunding model to raise the publishing costs through libraries around the world, Open Access Publishing Fee (OAPF) was not required from the authors.
\n\nInitially, the partnership supported engineering research, but it soon grew to include physical and life sciences, attracting more researchers to the advantages of Open Access publishing.
\n\n\n\nThese books synthesize perspectives of renowned scientists from the world’s most prestigious institutions - from Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute in Japan to Stanford University in the United States, including Columbia University (US), University of Sidney (AU), University of Miami (USA), Cardiff University (UK), and many others.
\n\nThis collaboration embodied the true essence of Open Access by simplifying the approach to OA publishing for Academic editors and authors who contributed their research and allowed the new research to be made available free and open to anyone anywhere in the world.
\n\nTo celebrate the 50 books published, we have gathered them at one location - just one click away, so that you can easily browse the subjects of your interest, download the content directly, share it or read online.
\n\n\n\n\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"8178",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Water Chemistry",title:"Water Chemistry",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Water, which plays an important role in every aspect of our daily lives, is the most valuable natural resource we have on this planet. Drinking, bathing, cooking, regeneration, cleaning, production, energy, and many other uses of water originate from some of its versatile, useful, basic, and unique features. The access, purification, and reuse of water on our planet, which is of course not endless and not available for direct use, is directly related to the water chemistry that explores its inimitable properties. This book includes research on water chemistry-related applications in environmental management and sustainable environmental issues such as water and wastewater treatment, water quality management, and other similar topics. The book consists of three sections, namely, water treatment, wastewater treatment, and water splitting, respectively, and includes 11 chapters. In these chapters, water-wastewater remediation methods, nanomaterials in water treatment, and water splitting processes are comprehensively reviewed in terms of water chemistry.The editors would like to record their sincere thanks to the authors for their contributions.",isbn:"978-1-78985-558-6",printIsbn:"978-1-78985-557-9",pdfIsbn:"978-1-78985-429-9",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.78128",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"water-chemistry",numberOfPages:250,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"18595695f271583e06b7c2d33b670e56",bookSignature:"Murat Eyvaz and Ebubekir Yüksel",publishedDate:"February 5th 2020",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8178.jpg",numberOfDownloads:13017,numberOfWosCitations:7,numberOfCrossrefCitations:27,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:61,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:1,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:95,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"February 5th 2019",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"April 12th 2019",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"June 11th 2019",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"August 30th 2019",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"October 29th 2019",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"170083",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Murat",middleName:null,surname:"Eyvaz",slug:"murat-eyvaz",fullName:"Murat Eyvaz",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/170083/images/system/170083.png",biography:"Dr. Murat Eyvaz is an associate professor in the Environmental Engineering Department, Gebze Technical University, Turkey. His research interests include applications in water and wastewater treatment facilities, electrochemical treatment processes, filtration systems at the lab and pilot-scale, membrane processes (forward osmosis, reverse osmosis, membrane bioreactors), membrane manufacturing methods (polymeric membranes, nanofiber membranes, electrospinning), spectrophotometric analyses (UV, atomic absorption spectrophotometry), chromatographic analyses (gas chromatography, high-pressure liquid chromatography). He has co-authored many journal articles and conference papers and has taken part in many national projects. He serves as an editor and reviewer for many indexed journals. Dr. Eyvaz has four patents on wastewater treatment systems.",institutionString:"Gebze Technical University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"5",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"7",institution:{name:"Gebze Technical University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:{id:"176701",title:"Prof.",name:"Ebubekir",middleName:null,surname:"Yüksel",slug:"ebubekir-yuksel",fullName:"Ebubekir Yüksel",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/176701/images/system/176701.png",biography:"Prof. Ebubekir Yüksel is a faculty member of the Environmental Engineering Department, Gebze Technical University, Turkey. His research interests include applications in water and wastewater treatment facilities, electrochemical treatment processes, filtration systems at the lab and pilot-scale, watershed management, flood control, deep-sea discharges, membrane processes, spectrophotometric analyses, chromatographic analyses, and geographic information systems. He has co-authored numerous journal articles and conference papers and has taken part in many national projects. He has produced more than thirty peer-reviewed publications in indexed journals. He has one patent on pump/turbine design and four patents on wastewater treatment systems.",institutionString:"Gebze Technical University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"4",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Gebze Technical University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"127",title:"Environmental Chemistry",slug:"environmental-sciences-environmental-chemistry"}],chapters:[{id:"67607",title:"Suitability and Assessment of Surface Water for Irrigation Purpose",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.86651",slug:"suitability-and-assessment-of-surface-water-for-irrigation-purpose",totalDownloads:943,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:4,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Surface water is an important resource that can create tensions between different countries sharing the same water sources to know that the agriculture is considered as the last sector that exploits less water compared to the industry which uses very large water quantities. The future strategies of agricultural development in the most of these countries depend on the ability to maintain, improve and expand irrigated agriculture. In this light, this chapter is written in the way to show some steps of the evaluation of surface water for irrigation purpose. The results obtained from this research make it possible to evaluate the suitability of surface water for irrigation and to draw useful recommendations for dam managers and farmers.",signatures:"Ammar Tiri, Lazhar Belkhiri, Mammeri Asma and Lotfi Mouni",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/67607",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/67607",authors:[{id:"214668",title:"Dr.",name:"Ammar",surname:"Tiri",slug:"ammar-tiri",fullName:"Ammar Tiri"},{id:"289827",title:"Dr.",name:"Belkhiri",surname:"Lazhar",slug:"belkhiri-lazhar",fullName:"Belkhiri Lazhar"},{id:"289828",title:"Ms.",name:"Mammeri",surname:"Asma",slug:"mammeri-asma",fullName:"Mammeri Asma"},{id:"289830",title:"Dr.",name:"Mouni",surname:"Loutfi",slug:"mouni-loutfi",fullName:"Mouni Loutfi"}],corrections:null},{id:"68502",title:"Water Chemical Remediation for Simultaneous Removal of Phosphate Ion and Blue-Green Algae From Anthropogenically Eutrophied Pond",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.88490",slug:"water-chemical-remediation-for-simultaneous-removal-of-phosphate-ion-and-blue-green-algae-from-anthr",totalDownloads:911,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Recent organic pollution is caused primarily by the decay of blue-green algae, Microcystis aeruginosa, which is seriously multiplied due to phosphorus-based anthropogenic eutrophication. In eutrophic water, the phenomenon of pH rising in the surface water occurs due to photosynthesis by M. aeruginosa (rising over pH 10). Such pH value is enough to produce calcium phosphate precipitation. The M. aeruginosa cells form colonies and have the outer layer of which is surrounded by a gelatinous sheath. Thus, we considered simultaneous removal of phosphate ion and blue-green algae using calcium chloride from water surface of eutrophic pond. In the present chapter, a simultaneous removal method employing water chemical remediation (WCR) is described. In this method, a flow system was constructed by equipment of a calcium chloride injector and a sand filtration column. As a result, both calcium phosphate and agglutinated algae could be removed from the eutrophic pond water. These water nutrients are removed, phosphorus is concerned about exhaustion as a resource, and the collected algae can be used in various ways as biomass resources. Thus, our system showed the future ability to improve water quality, to remove contaminants, and to recover nutrients from eutrophic water.",signatures:"Hideaki Nakamura",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/68502",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/68502",authors:[{id:"301766",title:"Dr.",name:"Hideaki",surname:"Nakamura",slug:"hideaki-nakamura",fullName:"Hideaki Nakamura"}],corrections:null},{id:"68571",title:"Pollution of Water Sources from Agricultural and Industrial Effluents: Special Attention to NO3ˉ, Cr(VI), and Cu(II)",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.86921",slug:"pollution-of-water-sources-from-agricultural-and-industrial-effluents-special-attention-to-no-sub-3-",totalDownloads:1018,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:9,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"One of the most important challenges facing humanity today is to conserve and sustain water resources (either surface water or groundwater). This challenge became more pronounced with the increase of urban, agricultural, and industrial activities that discharge a considerable amount of wastewater. Therefore, the preservation of water sources from pollutants is a major concern, shared by all, public, industrial, scientific, researchers, and decision-makers. This chapter analyzes in more detail the pollution and pollutants caused by agricultural and industrial activities. Particular attention is given to pollution via nitrogen and heavy metals (NO3−, Cr(VI), and Cu(II)) in either international or national level. The effect of these pollutants on human health and environment, their standards/regulations, and the different current methods used for their detection and treatment are all discussed in the chapter.",signatures:"Majda Breida, Saad Alami Younssi, Mohamed Ouammou, Mohamed Bouhria and Mahmoud Hafsi",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/68571",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/68571",authors:[{id:"238951",title:"Prof.",name:"Saad",surname:"Alami Younssi",slug:"saad-alami-younssi",fullName:"Saad Alami Younssi"},{id:"244049",title:"Ms.",name:"Majda",surname:"Breida",slug:"majda-breida",fullName:"Majda Breida"},{id:"303258",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohamed",surname:"Ouammou",slug:"mohamed-ouammou",fullName:"Mohamed Ouammou"},{id:"303259",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohamed",surname:"Bouhria",slug:"mohamed-bouhria",fullName:"Mohamed Bouhria"},{id:"303260",title:"Dr.",name:"Mahmoud",surname:"Hafsi",slug:"mahmoud-hafsi",fullName:"Mahmoud Hafsi"}],corrections:null},{id:"67735",title:"Modeling Accumulated Evapotranspiration Over Time",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.86913",slug:"modeling-accumulated-evapotranspiration-over-time",totalDownloads:714,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The knowledge of accumulated evapotranspiration by seasonal vegetation crops throughout their life cycle can be an important tool in decision-making when considering the economic viability of the crop. This knowledge can help understand how much the plants, subject to specific management, can evapotranspirate at the end of their cycle. This information assists in estimating the quantity of a production variable, for example, the mass of shoot fresh matter, besides indicating a more interesting period for its harvest. The objective of this chapter is, from the daily evapotranspiration estimative throughout the cycle, to model the accumulated evapotranspiration over the entire growth period of the crop. In order to do so, we must understand that the behavior of the response variable, i.e., the accumulated evapotranspiration, over time is not linear and keep in mind that the several observations performed in the same experimental unit have correlations and these correlations are more intense the closer temporally the measurements are. This understanding leads us to the analysis of longitudinal data from the nonlinear mixed effect models perspective.",signatures:"Omar Cléo Neves Pereira and Altair Bertonha",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/67735",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/67735",authors:[{id:"294695",title:"Dr.",name:"Omar Cléo",surname:"Pereira",slug:"omar-cleo-pereira",fullName:"Omar Cléo Pereira"},{id:"302645",title:"Dr.",name:"Altair",surname:"Bertonha",slug:"altair-bertonha",fullName:"Altair Bertonha"}],corrections:null},{id:"68365",title:"Sustainability Assessment of Wastewater Treatment Plants",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.88338",slug:"sustainability-assessment-of-wastewater-treatment-plants",totalDownloads:739,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"It is thought that this chapter will make a significant contribution to the literature or at least will fill the space on the wastewater treatment plant’s effect on climate change. It demonstrates the potential climate change impact of a sequential batch reactor (SBR) and constructed wetland on treating domestic wastewater by giving methods for calculation of their greenhouse gas emissions in terms of N2O and CH4. Are wastewater treatment plants sustainable? What aspects determine sustainability? Do tertiary wastewater treatment plants and constructed wetlands (CWs) have less global warming potential (CO2 emissions) and less energy use than conventional treatment? In accordance with the literature, greenhouse gas calculations of this study showed that CWs and SBR WWTPs do not contribute to global warming negatively.",signatures:"Başak Kiliç Taşeli",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/68365",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/68365",authors:[{id:"302014",title:"Prof.",name:"Başak",surname:"Kılıç Taşeli",slug:"basak-kilic-taseli",fullName:"Başak Kılıç Taşeli"}],corrections:null},{id:"67637",title:"The Use of Industrial Waste for the Bioremediation of Water Used in Industrial Processes",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.86803",slug:"the-use-of-industrial-waste-for-the-bioremediation-of-water-used-in-industrial-processes",totalDownloads:906,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Recently the interest in the remediation of liquid effluents from industries such as paint manufacturing, leather tanning, etc. has increased, because the quality of the water used in these processes is highly compromised and is generally discarded without any process of purification, causing an inadequate use of water and contributing to the hydric stress of the planet. Therefore, it is necessary to find alternatives for the remediation of water used in industrial processes; one of the methods that has been widely accepted given its high efficiency, low cost, and versatility compared to others is the bioadsorption using materials derived from various processes used for the elimination of metals such as Cr, Co, Cu, Ni, etc. from liquid effluents. Among the materials used for this purpose are rice husk, orange, and wheat as well as apatite (hydroxyapatite and brushite), derived from animal bones, which have shown good capacity (>90%) to adsorb metals from aqueous solutions. Through the characterization by DRX, FTIR, and SEM, of the brushite and studies in equilibrium and kinetics of adsorption, it has been demonstrated that this material has a good capacity to remove metals present in water.",signatures:"Rosa Hernández-Soto, José A. Hernández, Alba N. Ardila-Arias, Mercedes Salazar-Hernández and María del Carmen Salazar-Hernandeza",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/67637",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/67637",authors:[{id:"191277",title:"Prof.",name:"Mercedes",surname:"Salazar-Hernández",slug:"mercedes-salazar-hernandez",fullName:"Mercedes Salazar-Hernández"},{id:"194827",title:"Dr.",name:"Carmen",surname:"Salazar-Hernández",slug:"carmen-salazar-hernandez",fullName:"Carmen Salazar-Hernández"},{id:"296566",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosa",surname:"Hernández-Soto",slug:"rosa-hernandez-soto",fullName:"Rosa Hernández-Soto"},{id:"296684",title:"Prof.",name:"José Alfredo",surname:"Hernámdez-Maldonado",slug:"jose-alfredo-hernamdez-maldonado",fullName:"José Alfredo Hernámdez-Maldonado"},{id:"296800",title:"Dr.",name:"Alba N.",surname:"Ardilas",slug:"alba-n.-ardilas",fullName:"Alba N. Ardilas"}],corrections:null},{id:"70455",title:"Contamination of Water Resources by Food Dyes and Its Removal Technologies",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.90331",slug:"contamination-of-water-resources-by-food-dyes-and-its-removal-technologies",totalDownloads:1112,totalCrossrefCites:12,totalDimensionsCites:25,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Food dyes comprise different groups which impart color to a wide range of food products. Food products are mainly purchased and consumed by people because they are nutritive and flavorsome and have an attractive color. Food color stimulates appetite and enhances its esthetic appeal of food on table for customer. With sky rocketing industrialization and modernization, the worldwide production of dyes in 2010 was forecasted to be 2.1 metric tons. It has been estimated that 15% of total dyes produced worldwide are discharged to water bodies which adversely affect aquatic ecosystem. Dyes in water reduces its transparency, thereby declining light penetration in the water, hence influencing photosynthesis which consequently reduces dissolved oxygen which is an alarming situation for both aquatic flora and fauna. Dyes wastewater discharged from huge number of industries like textile, leathers, paint, food, pharmaceutical etc. and deteriorating the aquatic environment and pose threat to living organism. The presence of dye molecules in water channels is an emerging alarm to an environmental scientist. An environmental friendly and self-sustainable treatment method should be explored to address this problem. Therefore, this work elaborates the various methods used for removal and degradation of dyes in water, although some processes have a common shortcoming like production of secondary pollution to the environment. This chapter have tried to highlight the important application of food dyes, their contamination and their toxic effect. Herein we also focus on remediation techniques like separation (adsorption, filtration, etc.) and degradation (chemical, biological and electrochemical oxidation) of dyes in aqueous solution. The mechanism and pros and cons of different methods are explored and discussed briefly.",signatures:"Sajjad Hussain, Nadeem Khan, Saima Gul, Sabir Khan and Hammad Khan",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/70455",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/70455",authors:[{id:"277306",title:"Dr.",name:"Sabir",surname:"Khan",slug:"sabir-khan",fullName:"Sabir Khan"},{id:"300798",title:"Dr.",name:"Sajjad",surname:"Hussain",slug:"sajjad-hussain",fullName:"Sajjad Hussain"},{id:"309481",title:"Dr.",name:"Saima",surname:"Gul",slug:"saima-gul",fullName:"Saima Gul"},{id:"309482",title:"MSc.",name:"Nadeem",surname:"Khan",slug:"nadeem-khan",fullName:"Nadeem Khan"},{id:"314514",title:"Dr.",name:"Hammad",surname:"Khan",slug:"hammad-khan",fullName:"Hammad Khan"}],corrections:null},{id:"67837",title:"Bi-Functionalized Hybrid Materials as Novel Adsorbents for Heavy Metal Removal from Aqueous Solution: Batch and Fixed-Bed Techniques",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.86802",slug:"bi-functionalized-hybrid-materials-as-novel-adsorbents-for-heavy-metal-removal-from-aqueous-solution",totalDownloads:883,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"In this study, two new mesoporous hybrid gels were synthesized. The structural order, morphology, and textural properties of the prepared hybrid materials have been studied by 13C CP MAS NMR, SEM, FTIR, and nitrogen adsorption–desorption analysis. The application for the heavy metal uptake from aqueous solution using the as-synthesized hybrid materials as an adsorbent is explored. Operating parameters influencing the adsorption procedure, for instance, solution pH, contact time, and temperature are contemplated. In order to gain an insight into the adsorption mechanism and reveal the rate-controlling steps, three models pseudo-first-order, pseudo-second-order, and intra-particle diffusion have been studied to fit. Langmuir, Freundlich, and Dubinin-Radushkevich (D-R) models are assigned to portray the adsorption isotherms. Besides, the feasibility of the synthesized adsorbents for a continuous process in fixed-bed column was investigated. Prior tests produced on electroplating effluents reveal that the as-prepared xerogel could be strongly used for the heavy metal uptake from real wastewater.",signatures:"Yasser Hannachi, Afifa Hafidh and Salwa Ayed",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/67837",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/67837",authors:[{id:"297155",title:"Prof.",name:"Hannachi",surname:"Yasser",slug:"hannachi-yasser",fullName:"Hannachi Yasser"},{id:"297157",title:"Prof.",name:"Hafidh",surname:"Afifa",slug:"hafidh-afifa",fullName:"Hafidh Afifa"},{id:"302006",title:"Dr.",name:"Ayed",surname:"Salwa",slug:"ayed-salwa",fullName:"Ayed Salwa"}],corrections:null},{id:"68671",title:"Formulation of Corrosion Inhibitors",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.88533",slug:"formulation-of-corrosion-inhibitors",totalDownloads:2761,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:9,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Corrosion inhibitors are widely used in the production process due to their significant effect. In this chapter, the formulation of typical corrosion inhibitors in acid solution, near-neutral solution, alkaline solution, and oil and gas systems will be discussed, respectively. Firstly, the importance of pickling corrosion inhibitors for thermal equipment in industrial production in different situations is discussed in the “Inhibitors for acid solution” section, and the types of pickling inhibitors are mainly applied in different kinds of acid media, such as sulfuric acid, hydrochloric acid, nitric acid, phosphoric acid, hydrofluoric acid, citric acid, and sulfamic acid. Secondly, in the “Inhibitors for near-neutral solution” section, the cooling water inhibitors principally include chromate, stabilized phosphate, alkaline zinc/organic, molybdate, all organic, soft and lean water, and environmental and closed-loop programs. The hot-water inhibitor is also mentioned here. Then in the “Inhibitors for alkaline solution” section, boiler water inhibitor, oxygen scavenger, and corrosion inhibitors for condensate line are talked over. Finally, in the “Inhibition for oil and gas systems” section, drilling fluid, fracturing acidizing, oil and gas well, and oil field which produced water treatment inhibitors are introduced here. The corrosion inhibition mechanism and development trend of inhibitors are also discussed.",signatures:"Yun Chen and Wenzhong Yang",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/68671",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/68671",authors:[{id:"299905",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Yun",surname:"Chen",slug:"yun-chen",fullName:"Yun Chen"},{id:"300440",title:"Prof.",name:"Wenzhong",surname:"Yang",slug:"wenzhong-yang",fullName:"Wenzhong Yang"}],corrections:null},{id:"69592",title:"On the Limits of Photocatalytic Water Splitting",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.89235",slug:"on-the-limits-of-photocatalytic-water-splitting",totalDownloads:1376,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The major drawbacks on the limited H2 and O2 evolution activities of one-step photocatalytic water splitting systems are given here with the emphasis on charge recombination, back-oxidation reactions, and mass transfer limitations. Suppression of these unwanted phenomena is shown to be possible with the usage of small crystal-sized photocatalysts with low defect concentrations, presence of phase junctions, selection of co-catalyst that would be active for H2 evolution but inactive for O2 reduction, coating of the co-catalyst or the whole photocatalyst with selectively permeable nanolayers, and usage of photocatalytic systems with high solid–liquid and liquid–gas surface areas. The mass transfer limitations are shown to be important especially in the liquid–gas interfaces for agitated and suspended systems with estimated H2 transfer rates in the range of ∼200–8000 μmol/h.",signatures:"Bahar Ipek and Deniz Uner",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/69592",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/69592",authors:[{id:"68248",title:"Prof.",name:"Deniz",surname:"Uner",slug:"deniz-uner",fullName:"Deniz Uner"},{id:"299212",title:"Dr.",name:"Bahar",surname:"Ipek",slug:"bahar-ipek",fullName:"Bahar Ipek"}],corrections:null},{id:"68442",title:"Water Splitting Electrocatalysis within Layered Inorganic Nanomaterials",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.88116",slug:"water-splitting-electrocatalysis-within-layered-inorganic-nanomaterials",totalDownloads:900,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:5,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"The conversion of solar energy into chemical fuel is one of the “Holy Grails” of twenty-first century chemistry. Solar energy can be used to split water into oxygen and protons, which are then used to make hydrogen fuel. Nature is able to catalyze both the oxygen evolution reaction (OER) and the hydrogen evolution reaction (HER) required for the conversion of solar energy into chemical fuel through the employment of enzymes that are composed of inexpensive transition metals. Instead of using expensive catalysts such as platinum, cheaper alternatives (such as cobalt, iron, or nickel) would provide the opportunity to make solar energy competitive with fossil fuels. However, obtaining efficient catalysts based on earth-abundant materials is still a daunting task. In this chapter, we review the advancements made with zirconium phosphate (ZrP) as a support for earth-abundant transition metals for the OER. Our studies have found that ZrP is a suitable support for transition metals as it provides an accessible surface where the OER can occur. Further findings have also shown that exfoliation of ZrP increases the availability of sites where active species can be adsorbed and performance is improved with this strategy.",signatures:"Mario V. Ramos-Garcés, Joel Sanchez, Isabel Barraza Alvarez, Yanyu Wu, Dino Villagrán, Thomas F. Jaramillo and Jorge L. Colón",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/68442",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/68442",authors:[{id:"298832",title:"Prof.",name:"Jorge",surname:"Colón",slug:"jorge-colon",fullName:"Jorge Colón"},{id:"305771",title:"Mr.",name:"Mario",surname:"Ramos-Garcés",slug:"mario-ramos-garces",fullName:"Mario Ramos-Garcés"},{id:"305876",title:"Mr.",name:"Joel",surname:"Sanchez",slug:"joel-sanchez",fullName:"Joel Sanchez"},{id:"305878",title:"Ms.",name:"Isabel",surname:"Barraza-Alvarez",slug:"isabel-barraza-alvarez",fullName:"Isabel Barraza-Alvarez"},{id:"305879",title:"Dr.",name:"Yanyu",surname:"Wu",slug:"yanyu-wu",fullName:"Yanyu Wu"},{id:"305880",title:"Dr.",name:"Dino",surname:"Villagrán",slug:"dino-villagran",fullName:"Dino Villagrán"},{id:"305881",title:"Dr.",name:"Thomas",surname:"Jaramillo",slug:"thomas-jaramillo",fullName:"Thomas Jaramillo"}],corrections:null},{id:"70398",title:"Strategies in Absorbing Materials Productivity (H2O) of Renewable Energy Utilization by a Solar Still to Enhancement of Water Flowing over Glass Cover with the Influence of PCM and Nanoparticles",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.88114",slug:"strategies-in-absorbing-materials-productivity-h-sub-2-sub-o-of-renewable-energy-utilization-by-a-so",totalDownloads:759,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The solar thermal applications existing to investigative relationships of absorbing materials of water flowing over glass cover through the influence of PCM and nanoparticles for the enhancement of a single-slope single-basin solar still are presented and discussed. The results are compared with and without PCM and nanoparticles summer days for a conventional solar still. Numerically designed and experimental annotations have been written for the investigative solutions for the temperature of flowing water, glass cover, absorbing materials (FWCW and FWJW) and PCM and nanoparticles basin liner, respectively. The 24 h distillate manufacture rate of the solar still has been enhanced to usage of drip button through pure saline water to absorptive influence of FWCW capability is 70.02% and during (24 hours) daily distillate harvest of FWCW is 9.429 kg/m2 day, water flowing glass cover influence is 13.37%, respectively. A solar still analysis of Fourier coefficients with (6 to −6) harmonics Fourier series has been used for enhancement, and it is found to be a good representation of the observed variation. It is a good treaty among theoretical and experimental annotations of the structure.",signatures:"S. Shanmugan",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/70398",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/70398",authors:[{id:"218278",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"S.",surname:"Dr. Shanmugan",slug:"s.-dr.-shanmugan",fullName:"S. Dr. Shanmugan"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:[{id:"65",label:"highly cited contributor"}]},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"6732",title:"Desalination and Water Treatment",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"eee2f03e0328f289e68fde28738c333f",slug:"desalination-and-water-treatment",bookSignature:"Murat Eyvaz and Ebubekir Yüksel",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6732.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"170083",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Murat",surname:"Eyvaz",slug:"murat-eyvaz",fullName:"Murat Eyvaz"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8804",title:"Water and Wastewater Treatment",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ccb46d6518786712b3184b2498fb0cab",slug:"water-and-wastewater-treatment",bookSignature:"Murat Eyvaz",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8804.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"170083",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Murat",surname:"Eyvaz",slug:"murat-eyvaz",fullName:"Murat Eyvaz"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6665",title:"Advances In Hydrogen Generation Technologies",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99ccb9f2118953ff45f33ec391868157",slug:"advances-in-hydrogen-generation-technologies",bookSignature:"Murat Eyvaz",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6665.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"170083",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Murat",surname:"Eyvaz",slug:"murat-eyvaz",fullName:"Murat Eyvaz"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7693",title:"Green Chemistry Applications",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9db61c9d52045d034f1ee6b769acccd5",slug:"green-chemistry-applications",bookSignature:"Murat Eyvaz and Ebubekir Yüksel",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7693.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"170083",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Murat",surname:"Eyvaz",slug:"murat-eyvaz",fullName:"Murat Eyvaz"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7237",title:"Energy-Efficient Approaches in Industrial Applications",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a7b403a3af7828987f078b91334839bb",slug:"energy-efficient-approaches-in-industrial-applications",bookSignature:"Murat Eyvaz, Abdülkerim Gok and Ebubekir Yüksel",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7237.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"170083",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Murat",surname:"Eyvaz",slug:"murat-eyvaz",fullName:"Murat Eyvaz"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6137",title:"Biosorption",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"3f1ce467c2d1349eb5b68d7aca025503",slug:"biosorption",bookSignature:"Jan Derco and Branislav Vrana",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6137.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"80852",title:"Prof.",name:"Jan",surname:"Derco",slug:"jan-derco",fullName:"Jan Derco"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8867",title:"Salt in the Earth",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"1cc787e2ea65a4de53b298023451c07e",slug:"salt-in-the-earth",bookSignature:"Mualla Cengiz Çinku and Savas Karabulut",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8867.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"199925",title:"Dr.",name:"Mualla",surname:"Cengiz",slug:"mualla-cengiz",fullName:"Mualla Cengiz"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7718",title:"Water Quality",subtitle:"Science, Assessments and Policy",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c7433952368240a0d55bfdcb148ff89e",slug:"water-quality-science-assessments-and-policy",bookSignature:"Kevin Summers",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7718.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"197485",title:"Dr.",name:"J. Kevin",surname:"Summers",slug:"j.-kevin-summers",fullName:"J. Kevin Summers"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10030",title:"Emerging Contaminants",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"cec08ab5f7b88e8dbe3c8541d3555121",slug:"emerging-contaminants",bookSignature:"Aurel Nuro",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10030.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"14427",title:"Dr.",name:"Aurel",surname:"Nuro",slug:"aurel-nuro",fullName:"Aurel Nuro"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophile",surname:"Theophanides",slug:"theophile-theophanides",fullName:"Theophile Theophanides"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],ofsBooks:[]},correction:{item:{id:"80612",slug:"corrigendum-to-risk-assessment-and-health-safety-and-environmental-management-of-carbon-nanomaterial",title:"Corrigendum to: Risk Assessment and Health, Safety, and Environmental Management of Carbon Nanomaterials",doi:null,correctionPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/80612.pdf",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/80612",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/80612",totalDownloads:null,totalCrossrefCites:null,bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/80612",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/80612",chapter:{id:"66689",slug:"risk-assessment-and-health-safety-and-environmental-management-of-carbon-nanomaterials",signatures:"Guilherme Lenz e Silva, Camila Viana, Danieli Domingues and Fernanda Vieira",dateSubmitted:null,dateReviewed:"February 26th 2019",datePrePublished:"April 11th 2019",datePublished:"February 19th 2020",book:{id:"8137",title:"Nanomaterials",subtitle:"Toxicity, Human Health and Environment",fullTitle:"Nanomaterials - Toxicity, Human Health and Environment",slug:"nanomaterials-toxicity-human-health-and-environment",publishedDate:"February 19th 2020",bookSignature:"Simona Clichici, Adriana Filip and Gustavo M. do Nascimento",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8137.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"64160",title:"Prof.",name:"Simona",middleName:null,surname:"Clichici",slug:"simona-clichici",fullName:"Simona Clichici"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"251730",title:"Dr.",name:"Guilherme",middleName:"Fredeico Bernardo",surname:"Lenz E Silva",fullName:"Guilherme Lenz E Silva",slug:"guilherme-lenz-e-silva",email:"guilhermelenz@usp.br",position:null,institution:null},{id:"286148",title:"Dr.",name:"Camila",middleName:null,surname:"Viana",fullName:"Camila Viana",slug:"camila-viana",email:"camilaoviana@gmail.com",position:null,institution:null},{id:"286149",title:"Dr.",name:"Fernanda",middleName:null,surname:"Vieira",fullName:"Fernanda Vieira",slug:"fernanda-vieira",email:"fevieira2001@gmail.com",position:null,institution:null},{id:"286151",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Danieli",middleName:"Silva",surname:"Domingues",fullName:"Danieli Domingues",slug:"danieli-domingues",email:"danielisilva@ymail.com",position:null,institution:null}]}},chapter:{id:"66689",slug:"risk-assessment-and-health-safety-and-environmental-management-of-carbon-nanomaterials",signatures:"Guilherme Lenz e Silva, Camila Viana, Danieli Domingues and Fernanda Vieira",dateSubmitted:null,dateReviewed:"February 26th 2019",datePrePublished:"April 11th 2019",datePublished:"February 19th 2020",book:{id:"8137",title:"Nanomaterials",subtitle:"Toxicity, Human Health and Environment",fullTitle:"Nanomaterials - Toxicity, Human Health and Environment",slug:"nanomaterials-toxicity-human-health-and-environment",publishedDate:"February 19th 2020",bookSignature:"Simona Clichici, Adriana Filip and Gustavo M. do Nascimento",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8137.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"64160",title:"Prof.",name:"Simona",middleName:null,surname:"Clichici",slug:"simona-clichici",fullName:"Simona Clichici"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"251730",title:"Dr.",name:"Guilherme",middleName:"Fredeico Bernardo",surname:"Lenz E Silva",fullName:"Guilherme Lenz E Silva",slug:"guilherme-lenz-e-silva",email:"guilhermelenz@usp.br",position:null,institution:null},{id:"286148",title:"Dr.",name:"Camila",middleName:null,surname:"Viana",fullName:"Camila Viana",slug:"camila-viana",email:"camilaoviana@gmail.com",position:null,institution:null},{id:"286149",title:"Dr.",name:"Fernanda",middleName:null,surname:"Vieira",fullName:"Fernanda Vieira",slug:"fernanda-vieira",email:"fevieira2001@gmail.com",position:null,institution:null},{id:"286151",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Danieli",middleName:"Silva",surname:"Domingues",fullName:"Danieli Domingues",slug:"danieli-domingues",email:"danielisilva@ymail.com",position:null,institution:null}]},book:{id:"8137",title:"Nanomaterials",subtitle:"Toxicity, Human Health and Environment",fullTitle:"Nanomaterials - Toxicity, Human Health and Environment",slug:"nanomaterials-toxicity-human-health-and-environment",publishedDate:"February 19th 2020",bookSignature:"Simona Clichici, Adriana Filip and Gustavo M. do Nascimento",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8137.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"64160",title:"Prof.",name:"Simona",middleName:null,surname:"Clichici",slug:"simona-clichici",fullName:"Simona Clichici"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}},ofsBook:{item:{type:"book",id:"11542",leadTitle:null,title:"Crude Oil - Emerging Downstream Processing Technologies",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"
\r\n\tDemand for crude oil plummeted and prices fell during the coronavirus lockdown. Now, the world economy is recovering and the fuel demand is increasing. Crude oil has been one of the major energy sources globally and crude oil-derived products always play a crucial role as fuel and feedstock for the petrochemical industry, which is irreplaceable pro tem.
\r\n\tWith the discovery of more unconventional heavier crude and alternative hydrocarbon sources, primary upgrading or cracking of the oil into lighter liquid fuel is critical. With increasing concern for environmental sustainability, the regulations on fuel specifications are becoming more stringent. Processing and treating crude oil into a cleaner oil with better quality is equally important. Hence, there has been a relentless and continuous effort to develop new crude upgrading and treating technologies, such as various catalytic systems for more economical and better system performance, as well as cleaner and higher-quality oil.
\r\n\tThis edited book aims to provide the reader with an overview of the state-of-the-art technologies of crude oil downstream processing which include the primary and secondary upgrading or treating processes covering desulfurization, denitrogenation, demetallation, and evidence-based developments in this area.
",isbn:"978-1-80356-681-8",printIsbn:"978-1-80356-680-1",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80356-682-5",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"808b0ddfb3b92e0636ae44a83ef7dbd9",bookSignature:"Dr. Ching Thian Tye",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11542.jpg",keywords:"Crude Oil Properties, Hydrocracking, Catalytic Cracking, Coking, Visbreaking, Thermal Cracking, Hydroprocessing, Hydrodesulfurization, Desulfurization, Denitrogenation, Demetallation, Dearomatization",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"March 22nd 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"April 19th 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"June 18th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"September 6th 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"November 5th 2022",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"2 months",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:4,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Associate professor at the School of Chemical Engineering in Universiti Sains Malaysia and dedicated researcher in fuel-related catalytic process and chemical reaction engineering. Dr. Tye serves on a review panel for international and national refereed journals, scientific proceedings as well as international grants.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"304947",title:"Dr.",name:"Ching Thian",middleName:null,surname:"Tye",slug:"ching-thian-tye",fullName:"Ching Thian Tye",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/304947/images/system/304947.jpg",biography:"Dr. Tye is an associate professor at the School of Chemical Engineering in Universiti Sains Malaysia. She received her doctoral degree at The University of British Columbia, Canada. She is working in the area of chemical reaction engineering and catalysis. She has been involved in projects to improve catalysis activities, system efficiency, as well as products quality via different upgrading and treating paths that are related to petroleum and unconventional oil such as heavy oil, used motor oil, spent tire pyrolysis oils as well as renewable resources like palm oil. She serves as a review panel for international & national refereed journals, scientific proceedings as well as international grants.",institutionString:"Universiti Sains Malaysia",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Universiti Sains Malaysia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Malaysia"}}}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"11",title:"Engineering",slug:"engineering"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"453623",firstName:"Silvia",lastName:"Sabo",middleName:null,title:"Mrs.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/453623/images/20396_n.jpg",email:"silvia@intechopen.com",biography:null}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"10198",title:"Response Surface Methodology in Engineering Science",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"1942bec30d40572f519327ca7a6d7aae",slug:"response-surface-methodology-in-engineering-science",bookSignature:"Palanikumar Kayaroganam",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10198.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"321730",title:"Prof.",name:"Palanikumar",surname:"Kayaroganam",slug:"palanikumar-kayaroganam",fullName:"Palanikumar Kayaroganam"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophile",surname:"Theophanides",slug:"theophile-theophanides",fullName:"Theophile Theophanides"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"371",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",subtitle:"Mechanisms and Adaptations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"588466f487e307619849d72389178a74",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-mechanisms-and-adaptations",bookSignature:"Arun Shanker and B. Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"314",title:"Regenerative Medicine and Tissue Engineering",subtitle:"Cells and Biomaterials",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"bb67e80e480c86bb8315458012d65686",slug:"regenerative-medicine-and-tissue-engineering-cells-and-biomaterials",bookSignature:"Daniel Eberli",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/314.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"6495",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniel",surname:"Eberli",slug:"daniel-eberli",fullName:"Daniel Eberli"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"57",title:"Physics and Applications of Graphene",subtitle:"Experiments",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0e6622a71cf4f02f45bfdd5691e1189a",slug:"physics-and-applications-of-graphene-experiments",bookSignature:"Sergey Mikhailov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/57.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"16042",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergey",surname:"Mikhailov",slug:"sergey-mikhailov",fullName:"Sergey Mikhailov"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1373",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Applications and Perspectives",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5e9ae5ae9167cde4b344e499a792c41c",slug:"ionic-liquids-applications-and-perspectives",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1373.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"2270",title:"Fourier Transform",subtitle:"Materials Analysis",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5e094b066da527193e878e160b4772af",slug:"fourier-transform-materials-analysis",bookSignature:"Salih Mohammed Salih",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2270.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"111691",title:"Dr.Ing.",name:"Salih",surname:"Salih",slug:"salih-salih",fullName:"Salih Salih"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"61159",title:"Introductory Chapter: Concepts of Tissue Regeneration",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.76996",slug:"introductory-chapter-concepts-of-tissue-regeneration",body:'\nRegeneration means the re-growth of part of the affected or lost organs of the remaining tissue. Animals can regenerate some organs, such as the liver. If a part of the liver is lost due to illness or injury, the liver grows back to its original size, but not in its original form.
\nDifferent species have significant capabilities to regenerate parts of the body or whole organism after injury (Figure 1), but a thorough understanding of the molecular basis of regeneration mechanisms will require detailed genomic resources.
\nThe amphibian renewal preceding amphibian growth may offer hints to humans. After amputation, the wound heals to form the skin layer, and the underlying tissue undergoes a matrix reshaping, and cells in the region secrete soluble factors. The heterogeneous cell mass, blastema, is formed by the proliferation and migration of cells from neighboring tissues. Next, the blastema leads to the appearance of different new tissues that are spatially plastered to reconstruct the structure of the original limb (credit: Lina et al. [
Cells are building units of tissues and organs and tissues are the basic unit of function in the body. In general, cells secrete their own support materials and structures, which are called an
Cells acquire messages through multiple sources that grow available from the local environment. Each signal can enhance or initiate a series of responses that decide what will happen to the cell. By understanding how individual cells react to signals, interact with their surrounding environment, and organize them into tissues and organisms, researchers can manipulate these processes to repair damaged tissue or even create new cells.
\nIn all organisms, a
A view of a eukaryotic gene, its control elements in the DNA and the proteins that guide the RNA polymerase to the correct starting point for transcription [
Tissues in the human organism are generated, maintained, and repopulated by
Induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) were first created from human cells in 2007. These are adult cells that have been genetically converted to an embryonic stem cell-like state [
Questions about how and why tissue regeneration attracts the attention of countless biologists, medical engineers, and doctors. Renewable capacity varies widely across organs and organisms and a range of model systems with different technical features and innovation strategies are studied. Several key issues common to natural regeneration are receiving new attention from improved models and approaches, including identification of innovative capacity; importance of stem cells, differentiation and differentiation; how regeneration signals begin and target; and mechanisms that control proliferation and renewed regeneration.
\nRegenerative medicine is a new branch of medicine that tries to change the course of chronic diseases, and in many cases, regenerates organ systems that fail due to age, disease, damage, or genetic defects. The area has quickly become one of the promising treatment options for patients with tissue failure. It also includes tissue engineering, but also involves the search for self-healing—the body uses its own systems, sometimes with the help of foreign biological materials to reconstitute cells and rebuild tissues and organs. The terms “
Tissue engineering is an emerging biomedical field aimed at helping to restore physical tissue defects to the point of self-repair as well as replacing the biological functions of damaged and injured members using cells with reproductive and differential abilities. In addition to basic research on these cells, there is no doubt that successful tissue engineering is indispensable for creating an artificial environment that enables cells to stimulate tissue regeneration. Such an environment can be achieved using scaffolds for cell proliferation, differentiation, and growth factors, as well as combining them. Growth factors are often required to promote tissue regeneration, as they can stimulate the formation of blood vessels, which supply oxygen and nutrients to the transplanted cells to replace the organ to maintain its biological functions.
\nIt requires functional platforms or scaffolds with specific properties concerning the morphology, chemistry of the surface, and interconnectivity to promote cell adhesion and proliferation. These requisites are not only important for cellular migration but also to supply nutrients and expulsion of waste molecules. Cell type must be considered when designing of using a specific cellular grown system as scaffold; for instance, if they are autologous, allogeneic, or xenogeneic. The challenge in tissue engineering is to develop an organized three-dimensional architecture with functional characteristics that mimic the extracellular matrix. In this regard, with the advent of nanotechnology, scaffolds are now being developed that meet most of the requisites.
\nThe technology of tissue engineering has evolved from the development of biological materials (biomaterials) and refers to the practice of combining scaffolds, cells, and biologically active molecules of functional tissues. The aim of tissue engineering is to gather functional structures that restore, maintain, or improve damaged tissues or full organs. Artificial engineered skin and cartilage tissues are examples that have been recently authorized by the FDA [2].
\nThe operation is usually initiated by building a scaffold from a wide range of potential sources, from proteins to plastics. When scaffolds are created, cells with or without a “mix” of growth factors can be introduced. Assuming that the environment is appropriate, the tissue grows. Sometimes, cells, scaffolds, and growth factors are mixed together simultaneously, giving the tissue the opportunity to “self-assemble” [2].
\nDifferent ways to create a new fabric or tissue is using the present scaffold. The donor tissue or organ cells are stripped and the maintained collagen scaffold is used to form a new tissue. A new tissue has been created in the biological engineering of the heart, liver, lungs, and kidney tissues in rat. This approach holds great promise for the use of scaffolds from human tissues that are discarded during surgery and integrated with the patient’s own cells for the work of dedicated members that cannot be rejected by the immune system.
\nThe tissue needs a good “draining and plumbing system” (veins or arteries), a way to feed nutrients into cells and carry waste. Without blood supply or any similar mechanism, cells die quickly. Ideally, scientists would like to be able to create engineered tissue using a plumbing system that has already been built (lattices). New hope for the bum knee: cartilage has been very difficult, if it is not impossible to repair since cartilage lacks a blood supply to promote regeneration. The gel/adhesive combo was successful in regenerating cartilage tissue following surgery in a recent clinical trial of patients.
\nThe main goal of tissue regeneration studies is to acquire knowledge that will enhance the new wide range of regenerative medicine. This information may include evidence to stimulate stem cell activity, structural engineering of better scaffolds or direct initiation of biologic regeneration programs. Scientists already understand some forms of regeneration enough to manipulate and modify major events for therapeutic reasons. For example, the common practice of bone marrow transplantation is to properly guide hematopoietic cells to regenerated blood cells. However, for most examples of innovation, research has begun to acquire knowledge and techniques to try to ban or enhance selective steps selectively during renewal.
\nMusculoskeletal injuries impact millions of people globally and affect their health and well-being as well as of their companion and athletic animals. Soft-tissue injuries represent almost half of these and are associated with unorganized scar tissue formation and long time-depending healing processes. Cell based therapeutic strategies have been developed in the past decades aiming at the treatment and reversion of such disorders. Stem cells are appealing in the field, being a responsive undifferentiated population, with ability to self-renew and differentiate into different lineages. Mesenchymal stem cells can be obtained from several adult tissues, including the synovial membrane. Synovia-derived mesenchymal stem cells can be found in individuals of any age and are associated to intrinsic regenerative processes, through both paracrine and cell-to-cell interactions, thus, contributing to host healing capacity. Studies have demonstrated the potential benefit of synovia-derived mesenchymal stem cells in these regenerative processes in both human and veterinary medicine.
\nBone regeneration is a surgical technique (Figure 4) that uses barrier membranes to direct, or guide, the growth of new bone at the site of the defect. The principle is that the barrier membranes create and maintain a space above the bone defect; this allows the slower mesenchymal cells with osteogenic potential to populate the defect and regenerate without interference from the more quickly proliferating overlying soft tissues. Protection of the clot in the defect, exclusion of gingival connective tissue cells, and preparation of an enclosed space in which osteogenic cells can migrate from the bone are three essential elements of a successful outcome. Many types of grafts have been used as space maintainers between the membrane and the bone defect. Autografts, allografts, and xenografts have all been used successfully, either alone or in combination, for bone regeneration using particulate materials.
\nBone scaffold: the bone capacity or the osteogenic potential of a bone graft is given by cells involved in bone formation, such as mesenchymal stem cells, osteoblasts, and osteocytes. The term osteoconductive refers to the scaffold or matrix which stimulates bone cells to grow on its surface [
Tissue engineering currently plays a relatively small role in treating patients. Additional bladder, small arteries, skin grafts, cartilage, and even the entire trachea have been implanted in patients but the operation is still experimental and of high cost. While the more complex organ tissues such as heart, lung, and hepatic tissue have been successfully reconstituted in the laboratory, they are far from being entirely cloned and ready for transplantation in a patient. These tissues, however, can be very useful in research, especially in drug research [2].
\nResearchers have developed multi-capacity (pluripotent) stem cells that can be transformed into any type of cell in different types of specific areas and found that they controlled by very specific gene networks that determine the fate of cells. Most other medical research has focused on multivariate stem cells to modify the range of growth solutions in which cells are placed. Bone marrow stem cells in mature cells have been able to take stem cells along the way from multiple-capacity to bone maturation that can be implanted in a patient.
\nThe ability to regenerate a new kidney from a patient’s own cells would provide major relief for the hundreds of thousands of patients suffering from kidney disease. The resulting organ tissue was able to remove metabolites, re-absorb nutrients, and produce urine both in vitro and in vivo in rats. This process has been used previously in the heart, liver, and lung tissue. The development of implantable tissue to replace renal function permanently is a promising hope in overcoming donor deficiency problems and morbidity associated with immunosuppression in transplantation.
\nOne of the main challenges researchers face when trying to cultivate tissue engineering organs is to produce a scaffold, in which new cells can be implanted. While some scientists have followed three-dimensional printed scaffolds, many others focused on decellularization of local tissues to produce non-cellular scaffolds. The decellularization process typically consists of a series of perfused detergents through the organ, stripping the cells and nuclear material behind, and leaving the extracellular matrix. When developing decellularization protocols, researchers must balance the need for cellular material elimination with the need to maintain the properties of an extracellular matrix important.
\nHumans have limited regeneration ability, all the organ tissues can regrow, but it is very limited except the liver. Studies can find new methods to deal with regeneration. Recently, scientists are investigating the genes and factors which are active during regeneration. Scientists already understand some forms of regeneration sufficiently to manipulate and modify key events for therapeutic causes. So, in future, people will not need to use prosthesis, it will be more comfortable than using prosthesis because limbs will not lose their function and the regeneration of disabled people.
\nChitin and chitosan belong to the polymeric materials of natural origin from the polysaccharides group. The widely used polysaccharides of natural origin also include cellulose and derivatives of hyaluronic and alginic acid. Use for the production of medical devices (contact with the patient’s body), makes them meet several requirements: they should maintain their physicochemical properties after treatment at elevated temperature during sterilization, after exposure to X-ray, detergents and aseptic. Polysaccharide biopolymers, like most polymeric materials, degrade after some time of use, so it is also important that their decomposition products do not cause inflammation, allergic or immune reactions or any other interactions with patients’ bodies.
Chitin is a polysaccharide composed of N-acetylglucosamine residues linked by β-1,4-glycosidic bonds. Chitin is the main component of the fungal walls and the shells of arthropods (crustaceans, insects, and arachnids), but is also present in sponges, corals, and mollusks. However, for laboratory and industrial purposes, it is obtained mainly from marine invertebrates such as: crabs, shrimps, lobsters and krill. The properties of chitin depend on its origin. Chitin used in the production of medical devices must come from certified, controlled fisheries and must be properly purified. The methods of isolating chitin from natural sources are strictly dependent on the choice of the organism from which it is isolated. This polysaccharide is similar in structure to cellulose. It differs in the presence of an acetyl amide group (-NHCOCH3) in place of one of the hydroxyl groups (Figure 1). The presence of this group means that there are much stronger intermolecular hydrogen bonds in chitin, which results in its greater mechanical strength compared to cellulose [1, 2].
Structural resemblance of cellulose, chitin and chitosan.
Depending on the origin source, chitin can occur in three amorphous forms: α, β and γ [2, 3]. The most widespread is α chitin found in fungi, shells of crustaceans and krill, and the skeletons of insects. The β form, which can mainly be isolated from squids, is much less common. The differences in the crystal structure of both amorphous forms of chitin affect their processing capabilities. The ordered crystal structure of chitin limits its solubility in commonly used solvents, and thus, reduces its use in industry. α-Chitin is moderately soluble in aqueous thiourea solution, aqueous alkaline urea solution, 5% LiCl/DMAC, some ionic liquids, hexafluoroacetone, hexafluoro-2-propanol, methanesulfonic acid [4, 5]. The form of β-chitin, on the other hand, swells in water (forms a suspension) and is soluble in formic acid. Chitin has no cytotoxic effect
Despite the very good biological properties of chitin, its practical use is moderate, which is related to its low solubility causing difficulties in its processing. Therefore, chitin is used as a raw material to obtain new derivatives with better performance parameters. In terms of practical use, the most important chitin derivatives are its esters and chitosan, which is a product of chitin deacetylation, which can be classified into the group of amino-polysaccharides.
The esterification of chitin hydroxyl groups allows to increase the utility potential of the polysaccharide by introducing various substituents, and thus, influencing the physical, chemical and biological properties of materials. The best known are chitin esters, in which the hydroxyl groups are esterified with one type of acylating reagent (presence of the same ester groups on both hydroxyl groups of chitin). Acetylated chitin derivatives (CH3CO- substituent) are prepared with acetic anhydride in the presence of an acid catalyst. However, the physicochemical properties conditioning the processing of chitin acetate turned out to be unsatisfactory [12]. The use of a mixture of orthophosphoric acid and trifluoroacetic acid anhydride as a catalyst allowed to obtain a variety of chitin esters derived from: butyric acid, cyclopropanecarboxylic acid, cyclobutanecarboxylic acid, cyclopentanecarboxylic acid, cyclohexanecarboxylic acid and substituted benzoic acids. In the case of chitin butyrate, the process efficiency (DS (degree of substitution) included in the range 1.9–2.38) was dependent on the excess of butyric acid anhydride use [13, 14, 15]. Di-butyrylchitin (chitin di-butyrate, DBC) is an example of a chitin derivative soluble in typical organic solvents [16]. DBC is obtained by chitin esterification with butyric anhydride. Typically, it is a two-stage process. In the first step, chitin is purified from calcium salts with 2 M hydrochloric acid. The next stage is the process of proper esterification of purified chitin. The substrates of the reaction, apart from chitin, are butyric anhydride and the catalyst, which is most often chloric (VII) acid. The reaction is carried out in a heterogeneous system by adding powdered chitin in appropriate proportions to the reaction mixture consisting of butyric anhydride and chloric (VII) acid. The classical esterification process requires the use of substrates in a molar ratio of acid anhydride to N-acetylaminoglucose unit of 10: 1. It is also crucial to carry out the reaction at a temperature of 20°C. Increasing the reaction temperature to 40°C causes a rapid lowering of the molecular weight of the modified polymer. The catalyst concentration has a direct influence on the efficiency of the esterification reaction. The yield of the reaction is the higher when more concentrated chloric (VII) acid is used. However, it should be remembered that the use of too much concentrated chloric (VII) acid results in the macromolecule degradation. The esterification process is completed by adding diethyl ether to the reaction mixture. The isolated product is then heated with water to remove residual chloric (VII) acid. The product obtained in this way is treated for 24 hours with acetone, in which only di-butyrylchitin is dissolved. Then, the solution is concentrated to 5–6%. After the desired concentration is reached, the solution is poured into deionized water to precipitate the polymer, then the product is dried to obtain solid di-butyryl chitin. The above-described process of chitin esterification allows the conversion of free hydroxyl groups on the C3 and C6 carbon of the chitin into ester groups (CH3(CH2)2CO- substituent). Di-butyrylchitin is composed of di-butyl-N-acetyl-amino-glucose units linked by 1,4-β-glycosidic bonds. The polymer is stabilized by hydrogen bonds between the polymer chains. Hydrogen bonds are formed with the participation of the hydrogen atom from the acetylamino group and the oxygen atom from the ester group. This kind of intermolecular interaction determines its good mechanical properties [12, 13, 14, 15]. Di-butyrylchitin does not dissolve and does not swell in water, but it dissolves in many organic solvents such as: acetone, methanol, ethanol, tetrahydrofuran (THF), dimethylformamide (DMF), chloroform, methylene chloride and others. Di-butyryl chitin is not easily degraded, it is resistant to γ-radiation (possibility of radiation sterilization), while enzymatic degradation under the influence of lysozyme and CE econase occurs at a slow rate, which causes a slight change in molecular weight. Di-butyrylchitin with a molecular weight above 100000 Da has film-forming and fiber-forming properties [1, 2, 12, 13, 14, 15]. Thus, obtaining DBC with the desired molecular weights directly determines its further processing capabilities (in particular electrospinning and leaching). The most important biological parameters of di-butyrylchitin are: prolongation of blood clotting time and good wettability. The use of DBC dressings has a positive effect on the granulation process (increasing the level of glycosaminoglycans in the wound), collagen cross-linking (generating more durable tissue), accelerating the wound healing process to form a healthy epidermis without scarring and protecting the wound against excessive moisture loss (optimal moist environment) [1, 2, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11]. In the course of treatment, the dressing slowly bio-degrades and resorbs until it disappears completely, which eliminates the painful act of changing it. The spontaneous, anti-pain effect of the dressing was also noted. DBC does not show cytotoxicity or irritation, it is a biocompatible polymer [9]. Di-butyrylchitin fibers are obtained by two methods: wet and dry-wet. The choice of the method used determines the structure of the obtained fibers. The fibers obtained in the wet-spinning process are less regular in shape, with a greater surface development than in the case of dry-wet spinning. DBC fibers produced by wet spinning are used as a raw material for the production of nonwovens. The technique of producing nonwovens from DBC depends on cutting the fibers into 6 cm long sections, from which the fleece is produced using a mechanical method on carding machines, and then the fibers in the fleece are joined by needling and calendaring [16, 17].
The dry-wet method of forming fibers from DBC hinges on preparing a spinning solution with a concentration of 15 to 25% in ethanol, heating it to 60°C and squeezing it through a spinning die. Then, the incompletely solidified fiber is introduced into a water bath, where it is completely solidified. The fiber is then wound onto drums, stretched, and dried. A microporous DBC fiber with a linear mass of 1.7 to 5.6 g is obtained, depending on the concentration of the spinning solution used. The fibers obtained by the dry method have an elongated and curved cross-sectional shape, similar to a croissant. The degree of crystallinity of the fibers determined in X-ray examinations is similar in both methods and amounts to approx. 19%, and the transverse dimension of the crystallites approx. 23 Å. It is also easy to obtain chitin materials (the so-called regenerated chitin) from these materials without damaging their macro-structure after a mild alkaline treatment. Fibers made of regenerated chitin and di-butyrylchitin do not induce cytotoxic, haemolytic or irritating effects and cause minimal local tissue reaction after implantation [17, 18, 19]. Di-butyrylchitin and regenerated chitin fibers can be used to obtain dry dressing materials, as well as materials for other biomedical purposes. DBC-based woven dressings are biodegradable within the wound and do not need to be replaced during use [16, 17]. Chitin di-pentanoate (chitin divalerate, Di-O-Valeryl-Chitin, DVCH) is also used for the production of commercially available dressings, where chitin is esterified with two valeryl groups (CH3(CH2)3CO- substituent) at the 3 and 6 positions of N-acetylglucosamine units. The high degree of DVCH esterification was achieved by using a large excess of valeric anhydride used both as acylating agent and reaction medium, and perchloric acid as catalyst. It turned out to be optimal to conduct the reaction where the molar ratio of valeric acid anhydride to chitin was 7:1, which also facilitated thorough mixing of the components during the reaction and temperature control. The performance of the reaction under conditions of high homogeneity of the solution has a great influence on the quality of the product. Insufficient mixing of the solution during the acylation step led to a local temperature rise, uneven chitin acylation and ultimately resulted in products with varying degrees of esterification and higher polydispersity. Additionally, at elevated temperature it was observed reduction of the molecular weight of the biopolymer as a result of the acidic degradation of chitin that occurs in parallel with the acylation reaction in the presence of a strong acid. To obtain products with a high degree of esterification, 0.5 M perchloric acid was used (deacetylation of the N-acetyl group was not observed). The separation of the raw product from the reaction mixture takes place during the neutralization of the valeric acid excess with a 2.5% NaHCO3 solution. The use of sodium bicarbonate as a weak base prevents deacetylation of the N-acetyl group. Depending on the reaction time and temperature, products with different parameters are obtained. The lower temperature leads to a product with a higher molecular weight. A longer reaction time increases the yield of the reaction, but is associated with a reduction in molecular weight due to acidic degradation of the polymer. The DVCH polydispersity index ranged from 1.47 to 2.06, suggesting a low molecular weight distribution. Due to the good solubility of DVCH in organic solvents such as acetone or ethanol, it is possible to prepare thin polymer layers by casting or porous structures by salt leaching. The DVCH shows a semi-ductile behavior and breaks when it exceeds the yield point. The stretching properties of DVCH films depend on the molecular weight. The modulus, yield stress, tensile stress as well as strain at break increase continuously with increasing DVCH molecular weight. The increase in the modulus with molecular weight results in higher mechanical strength of DVCH films. The elongation at break, although slightly increases with increasing molecular weight, remains low, not exceeding 4%. As a consequence, the higher DVCH molecular weight is, it behaves like a stiff plastic that can withstand relatively high stresses but does not withstand high elongation before breakage. Using the salt leach method, it is also possible to develop porous materials from DVCH. The structure of porous DVCH-based materials consists of a unified network of interconnected channels. This structure is characterized by a high content of open pores of various sizes. Two pore populations can be distinguished: large with a size in the range 150–780 μm (average pore size approx. 435 μm ± 168 μm) and small with a size in the range of 4–22 μm (average pore size 7.7 μm ± 3.3 μm [16, 17, 18, 19]. Chitin divalerate is a technologically friendly biopolymer. The good solubility of DVCH in organic solvents (ethanol, DMAC, DMSO, acetone) due to the presence of hydrophobic valeryl groups in C-3 and C-6 positions enables its easy processing of its particles. The DVCH maintains the film-forming ability of chitin, so it can easily be used in the production of threads, films, foams and scaffolds, as well as non-woven fabrics. Biological data show that DVCH is not cytotoxic to fibroblasts and does not cause irritation or allergy to the skin of animals [20]. For the synthesis of chitin dihexanoate (DHCH) it is also possible to use appropriate acid anhydrides and methanesulfonic acid as a catalyst. In order to increase the homogeneity of the solution and better control the temperature in the process, by analogy to the synthesis of the valerate ester, an excess of acid anhydride and methanesulfonic acid are used, the mixture being the reagents and the reaction medium. Optimal methanesulfonic acid to chitin molar ratios are 16:1 and 10:1 for chitin di-hexanoate and chitin di-butyrate, respectively. This approach will result in a high degree of substitution of hydroxyl groups, equal to almost 2, and a low polydispersity. Moreover, under optimal conditions, no hydrolysis of the N-acetyl bond was observed. Good chitin solubility in methanesulfonic acid, even at low temperatures, allows the esterification process to be carried out under milder conditions. The key parameter is the intensity of agitation of the reaction suspension. Insufficient heat transfer due to poor mixing of the solution, similar to the synthesis of chitin di-pentanoate, leads to a lower degree of esterification, high polydispersity of the final product and a reduction in molecular weight. The neutralization process is carried out with a 4% sodium bicarbonate solution. The synthesis of DBC at a low temperature and short reaction time (temperature 0°C and 8°C) is ineffective due to the low reaction yields and possibly incomplete esterification of the chitin hydroxyl groups, resulting in the formation of a significant amount of insoluble gel fractions when dissolved in acetone prior to precipitation with water. For DHCH, it is preferable to use low synthesis temperatures (0°C and 8°C). The yield of DHCH synthesis was relatively high (above 70%), with the highest efficiency observed at 21°C (84 to 95%). Unfortunately, carrying out the synthesis of DHCH at 21°C resulted in a low molecular weight product. A trend analogous to that of chitin di-pentanoate was observed, indicating that the longer the reaction time, the higher the reaction performance and the lower the molecular weight of the obtained biopolymers. Although in DHCH the hydroxyl groups of chitin are substituted with longer alkyl chains than in DVCH or DBC, it has been found that DHCH retains good solubility in solvents such as ethanol, acetone, dichloromethane, 1,2-dichloroethane, N,N-dimethylformamide, N,N-dimethylacetamide and ethyl acetate and no solubility in water. Good solubility, filmogenic and fiber-forming properties of DHCH give greater possibilities of its processing (film casting, washing method, electrospinning method) compared to chitin alone. The mechanical properties of DHCH and DBC in the form of thin solid layers poured from solution were investigated in relation to their molecular weights. DHCH and DBC showed semi-continuous properties and cracked rapidly upon exceeding the plasticity point, similar to that observed for DVCH. The elongation at break was small and did not exceed 4%. For both biopolymers, their tensile properties correlate with the molecular weight. Parameters such as modulus of elasticity, stress at yield, as well as stress and strain at break, were found to increase with increasing DHCH and DBC molecular weight. Comparing the mechanical properties of DHCH, DBC and DVCH, it can be concluded that Young’s modulus decreases with increasing chain length of the acyl group of chitin diesters (a similar relationship is observed for chitin monoesters, where only one hydroxyl group is acylated). Due to the good solubility of hydrophobic chitin diesters in organic solvents and their insolubility in water, it is possible to obtain porous structures based on DHCH and DBC by using the salt leaching method. The prepared porous materials are characterized by a united network of interconnected channels and a high degree of open porosity with pores of various sizes (pore size in the range 78–421 μm, average pore size 253 μm ± 93 μm) [21, 22, 23, 24]. Due to its physic-chemical properties, DHCH can successfully replace or support materials based on di-butyrylchitin (e.g. in the form of mixtures of both biopolymers) and thus it can be used as a material for medical and pharmaceutical applications, especially in tissue engineering scaffolds and in healing wounds. The described procedure of chitin esterification to obtain products of high purity. Moreover, this method is universal (the possibility of preparation various chitin diesters) and is easy to produce and is not time-consuming [21]. Another method of chemical modification of chitin is esterification leading to carboxymethylchitin (CMCht, CM-chitin) [22, 23] or dicarboxymethylchitin using monochloroacetic or mono-chloropropionic acid followed by substitution of halogen with a hydroxyl group. This modification leads to the loss of the supramolecular structure of chitin and the formation of water-soluble derivatives [24].
The presence of two hydroxyl groups at the C-3 and C-6 positions of chitin allows the introduction of two different acyl substituents, leading to the formation of mixed esters (co-esters) of chitin. This possibility is also due to the differential reactivity of the hydroxyl groups linked to the primary and secondary carbon atoms in chitin. Thus, under ideal conditions, it is possible to obtain mixed esters containing the same molar fraction of different acyl groups in the modified material. Different ester groups (e.g., butyric and acetic acid residues) are present in mixed esters in a single polysaccharide chain. The replacement of some large bulky butyl groups with much smaller acetate groups in one polysaccharide chain causes that in a condensed state, it becomes possible to obtain favorable conditions for the formation of intermolecular bonds of the hydrogen bridge type. This effect cannot be expected when using a mixture of two different biopolymers (e.g. chitin diacetate and chitin di-butyrate). Thus, the term mixed polymers is not the same as mixed chitin esters. In order to obtain a polymer mixture, it is necessary to use at least two chemically different polymers (Figure 2). In contrast mixed ester/co-ester of chitin contains only one component. It was found that the differences between chitin mixed esters (co-esters) and a mixture of two species can be observed in NMR spectra (1H and 13C) (Figures 3 and 4). The studies used 50:50 butyryl-acetyl-chitin co-polyester (
Chemical structure of chitin di-acetate, chitin di-butyrate, butyryl-acetyl chitin co-polyester (mixture ester, co-ester).
Fragments of 13C-NMR spectra of
Fragments of 1H-NMR spectra of
A comparative analysis of the 13C-NMR spectra of the 180–150 ppm range characteristic for the chemical shifts of carbon in carboxylic acid derivatives showed that the distribution in the mixed ester of chitin
Comparative studies of 1H-NMR spectra in the range of chemical shifts 2.5 ppm to 0.5 ppm also allowed to state that in the case of butyryl-acetyl chitin co-polyesters (samples
The possibility of forming the intermolecular hydrogen bonds that stabilize butyryl-acetyl chitin co-polyester structure translates into fiber-forming properties, and thus the possibility of modulating the functional properties of the final materials and their use in the manufacture of new materials for medical use. In addition to stabilization by hydrogen bonds, it is also possible to create weak interactions based on hydrophobic interactions. The participation of such various weak interactions in the stabilization of materials may translate into their ability to interact with both hydrophobic and hydrophilic structures, which affects biological activity.
Acetate-formate mixed chitin ester was obtained using formic acid, acetic anhydride and trifluoroacetic acid as a catalyst [25]. It turned out that this ester is slightly soluble in typical organic solvents. This is one of the reasons why this derivative has not found practical use, even though its biological properties are comparable to those of chitin. A similar situation was observed in the case of trifluoroacetate-formate derivatives of chitin [26].
Attempts to obtain a mixed butyric acetic ester of chitin by reaction using acetic and butyric anhydrides and methanesulfonic acid or trifluoroacetic acid as catalysts have been unsuccessful. The final product was a mixture of chitin acetate, chitin butyrate and the expected acetate-butyrate of chitin [27, 28].
The approach to synthesize mixed chitin esters using a mixture of trifluoroacetic acid and the corresponding organic acid as catalysts also led to the formation of mixtures of chitin monoesters and mixed esters (co-polyesters) of chitin. It has been shown that carrying out the reaction at the temperature of 70°C for a short time (30 min) under homogeneous conditions allows for obtaining co-polyesters: acetate-butyrate, acetate-hexanoate, acetate-octanoate and acetate-palmitate of chitin. The final co-polyesters have molecular weights ranging from 30 to 150 kDa and the degree of esterification ranging from 1.0 to 2.0, depending on the raw materials used.
Another approach to obtain mixed butyryl-acetyl esters of chitin [29] is based on the use of butyric and acetic acid anhydrides and methanesulfonic acid as a catalyst. However, this method is not very friendly from the point of view of industrial stoppage. Thinking about the industrial synthesis of the butyryl-acetyl chitin derivative, it was necessary to establish reaction conditions that would eliminate the need to use methanesulfonic acid.
In the works on the development of a method for the production of the butyryl-acetyl chitin co-polyester on an industrial scale, it was necessary to develop, in the first stage, the conditions for the synthesis on a laboratory scale, which would later be transferred to an industrial scale. The esterification in laboratory conditions is carried out under heterogeneous conditions at 20-25°C, using chloric (VI) acid as a catalyst and a mixture of butyric and acetic acid anhydrides, used in a molar ratio of 90:10 [22, 23]. The product was obtained with a yield of 82 to 89% is soluble in DMF, DMSO and NMP, has a high molar mass (intrinsic viscosity of these products determined in DMF at the level of 2.0–2.05 dL/g) and a full degree of esterification. In the research on the development of a method of producing butyryl-acetyl chitin co-polyester in industrial conditions it was crucial to eliminate the possibility of formation an explosive mixture which may arise as a result of direct contact of acetic anhydride with perchloric acid. It turned out that the priority was to use an efficient cooling system so that the process temperature did not exceed 20°C. In laboratory conditions, it was sufficient to use an ice-water bath with NaCl (brine bath) and intensive mixing of the suspension. In laboratory conditions, diethyl ether is added to the slurry to remove excess unreacted anhydrides and formed carboxylic acids and the crude product is filtered off. The crude acetylation product is washed with water and dilute ammonia water, dried and finally dissolved in ethanol. The transfer of the conditions from the laboratory scale to the macro scale did not involve only increasing the amount of reagents and the size of the synthesizer. The key was to optimize the process conditions and the use of reagents that can be used in industrial conditions from the point of view of safety, environmental impact and economics. A reactor with a capacity of 60 dm3 with an effective cooling system was used. A 3 kg chitin input was used for the synthesis. The remaining reagents (2 dm3 of perchloric acid, 15 dm3 of butyric anhydride and 1 dm3 of acetic anhydride) were added in portions. The time required for all reagents to be introduced and for complete conversion was about 24 h. In place of diethyl ether, under industrial conditions, ethyl acetate was used to remove excess unreacted butyric and acetic anhydrides. In industrial conditions it was also necessary to replace the ammonia water to neutralize the acetic and butyric acid residues. It turned out that it is possible to use sodium carbonate for this purpose. Also, the step of separation of raw product required changes in the industrial process. In the synthesis under laboratory conditions, G4 Schott funnels were used for filtration. However, the use of this method on a large scale was ineffective. So suction filtration was used, the efficiency of which was 100 dm3 per hour. The process efficiency on an industrial scale was comparable to that of a laboratory scale synthesis. The physical and chemical properties of the final products were also comparable. The conducted research guaranteed the reproducible and required parameters of the raw material for the production of new medical materials [22, 23]. Figure 5 shows a set for the synthesis of butyryl-acetyl chitin co-polyester on an industrial scale.
Set for the synthesis of butyryl-acetyl chitin co-polyester on an industrial scale.
The development of an efficient synthesis of the butyryl-acetyl chitin co-polyester (BAC 90/10) made it possible to demonstrate that the obtained chitin derivative has the ability to form fibers from a wet solution with a strength slightly above 20 cN/tex with high porosity. Fibers with a strength at this level can be the basis for the production of 3D polymer-fiber composites. BAC 90/10 fibers show a stronger predisposition to apatite crystallization; strong sorption tendencies of fibers allowing the possibility of local supersaturation favoring the nucleation of apatite. It has been also found that BAC 90/10 fibers degrade fast under
One application of the butyryl-acetyl chitin co-polyester (BAC 90/10) is its use to produce highly porous film materials [30].
The research work began with laboratory tests during which two methods of formation of porous materials were tested: (a) pouring a 5% ethanol BAC 90/10 solution on a layer of solid inorganic salt (porophor agent), which, after solidification, was exposed to water to wash out the porophor agent, and (b) the use of porophor agent suspensions in BAC 90/10 solution, which was a mixture of solvents with a density close to the bulk density of the porophor agent. Various organic and inorganic salts (K2CO3, KHCO3, KHSO4, KNO2, (NH4)2CO3, (NH4)HCO3, (NH4)2HPO4, (NH4)2SO4, Na2CO3, NaHCO3, Na2HPO4, Na2S2O3 x 5H2O, NaCl, di-ammonium citrate, di-ammonium oxalate were tested. It was found that all tested salts can be used as porophors. However, the most optimal porophor agent, in terms of porosity (95–99%) and tensile strength of 5 cN, was NaCl.
Based on laboratory work, it was possible to start work on optimizing the production of porous dressing materials (Medisorb R, Medisorb R Ag). In the industrial method, solid NaCl as porophor agents and a 3% solution of BAC 90/10 in ethanol were used. The membrane was formed by pouring a 3% solution of BAC 90/10 onto a layer of porophor agent to produce a spongy structure. After drying, the membrane is rinsed in distilled water at 40°C until the porophor agent is washed off. The product is then dried at 80°C. After packing, the obtained membrane dressings are subjected to a process of radiation sterilization (in the case of the variant without the addition of an antibacterial substance). To obtain a silver-coated membrane, the membrane is sprayed with a suspension of metallic silver dispersed in water by means of a spray nozzle. The silver particles are evenly distributed in the suspension using an ultrasonic device. After drying and then packing, the product is subjected to radiation sterilization. The powder dressing is obtained by grinding the byturyl-acetyl chitin co-polyester, which is then sterilized by radiation [23, 31]. Figure 6 shows a scheme for the preparation of porous dressings based on butyryl-acetyl chitin co-polyester.
A scheme for the preparation of porous dressings based on butyryl-acetyl chitin co-polyester.
Dressing materials obtained by leaching salt from butyryl-acetyl chitin co-polyester (BAC 90/10) and sodium chloride with a diameter of 0.16–0.40 nm and/or microsilver were characterized by a high degree of porosity, pore size in the range of 275–305 nm and a degree of crystallinity in the range of 27.2–27.4%. SEM tests confirmed the porous structure of pores, which are negative for the crystals of the inorganic porophor agent used. In addition, the pores are open pores, which increases the effectiveness of water adsorption. Figure 7 shows microscopic picture of porous structures obtained by the porophor agent washout method.
Microscopic picture of porous structures obtained by the porophor agent washout method.
Dressings made of butyryl-acetyl chitin co-polyester (Figure 8) are intended for wounds of various etiologies, including chronic wounds, where the healing process is disturbed by comorbidities. In order to accelerate the healing of deep wounds, a dressing in the form of a backfill has been designed. Wounds are often accompanied by a bacterial infection, therefore, apart from the dressing in the form of a membrane made of chitin co-polyester only, there is also a variant containing the addition of silver, showing a bactericidal effect in the wound environment. Silver may appear in various forms, however, it has been assumed that only the ionic form of silver has a bactericidal effect. Any other form of silver must be converted to its ionic form. Hence, metallic silver with a small particle size after oxidation and hydrolysis is characterized by the highest antibacterial activity. Silver in ionic form also has the ability to interact with proteins. It has been found that the ionic form of silver has a higher protein binding capacity compared to nanoparticles [32, 33, 34, 35, 36].
Picture of porous structures obtained by the porophor agent washout method.
The presence of pores and microcapillaries in the structure of membrane dressings allows drainage of wound exudate. Dressings made on the basis of chitin co-polyesters are characterized by high biocompatibility. Biological tests confirmed the lack of cytotoxic, irritating and allergenic effects. These dressings are degraded in the subcutaneous tissue and gradually become smaller. The dressing shortens and weakens the exudative phase, drains the wound and accelerates the productive phase. The epithelialization process under the butyryl-acetyl chitin co-polyester was completed faster compared to the control sample [37].
FTIR ATR analysis was made for samples of untreated Medisorb R dressings and material treated with fresh human plasma in order to test the dressing surface degradation and protein absorption on the dressing surface. Comparing spectra of samples treated with fresh human plasma and pure material, the decreasing of intensity of the vibration band of C=O at 1733 cm−1 in relation to the amide I signal at 1659 cm−1 was observed. It confirmed the sample surface degradation, which was connected to the hydrolysis of ester BAC 90/10 groups. In the
The developed biodegradable dressings based on butyryl-acetyl chitin co-polyester were subjected to clinical evaluation using a wide range of patients. The use of dressings significantly accelerated the wound healing process caused by venous insufficiency and diabetes, also in patients whose healing process was disturbed by comorbidities. The improvement of the clinical condition of the wound depends on the individual patient and is most often observed after 30–60 days. The obtained results indicate that the tested dressings significantly reduce the time of wound healing. Medisorb R Ag is more effective than Medisorb R Membrane in the treatment of infected wounds. The powder form (Medisorb R Powder) allows the application of the dressing to deeper wounds. Thanks to their unique structure, dressings drain wound exudates beyond its environment, thus restoring the proper course of the cell reconstruction process. The ability to biodegrade in contact with the wound secretion eliminates the need to replace dressings, so the newly formed granulation tissue is not disturbed - cell reconstruction processes run smoothly [38].
Chitosan is obtained as a result of the hydrolysis of chitin N-acetylamide groups (partial deacetylation of chitin). The main advantage of chitosan is its much better solubility in aqueous acid solutions, especially organic acids. Chitin deacetylation by chemical or enzymatic methods allows for obtaining materials with various degrees of hydrolysis (Figure 9). However, it is assumed that at least 50% chitin deacetylation is necessary for the material to be classified as chitosan. The degree of deacetylation (DD) is defined as the ratio of the number of free NH2 groups to the initial number of NHCOCH3 groups present in chitin and is presented in the equation:
Chitosan formation from chitin by chitin deacetylation.
where N - the number of specific units (structural units) in the polymer.
The value of DD affects the biological and physicochemical properties of the polymer, such as solubility, swelling and stability, as well as reactivity.
Chitosan obtained by chemical (concentrated NaOH) or enzymatic (chitin deacetylase) deacetylation of chitin. The first step of preparation of chitosan is mechanical grinding of the raw chitin, and subsequent process of removing proteins, color compounds and inorganic salts takes place. The deproteinization process is usually performed with a dilute aqueous solution of sodium hydroxide at an elevated temperature [4, 5]. For protein removing also proteolytic enzymes were used [39, 40], but in the case of papain, trypsin and chymotrypsin, it was found that they did not completely remove the protein fraction. After deproteinization process, the residue is treated with dilute aqueous hydrochloric acid to dissolve the calcium carbonate. A similar effect can be obtained by using HCOOH, HNO3, H2SO4 or EDTA [5]. The decolorization process is based on extraction with ethanol, acetone or treatment with oxidizing reagents (KMnO4, NaOCl, H2O2). These activities allow to obtain chitin of required purity for its further transformation into chitosan. Chitosan from chitin obtained by chemical deacetylation is obtained at high temperature (above 100°C), under high pressure and in the presence of concentrated (40–50%) strong bases (usually NaOH). A typical industrial chitosan production process provides almost complete recovery of proteins, calcium oxide or calcium carbonate, carotenoid pigments and sodium acetate under the conditions of using sodium hydroxide as the deacetylating agent. However, this process has several disadvantages. It is not environmentally friendly as it consumes a large amount of energy and is also difficult to control leading to a heterogeneous product. The use of chitin deacetylase for the production of chitosan oligomers and polymers can potentially eliminate most of these drawbacks [41]. The advantages of enzymatic deacetylation are more pronounced in the processing of chitin oligomers, as these substrates are soluble in the aqueous medium and are therefore more susceptible to enzymes. The downside is the high cost of the enzyme and the requirement to use pre-processed chitin. The conditions of the chitin deacetylation process have a significant impact on the distribution of N-acetyl-D-glucosamine and D-glucosamine groups in the polysaccharide chain. Their location in the chain has a significant impact on the physicochemical properties of the material, such as crystallinity, solubility and susceptibility to degradation [3]. Depending on the final use, chitosan can be formed into a hydrogel, membranes, fibers, sponges and micro/nanoparticles [42].
Chitosan is a polysaccharide composed of randomly distributed acetylated and deacetylated units of D-glucosamine. Chitosan exists in five different crystal forms, four of which are hydrated and one is anhydrous. Microcrystalline chitosan is characterized by better biodegradability and bioactivity.
Most of the properties of chitosan depend on two parameters: degree of deacetylation and molecular weight distribution. Depending on the source and method of preparation, the deacetylation degree varies from 30 to 95%, and the molecular weight from 300 to over 1000 kDa [43]. The solubility of chitosan strongly depends on the deacetylation degree, which translates into the number of free amino groups. Chitosan is soluble in acidic solutions due to its susceptibility to protonation and formation of ammonium salts. It is soluble in acetic, formic, citric, lactic and hydrochloric acid and insoluble in most organic solvents. Chitosan, as a biodegradable polymer, is easily broken down by microorganisms into simple chemical compounds such as carbon dioxide (CO2) and ammonia (NH3). Like other biopolymers, it is susceptible to many chemical and physical factors leading to its degradation. The degradation process also depends on the degree of deacetylation and the molecular weight of the polymer [3, 5].
Chitosan has many valuable properties, such as: biocompatibility, biodegradability, non-toxicity, the ability to create polycations in an acidic environment, the possibility of modification, high affinity for metals, dyes and proteins, hydrophilicity, ability to create membranes and others [3, 5, 44]. These features make it applicable in medicine and pharmacy, in various industries, in environmental protection, including water treatment and separation processes. [5, 45, 46]. Chitosan also has a number of properties that limit its use in certain areas. It swells strongly in water (especially in an acidic environment), and in the swollen state it is characterized by low mechanical strength. The use of chitosan is also limited due to its high viscosity. The reduction of the viscosity of chitosan solutions can be achieved by increasing the deacetylation degree while reducing the molecular weight and increasing the temperature or ionic strength [5, 47]. The key problem with the use of chitosan is its susceptibility to external factors (humidity and temperature) and processing conditions (heating or sterilization), which can affect its structure and cause its degradation. Parameters such as molecular weight or the presence of impurities have a significant impact on the processing of chitosan [48]. This causes difficulties in maintaining the stability of chitosan (no changes in molecular weight) for a long time at room temperature [49]. The influence of many factors, such as increased temperature, the presence of strong acids, mechanical shear or radiation, on the molecular weight of chitosan was demonstrated. It is also believed that high molecular weight chitosan is more stable. The lack of reproducibility in the processing of chitosan is also due to significant differences in molecular weight, deacetylation degree and purity level depending on the source of the raw material. The level of chitosan purity may affect both biological properties, such as biodegradability or immunogenicity, as well as its solubility and stability [48, 50].
Chitosan is a non-toxic polysaccharide containing randomly distributed acetylated and deacetylated units of D-glucosamine. The results of many studies confirm the antibacterial effect of chitosan. The mechanism explaining this feature is unknown [51]. The antimicrobial activity of chitosan is strongly dependent on many factors, such as molecular weight [52], degree of deacetylation (DD), pH of the dissolving medium and its ionic strength. Stronger antibacterial activity was observed with a high degree of deacetylation [53] and a low molecular weight of chitosan [54]. The antibacterial activity of chitosan is also associated with the form of the polymer (hydrogels, membranes, dissolved form) and the presence of other compounds [55]. One of the factors responsible for the antibacterial activity of chitosan is its cationic nature. The positively charged ammonium groups of chitosan may interact with negatively charged components of the bacterial cell wall, causing damage to the cell membrane and destruction of bacterial cells (a mechanism proposed for high molecular weight chitosan) [56]. Ultimately, this causes the formation of an impermeable layer around the bacterial cell, affecting permeability and transport to the cell [57, 58]. It has been suggested that low molecular weight chitosan can penetrate bacterial cell walls and eventually enter the cytoplasm and bind to DNA affecting DNA transcription, mRNA synthesis and finally protein biosynthesis [59].
The difference in the hydrophilicity and the negative charge of the cell surface of the bacteria makes gram-negative bacteria interact more strongly with chitosan, resulting in higher antibacterial activity against them.
The antibacterial activity of chitosan or its derivatives on gram-negative bacteria has been demonstrated for various strains:
The antifungal activity of chitosan also depends on its molecular weight and degree of acetylation. It was found that chitosan shows antifungal activity against selected phytopathogenic fungi
The antiviral activity of chitosan derivatives is also suggested. The research focuses mainly on HIV. Peptide-chitosan conjugates (GlnMetTrp-chitosan and TrpMetGln-chitosan) show a protective effect on C8166 cells by counteracting the cytolytic effects of the HIV-1RF strain. These derivatives have the ability to suppress HIV-induced syncytium formation and reduce HIV load without inhibiting HIV-1 reverse transcriptase and protease
Recent studies have shown that chitosan and its derivatives exhibit anti-tumor activity in both
Various biological properties of chitosan also include good adhesion to cells, macrophage activation, stimulation of fibroblast proliferation, stimulation of cytokinin production, stimulation of type IV collagen synthesis, promoting angiogenesis processes, haemostatic properties [92, 93, 94, 95]. Moreover, it has a positive effect on granulation and epithelialization, and reduces scar formation. It is believed that many of the listed biological activities of chitosan are related to its unique feature, namely its cationic nature. Chitosan molecules with a positive charge interact with negatively charged erythrocytes and thrombocytes activating the extrinsic coagulation, effectively stopping bleeding.
Chemical modification of chitosan allows to modulate the biological activity of chitosan, for example, heparin inactivation or antiviral activity. Chitosan can be in the form of: gel, sponge, fiber or porous composition with ceramics, collagen or gelatin. Chitosan is used as a component of wound healing dressings, while in the case of scaffolds, it is usually used with other natural polymers (hyaluronic acid, alginic acid, poly-L-lactidic acid, elastin, collagen, gelatin) or additives (hydroxyapatite, calcium phosphate, ceramic components) [95, 96, 97].
Chitosan increases the inflow of phagocytic cells (segmented granulocytes and macrophages) to the site of infection, stimulates the migration and proliferation of endothelial cells and fibroblasts. The effect of chitosan on the proliferation of fibroblasts depends on the degree of deacetylation and molecular weight. Forms with a higher degree of deacetylation and lower molecular weight stimulate fibroblast proliferation to a greater extent [98, 99, 100, 101, 102, 103, 104, 105, 106, 107, 108, 109, 110, 111, 112, 113, 114, 115, 116, 117, 118, 119, 120, 121, 122, 123]. Chitosan is widely researched for its use in bone and cartilage reconstruction. It has the ability to create porous structures, which makes it used in tissue engineering, orthopedics and bone regeneration. It has also been used in drug delivery systems or therapeutic substances (DNA plasmids, siRNA, nanosilver), for the production of surgical sutures, wound healing dressings and artificial internal organs [124, 125, 126, 127, 128, 129, 130, 131, 132, 133, 134, 135, 136, 137, 138, 139, 140, 141, 142, 143, 144, 145, 146, 147, 148, 149, 150].
An interesting chitosan feature is also its ability to bind with mucus and cross epithelial barriers, so that its use as an adjuvant or auxiliary adjuvant in vaccines is considered. It is also included among the auxiliary substances that enable the preparation of various forms of drugs with specific properties.
It is an excellent metal ion complexing agent. This parameter is useful due to the immobilization of metal ions with antibacterial activity and enabling their controlled release, depending on the needs [97].
Chitosan can also be an environmentally friendly agent used to obtain textiles with antibacterial properties. Attempts were made to introduce chitosan powder into cotton and polyester-cotton fabric. Chitosan was introduced after the fabric surface was activated by 20% NaOH. The performed studies confirmed that chitosan is well implemented in fabrics made of a cotton and polyester/cotton blend [151].
Due to its physicochemical and biological properties, chitosan and its derivatives are considered to be versatile biomaterials with various biological activities [152, 153, 154, 155, 156, 157, 158, 159].
Chitosan and its derivatives as materials with antimicrobial activity and low immunogenicity are widely used in wound healing. They provide a three-dimensional matrix for tissue growth, activate macrophages and stimulate cell proliferation [160]. Chitosan improves the activity of polymorphonuclear leukocytes, macrophages and fibroblasts, which increase granulation and organization of repaired tissues [161]. Its degradation to N-acetyl-β-D-glucosamine stimulates the proliferation of fibroblasts, supports regular collagen deposition, and also stimulates the synthesis of hyaluronic acid at the wound site. These properties accelerate healing and prevent scarring [162]. The development of chitosan formation in the form of nanofibers with the assumed adhesive properties allowed to obtain a material useful for the creation of dressing materials [163]. Chitosan nanofibers obtained by electrospinning method are porous, have high tensile strength, large surface area combined with an ideal rate of water vapor and oxygen transfer. They are also compatible with stem cells derived from adipose tissue, which is beneficial for wound healing [164, 165].
A characteristic feature of chitosan dressings is their ability to effectively control bleeding [166]. The most important element of hemostasis is blood clotting, which leads to the formation of a clot consisting mainly of the fibrin network and platelets embedded in it. This process prevents further loss of fluid and electrolytes from the wound and reduces contamination of the wound. There is erythema around the wound, swelling, pain and locally increased temperature. Inflammation widens local blood vessels, which facilitates the penetration of macrophage cells and fibroblasts into the wound, which cleanse the wound of tissue residues, vascular clots and pathogenic bacteria. In the next phase of healing, fibroblasts synthesize collagen and other proteins needed to build and regenerate connective tissue and rebuild damaged blood vessels. In the course of scar formation, type III collagen fibers transform into type I collagen until they reach the balance characteristic of healthy skin and are necessary to restore skin continuity. The final remodeling process leads to a significant increase in the mechanical strength of the wound. The haemostatic effect of chitosan has been clearly documented. Chitosan in the form of a non-woven fabric has a positive effect on each stage of wound healing. The unique features of chitosan include: macrophage activation, stimulation of fibroblast proliferation, absorption of growth factors, stimulation of cytokinin production, stimulation of type IV collagen synthesis, support for angiogenesis processes, antibacterial and hemostatic properties. The positive effect of chitosan on granulation tissue, epidermis and reduction of scar formation has been proven. Like chitin, chitosan is susceptible to enzymatic biodegradation which produces biologically active oligosaccharides. The positively charged chitosan molecules react with negatively charged erythrocytes and thrombocytes to activate the external clotting pathway and effectively block bleeding. At the same time, chitosan can serve as a carrier of specific medicinal substances (DNA plasmids, siRNA, nanosilver particles), which enhance its positive effect on the healing process. Chitosan has also been found to significantly increase the adhesion and aggregation of platelets in the process of hemostasis [167, 168].
Currently, there are many chitosan materials available on the market that are used to heal wounds in patients undergoing plastic surgery [169], skin grafting [170, 171] and endoscopic sinus surgery [172]. Chitosan-containing materials in the form of nonwovens, nanofibers, composites, films and sponges are: HemCon®, GuardaCare®, ChitoFlex®, ChitoGauze®, Celox™ Granules, Celox™ Gauze, Chito-Seal™, Clo-SurPLUS PAD Tegasorb™, Tegaderm™ ChiGel, ChitopackC®, and TraumaStat™ [173, 174, 175, 176].
Haemostatic dressings also include Tromboguard® - a multi-layer dressing made of three layers: semi-permeable polyurethane foil, hydrophilic polyurethane foam, and a layer containing chitosan. The film layer protects the dressing against seepage, allowing the wound environment to remain moist, ensuring optimal air permeability to its interior and creating a barrier against external factors. Polyurethane foam is a load-bearing layer and has strong absorbent properties thanks to the “pore-in-pore” structure. The polyurethane layer is responsible for storing exudate and keeping it outside the wound surface, ensuring adequate wound moisture. Additionally, it is a layer that protects the wound against mechanical damage.
The active layer, which is created by a unique composition of chitosan and alginates, activates the blood coagulation process, significantly reducing bleeding time. By reacting on the wound surface with erythro- and thrombocytes, chitosan significantly shortens the bleeding time. Calcium alginate accelerates the natural clotting process, and sodium alginate - by absorbing wound discharge - creates a layer of gel on the surface of the dressing that prevents it from sticking to the wound. Alginates are resorbable, non-toxic, non-carcinogenic, non-allergic and haemostatic [177]. When used as dressing materials, it is important that during contact with the wound, part of the alginate dressing passes in the form of a gel, which prevents the wound surface from drying out, and thus creates the possibility of creating a favorable, moist environment within the skin lesion [178]. At the same time, hemostatic properties result in a faster wound healing process and allow for more effective scarring. Patients also benefit from using these dressings to reduce pain when changing them. A significant advantage of using alginate-containing dressings is the elimination of the dressing sticking to the wound and high absorbency.
The Tromboguard® dressing (Figure 10) is used to stop bleeding in the case of: traumatic wounds, postoperative wounds, skin graft collection sites in surgery and reconstructive surgery - including combustiology, wounds requiring emergency care, gunshot and puncture wounds, wounds resulting from traffic accidents. It is characterized by a quick hemostatic effect (stops bleeding in 3 minutes), an antibacterial effect inside the product (protecting the dressing against the growth of microorganisms), and effective blood absorption even under pressure. It is not irritating, sensitizing and cytotoxic.
Tromboguard® dressing structure.
Tests of operational parameters: tensile strength, the ability to adapt to the injury site or the transmission of moisture vapors have shown that this dressing has a tensile strength (for porous materials) of min. 75 kPa (according to PN-EN ISO 1798), which corresponds to the value recommended for dressing materials, and vapor permeability (transmission of moisture vapor) of min. 400 g/m3/24h.
The results of clinical trials have demonstrated the high haemostatic efficacy of Tromboguard®. The high effectiveness and durability of the antihaemorrhagic effect was confirmed 24 hours after application, which allowed the introduction of an absorbent foam dressing [179] and a three-layer hemostatic dressing to the market [96, 97].
Chitin and its ester derivatives, as well as chitosan obtained as a result of chitin deacetylation, have many valuable chemical, physical and biological properties that determine their use in many areas, also in medicine.
The widest use of chitin and its derivatives is observed in biomedical sciences, in particular: in dressing materials (active dressings), active substance carriers (drugs and growth factors), in tissue engineering (cell scaffolds - scaffolds, mainly orthopedics) and in regenerative medicine (stem cell differentiation). Chitin accelerates the wound healing process by having a beneficial effect on processes such as angiogenesis, granulation, epithelialization and scar formation, which play a key role in the physiological wound healing process. It increases the inflow of phagocytic cells (segmented granulocytes and macrophages) to the site of infection, stimulates the migration and proliferation of endothelial cells and fibroblasts. Chitin derivative dressings are considered to be very effective medical devices in the healing of difficult-to-heal wounds [6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11].
The results of clinical trials with dressings based on butyryl-acetyl chitin co-polyesters have also shown their high effectiveness in healing wounds of various etiologies, mainly those caused by chronic venous insufficiency and diabetes. Their use leads to a reduction in the ulcer area and its depth. These dressings were assessed as having a high safety profile [38].
On the other hand, the results of clinical trials with chitosan dressings showed high effectiveness and durability of the anti-haemorrhagic effect. These studies also confirmed the safety of the dressing [96]. The antibacterial test confirmed that the dressing is bactericidal. Thus, there are currently many different hemostatic dressings based on chitosan on the market.
This research was funded by the National Centre for Research and Development under Project POIR.04.01.02-00-0004/17.
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
As a company committed to the wider dissemination of knowledge, IntechOpen supports the OAI Metadata Harvesting Protocol (OAI-PMH Version 2.0).
',metaTitle:"OAI-PMH",metaDescription:"As a firm believer in the wider dissemination of knowledge, IntechOpen supports the OAI Metadata Harvesting Protocol (OAI-PMH Version 2.0).",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"/page/oai-pmh",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"The OAI-PMH (Open Archives Initiative Protocol for Metadata Harvesting) is used to govern the collection of metadata descriptions and enables other archives to access our database. The Protocol has been developed by the Open Archives Initiative, based on ensuring interoperability standards in order to ease and promote broader and more efficient dissemination of information within the scientific community.
\\n\\nWe have adopted the Protocol to increase the number of readers of our publications. All our Works are more widely accessible, with resulting benefits for scholars, researchers, students, libraries, universities and other academic institutions. Through this method of exposing metadata, IntechOpen enables citation indexes, scientific search engines, scholarly databases, and scientific literature collections to gather metadata from our repository and make our publications available to a broader academic audience.
\\n\\nAs a Registered Data Provider, metadata for published Books and Chapters are available via our interface at the base URL: http://mts.intechopen.com/oai/index.php
\\n\\nREQUESTS
\\n\\nYou can find out more about the Protocol by visiting the Open Archives website. For additional questions please contact us at ai@intechopen.com.
\\n\\nDATABASES
\\n\\nDatabases, repositories and search engines that provide services based on metadata harvested using the OAI metadata harvesting protocol include:
\\n\\nBASE - Bielefeld Academic Search Engine
\\n\\nOne of the world's most powerful search engines, used primarily for academic Open Access web resources.
\\n\\n\\n\\nA search engine for online catalogues of publications from all over the world.
\\n"}]'},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'The OAI-PMH (Open Archives Initiative Protocol for Metadata Harvesting) is used to govern the collection of metadata descriptions and enables other archives to access our database. The Protocol has been developed by the Open Archives Initiative, based on ensuring interoperability standards in order to ease and promote broader and more efficient dissemination of information within the scientific community.
\n\nWe have adopted the Protocol to increase the number of readers of our publications. All our Works are more widely accessible, with resulting benefits for scholars, researchers, students, libraries, universities and other academic institutions. Through this method of exposing metadata, IntechOpen enables citation indexes, scientific search engines, scholarly databases, and scientific literature collections to gather metadata from our repository and make our publications available to a broader academic audience.
\n\nAs a Registered Data Provider, metadata for published Books and Chapters are available via our interface at the base URL: http://mts.intechopen.com/oai/index.php
\n\nREQUESTS
\n\nYou can find out more about the Protocol by visiting the Open Archives website. For additional questions please contact us at ai@intechopen.com.
\n\nDATABASES
\n\nDatabases, repositories and search engines that provide services based on metadata harvested using the OAI metadata harvesting protocol include:
\n\nBASE - Bielefeld Academic Search Engine
\n\nOne of the world's most powerful search engines, used primarily for academic Open Access web resources.
\n\n\n\nA search engine for online catalogues of publications from all over the world.
\n'}]},successStories:{items:[]},authorsAndEditors:{filterParams:{},profiles:[{id:"396",title:"Dr.",name:"Vedran",middleName:null,surname:"Kordic",slug:"vedran-kordic",fullName:"Vedran Kordic",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/396/images/7281_n.png",biography:"After obtaining his Master's degree in Mechanical Engineering he continued his education at the Vienna University of Technology where he obtained his PhD degree in 2004. He worked as a researcher at the Automation and Control Institute, Faculty of Electrical Engineering, Vienna University of Technology until 2008. His studies in robotics lead him not only to a PhD degree but also inspired him to co-found and build the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems - world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"441",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Jaekyu",middleName:null,surname:"Park",slug:"jaekyu-park",fullName:"Jaekyu Park",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/441/images/1881_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"LG Corporation (South Korea)",country:{name:"Korea, South"}}},{id:"465",title:"Dr",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Martens",slug:"christian-martens",fullName:"Christian Martens",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"479",title:"Dr.",name:"Valentina",middleName:null,surname:"Colla",slug:"valentina-colla",fullName:"Valentina Colla",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/479/images/358_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sant'Anna School of Advanced Studies",country:{name:"Italy"}}},{id:"494",title:"PhD",name:"Loris",middleName:null,surname:"Nanni",slug:"loris-nanni",fullName:"Loris Nanni",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/494/images/system/494.jpg",biography:"Loris Nanni received his Master Degree cum laude on June-2002 from the University of Bologna, and the April 26th 2006 he received his Ph.D. in Computer Engineering at DEIS, University of Bologna. On September, 29th 2006 he has won a post PhD fellowship from the university of Bologna (from October 2006 to October 2008), at the competitive examination he was ranked first in the industrial engineering area. He extensively served as referee for several international journals. He is author/coauthor of more than 100 research papers. He has been involved in some projects supported by MURST and European Community. His research interests include pattern recognition, bioinformatics, and biometric systems (fingerprint classification and recognition, signature verification, face recognition).",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"496",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Leon",slug:"carlos-leon",fullName:"Carlos Leon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Seville",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"512",title:"Dr.",name:"Dayang",middleName:null,surname:"Jawawi",slug:"dayang-jawawi",fullName:"Dayang Jawawi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Technology Malaysia",country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"528",title:"Dr.",name:"Kresimir",middleName:null,surname:"Delac",slug:"kresimir-delac",fullName:"Kresimir Delac",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/528/images/system/528.jpg",biography:"K. Delac received his B.Sc.E.E. degree in 2003 and is currentlypursuing a Ph.D. degree at the University of Zagreb, Faculty of Electrical Engineering andComputing. His current research interests are digital image analysis, pattern recognition andbiometrics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Zagreb",country:{name:"Croatia"}}},{id:"557",title:"Dr.",name:"Andon",middleName:"Venelinov",surname:"Topalov",slug:"andon-topalov",fullName:"Andon Topalov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/557/images/1927_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Andon V. Topalov received the MSc degree in Control Engineering from the Faculty of Information Systems, Technologies, and Automation at Moscow State University of Civil Engineering (MGGU) in 1979. He then received his PhD degree in Control Engineering from the Department of Automation and Remote Control at Moscow State Mining University (MGSU), Moscow, in 1984. From 1985 to 1986, he was a Research Fellow in the Research Institute for Electronic Equipment, ZZU AD, Plovdiv, Bulgaria. In 1986, he joined the Department of Control Systems, Technical University of Sofia at the Plovdiv campus, where he is presently a Full Professor. He has held long-term visiting Professor/Scholar positions at various institutions in South Korea, Turkey, Mexico, Greece, Belgium, UK, and Germany. And he has coauthored one book and authored or coauthored more than 80 research papers in conference proceedings and journals. His current research interests are in the fields of intelligent control and robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Technical University of Sofia",country:{name:"Bulgaria"}}},{id:"585",title:"Prof.",name:"Munir",middleName:null,surname:"Merdan",slug:"munir-merdan",fullName:"Munir Merdan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/585/images/system/585.jpg",biography:"Munir Merdan received the M.Sc. degree in mechanical engineering from the Technical University of Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina, in 2001, and the Ph.D. degree in electrical engineering from the Vienna University of Technology, Vienna, Austria, in 2009.Since 2005, he has been at the Automation and Control Institute, Vienna University of Technology, where he is currently a Senior Researcher. His research interests include the application of agent technology for achieving agile control in the manufacturing environment.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"605",title:"Prof",name:"Dil",middleName:null,surname:"Hussain",slug:"dil-hussain",fullName:"Dil Hussain",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/605/images/system/605.jpg",biography:"Dr. Dil Muhammad Akbar Hussain is a professor of Electronics Engineering & Computer Science at the Department of Energy Technology, Aalborg University Denmark. Professor Akbar has a Master degree in Digital Electronics from Govt. College University, Lahore Pakistan and a P-hD degree in Control Engineering from the School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, University of Sussex United Kingdom. Aalborg University has Two Satellite Campuses, one in Copenhagen (Aalborg University Copenhagen) and the other in Esbjerg (Aalborg University Esbjerg).\n· He is a member of prestigious IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers), and IAENG (International Association of Engineers) organizations. \n· He is the chief Editor of the Journal of Software Engineering.\n· He is the member of the Editorial Board of International Journal of Computer Science and Software Technology (IJCSST) and International Journal of Computer Engineering and Information Technology. \n· He is also the Editor of Communication in Computer and Information Science CCIS-20 by Springer.\n· Reviewer For Many Conferences\nHe is the lead person in making collaboration agreements between Aalborg University and many universities of Pakistan, for which the MOU’s (Memorandum of Understanding) have been signed.\nProfessor Akbar is working in Academia since 1990, he started his career as a Lab demonstrator/TA at the University of Sussex. After finishing his P. hD degree in 1992, he served in the Industry as a Scientific Officer and continued his academic career as a visiting scholar for a number of educational institutions. In 1996 he joined National University of Science & Technology Pakistan (NUST) as an Associate Professor; NUST is one of the top few universities in Pakistan. In 1999 he joined an International Company Lineo Inc, Canada as Manager Compiler Group, where he headed the group for developing Compiler Tool Chain and Porting of Operating Systems for the BLACKfin processor. The processor development was a joint venture by Intel and Analog Devices. In 2002 Lineo Inc., was taken over by another company, so he joined Aalborg University Denmark as an Assistant Professor.\nProfessor Akbar has truly a multi-disciplined career and he continued his legacy and making progress in many areas of his interests both in teaching and research. He has contributed in stochastic estimation of control area especially, in the Multiple Target Tracking and Interactive Multiple Model (IMM) research, Ball & Beam Control Problem, Robotics, Levitation Control. He has contributed in developing Algorithms for Fingerprint Matching, Computer Vision and Face Recognition. He has been supervising Pattern Recognition, Formal Languages and Distributed Processing projects for several years. He has reviewed many books on Management, Computer Science. Currently, he is an active and permanent reviewer for many international conferences and symposia and the program committee member for many international conferences.\nIn teaching he has taught the core computer science subjects like, Digital Design, Real Time Embedded System Programming, Operating Systems, Software Engineering, Data Structures, Databases, Compiler Construction. In the Engineering side, Digital Signal Processing, Computer Architecture, Electronics Devices, Digital Filtering and Engineering Management.\nApart from his Academic Interest and activities he loves sport especially, Cricket, Football, Snooker and Squash. He plays cricket for Esbjerg city in the second division team as an opener wicket keeper batsman. He is a very good player of squash but has not played squash since his arrival in Denmark.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"611",title:"Prof.",name:"T",middleName:null,surname:"Nagarajan",slug:"t-nagarajan",fullName:"T Nagarajan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universiti Teknologi Petronas",country:{name:"Malaysia"}}}],filtersByRegion:[{group:"region",caption:"North America",value:1,count:6675},{group:"region",caption:"Middle and South America",value:2,count:5955},{group:"region",caption:"Africa",value:3,count:2459},{group:"region",caption:"Asia",value:4,count:12718},{group:"region",caption:"Australia and Oceania",value:5,count:1017},{group:"region",caption:"Europe",value:6,count:17720}],offset:12,limit:12,total:134177},chapterEmbeded:{data:{}},editorApplication:{success:null,errors:{}},ofsBooks:{filterParams:{topicId:"21"},books:[{type:"book",id:"11434",title:"Indigenous Populations - Perspectives From Scholars and Practitioners in Contemporary Times",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"c0d1c1c93a36fd9d726445966316a373",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Sylvanus Gbendazhi Barnabas",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11434.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"293764",title:"Dr.",name:"Sylvanus",surname:"Barnabas",slug:"sylvanus-barnabas",fullName:"Sylvanus Barnabas"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11436",title:"Beauty - Evolutionary, Social and Cultural Perspectives on Attractiveness",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"8f2773e5d4ffe767f38dd15712258e8c",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Farid Pazhoohi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11436.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"470837",title:"Dr.",name:"Farid",surname:"Pazhoohi",slug:"farid-pazhoohi",fullName:"Farid Pazhoohi"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11443",title:"Empathy - Advanced Research and Applications",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"4c1042dfe15aa9cea6019524c4cbff38",slug:null,bookSignature:"Ph.D. Sara Ventura",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11443.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"227763",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sara",surname:"Ventura",slug:"sara-ventura",fullName:"Sara Ventura"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11444",title:"Happiness - Biopsychosocial and Anthropological Perspectives",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"fa84e7fc3611e5428e070239dcf5a93f",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Floriana Irtelli and Prof. Fabio Gabrielli",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11444.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"174641",title:"Dr.",name:"Floriana",surname:"Irtelli",slug:"floriana-irtelli",fullName:"Floriana Irtelli"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11478",title:"Recent Advances in the Study of Dyslexia",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"26764a18c6b776698823e0e1c3022d2f",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Jonathan Glazzard",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11478.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"294281",title:"Prof.",name:"Jonathan",surname:"Glazzard",slug:"jonathan-glazzard",fullName:"Jonathan Glazzard"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11777",title:"LGBT Communities",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"e08bb222c250dcebf093b7ab595a14a7",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Deborah Woodman",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11777.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"463750",title:"Dr.",name:"Deborah",surname:"Woodman",slug:"deborah-woodman",fullName:"Deborah Woodman"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11781",title:"Family Therapy - Recent Advances in Clinical and Crisis Settings",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"8c5b7d5e4233594de70d2f830209b757",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Oluwatoyin Olatundun Ilesanmi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11781.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"440049",title:"Dr.",name:"Oluwatoyin Olatundun",surname:"Ilesanmi",slug:"oluwatoyin-olatundun-ilesanmi",fullName:"Oluwatoyin Olatundun Ilesanmi"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11782",title:"Personality Traits - The Role in Psychopathology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"d3a491e5194cad4c59b900dd57a11842",slug:null,bookSignature:" Vladimir V. Kalinin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11782.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"31572",title:null,name:"Vladimir V.",surname:"Kalinin",slug:"vladimir-v.-kalinin",fullName:"Vladimir V. Kalinin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11783",title:"Motivation and Success",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"f660b7cd35b9af94bdfc3564df138161",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Simon George Taukeni",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11783.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"202046",title:"Dr.",name:"Simon George",surname:"Taukeni",slug:"simon-george-taukeni",fullName:"Simon George Taukeni"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"12109",title:"Identifying Occupational Stress and Coping Strategies",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"09a2f5fe50b90b20637b7aceccf1cfdd",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Kavitha Palaniappan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/12109.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"311189",title:"Dr.",name:"Kavitha",surname:"Palaniappan",slug:"kavitha-palaniappan",fullName:"Kavitha Palaniappan"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"12127",title:"The Psychology of Sports",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"4bf52abfe589a320744c40ca5fe41a89",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/12127.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"12135",title:"Parenting",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"5fcfe3872ea161c9c879e0667a220ca8",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/cover.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],filtersByTopic:[{group:"topic",caption:"Agricultural and Biological Sciences",value:5,count:38},{group:"topic",caption:"Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology",value:6,count:13},{group:"topic",caption:"Business, Management and Economics",value:7,count:7},{group:"topic",caption:"Chemistry",value:8,count:23},{group:"topic",caption:"Computer and Information Science",value:9,count:24},{group:"topic",caption:"Earth and Planetary Sciences",value:10,count:15},{group:"topic",caption:"Engineering",value:11,count:65},{group:"topic",caption:"Environmental Sciences",value:12,count:10},{group:"topic",caption:"Immunology and Microbiology",value:13,count:16},{group:"topic",caption:"Materials Science",value:14,count:25},{group:"topic",caption:"Mathematics",value:15,count:11},{group:"topic",caption:"Medicine",value:16,count:116},{group:"topic",caption:"Nanotechnology and Nanomaterials",value:17,count:6},{group:"topic",caption:"Neuroscience",value:18,count:4},{group:"topic",caption:"Pharmacology, Toxicology and Pharmaceutical Science",value:19,count:9},{group:"topic",caption:"Physics",value:20,count:9},{group:"topic",caption:"Psychology",value:21,count:10},{group:"topic",caption:"Robotics",value:22,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Social Sciences",value:23,count:9},{group:"topic",caption:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",value:25,count:4}],offset:12,limit:12,total:14},popularBooks:{featuredBooks:[{type:"book",id:"10858",title:"MOOC (Massive Open Online Courses)",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d32f86793bc72dde32532f509b1ec5b0",slug:"mooc-massive-open-online-courses-",bookSignature:"Dragan Cvetković",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10858.jpg",editors:[{id:"101330",title:"Dr.",name:"Dragan",middleName:"Mladen",surname:"Cvetković",slug:"dragan-cvetkovic",fullName:"Dragan Cvetković"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10195",title:"Serotonin and the CNS",subtitle:"New Developments in Pharmacology and Therapeutics",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"7ed9d96da98233a885bd2869a8056c36",slug:"serotonin-and-the-cns-new-developments-in-pharmacology-and-therapeutics",bookSignature:"Berend Olivier",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10195.jpg",editors:[{id:"71579",title:"Prof.",name:"Berend",middleName:null,surname:"Olivier",slug:"berend-olivier",fullName:"Berend Olivier"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10755",title:"Corporate Governance",subtitle:"Recent Advances and Perspectives",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ffe06d1d5c4bf0fc2e63511825fe1257",slug:"corporate-governance-recent-advances-and-perspectives",bookSignature:"Okechukwu Lawrence Emeagwali and Feyza Bhatti",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10755.jpg",editors:[{id:"196317",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Okechukwu Lawrence",middleName:null,surname:"Emeagwali",slug:"okechukwu-lawrence-emeagwali",fullName:"Okechukwu Lawrence Emeagwali"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"11120",title:"Environmental Impact and Remediation of Heavy Metals",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9e77514288e7394f1e6cd13481af3509",slug:"environmental-impact-and-remediation-of-heavy-metals",bookSignature:"Hosam M. Saleh and Amal I. Hassan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11120.jpg",editors:[{id:"144691",title:"Prof.",name:"Hosam M.",middleName:null,surname:"Saleh",slug:"hosam-m.-saleh",fullName:"Hosam M. Saleh"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10901",title:"Grapes and Wine",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5d7f2aa74874444bc6986e613ccebd7c",slug:"grapes-and-wine",bookSignature:"Antonio Morata, Iris Loira and Carmen González",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10901.jpg",editors:[{id:"180952",title:"Prof.",name:"Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Morata",slug:"antonio-morata",fullName:"Antonio Morata"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"11080",title:"Engineering Principles",subtitle:"Welding and Residual Stresses",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6c07a13a113bce94174b40096f30fb5e",slug:"engineering-principles-welding-and-residual-stresses",bookSignature:"Kavian Omar Cooke and Ronaldo Câmara Cozza",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11080.jpg",editors:[{id:"138778",title:"Dr.",name:"Kavian",middleName:"Omar",surname:"Cooke",slug:"kavian-cooke",fullName:"Kavian Cooke"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"11332",title:"Essential Oils",subtitle:"Advances in Extractions and Biological Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"742e6cae3a35686f975edc8d7f9afa94",slug:"essential-oils-advances-in-extractions-and-biological-applications",bookSignature:"Mozaniel Santana de Oliveira and Eloisa Helena de Aguiar Andrade",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11332.jpg",editors:[{id:"195290",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Mozaniel",middleName:null,surname:"Santana De Oliveira",slug:"mozaniel-santana-de-oliveira",fullName:"Mozaniel Santana De Oliveira"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"11029",title:"Hepatitis B",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"609701f502efc3538c112ff47a2c2119",slug:"hepatitis-b",bookSignature:"Luis Rodrigo",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11029.jpg",editors:[{id:"73208",title:"Prof.",name:"Luis",middleName:null,surname:"Rodrigo",slug:"luis-rodrigo",fullName:"Luis Rodrigo"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9537",title:"Human Rights in the Contemporary World",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"54f05b93812fd434f3962956d6413a6b",slug:"human-rights-in-the-contemporary-world",bookSignature:"Trudy Corrigan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9537.jpg",editors:[{id:"197557",title:"Dr.",name:"Trudy",middleName:null,surname:"Corrigan",slug:"trudy-corrigan",fullName:"Trudy Corrigan"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"11371",title:"Cerebral Circulation",subtitle:"Updates on Models, Diagnostics and Treatments of Related Diseases",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e2d3335445d2852d0b906bb9750e939f",slug:"cerebral-circulation-updates-on-models-diagnostics-and-treatments-of-related-diseases",bookSignature:"Alba Scerrati, Luca Ricciardi and Flavia Dones",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11371.jpg",editors:[{id:"182614",title:"Dr.",name:"Alba",middleName:null,surname:"Scerrati",slug:"alba-scerrati",fullName:"Alba Scerrati"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"11012",title:"Radiopharmaceuticals",subtitle:"Current Research for Better Diagnosis and Therapy",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f9046d6f96148b285e776f384991120d",slug:"radiopharmaceuticals-current-research-for-better-diagnosis-and-therapy",bookSignature:"Farid A. Badria",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11012.jpg",editors:[{id:"41865",title:"Prof.",name:"Farid A.",middleName:null,surname:"Badria",slug:"farid-a.-badria",fullName:"Farid A. Badria"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9974",title:"E-Learning and Digital Education in the Twenty-First Century",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"88b58d66e975df20425fc1dfd22d53aa",slug:"e-learning-and-digital-education-in-the-twenty-first-century",bookSignature:"M. Mahruf C. Shohel",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9974.jpg",editors:[{id:"94099",title:"Dr.",name:"M. Mahruf C.",middleName:null,surname:"Shohel",slug:"m.-mahruf-c.-shohel",fullName:"M. Mahruf C. Shohel"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],offset:12,limit:12,total:4431},hotBookTopics:{hotBooks:[],offset:0,limit:12,total:null},publish:{},publishingProposal:{success:null,errors:{}},books:{featuredBooks:[{type:"book",id:"10858",title:"MOOC (Massive Open Online Courses)",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d32f86793bc72dde32532f509b1ec5b0",slug:"mooc-massive-open-online-courses-",bookSignature:"Dragan Cvetković",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10858.jpg",publishedDate:"June 23rd 2022",numberOfDownloads:1677,editors:[{id:"101330",title:"Dr.",name:"Dragan",middleName:"Mladen",surname:"Cvetković",slug:"dragan-cvetkovic",fullName:"Dragan Cvetković"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10195",title:"Serotonin and the CNS",subtitle:"New Developments in Pharmacology and Therapeutics",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"7ed9d96da98233a885bd2869a8056c36",slug:"serotonin-and-the-cns-new-developments-in-pharmacology-and-therapeutics",bookSignature:"Berend Olivier",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10195.jpg",publishedDate:"June 23rd 2022",numberOfDownloads:1337,editors:[{id:"71579",title:"Prof.",name:"Berend",middleName:null,surname:"Olivier",slug:"berend-olivier",fullName:"Berend Olivier"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10755",title:"Corporate Governance",subtitle:"Recent Advances and Perspectives",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ffe06d1d5c4bf0fc2e63511825fe1257",slug:"corporate-governance-recent-advances-and-perspectives",bookSignature:"Okechukwu Lawrence Emeagwali and Feyza Bhatti",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10755.jpg",publishedDate:"June 23rd 2022",numberOfDownloads:1309,editors:[{id:"196317",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Okechukwu Lawrence",middleName:null,surname:"Emeagwali",slug:"okechukwu-lawrence-emeagwali",fullName:"Okechukwu Lawrence Emeagwali"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"11120",title:"Environmental Impact and Remediation of Heavy Metals",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9e77514288e7394f1e6cd13481af3509",slug:"environmental-impact-and-remediation-of-heavy-metals",bookSignature:"Hosam M. Saleh and Amal I. Hassan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11120.jpg",publishedDate:"June 23rd 2022",numberOfDownloads:847,editors:[{id:"144691",title:"Prof.",name:"Hosam M.",middleName:null,surname:"Saleh",slug:"hosam-m.-saleh",fullName:"Hosam M. Saleh"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10901",title:"Grapes and Wine",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5d7f2aa74874444bc6986e613ccebd7c",slug:"grapes-and-wine",bookSignature:"Antonio Morata, Iris Loira and Carmen González",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10901.jpg",publishedDate:"June 15th 2022",numberOfDownloads:2273,editors:[{id:"180952",title:"Prof.",name:"Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Morata",slug:"antonio-morata",fullName:"Antonio Morata"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"11080",title:"Engineering Principles",subtitle:"Welding and Residual Stresses",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6c07a13a113bce94174b40096f30fb5e",slug:"engineering-principles-welding-and-residual-stresses",bookSignature:"Kavian Omar Cooke and Ronaldo Câmara Cozza",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11080.jpg",publishedDate:"June 23rd 2022",numberOfDownloads:591,editors:[{id:"138778",title:"Dr.",name:"Kavian",middleName:"Omar",surname:"Cooke",slug:"kavian-cooke",fullName:"Kavian Cooke"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"11332",title:"Essential Oils",subtitle:"Advances in Extractions and Biological Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"742e6cae3a35686f975edc8d7f9afa94",slug:"essential-oils-advances-in-extractions-and-biological-applications",bookSignature:"Mozaniel Santana de Oliveira and Eloisa Helena de Aguiar Andrade",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11332.jpg",publishedDate:"June 23rd 2022",numberOfDownloads:515,editors:[{id:"195290",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Mozaniel",middleName:null,surname:"Santana De Oliveira",slug:"mozaniel-santana-de-oliveira",fullName:"Mozaniel Santana De Oliveira"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"11029",title:"Hepatitis B",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"609701f502efc3538c112ff47a2c2119",slug:"hepatitis-b",bookSignature:"Luis Rodrigo",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11029.jpg",publishedDate:"June 23rd 2022",numberOfDownloads:413,editors:[{id:"73208",title:"Prof.",name:"Luis",middleName:null,surname:"Rodrigo",slug:"luis-rodrigo",fullName:"Luis Rodrigo"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9537",title:"Human Rights in the Contemporary World",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"54f05b93812fd434f3962956d6413a6b",slug:"human-rights-in-the-contemporary-world",bookSignature:"Trudy Corrigan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9537.jpg",publishedDate:"June 8th 2022",numberOfDownloads:2194,editors:[{id:"197557",title:"Dr.",name:"Trudy",middleName:null,surname:"Corrigan",slug:"trudy-corrigan",fullName:"Trudy Corrigan"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"11371",title:"Cerebral Circulation",subtitle:"Updates on Models, Diagnostics and Treatments of Related Diseases",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e2d3335445d2852d0b906bb9750e939f",slug:"cerebral-circulation-updates-on-models-diagnostics-and-treatments-of-related-diseases",bookSignature:"Alba Scerrati, Luca Ricciardi and Flavia Dones",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11371.jpg",publishedDate:"June 23rd 2022",numberOfDownloads:341,editors:[{id:"182614",title:"Dr.",name:"Alba",middleName:null,surname:"Scerrati",slug:"alba-scerrati",fullName:"Alba Scerrati"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],latestBooks:[{type:"book",id:"11043",title:"Endometriosis",subtitle:"Recent Advances, New Perspectives and Treatments",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"7baf1c70b11d41400bb9302ae9411ca4",slug:"endometriosis-recent-advances-new-perspectives-and-treatments",bookSignature:"Giovana Ap. Gonçalves",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11043.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"June 28th 2022",editors:[{id:"185930",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Giovana",middleName:null,surname:"Gonçalves",slug:"giovana-goncalves",fullName:"Giovana Gonçalves"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10536",title:"Campylobacter",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c4b132b741dd0a2ed539b824ab63965f",slug:"campylobacter",bookSignature:"Guillermo Tellez-Isaias and Saeed El-Ashram",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10536.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"June 28th 2022",editors:[{id:"73465",title:"Dr.",name:"Guillermo",middleName:null,surname:"Téllez",slug:"guillermo-tellez",fullName:"Guillermo Téllez"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10798",title:"Starch",subtitle:"Evolution and Recent Advances",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f197f6062c1574a9a90e50a369271bcf",slug:"starch-evolution-and-recent-advances",bookSignature:"Martins Ochubiojo Emeje",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10798.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"June 28th 2022",editors:[{id:"94311",title:"Prof.",name:"Martins",middleName:"Ochubiojo",surname:"Ochubiojo Emeje",slug:"martins-ochubiojo-emeje",fullName:"Martins Ochubiojo Emeje"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11083",title:"Hazardous Waste Management",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d553bd4f6f1c4b115ca69bd19faac7dc",slug:"hazardous-waste-management",bookSignature:"Rajesh Banu Jeyakumar, Kavitha Sankarapandian and Yukesh Kannah Ravi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11083.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"June 28th 2022",editors:[{id:"218539",title:"Dr.",name:"Rajesh Banu",middleName:null,surname:"Jeyakumar",slug:"rajesh-banu-jeyakumar",fullName:"Rajesh Banu Jeyakumar"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10848",title:"Tribology of Machine Elements",subtitle:"Fundamentals and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"3c4ca4c4692ca8d4fa749b4ae81ec1fa",slug:"tribology-of-machine-elements-fundamentals-and-applications",bookSignature:"Giuseppe Pintaude, Tiago Cousseau and Anna Rudawska",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10848.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"June 28th 2022",editors:[{id:"18347",title:"Prof.",name:"Giuseppe",middleName:null,surname:"Pintaude",slug:"giuseppe-pintaude",fullName:"Giuseppe Pintaude"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10856",title:"Crude Oil",subtitle:"New Technologies and Recent Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8d0a7ca35b3de95b295dc4eab39a087e",slug:"crude-oil-new-technologies-and-recent-approaches",bookSignature:"Manar Elsayed Abdel-Raouf and Mohamed Hasan El-Keshawy",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10856.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"June 28th 2022",editors:[{id:"102626",title:"Prof.",name:"Manar",middleName:null,surname:"Elsayed Abdel-Raouf",slug:"manar-elsayed-abdel-raouf",fullName:"Manar Elsayed Abdel-Raouf"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9625",title:"Spinocerebellar Ataxia",subtitle:"Concepts, Particularities and Generalities",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"365a7025fd46eb45de2549bdd9d50b98",slug:"spinocerebellar-ataxia-concepts-particularities-and-generalities",bookSignature:"Patricia Bozzetto Ambrosi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9625.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"June 28th 2022",editors:[{id:"221787",title:"Dr.",name:"Patricia",middleName:null,surname:"Bozzetto Ambrosi",slug:"patricia-bozzetto-ambrosi",fullName:"Patricia Bozzetto Ambrosi"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10905",title:"Plant Defense Mechanisms",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"84ad5b27dde5f01dc76087d0fd6fa834",slug:"plant-defense-mechanisms",bookSignature:"Josphert Ngui Kimatu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10905.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"June 28th 2022",editors:[{id:"224171",title:"Prof.",name:"Josphert N.",middleName:null,surname:"Kimatu",slug:"josphert-n.-kimatu",fullName:"Josphert N. Kimatu"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10686",title:"Natural Gas",subtitle:"New Perspectives and Future Developments",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"581763788a6a59e653a9d1d9b5a42d79",slug:"natural-gas-new-perspectives-and-future-developments",bookSignature:"Maryam Takht Ravanchi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10686.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"June 28th 2022",editors:[{id:"2416",title:"Dr.",name:"Maryam",middleName:null,surname:"Takht Ravanchi",slug:"maryam-takht-ravanchi",fullName:"Maryam Takht Ravanchi"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10988",title:"Railway Transport Planning and Manageme",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5cb54cc53caedad9ec78372563c82e2c",slug:"railway-transport-planning-and-management",bookSignature:"Stefano de Luca, Roberta Di Pace and Chiara Fiori",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10988.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"June 28th 2022",editors:[{id:"271061",title:"Prof.",name:"Stefano",middleName:null,surname:"de Luca",slug:"stefano-de-luca",fullName:"Stefano de Luca"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},subject:{topic:{id:"1150",title:"Orthopedics",slug:"orthopedics",parent:{id:"202",title:"Surgery",slug:"surgery"},numberOfBooks:31,numberOfSeries:0,numberOfAuthorsAndEditors:745,numberOfWosCitations:443,numberOfCrossrefCitations:293,numberOfDimensionsCitations:694,videoUrl:null,fallbackUrl:null,description:null},booksByTopicFilter:{topicId:"1150",sort:"-publishedDate",limit:12,offset:0},booksByTopicCollection:[{type:"book",id:"10711",title:"Arthroscopy",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"afa83f11ba2442e7612f5b8c6aa3c659",slug:"arthroscopy",bookSignature:"Carlos Suarez-Ahedo",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10711.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"235976",title:"M.D.",name:"Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Suarez-Ahedo",slug:"carlos-suarez-ahedo",fullName:"Carlos Suarez-Ahedo"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9801",title:"A Comprehensive Review of Compartment Syndrome",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ba676e67fb29de60aee9048ff13bf479",slug:"a-comprehensive-review-of-compartment-syndrome",bookSignature:"Saqeb Beig Mirza and Khaled Elawady",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9801.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"99767",title:"Dr.",name:"Saqeb Beig",middleName:null,surname:"Mirza",slug:"saqeb-beig-mirza",fullName:"Saqeb Beig Mirza"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9154",title:"Spinal Deformities in Adolescents, Adults and Older Adults",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"313f1dffa803b60a14ff1e6966e93d91",slug:"spinal-deformities-in-adolescents-adults-and-older-adults",bookSignature:"Josette Bettany-Saltikov and Gokulakannan Kandasamy",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9154.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"94802",title:"Dr.",name:"Josette",middleName:null,surname:"Bettany-Saltikov",slug:"josette-bettany-saltikov",fullName:"Josette Bettany-Saltikov"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9522",title:"Tibia Pathology and Fractures",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a458a39d8281ed7fda0548fbb75927a2",slug:"tibia-pathology-and-fractures",bookSignature:"Dimitrios D. Nikolopoulos, George K. Safos and John Michos",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9522.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"228477",title:"Dr.",name:"Dimitrios D.",middleName:null,surname:"Nikolopoulos",slug:"dimitrios-d.-nikolopoulos",fullName:"Dimitrios D. Nikolopoulos"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9350",title:"Knee Surgery",subtitle:"Reconstruction and Replacement",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"78aa92dc594a2cc0f60f28b640b28c10",slug:"knee-surgery-reconstruction-and-replacement",bookSignature:"João Bosco Sales Nogueira, José Alberto Dias Leite, Leonardo Heráclio Do Carmo Araújo and Marcelo Cortez Bezerra",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9350.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"215718",title:"M.Sc.",name:"João Bosco Sales",middleName:null,surname:"Nogueira",slug:"joao-bosco-sales-nogueira",fullName:"João Bosco Sales Nogueira"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7975",title:"Limb Amputation",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"4cf345d93bc54587899c69ce6d3b07f2",slug:"limb-amputation",bookSignature:"Masaki Fujioka",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7975.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"53197",title:"Prof.",name:"Masaki",middleName:null,surname:"Fujioka",slug:"masaki-fujioka",fullName:"Masaki Fujioka"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7087",title:"Tendons",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"786abac0445c102d1399a1e727a2db7f",slug:"tendons",bookSignature:"Hasan Sözen",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7087.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"161402",title:"Dr.",name:"Hasan",middleName:null,surname:"Sözen",slug:"hasan-sozen",fullName:"Hasan Sözen"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7548",title:"Meniscus of the Knee",subtitle:"Function, Pathology and Management",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a82a659a178c693e15f88dcfb8fb2782",slug:"meniscus-of-the-knee-function-pathology-and-management",bookSignature:"Taiceer Abdulwahab and Karl Almqvist",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7548.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"204153",title:"Dr.",name:"Taiceer",middleName:null,surname:"Abdulwahab",slug:"taiceer-abdulwahab",fullName:"Taiceer Abdulwahab"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8676",title:"Hip Surgeries",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"35280afd3082f1a6b3c10bdc0ae447f6",slug:"hip-surgeries",bookSignature:"Nahum Rosenberg",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8676.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"68911",title:"Dr.",name:"Nahum",middleName:null,surname:"Rosenberg",slug:"nahum-rosenberg",fullName:"Nahum Rosenberg"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6585",title:"Total Hip Replacement",subtitle:"An Overview",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"fc19d9c4ee5073fbab74a0e2aed20ba2",slug:"total-hip-replacement-an-overview",bookSignature:"Vaibhav Bagaria",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6585.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37266",title:"Dr.",name:"Vaibhav",middleName:null,surname:"Bagaria",slug:"vaibhav-bagaria",fullName:"Vaibhav Bagaria"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6755",title:"Recent Advances in Arthroscopic Surgery",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5c122c5b88bdc03c130d34ad2ac2d722",slug:"recent-advances-in-arthroscopic-surgery",bookSignature:"Hiran Wimal Amarasekera",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6755.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"67634",title:"Dr.",name:"Hiran",middleName:"Wimal",surname:"Amarasekera",slug:"hiran-amarasekera",fullName:"Hiran Amarasekera"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6337",title:"Update in Management of Foot and Ankle Disorders",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8b2f0af3f51f43cce1e3e36375ea3220",slug:"update-in-management-of-foot-and-ankle-disorders",bookSignature:"Thanos Badekas",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6337.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"66087",title:"Dr.",name:"Thanos",middleName:null,surname:"Badekas",slug:"thanos-badekas",fullName:"Thanos Badekas"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],booksByTopicTotal:31,seriesByTopicCollection:[],seriesByTopicTotal:0,mostCitedChapters:[{id:"26862",doi:"10.5772/27413",title:"Titanium as a Biomaterial for Implants",slug:"titanium-as-a-biomaterial-for-implants",totalDownloads:16257,totalCrossrefCites:51,totalDimensionsCites:125,abstract:null,book:{id:"938",slug:"recent-advances-in-arthroplasty",title:"Recent Advances in Arthroplasty",fullTitle:"Recent Advances in Arthroplasty"},signatures:"Carlos Oldani and Alejandro Dominguez",authors:[{id:"70012",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Oldani",slug:"carlos-oldani",fullName:"Carlos Oldani"},{id:"73445",title:"MSc.",name:"Alejandro",middleName:"Anibal",surname:"Dominguez",slug:"alejandro-dominguez",fullName:"Alejandro Dominguez"}]},{id:"50915",doi:"10.5772/63266",title:"Doped Bioactive Glass Materials in Bone Regeneration",slug:"doped-bioactive-glass-materials-in-bone-regeneration",totalDownloads:3480,totalCrossrefCites:13,totalDimensionsCites:33,abstract:"In the arena of orthopaedic surgery, autograft is considered to be the gold standard for correction of fracture repair or other bone pathologies. But, it has some limitations such as donor site morbidity and shortage of supply, which evolved the use of allograft that also has some disadvantages such as immunogenic response to the host, low osteogenicity as well as possibilities of disease transmission. Despite the benefits of autografts and allografts, the limitations of each have necessitated the pursuit of alternatives biomaterials that has the ability to initiate osteogenesis, and the graft should closely mimic the natural bone along with regeneration of fibroblasts. A variety of artificial materials such as demineralised bone matrix, coralline hydroxyapatite and calcium phosphate-based ceramics such as hydroxyapatite (HA), β-tricalcium phosphate (β-TCP) and bioactive glass have been used over the decades to fill bone defects almost without associated soft tissue development. Most of them were having only the properties of osteointegration and osteoconduction. Only bioactive glass possesses osteogenic property that stimulates proliferation and differentiation of osteoprogenitor cells and in some cases influencing the fibroblastic properties. But, this material has also some disadvantages such as short-term and low mechanical strength along with decreased fracture resistance; but, this was further minimised by ion doping that positively enhanced new bone formation. There are many metal ions such as magnesium (Mg), strontium (Sr), manganese (Mn), iron (Fe), zinc (Zn), silver (Ag) and some rare earths that have been doped successfully into bioactive glass to enhance their mechanical and biological properties. In some of the cases, mesoporous bioactive glass materials with or without such doping have also been employed (with homogeneous distribution of pores in the size ranging between 2 and 50 nm). These biomaterials can be served as scaffold for bone regeneration with adequate mechanical properties to restore bone defects and facilitate healing process by regeneration of soft tissues as well. This chapter encompasses the use of bioactive glass in bulk and mesoporous form with doped therapeutic ions, their role in bone tissue regeneration, use as delivery of growth factors as well as coating material for orthopaedic implants.",book:{id:"5164",slug:"advanced-techniques-in-bone-regeneration",title:"Advanced Techniques in Bone Regeneration",fullTitle:"Advanced Techniques in Bone Regeneration"},signatures:"Samit Kumar Nandi, Arnab Mahato, Biswanath Kundu and Prasenjit\nMukherjee",authors:[{id:"60514",title:"Dr.",name:"Samit",middleName:null,surname:"Nandi",slug:"samit-nandi",fullName:"Samit Nandi"}]},{id:"26863",doi:"10.5772/26362",title:"The Bearing Surfaces in Total Hip Arthroplasty – Options, Material Characteristics and Selection",slug:"the-bearing-surfaces-in-total-hip-arthroplasty-options-material-characteristics-and-selection",totalDownloads:9485,totalCrossrefCites:10,totalDimensionsCites:21,abstract:null,book:{id:"938",slug:"recent-advances-in-arthroplasty",title:"Recent Advances in Arthroplasty",fullTitle:"Recent Advances in Arthroplasty"},signatures:"Hamid Reza Seyyed Hosseinzadeh, Alireza Eajazi and Ali Sina Shahi",authors:[{id:"66361",title:"Dr.",name:"Alireza",middleName:null,surname:"Eajazi",slug:"alireza-eajazi",fullName:"Alireza Eajazi"},{id:"74857",title:"Dr.",name:"Hamid Reza",middleName:null,surname:"Seyyed Hosseinzadeh",slug:"hamid-reza-seyyed-hosseinzadeh",fullName:"Hamid Reza Seyyed Hosseinzadeh"},{id:"173207",title:"Dr.",name:"Alisina",middleName:null,surname:"Shahi",slug:"alisina-shahi",fullName:"Alisina Shahi"}]},{id:"50276",doi:"10.5772/62523",title:"Regenerative Medicine: A New Paradigm in Bone Regeneration",slug:"regenerative-medicine-a-new-paradigm-in-bone-regeneration",totalDownloads:3368,totalCrossrefCites:10,totalDimensionsCites:20,abstract:"Bone defects are the cause of functional disability and the restoration of skeletal function remains an important challenge on orthopedics, neurosurgery and oral and maxillofacial surgery. Because of the limitations of the currently used techniques for the reconstruction of bone defects and the difficulties for the implementation of new therapeutic strategies, a new paradigm in the field of reconstructive surgery has arisen, leading to tissue engineering and regenerative medicine. Mesenchymal stem cells (MSC) have emerged as a promising alternative for the treatment of bone lesions. It was postulated that the therapeutic action was the result of proliferation and differentiation of MSCs, replacing injured tissue. However, recent studies have shown that MSCs secrete a number of trophic factors that have a strong effect during repair and tissue regeneration. This represents a shift from a paradigm centered on MSC proliferation and differentiation to a new paradigm in which the MSCs exert their beneficial effect by the secretion of paracrine factors that induce endogenous repair mechanisms. This chapter will bring together basic and clinical aspects, focused on novel findings on MSC paracrine effect and the development of new therapeutic strategies based on growth factors, cytokines and signaling molecules involved in bone regeneration.",book:{id:"5164",slug:"advanced-techniques-in-bone-regeneration",title:"Advanced Techniques in Bone Regeneration",fullTitle:"Advanced Techniques in Bone Regeneration"},signatures:"Orlando Chaparro and Itali Linero",authors:[{id:"179436",title:"Dr.",name:"Orlando",middleName:null,surname:"Chaparro",slug:"orlando-chaparro",fullName:"Orlando Chaparro"},{id:"180151",title:"Dr.",name:"Itali",middleName:null,surname:"Linero",slug:"itali-linero",fullName:"Itali Linero"}]},{id:"42805",doi:"10.5772/53245",title:"Predictors of Pain and Function Following Total Joint Replacement",slug:"predictors-of-pain-and-function-following-total-joint-replacement",totalDownloads:3103,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:16,abstract:null,book:{id:"3394",slug:"arthroplasty-update",title:"Arthroplasty",fullTitle:"Arthroplasty - Update"},signatures:"Michelle M. Dowsey and Peter F. M. Choong",authors:[{id:"80820",title:"Prof.",name:"Peter",middleName:null,surname:"Choong",slug:"peter-choong",fullName:"Peter Choong"},{id:"82173",title:"Dr.",name:"Michelle",middleName:"Maree",surname:"Dowsey",slug:"michelle-dowsey",fullName:"Michelle Dowsey"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"55812",title:"Postural Restoration: A Tri-Planar Asymmetrical Framework for Understanding, Assessing, and Treating Scoliosis and Other Spinal Dysfunctions",slug:"postural-restoration-a-tri-planar-asymmetrical-framework-for-understanding-assessing-and-treating-sc",totalDownloads:7646,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"Current medical practice does not recognize the influence of innate, physiological, human asymmetry on scoliosis and other postural disorders. Interventions meant to correct these conditions are commonly based on symmetrical models of appearance and do not take into account asymmetric organ weight distribution, asymmetries of respiratory mechanics, and dominant movement patterns that are reinforced in daily functional activities. A model of innate, human asymmetry derived from the theoretical framework of the Postural Restoration Institute® (PRI) explicitly describes the physiological, biomechanical, and respiratory components of human asymmetry. This model is important because it gives an accurate baseline for understanding predisposing factors for the development of postural disorders, which, without intervention, will likely progress to structural dysfunction. Clinical tests to evaluate tri-planar musculoskeletal relationships and function, developed by PRI, are based on this asymmetric model. These tests are valuable for assessing patient’s status in the context of human asymmetry and in guiding appropriate exercise prescription and progression. Balancing musculoskeletal asymmetry is the aim of PRI treatment. Restoration of relative balance decreases pain, restores improved alignment, and strengthens appropriate muscle function. It can also halt the progression of dysfunction and improve respiration, quality of life, and appearance. PRI’s extensive body of targeted exercise progressions are highly effective due to their basis in the tri-planar asymmetric human model.",book:{id:"5816",slug:"innovations-in-spinal-deformities-and-postural-disorders",title:"Innovations in Spinal Deformities and Postural Disorders",fullTitle:"Innovations in Spinal Deformities and Postural Disorders"},signatures:"Susan Henning, Lisa C. Mangino and Jean Massé",authors:[{id:"204825",title:"Dr.",name:"Susan",middleName:null,surname:"Henning",slug:"susan-henning",fullName:"Susan Henning"},{id:"206242",title:"Dr.",name:"Lisa C",middleName:null,surname:"Mangino",slug:"lisa-c-mangino",fullName:"Lisa C Mangino"},{id:"206245",title:"Dr.",name:"Jean",middleName:null,surname:"Massé",slug:"jean-masse",fullName:"Jean Massé"}]},{id:"62871",title:"Successful Knee Arthroscopy: Techniques",slug:"successful-knee-arthroscopy-techniques",totalDownloads:1665,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"Knee arthroscopy is one of the most common arthroscopic procedures required of an orthopedic surgeon. A successful case hinges primarily on adequate pre-operative planning, proper intra-operative set-up and thoughtful portal placement. This chapter will discuss in detail the necessary ingredients of a smooth and successful knee arthroscopy case. Advanced techniques to deal with intra-operative difficulties will be presented. Though uncommon, complications arising from knee arthroscopy will be presented and their management techniques described. Common procedures will be discussed, including simple knee arthroscopic debridement, arthroscopic cartilage reconstruction, anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction, and meniscus repair. Surgical steps for a safe and smooth case will be presented.",book:{id:"6755",slug:"recent-advances-in-arthroscopic-surgery",title:"Recent Advances in Arthroscopic Surgery",fullTitle:"Recent Advances in Arthroscopic Surgery"},signatures:"Chia-Liang Ang",authors:[{id:"218149",title:"Dr.",name:"Chia Liang",middleName:null,surname:"Ang",slug:"chia-liang-ang",fullName:"Chia Liang Ang"}]},{id:"54481",title:"Pelvic Osteotomies for Developmental Dysplasia of the Hip",slug:"pelvic-osteotomies-for-developmental-dysplasia-of-the-hip",totalDownloads:2637,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:5,abstract:"Treatment of developmental dysplasia of the hip (DDH) is based on concentric reducibility of the femoral head, patient age and the status of triradiate cartilage. Patients in walking age are indicated for pelvic osteotomy to correct the dysplastic acetabulum. Salter innominate osteotomy and Pemberton osteotomy are the most widely used procedures to treat the developmental dysplasia of the hip in early childhood. Although short-term results of the pelvic osteotomies are reported well, some long-term sequalae such as coxa valga caused by Kalamchi type II osteonecrosis of the femoral head, leg length discrepancy and impingement of hip may occur.",book:{id:"5439",slug:"developmental-diseases-of-the-hip-diagnosis-and-management",title:"Developmental Diseases of the Hip",fullTitle:"Developmental Diseases of the Hip - Diagnosis and Management"},signatures:"Chunho Chen, Ting-Ming Wang and Ken N. Kuo",authors:[{id:"189672",title:"M.D.",name:"Chunho",middleName:null,surname:"Chen",slug:"chunho-chen",fullName:"Chunho Chen"},{id:"189675",title:"Dr.",name:"Tingming",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"tingming-wang",fullName:"Tingming Wang"},{id:"189859",title:"Prof.",name:"Ken N",middleName:null,surname:"Kuo",slug:"ken-n-kuo",fullName:"Ken N Kuo"}]},{id:"72475",title:"Tibial Plateau Fracture",slug:"tibial-plateau-fracture",totalDownloads:1227,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Tibial plateau fractures are a common orthopedic injury. These fractures involve the articular surface of the tibia that is part of the knee joint. Plateau fractures can range from low energy injuries with little or no displacement to complex fractures with significant associated injuries. Stability of these injuries depends on a combination of bony and associated ligamentous injuries. Treatment consists of a wide spectrum of therapies which have been discussed in this chapter. Complications such as compartment syndrome, post-traumatic arthritis, chronic pain, malunion, and wound problems (in addition to other complications) can develop.",book:{id:"9522",slug:"tibia-pathology-and-fractures",title:"Tibia Pathology and Fractures",fullTitle:"Tibia Pathology and Fractures"},signatures:"Christian M. Schmidt II, Jan P. Szatkowski and John T. Riehl",authors:null},{id:"70683",title:"Restoration of Cervical and Lumbar Lordosis: CBP® Methods Overview",slug:"restoration-of-cervical-and-lumbar-lordosis-cbp-methods-overview",totalDownloads:1399,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:"Low back and neck pain disorders are among the leading causes for work loss, suffering, and health care expenditures throughout the industrialized world. It has been extensively demonstrated that sagittal plane alignment of the cervical and lumbar spines impacts human health and well-being. Today there are reliable and predictable means through the application of extension spinal traction as part of comprehensive rehabilitation programs to restore the natural curvatures of the spine. High-quality evidence points to Chiropractic BioPhysics® (CBP®) methods offering superior long-term outcomes for treating patients with various craniocervical and lumbosacral disorders. CBP technique is a full spine and posture rehabilitation approach that incorporates mirror image® exercises, spinal and postural adjustments, and unique traction applications in the restoration of normal/ideal spinal alignment. Recent randomized controlled trials using CBP’s unique extension traction methods in conjunction with various conventional physiotherapeutic methods have demonstrated those who restore normal lordosis (cervical or lumbar) get symptomatic relief that lasts up to 2 years after treatment. Comparative groups receiving various ‘cookie-cutter’ conventional treatments experience only temporary symptomatic relief that regresses as early as 3 months after treatment. The economic impact/benefit of CBPs newer sagittal spine rehabilitation treatments demand continued attention from clinicians and researchers alike.",book:{id:"9154",slug:"spinal-deformities-in-adolescents-adults-and-older-adults",title:"Spinal Deformities in Adolescents, Adults and Older Adults",fullTitle:"Spinal Deformities in Adolescents, Adults and Older Adults"},signatures:"Paul A. Oakley, Ibrahim M. Moustafa and Deed E. Harrison",authors:[{id:"308067",title:"Dr.",name:"Paul A.",middleName:null,surname:"Oakley",slug:"paul-a.-oakley",fullName:"Paul A. Oakley"},{id:"308068",title:"Dr.",name:"Deed E.",middleName:null,surname:"Harrison",slug:"deed-e.-harrison",fullName:"Deed E. Harrison"},{id:"311314",title:"Prof.",name:"Ibrahim M.",middleName:null,surname:"Moustafa",slug:"ibrahim-m.-moustafa",fullName:"Ibrahim M. Moustafa"},{id:"410567",title:"Dr.",name:"Paul A.",middleName:null,surname:"Oakley",slug:"paul-a.-oakley",fullName:"Paul A. Oakley"},{id:"410568",title:"Dr.",name:"Ibrahim M.",middleName:null,surname:"Moustafa",slug:"ibrahim-m.-moustafa",fullName:"Ibrahim M. Moustafa"},{id:"410569",title:"Dr.",name:"Deed E.",middleName:null,surname:"Harrison",slug:"deed-e.-harrison",fullName:"Deed E. Harrison"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"1150",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:89,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:104,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:32,numberOfPublishedChapters:318,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:141,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:113,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:106,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:5,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:15,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",issn:"2631-6188",scope:"This series will provide a comprehensive overview of recent research trends in various Infectious Diseases (as per the most recent Baltimore classification). Topics will include general overviews of infections, immunopathology, diagnosis, treatment, epidemiology, etiology, and current clinical recommendations for managing infectious diseases. Ongoing issues, recent advances, and future diagnostic approaches and therapeutic strategies will also be discussed. This book series will focus on various aspects and properties of infectious diseases whose deep understanding is essential for safeguarding the human race from losing resources and economies due to pathogens.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/6.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"June 25th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:13,editor:{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",biography:"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (especially arboviral diseases). He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:2,paginationItems:[{id:"89",title:"Education",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/89.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!1,editor:{id:"260066",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Michail",middleName:null,surname:"Kalogiannakis",slug:"michail-kalogiannakis",fullName:"Michail Kalogiannakis",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/260066/images/system/260066.jpg",biography:"Michail Kalogiannakis is an Associate Professor of the Department of Preschool Education, University of Crete, and an Associate Tutor at School of Humanities at the Hellenic Open University. He graduated from the Physics Department of the University of Crete and continued his post-graduate studies at the University Paris 7-Denis Diderot (D.E.A. in Didactic of Physics), University Paris 5-René Descartes-Sorbonne (D.E.A. in Science Education) and received his Ph.D. degree at the University Paris 5-René Descartes-Sorbonne (PhD in Science Education). His research interests include science education in early childhood, science teaching and learning, e-learning, the use of ICT in science education, games simulations, and mobile learning. He has published over 120 articles in international conferences and journals and has served on the program committees of numerous international conferences.",institutionString:"University of Crete",institution:{name:"University of Crete",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},editorTwo:{id:"422488",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Ampartzaki",slug:"maria-ampartzaki",fullName:"Maria Ampartzaki",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/422488/images/system/422488.jpg",biography:"Dr Maria Ampartzaki is an Assistant Professor in Early Childhood Education in the Department of Preschool Education at the University of Crete. Her research interests include ICT in education, science education in the early years, inquiry-based and art-based learning, teachers’ professional development, action research, and the Pedagogy of Multiliteracies, among others. She has run and participated in several funded and non-funded projects on the teaching of Science, Social Sciences, and ICT in education. She also has the experience of participating in five Erasmus+ projects.",institutionString:"University of Crete",institution:{name:"University of Crete",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},editorThree:null},{id:"90",title:"Human Development",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/90.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"191040",title:"Dr.",name:"Tal",middleName:null,surname:"Dotan Ben-Soussan",slug:"tal-dotan-ben-soussan",fullName:"Tal Dotan Ben-Soussan",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSBf1QAG/Profile_Picture_2022-03-18T07:56:11.jpg",biography:"Tal Dotan Ben-Soussan, Ph.D., is the director of the Research Institute for Neuroscience, Education and Didactics (RINED) – Paoletti Foundation. Ben-Soussan leads international studies on training and neuroplasticity from neurophysiological and psychobiological perspectives. As a neuroscientist and bio-psychologist, she has published numerous articles on neuroplasticity, movement and meditation. She acts as an editor and reviewer in several renowned journals and coordinates international conferences integrating theoretical, methodological and practical approaches on various topics, such as silence, logics and neuro-education. She lives in Assisi, Italy.",institutionString:"Research Institute for Neuroscience, Education and Didactics, Patrizio Paoletti Foundation",institution:null},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null}]},overviewPageOFChapters:{paginationCount:5,paginationItems:[{id:"82394",title:"Learning by Doing Active Social Learning",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105523",signatures:"Anat Raviv",slug:"learning-by-doing-active-social-learning",totalDownloads:3,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Active Learning - Research and Practice",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11481.jpg",subseries:{id:"89",title:"Education"}}},{id:"82310",title:"Knowledge of Intergenerational Contact to Combat Ageism towards Older People",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105592",signatures:"Alice Nga Lai Kwong",slug:"knowledge-of-intergenerational-contact-to-combat-ageism-towards-older-people",totalDownloads:8,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Social Aspects of Ageing - Selected Challenges, Analyses, and Solutions",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11479.jpg",subseries:{id:"90",title:"Human Development"}}},{id:"81993",title:"Emergent Chemistry: Using Visualizations to Develop Abstract Thinking and a Sense of Scale Within the Preschool Setting",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105216",signatures:"Karina Adbo",slug:"emergent-chemistry-using-visualizations-to-develop-abstract-thinking-and-a-sense-of-scale-within-the",totalDownloads:5,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Active Learning - Research and Practice",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11481.jpg",subseries:{id:"89",title:"Education"}}},{id:"82252",title:"Early Childhood: Enriched Environments and Roles of Caring Adults",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105157",signatures:"Analía Mignaton",slug:"early-childhood-enriched-environments-and-roles-of-caring-adults",totalDownloads:4,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Active Learning - Research and Practice",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11481.jpg",subseries:{id:"89",title:"Education"}}}]},overviewPagePublishedBooks:{paginationCount:0,paginationItems:[]},openForSubmissionBooks:{paginationCount:3,paginationItems:[{id:"11601",title:"Econometrics - Recent Advances and Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11601.jpg",hash:"bc8ab49e2cf436c217a49ca8c12a22eb",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,submissionDeadline:"May 13th 2022",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editors:[{id:"452331",title:"Dr.",name:"Brian",surname:"Sloboda",slug:"brian-sloboda",fullName:"Brian Sloboda"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{id:"12141",title:"Leadership - Advancing Great Leadership Practices and Good Leaders",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/12141.jpg",hash:"85f77453916f1d80d80d88ee4fd2f2d1",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,submissionDeadline:"July 1st 2022",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editors:[{id:"420133",title:"Dr.",name:"Joseph",surname:"Crawford",slug:"joseph-crawford",fullName:"Joseph Crawford"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{id:"12139",title:"Global Market and Trade",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/12139.jpg",hash:"fa34af07c3a9657fa670404202f8cba5",secondStepPassed:!1,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:2,submissionDeadline:"July 21st 2022",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editors:[{id:"243649",title:"Dr.Ing.",name:"Ireneusz",surname:"Miciuła",slug:"ireneusz-miciula",fullName:"Ireneusz Miciuła"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null}]},onlineFirstChapters:{paginationCount:10,paginationItems:[{id:"82380",title:"Evolution of Parasitism and Pathogenic Adaptations in Certain Medically Important Fungi",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105206",signatures:"Gokul Shankar Sabesan, Ranjit Singh AJA, Ranjith Mehenderkar and Basanta Kumar Mohanty",slug:"evolution-of-parasitism-and-pathogenic-adaptations-in-certain-medically-important-fungi",totalDownloads:4,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Fungal Infectious Diseases - Annual Volume 2022",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11400.jpg",subseries:{id:"4",title:"Fungal Infectious Diseases"}}},{id:"82367",title:"Spatial Variation and Factors Associated with Unsuppressed HIV Viral Load among Women in an HIV Hyperendemic Area of KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105547",signatures:"Adenike O. Soogun, Ayesha B.M. Kharsany, Temesgen Zewotir and Delia North",slug:"spatial-variation-and-factors-associated-with-unsuppressed-hiv-viral-load-among-women-in-an-hiv-hype",totalDownloads:9,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"HIV-AIDS - Updates, Perspectives and Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11575.jpg",subseries:{id:"6",title:"Viral Infectious Diseases"}}},{id:"82193",title:"Enterococcal Infections: Recent Nomenclature and emerging trends",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104792",signatures:"Kavita Raja",slug:"enterococcal-infections-recent-nomenclature-and-emerging-trends",totalDownloads:6,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Streptococcal Infections",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10828.jpg",subseries:{id:"3",title:"Bacterial Infectious Diseases"}}},{id:"82207",title:"Management Strategies in Perinatal HIV",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105451",signatures:"Kayla Aleshire and Rima Bazzi",slug:"management-strategies-in-perinatal-hiv",totalDownloads:8,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"HIV-AIDS - Updates, Perspectives and Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11575.jpg",subseries:{id:"6",title:"Viral Infectious Diseases"}}},{id:"82013",title:"Streamlining Laboratory Tests for HIV Detection",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105096",signatures:"Ramakrishna Prakash and Mysore Krishnamurthy Yashaswini",slug:"streamlining-laboratory-tests-for-hiv-detection",totalDownloads:3,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"HIV-AIDS - Updates, Perspectives and Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11575.jpg",subseries:{id:"6",title:"Viral Infectious Diseases"}}},{id:"81972",title:"The Submicroscopic Plasmodium falciparum Malaria in Sub-Saharan Africa; Current Understanding of the Host Immune System and New Perspectives",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105086",signatures:"Kwame Kumi Asare",slug:"the-submicroscopic-plasmodium-falciparum-malaria-in-sub-saharan-africa-current-understanding-of-the-",totalDownloads:5,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Malaria - Recent Advances, and New Perspectives",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11576.jpg",subseries:{id:"5",title:"Parasitic Infectious Diseases"}}},{id:"81821",title:"Pneumococcal Carriage in Jordanian Children and the Importance of Vaccination",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104999",signatures:"Adnan Al-Lahham",slug:"pneumococcal-carriage-in-jordanian-children-and-the-importance-of-vaccination",totalDownloads:6,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Streptococcal Infections",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10828.jpg",subseries:{id:"3",title:"Bacterial Infectious Diseases"}}},{id:"81813",title:"Schistosomiasis: Discovery of New Molecules for Disease Treatment and Vaccine Development",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104738",signatures:"Andressa Barban do Patrocinio",slug:"schistosomiasis-discovery-of-new-molecules-for-disease-treatment-and-vaccine-development",totalDownloads:14,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"New Horizons for Schistosomiasis Research",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10829.jpg",subseries:{id:"5",title:"Parasitic Infectious Diseases"}}},{id:"81644",title:"Perspective Chapter: Ethics of Using Placebo Controlled Trials for Covid-19 Vaccine Development in Vulnerable Populations",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104776",signatures:"Lesley Burgess, Jurie Jordaan and Matthew Wilson",slug:"perspective-chapter-ethics-of-using-placebo-controlled-trials-for-covid-19-vaccine-development-in-vu",totalDownloads:22,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"SARS-CoV-2 Variants - Two Years After",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11573.jpg",subseries:{id:"6",title:"Viral Infectious Diseases"}}},{id:"80546",title:"Streptococcal Skin and Skin-Structure Infections",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102894",signatures:"Alwyn Rapose",slug:"streptococcal-skin-and-skin-structure-infections",totalDownloads:64,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Streptococcal Infections",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10828.jpg",subseries:{id:"3",title:"Bacterial Infectious Diseases"}}}]},subseriesFiltersForOFChapters:[{caption:"Fungal Infectious Diseases",value:4,count:1,group:"subseries"},{caption:"Parasitic Infectious Diseases",value:5,count:2,group:"subseries"},{caption:"Bacterial Infectious Diseases",value:3,count:3,group:"subseries"},{caption:"Viral Infectious Diseases",value:6,count:4,group:"subseries"}],publishedBooks:{paginationCount:32,paginationItems:[{type:"book",id:"10798",title:"Starch",subtitle:"Evolution and Recent Advances",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10798.jpg",slug:"starch-evolution-and-recent-advances",publishedDate:"June 28th 2022",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Martins Ochubiojo Emeje",hash:"f197f6062c1574a9a90e50a369271bcf",volumeInSeries:33,fullTitle:"Starch - Evolution and Recent Advances",editors:[{id:"94311",title:"Prof.",name:"Martins",middleName:"Ochubiojo",surname:"Ochubiojo Emeje",slug:"martins-ochubiojo-emeje",fullName:"Martins Ochubiojo Emeje",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94311/images/system/94311.jpeg",institutionString:"National Institute for Pharmaceutical Research and Development",institution:{name:"National Institute for Pharmaceutical Research and Development",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Nigeria"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"11332",title:"Essential Oils",subtitle:"Advances in Extractions and Biological Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11332.jpg",slug:"essential-oils-advances-in-extractions-and-biological-applications",publishedDate:"June 23rd 2022",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Mozaniel Santana de Oliveira and Eloisa Helena de Aguiar Andrade",hash:"742e6cae3a35686f975edc8d7f9afa94",volumeInSeries:32,fullTitle:"Essential Oils - Advances in Extractions and Biological Applications",editors:[{id:"195290",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Mozaniel",middleName:null,surname:"Santana De Oliveira",slug:"mozaniel-santana-de-oliveira",fullName:"Mozaniel Santana De Oliveira",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/195290/images/system/195290.png",institutionString:"Museu Paraense Emílio Goeldi",institution:{name:"Museu Paraense Emílio Goeldi",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"10839",title:"Protein Detection",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10839.jpg",slug:"protein-detection",publishedDate:"June 23rd 2022",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Yusuf Tutar and Lütfi Tutar",hash:"2f1c0e4e0207fc45c936e7d22a5369c4",volumeInSeries:31,fullTitle:"Protein Detection",editors:[{id:"158492",title:"Prof.",name:"Yusuf",middleName:null,surname:"Tutar",slug:"yusuf-tutar",fullName:"Yusuf Tutar",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/158492/images/system/158492.jpeg",institutionString:"University of Health Sciences",institution:null}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"10797",title:"Cell Culture",subtitle:"Advanced Technology and Applications in Medical and Life Sciences",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10797.jpg",slug:"cell-culture-advanced-technology-and-applications-in-medical-and-life-sciences",publishedDate:"June 15th 2022",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Xianquan Zhan",hash:"2c628f4757f9639a4450728d839a7842",volumeInSeries:30,fullTitle:"Cell Culture - Advanced Technology and Applications in Medical and Life Sciences",editors:[{id:"223233",title:"Prof.",name:"Xianquan",middleName:null,surname:"Zhan",slug:"xianquan-zhan",fullName:"Xianquan Zhan",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/223233/images/system/223233.png",institutionString:"Shandong First Medical University",institution:{name:"Affiliated Hospital of Shandong Academy of Medical Sciences",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"10841",title:"Hydrolases",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10841.jpg",slug:"hydrolases",publishedDate:"June 15th 2022",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Sajjad Haider, Adnan Haider and Angel Catalá",hash:"4e868cde273d65a7ff54b1817d640629",volumeInSeries:29,fullTitle:"Hydrolases",editors:[{id:"110708",title:"Dr.",name:"Sajjad",middleName:null,surname:"Haider",slug:"sajjad-haider",fullName:"Sajjad Haider",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/110708/images/system/110708.png",institutionString:"King Saud University",institution:{name:"King Saud University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"10803",title:"Reactive Oxygen Species",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10803.jpg",slug:"reactive-oxygen-species",publishedDate:"April 28th 2022",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Rizwan Ahmad",hash:"176adcf090fdd1f93cb8ce3146e79ca1",volumeInSeries:28,fullTitle:"Reactive Oxygen Species",editors:[{id:"40482",title:null,name:"Rizwan",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"rizwan-ahmad",fullName:"Rizwan Ahmad",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/40482/images/system/40482.jpeg",institutionString:"Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University",institution:{name:"Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"9008",title:"Vitamin K",subtitle:"Recent Topics on the Biology and Chemistry",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9008.jpg",slug:"vitamin-k-recent-topics-on-the-biology-and-chemistry",publishedDate:"March 23rd 2022",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Hiroyuki Kagechika and Hitoshi Shirakawa",hash:"8b43add5389ba85743e0a9491e4b9943",volumeInSeries:27,fullTitle:"Vitamin K - Recent Topics on the Biology and Chemistry",editors:[{id:"180528",title:"Dr.",name:"Hiroyuki",middleName:null,surname:"Kagechika",slug:"hiroyuki-kagechika",fullName:"Hiroyuki Kagechika",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180528/images/system/180528.jpg",institutionString:"Tokyo Medical and Dental University",institution:{name:"Tokyo Medical and Dental University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"10799",title:"Phenolic Compounds",subtitle:"Chemistry, Synthesis, Diversity, Non-Conventional Industrial, Pharmaceutical and Therapeutic Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10799.jpg",slug:"phenolic-compounds-chemistry-synthesis-diversity-non-conventional-industrial-pharmaceutical-and-therapeutic-applications",publishedDate:"February 23rd 2022",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Farid A. Badria",hash:"339199f254d2987ef3167eef74fb8a38",volumeInSeries:26,fullTitle:"Phenolic Compounds - Chemistry, Synthesis, Diversity, Non-Conventional Industrial, Pharmaceutical and Therapeutic Applications",editors:[{id:"41865",title:"Prof.",name:"Farid A.",middleName:null,surname:"Badria",slug:"farid-a.-badria",fullName:"Farid A. Badria",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/41865/images/system/41865.jpg",institutionString:"Mansoura University",institution:{name:"Mansoura University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"9659",title:"Fibroblasts",subtitle:"Advances in Inflammation, Autoimmunity and Cancer",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9659.jpg",slug:"fibroblasts-advances-in-inflammation-autoimmunity-and-cancer",publishedDate:"December 22nd 2021",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Mojca Frank Bertoncelj and Katja Lakota",hash:"926fa6446f6befbd363fc74971a56de2",volumeInSeries:25,fullTitle:"Fibroblasts - Advances in Inflammation, Autoimmunity and Cancer",editors:[{id:"328755",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Mojca",middleName:null,surname:"Frank Bertoncelj",slug:"mojca-frank-bertoncelj",fullName:"Mojca Frank Bertoncelj",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/328755/images/system/328755.jpg",institutionString:"BioMed X Institute",institution:{name:"University Hospital of Zurich",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Switzerland"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"8977",title:"Protein Kinases",subtitle:"Promising Targets for Anticancer Drug Research",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8977.jpg",slug:"protein-kinases-promising-targets-for-anticancer-drug-research",publishedDate:"December 8th 2021",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Rajesh Kumar Singh",hash:"6d200cc031706a565b554fdb1c478901",volumeInSeries:24,fullTitle:"Protein Kinases - Promising Targets for Anticancer Drug Research",editors:[{id:"329385",title:"Dr.",name:"Rajesh K.",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Singh",slug:"rajesh-k.-singh",fullName:"Rajesh K. Singh",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329385/images/system/329385.png",institutionString:"Punjab Technical University",institution:{name:"Punjab Technical University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"8018",title:"Extracellular Matrix",subtitle:"Developments and Therapeutics",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8018.jpg",slug:"extracellular-matrix-developments-and-therapeutics",publishedDate:"October 27th 2021",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Rama Sashank Madhurapantula, Joseph Orgel P.R.O. and Zvi Loewy",hash:"c85e82851e80b40282ff9be99ddf2046",volumeInSeries:23,fullTitle:"Extracellular Matrix - Developments and Therapeutics",editors:[{id:"212416",title:"Dr.",name:"Rama Sashank",middleName:null,surname:"Madhurapantula",slug:"rama-sashank-madhurapantula",fullName:"Rama Sashank Madhurapantula",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/212416/images/system/212416.jpg",institutionString:"Illinois Institute of Technology",institution:{name:"Illinois Institute of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"9759",title:"Vitamin E in Health and Disease",subtitle:"Interactions, Diseases and Health Aspects",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9759.jpg",slug:"vitamin-e-in-health-and-disease-interactions-diseases-and-health-aspects",publishedDate:"October 6th 2021",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Pınar Erkekoglu and Júlia Scherer Santos",hash:"6c3ddcc13626110de289b57f2516ac8f",volumeInSeries:22,fullTitle:"Vitamin E in Health and Disease - Interactions, Diseases and Health Aspects",editors:[{id:"109978",title:"Prof.",name:"Pınar",middleName:null,surname:"Erkekoğlu",slug:"pinar-erkekoglu",fullName:"Pınar Erkekoğlu",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/109978/images/system/109978.jpg",institutionString:"Hacettepe University",institution:{name:"Hacettepe University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null}]},subseriesFiltersForPublishedBooks:[{group:"subseries",caption:"Proteomics",value:18,count:4},{group:"subseries",caption:"Metabolism",value:17,count:6},{group:"subseries",caption:"Cell and Molecular Biology",value:14,count:9},{group:"subseries",caption:"Chemical Biology",value:15,count:13}],publicationYearFilters:[{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2022",value:2022,count:8},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2021",value:2021,count:7},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2020",value:2020,count:12},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2019",value:2019,count:3},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2018",value:2018,count:2}],authors:{paginationCount:301,paginationItems:[{id:"116250",title:"Dr.",name:"Nima",middleName:null,surname:"Rezaei",slug:"nima-rezaei",fullName:"Nima Rezaei",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/116250/images/system/116250.jpg",biography:"Professor Nima Rezaei obtained an MD from Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Iran. He also obtained an MSc in Molecular and Genetic Medicine, and a Ph.D. in Clinical Immunology and Human Genetics from the University of Sheffield, UK. He also completed a short-term fellowship in Pediatric Clinical Immunology and Bone Marrow Transplantation at Newcastle General Hospital, England. Dr. Rezaei is a Full Professor of Immunology and Vice Dean of International Affairs and Research, at the School of Medicine, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, and the co-founder and head of the Research Center for Immunodeficiencies. He is also the founding president of the Universal Scientific Education and Research Network (USERN). Dr. Rezaei has directed more than 100 research projects and has designed and participated in several international collaborative projects. He is an editor, editorial assistant, or editorial board member of more than forty international journals. He has edited more than 50 international books, presented more than 500 lectures/posters in congresses/meetings, and published more than 1,100 scientific papers in international journals.",institutionString:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",institution:{name:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"180733",title:"Dr.",name:"Jean",middleName:null,surname:"Engohang-Ndong",slug:"jean-engohang-ndong",fullName:"Jean Engohang-Ndong",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180733/images/system/180733.png",biography:"Dr. Jean Engohang-Ndong was born and raised in Gabon. After obtaining his Associate Degree of Science at the University of Science and Technology of Masuku, Gabon, he continued his education in France where he obtained his BS, MS, and Ph.D. in Medical Microbiology. He worked as a post-doctoral fellow at the Public Health Research Institute (PHRI), Newark, NJ for four years before accepting a three-year faculty position at Brigham Young University-Hawaii. Dr. Engohang-Ndong is a tenured faculty member with the academic rank of Full Professor at Kent State University, Ohio, where he teaches a wide range of biological science courses and pursues his research in medical and environmental microbiology. Recently, he expanded his research interest to epidemiology and biostatistics of chronic diseases in Gabon.",institutionString:"Kent State University",institution:{name:"Kent State University",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"188773",title:"Prof.",name:"Emmanuel",middleName:null,surname:"Drouet",slug:"emmanuel-drouet",fullName:"Emmanuel Drouet",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/188773/images/system/188773.png",biography:"Emmanuel Drouet, PharmD, is a Professor of Virology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, the University Grenoble-Alpes, France. As a head scientist at the Institute of Structural Biology in Grenoble, Dr. Drouet’s research investigates persisting viruses in humans (RNA and DNA viruses) and the balance with our host immune system. He focuses on these viruses’ effects on humans (both their impact on pathology and their symbiotic relationships in humans). He has an excellent track record in the herpesvirus field, and his group is engaged in clinical research in the field of Epstein-Barr virus diseases. He is the editor of the online Encyclopedia of Environment and he coordinates the Universal Health Coverage education program for the BioHealth Computing Schools of the European Institute of Science.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Grenoble Alpes University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",biography:"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (especially arboviral diseases). He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},{id:"332819",title:"Dr.",name:"Chukwudi Michael",middleName:"Michael",surname:"Egbuche",slug:"chukwudi-michael-egbuche",fullName:"Chukwudi Michael Egbuche",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/332819/images/14624_n.jpg",biography:"I an Dr. Chukwudi Michael Egbuche. I am a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Parasitology and Entomology, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nnamdi Azikiwe University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"284232",title:"Mr.",name:"Nikunj",middleName:"U",surname:"Tandel",slug:"nikunj-tandel",fullName:"Nikunj Tandel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/284232/images/8275_n.jpg",biography:'Mr. Nikunj Tandel has completed his Master\'s degree in Biotechnology from VIT University, India in the year of 2012. He is having 8 years of research experience especially in the field of malaria epidemiology, immunology, and nanoparticle-based drug delivery system against the infectious diseases, autoimmune disorders and cancer. He has worked for the NIH funded-International Center of Excellence in Malaria Research project "Center for the study of complex malaria in India (CSCMi)" in collaboration with New York University. The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. Received the CSIR-SRF (Senior Research Fellow) award-2018, FIMSA (Federation of Immunological Societies of Asia-Oceania) Travel Bursary award to attend the IUIS-IIS-FIMSA Immunology course-2019',institutionString:"Nirma University",institution:{name:"Nirma University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334383",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Simone",middleName:"Ulrich",surname:"Ulrich Picoli",slug:"simone-ulrich-picoli",fullName:"Simone Ulrich Picoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334383/images/15919_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from Universidade Luterana do Brasil (1999), Master in Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology from Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (2002), Specialization in Clinical Microbiology from Universidade de São Paulo, USP (2007) and PhD in Sciences in Gastroenterology and Hepatology (2012). She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:null},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). He was also awarded 'Outstanding Clinician in General Medicine” by Venus International Foundation for his extensive research expertise and services, perform over and above the standard expected in the advancement of healthcare, patient safety and quality of care.",institutionString:"Interfaith Medical Center",institution:{name:"Interfaith Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"93517",title:"Dr.",name:"Clement",middleName:"Adebajo",surname:"Meseko",slug:"clement-meseko",fullName:"Clement Meseko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/93517/images/system/93517.jpg",biography:"Dr. Clement Meseko obtained DVM and PhD degree in Veterinary Medicine and Virology respectively. He has worked for over 20 years in both private and public sectors including the academia, contributing to knowledge and control of infectious disease. Through the application of epidemiological skill, classical and molecular virological skills, he investigates viruses of economic and public health importance for the mitigation of the negative impact on people, animal and the environment in the context of Onehealth. \r\nDr. Meseko’s field experience on animal and zoonotic diseases and pathogen dynamics at the human-animal interface over the years shaped his carrier in research and scientific inquiries. He has been part of the investigation of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza incursions in sub Saharan Africa and monitors swine Influenza (Pandemic influenza Virus) agro-ecology and potential for interspecies transmission. He has authored and reviewed a number of journal articles and book chapters.",institutionString:"National Veterinary Research Institute",institution:{name:"National Veterinary Research Institute",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"94928",title:"Dr.",name:"Takuo",middleName:null,surname:"Mizukami",slug:"takuo-mizukami",fullName:"Takuo Mizukami",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94928/images/6402_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Institute of Infectious Diseases",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"233433",title:"Dr.",name:"Yulia",middleName:null,surname:"Desheva",slug:"yulia-desheva",fullName:"Yulia Desheva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/233433/images/system/233433.png",biography:"Dr. Yulia Desheva is a leading researcher at the Institute of Experimental Medicine, St. Petersburg, Russia. She is a professor in the Stomatology Faculty, St. Petersburg State University. She has expertise in the development and evaluation of a wide range of live mucosal vaccines against influenza and bacterial complications. Her research interests include immunity against influenza and COVID-19 and the development of immunization schemes for high-risk individuals.",institutionString:'Federal State Budgetary Scientific Institution "Institute of Experimental Medicine"',institution:null},{id:"238958",title:"Mr.",name:"Atamjit",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"atamjit-singh",fullName:"Atamjit Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/238958/images/6575_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"333753",title:"Dr.",name:"Rais",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"rais-ahmed",fullName:"Rais Ahmed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333753/images/20168_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"252058",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"Sulca",slug:"juan-sulca",fullName:"Juan Sulca",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252058/images/12834_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"191392",title:"Dr.",name:"Marimuthu",middleName:null,surname:"Govindarajan",slug:"marimuthu-govindarajan",fullName:"Marimuthu Govindarajan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/191392/images/5828_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. M. Govindarajan completed his BSc degree in Zoology at Government Arts College (Autonomous), Kumbakonam, and MSc, MPhil, and PhD degrees at Annamalai University, Annamalai Nagar, Tamil Nadu, India. He is serving as an assistant professor at the Department of Zoology, Annamalai University. His research interests include isolation, identification, and characterization of biologically active molecules from plants and microbes. He has identified more than 20 pure compounds with high mosquitocidal activity and also conducted high-quality research on photochemistry and nanosynthesis. He has published more than 150 studies in journals with impact factor and 2 books in Lambert Academic Publishing, Germany. He serves as an editorial board member in various national and international scientific journals.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"274660",title:"Dr.",name:"Damodar",middleName:null,surname:"Paudel",slug:"damodar-paudel",fullName:"Damodar Paudel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/274660/images/8176_n.jpg",biography:"I am DrDamodar Paudel,currently working as consultant Physician in Nepal police Hospital.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"241562",title:"Dr.",name:"Melvin",middleName:null,surname:"Sanicas",slug:"melvin-sanicas",fullName:"Melvin Sanicas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241562/images/6699_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"337446",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Zavala-Colon",slug:"maria-zavala-colon",fullName:"Maria Zavala-Colon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Puerto Rico, Medical Sciences Campus",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"338856",title:"Mrs.",name:"Nur Alvira",middleName:null,surname:"Pascawati",slug:"nur-alvira-pascawati",fullName:"Nur Alvira Pascawati",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universitas Respati Yogyakarta",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"441116",title:"Dr.",name:"Jovanka M.",middleName:null,surname:"Voyich",slug:"jovanka-m.-voyich",fullName:"Jovanka M. Voyich",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Montana State University",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"330412",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Farhab",slug:"muhammad-farhab",fullName:"Muhammad Farhab",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"349495",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Ijaz",slug:"muhammad-ijaz",fullName:"Muhammad Ijaz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"38",type:"subseries",title:"Pollution",keywords:"Human activity, Pollutants, Reduced risks, Population growth, Waste disposal, Remediation, Clean environment",scope:"\r\n\tPollution is caused by a wide variety of human activities and occurs in diverse forms, for example biological, chemical, et cetera. In recent years, significant efforts have been made to ensure that the environment is clean, that rigorous rules are implemented, and old laws are updated to reduce the risks towards humans and ecosystems. However, rapid industrialization and the need for more cultivable sources or habitable lands, for an increasing population, as well as fewer alternatives for waste disposal, make the pollution control tasks more challenging. Therefore, this topic will focus on assessing and managing environmental pollution. It will cover various subjects, including risk assessment due to the pollution of ecosystems, transport and fate of pollutants, restoration or remediation of polluted matrices, and efforts towards sustainable solutions to minimize environmental pollution.
",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/38.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!1,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11966,editor:{id:"110740",title:"Dr.",name:"Ismail M.M.",middleName:null,surname:"Rahman",slug:"ismail-m.m.-rahman",fullName:"Ismail M.M. Rahman",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/110740/images/2319_n.jpg",biography:"Ismail Md. Mofizur Rahman (Ismail M. M. Rahman) assumed his current responsibilities as an Associate Professor at the Institute of Environmental Radioactivity, Fukushima University, Japan, in Oct 2015. He also has an honorary appointment to serve as a Collaborative Professor at Kanazawa University, Japan, from Mar 2015 to the present. \nFormerly, Dr. Rahman was a faculty member of the University of Chittagong, Bangladesh, affiliated with the Department of Chemistry (Oct 2002 to Mar 2012) and the Department of Applied Chemistry and Chemical Engineering (Mar 2012 to Sep 2015). Dr. Rahman was also adjunctly attached with Kanazawa University, Japan (Visiting Research Professor, Dec 2014 to Mar 2015; JSPS Postdoctoral Research Fellow, Apr 2012 to Mar 2014), and Tokyo Institute of Technology, Japan (TokyoTech-UNESCO Research Fellow, Oct 2004–Sep 2005). \nHe received his Ph.D. degree in Environmental Analytical Chemistry from Kanazawa University, Japan (2011). He also achieved a Diploma in Environment from the Tokyo Institute of Technology, Japan (2005). Besides, he has an M.Sc. degree in Applied Chemistry and a B.Sc. degree in Chemistry, all from the University of Chittagong, Bangladesh. \nDr. Rahman’s research interest includes the study of the fate and behavior of environmental pollutants in the biosphere; design of low energy and low burden environmental improvement (remediation) technology; implementation of sustainable waste management practices for treatment, handling, reuse, and ultimate residual disposition of solid wastes; nature and type of interactions in organic liquid mixtures for process engineering design applications.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Fukushima University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},editorTwo:{id:"201020",title:"Dr.",name:"Zinnat Ara",middleName:null,surname:"Begum",slug:"zinnat-ara-begum",fullName:"Zinnat Ara Begum",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/201020/images/system/201020.jpeg",biography:"Zinnat A. Begum received her Ph.D. in Environmental Analytical Chemistry from Kanazawa University in 2012. She achieved her Master of Science (M.Sc.) degree with a major in Applied Chemistry and a Bachelor of Science (B.Sc.) in Chemistry, all from the University of Chittagong, Bangladesh. Her work affiliations include Fukushima University, Japan (Visiting Research Fellow, Institute of Environmental Radioactivity: Mar 2016 to present), Southern University Bangladesh (Assistant Professor, Department of Civil Engineering: Jan 2015 to present), and Kanazawa University, Japan (Postdoctoral Fellow, Institute of Science and Engineering: Oct 2012 to Mar 2014; Research fellow, Venture Business Laboratory, Advanced Science and Social Co-Creation Promotion Organization: Apr 2018 to Mar 2021). The research focus of Dr. Zinnat includes the effect of the relative stability of metal-chelator complexes in the environmental remediation process designs and the development of eco-friendly soil washing techniques using biodegradable chelators.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Fukushima University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},editorThree:null,series:{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",issn:"2754-6713"},editorialBoard:[{id:"252368",title:"Dr.",name:"Meng-Chuan",middleName:null,surname:"Ong",slug:"meng-chuan-ong",fullName:"Meng-Chuan Ong",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRVotQAG/Profile_Picture_2022-05-20T12:04:28.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universiti Malaysia Terengganu",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"63465",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohamed Nageeb",middleName:null,surname:"Rashed",slug:"mohamed-nageeb-rashed",fullName:"Mohamed Nageeb Rashed",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/63465/images/system/63465.gif",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Aswan University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"187907",title:"Dr.",name:"Olga",middleName:null,surname:"Anne",slug:"olga-anne",fullName:"Olga Anne",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSBE5QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-04-07T09:42:13.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Klaipeda State University of Applied Sciences",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Lithuania"}}}]},onlineFirstChapters:{paginationCount:6,paginationItems:[{id:"82135",title:"Carotenoids in Cassava (Manihot esculenta Crantz)",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105210",signatures:"Lovina I. Udoh, Josephine U. Agogbua, Eberechi R. Keyagha and Itorobong I. Nkanga",slug:"carotenoids-in-cassava-manihot-esculenta-crantz",totalDownloads:8,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Carotenoids - New Perspectives and Application",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10836.jpg",subseries:{id:"13",title:"Plant Physiology"}}},{id:"81576",title:"Carotenoids in Thermal Adaptation of Plants and Animals",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104537",signatures:"Ivan M. Petyaev",slug:"carotenoids-in-thermal-adaptation-of-plants-and-animals",totalDownloads:25,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:[{name:"Ivan",surname:"Petyaev"}],book:{title:"Carotenoids - New Perspectives and Application",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10836.jpg",subseries:{id:"13",title:"Plant Physiology"}}},{id:"81358",title:"New Insights on Carotenoid Production by Gordonia alkanivorans Strain 1B",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103919",signatures:"Tiago P. Silva, Susana M. Paixão, Ana S. Fernandes, José C. Roseiro and Luís Alves",slug:"new-insights-on-carotenoid-production-by-gordonia-alkanivorans-strain-1b",totalDownloads:16,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Carotenoids - New Perspectives and Application",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10836.jpg",subseries:{id:"13",title:"Plant Physiology"}}},{id:"81246",title:"Role of Carotenoids in Cardiovascular Disease",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102750",signatures:"Arslan Ahmad, Sakhawat Riaz, Muhammad Shahzaib Nadeem, Umber Mubeen and Khadija Maham",slug:"role-of-carotenoids-in-cardiovascular-disease",totalDownloads:34,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,authors:null,book:{title:"Carotenoids - New Perspectives and Application",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10836.jpg",subseries:{id:"13",title:"Plant Physiology"}}},{id:"81159",title:"Potential of Carotenoids from Fresh Tomatoes and Their Availability in Processed Tomato-Based Products",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103933",signatures:"Rose Daphnee Ngameni Tchonkouang, Maria Dulce Carlos Antunes and Maria Margarida Cortês Vieira",slug:"potential-of-carotenoids-from-fresh-tomatoes-and-their-availability-in-processed-tomato-based-produc",totalDownloads:30,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Carotenoids - New Perspectives and Application",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10836.jpg",subseries:{id:"13",title:"Plant Physiology"}}},{id:"80902",title:"Computational Chemistry Study of Natural Apocarotenoids and Their Synthetic Glycopeptide Conjugates as Therapeutic Drugs",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103130",signatures:"Norma Flores-Holguín, Juan Frau and Daniel Glossman-Mitnik",slug:"computational-chemistry-study-of-natural-apocarotenoids-and-their-synthetic-glycopeptide-conjugates-",totalDownloads:33,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:[{name:"Norma",surname:"Flores-Holguín"},{name:"Daniel",surname:"Glossman-Mitnik"},{name:"Juan",surname:"Frau"}],book:{title:"Carotenoids - New Perspectives and Application",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10836.jpg",subseries:{id:"13",title:"Plant Physiology"}}}]},publishedBooks:{paginationCount:2,paginationItems:[{type:"book",id:"9883",title:"Biosensors",subtitle:"Current and Novel Strategies for Biosensing",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9883.jpg",slug:"biosensors-current-and-novel-strategies-for-biosensing",publishedDate:"May 5th 2021",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Luis Jesús Villarreal-Gómez and Ana Leticia Iglesias",hash:"028f3e5dbf9c32590183ac4b4f0a2825",volumeInSeries:11,fullTitle:"Biosensors - Current and Novel Strategies for Biosensing",editors:[{id:"126286",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",middleName:"Jesús",surname:"Villarreal-Gómez",slug:"luis-villarreal-gomez",fullName:"Luis Villarreal-Gómez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/126286/images/system/126286.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Baja California",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"6843",title:"Biomechanics",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6843.jpg",slug:"biomechanics",publishedDate:"January 30th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Hadi Mohammadi",hash:"85132976010be1d7f3dbd88662b785e5",volumeInSeries:4,fullTitle:"Biomechanics",editors:[{id:"212432",title:"Prof.",name:"Hadi",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammadi",slug:"hadi-mohammadi",fullName:"Hadi Mohammadi",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/212432/images/system/212432.jpeg",institutionString:"University of British Columbia",institution:{name:"University of British Columbia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Canada"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null}]},testimonialsList:[{id:"18",text:"It was great publishing with IntechOpen, the process was straightforward and I had support all along.",author:{id:"71579",name:"Berend",surname:"Olivier",institutionString:"Utrecht University",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71579/images/system/71579.png",slug:"berend-olivier",institution:{id:"253",name:"Utrecht University",country:{id:null,name:"Netherlands"}}}},{id:"8",text:"I work with IntechOpen for a number of reasons: their professionalism, their mission in support of Open Access publishing, and the quality of their peer-reviewed publications, but also because they believe in equality.",author:{id:"202192",name:"Catrin",surname:"Rutland",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/202192/images/system/202192.png",slug:"catrin-rutland",institution:{id:"134",name:"University of Nottingham",country:{id:null,name:"United Kingdom"}}}},{id:"27",text:"The opportunity to work with a prestigious publisher allows for the possibility to collaborate with more research groups interested in animal nutrition, leading to the development of new feeding strategies and food valuation while being more sustainable with the environment, allowing more readers to learn about the subject.",author:{id:"175967",name:"Manuel",surname:"Gonzalez Ronquillo",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/175967/images/system/175967.png",slug:"manuel-gonzalez-ronquillo",institution:{id:"6221",name:"Universidad Autónoma del Estado de México",country:{id:null,name:"Mexico"}}}}]},submityourwork:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:89,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:104,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:32,numberOfPublishedChapters:318,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:141,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:113,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:106,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:5,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:15,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],subseriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology",scope:"The Cell and Molecular Biology topic within the IntechOpen Biochemistry Series aims to rapidly publish contributions on all aspects of cell and molecular biology, including aspects related to biochemical and genetic research (not only in humans but all living beings). We encourage the submission of manuscripts that provide novel and mechanistic insights that report significant advances in the fields. Topics include, but are not limited to: Advanced techniques of cellular and molecular biology (Molecular methodologies, imaging techniques, and bioinformatics); Biological activities at the molecular level; Biological processes of cell functions, cell division, senescence, maintenance, and cell death; Biomolecules interactions; Cancer; Cell biology; Chemical biology; Computational biology; Cytochemistry; Developmental biology; Disease mechanisms and therapeutics; DNA, and RNA metabolism; Gene functions, genetics, and genomics; Genetics; Immunology; Medical microbiology; Molecular biology; Molecular genetics; Molecular processes of cell and organelle dynamics; Neuroscience; Protein biosynthesis, degradation, and functions; Regulation of molecular interactions in a cell; Signalling networks and system biology; Structural biology; Virology and microbiology.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/14.jpg",keywords:"Omics (Transcriptomics; Proteomics; Metabolomics), Molecular Biology, Cell Biology, Signal Transduction and Regulation, Cell Growth and Differentiation, Apoptosis, Necroptosis, Ferroptosis, Autophagy, Cell Cycle, Macromolecules and Complexes, Gene Expression"},{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology",scope:"Chemical biology spans the fields of chemistry and biology involving the application of biological and chemical molecules and techniques. In recent years, the application of chemistry to biological molecules has gained significant interest in medicinal and pharmacological studies. This topic will be devoted to understanding the interplay between biomolecules and chemical compounds, their structure and function, and their potential applications in related fields. Being a part of the biochemistry discipline, the ideas and concepts that have emerged from Chemical Biology have affected other related areas. This topic will closely deal with all emerging trends in this discipline.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",keywords:"Phenolic Compounds, Essential Oils, Modification of Biomolecules, Glycobiology, Combinatorial Chemistry, Therapeutic peptides, Enzyme Inhibitors"},{id:"17",title:"Metabolism",scope:"Metabolism is frequently defined in biochemistry textbooks as the overall process that allows living systems to acquire and use the free energy they need for their vital functions or the chemical processes that occur within a living organism to maintain life. Behind these definitions are hidden all the aspects of normal and pathological functioning of all processes that the topic ‘Metabolism’ will cover within the Biochemistry Series. Thus all studies on metabolism will be considered for publication.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/17.jpg",keywords:"Biomolecules Metabolism, Energy Metabolism, Metabolic Pathways, Key Metabolic Enzymes, Metabolic Adaptation"},{id:"18",title:"Proteomics",scope:"With the recognition that the human genome cannot provide answers to the etiology of a disorder, changes in the proteins expressed by a genome became a focus in research. Thus proteomics, an area of research that detects all protein forms expressed in an organism, including splice isoforms and post-translational modifications, is more suitable than genomics for a comprehensive understanding of the biochemical processes that govern life. The most common proteomics applications are currently in the clinical field for the identification, in a variety of biological matrices, of biomarkers for diagnosis and therapeutic intervention of disorders. From the comparison of proteomic profiles of control and disease or different physiological states, which may emerge, changes in protein expression can provide new insights into the roles played by some proteins in human pathologies. Understanding how proteins function and interact with each other is another goal of proteomics that makes this approach even more intriguing. Specialized technology and expertise are required to assess the proteome of any biological sample. Currently, proteomics relies mainly on mass spectrometry (MS) combined with electrophoretic (1 or 2-DE-MS) and/or chromatographic techniques (LC-MS/MS). MS is an excellent tool that has gained popularity in proteomics because of its ability to gather a complex body of information such as cataloging protein expression, identifying protein modification sites, and defining protein interactions. The Proteomics topic aims to attract contributions on all aspects of MS-based proteomics that, by pushing the boundaries of MS capabilities, may address biological problems that have not been resolved yet.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/18.jpg",keywords:"Mono- and Two-Dimensional Gel Electrophoresis (1-and 2-DE), Liquid Chromatography (LC), Mass Spectrometry/Tandem Mass Spectrometry (MS; MS/MS), Proteins"}],annualVolumeBook:{},thematicCollection:[],selectedSeries:null,selectedSubseries:null},seriesLanding:{item:null},libraryRecommendation:{success:null,errors:{},institutions:[]},route:{name:"profile.detail",path:"/profiles/154073",hash:"",query:{},params:{id:"154073"},fullPath:"/profiles/154073",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var e;(e=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(e)}()