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More than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\\n\\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\\n\\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\\n\\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\\n\\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\\n\\n\\n\\n
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:null},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
Simba Information has released its Open Access Book Publishing 2020 - 2024 report and has again identified IntechOpen as the world’s largest Open Access book publisher by title count.
\n\nSimba Information is a leading provider for market intelligence and forecasts in the media and publishing industry. The report, published every year, provides an overview and financial outlook for the global professional e-book publishing market.
\n\nIntechOpen, De Gruyter, and Frontiers are the largest OA book publishers by title count, with IntechOpen coming in at first place with 5,101 OA books published, a good 1,782 titles ahead of the nearest competitor.
\n\nSince the first Open Access Book Publishing report published in 2016, IntechOpen has held the top stop each year.
\n\n\n\nMore than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\n\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\n\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\n\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\n\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\n\n\n\n
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Polymer thin film book covers the scientific\r\nprinciples and technologies that are necessary to implement the use of polymer electronic\r\ndevice. A wide-ranging and definitive coverage of this emerging field is provided for both\r\nacademic and practicing scientists. The book is intended to enable readers with a specific\r\nbackground, e.g. polymer nanotechnology, to become acquainted with other specialist aspects\r\nof this multidisciplinary field. 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Gas turbines are energetic machines based on Brayton thermodynamic cycle [1] (Figure 1) meaning, among others, temperature rise using combustion at quasi-constant pressure.
Brayton cycle in temperature vs. entropy coordinates.
In Figure 1, evolution (1–2) represents the real compression evolution of the working fluid into the compressor, (2–3) represents combustion at constant pressure, (3–4) represents real expansion of the working fluid into the turbine, and (4–1) represents the cooling down of the working fluid at constant pressure, usually the atmospheric one. Evolutions (1–2is) and (3–4is) are the isentropic compression and isentropic expansion, respectively, and they are shown on the graphic in order to emphasize the difference between real and ideal (isentropic).
Unlike compressors and turbines in which only pure gas-dynamic processes develop, combustion involves also chemical reactions between air and fuel, resulting in flue gases driving the turbine. Since combustion is known from ages, the overall efficiency of it is very high [2] and enhanced by the high pressure provided by the compressor. Still, many current studies are directed on this subject willing to reduce pollutant emissions or to accommodate alternative fuels such as biogas or both.
In general, the combustion process is organized into the gas turbine as shown in Figure 2 [3].
Combustion chamber.
In Figure 2 the red arrows represent the burning working fluid (realizing close to stoichiometric mixture ratio with the injected fuel and very high temperature in the flame presented in orange), and the blue arrows represent the fluid which cools down the burning one down to the required temperature of the thermodynamic cycle (which is limited by the materials used to realize the combustion chamber and the turbine).
The arrangement of the combustion chamber is the subject of many research projects, some of the latest being lean burn program [4] where the reduction of NOx through the reduction of combustion temperature by multiple combustion is sought.
In Figure 3, depicted is a type of combustion which may lead to lower NOx production: the red zone (R) is rich in fuels, meaning more fuel than the calculated from stoichiometric reaction, while the blue zone (L) is lean in fuel, meaning less fuel than the calculated from stoichiometric reaction. The Clean Sky research project aims at demonstrating that by realizing such an arrangement of the combustion process, the maximum flame temperature can be lowered reducing thus the dissociation reactions that create NOx, at the same final temperature reaching the turbine.
Clean Sky research project [
The thermodynamics of combustion is relatively simple and is based on the heat of reaction as shown in Eq. (1):
Still, the use of this equation gives good results only for the temperature at the end of the combustion process and not so accurate results on the resulting composition. Thus, the chemical reaction must be carefully studied and implemented in the study concerning the combustion chamber of a gas turbine.
Computational fluid dynamics (CFD) has been intensively used in the aerospace domain mainly for predicting the performances of the studied object which can be the entire aircraft or some particular part of it. For the gas turbines, all the main components can be studied using CFD: in the case of the compressor, the aerodynamic part is the most important seeking for high efficiency of transforming the available mechanical work into total pressure of the air; in the case of the turbine, the things are reversed, the study being focused on reducing the losses of transforming the potential energy of the fluid in the form of pressure and temperature, into mechanical work; in the case of the combustion chamber, aerodynamics plays a big role in the injection of fuel and mixing, but it must be coupled with chemical reactions and heat release within the transforming fluid.
The combustion process is the result of a strong exothermic chemical reaction as a result of energy exchanges that occur due to intermolecular collisions.
Generally, at ambient temperature, a chemical reaction occurs very slowly, because, although collisions at molecular level occur, they do not generate a sufficient amount of energy to trigger a chemical transformation.
According to the chemical kinetic theory, only “active” collisions, collisions involving molecules having an initial energy greater than or equal to an energy called activation energy, lead to a chemical reaction. This energy is needed to destroy or weaken existing intermolecular connections. The activation energy is given by Arrhenius equation [5, 6]:
where
The combustion process can be expressed in a simplified way through the global reaction mechanism, Eq. (3):
In CFD modeling more complex reaction mechanisms (e.g., mechanisms which take into consideration the formation of NO) are also available. Using a more complex reaction mechanism is more time-consuming and requires higher computational power. Thus, depending on the purpose of the conducted numerical simulation, a simpler or more complex reaction mechanism should be chosen.
In CFD modeling several combustion models are available [7, 8, 9].
The eddy dissipation model is based on the concept that chemical reaction is fast relative to the transport processes in the flow. When reactants mix at the molecular level, they instantaneously form products. The model assumes that the reaction rate may be related directly to the time required to mix reactants at the molecular level.
By default, for the eddy dissipation model, it is sufficient that fuel and oxidant be available in the control volume for combustion to occur.
Because of the assumption of complete combustion, the eddy dissipation model may overpredict temperature under certain conditions (e.g., for hydrocarbon fuels in regions with fuel-rich mixture).
The eddy dissipation model was developed for use in a wide range of turbulent reacting flows covering premixed and diffusion flames. Because of its simplicity and robust performance in predicting turbulent reacting flows, this model has been widely applied in the prediction of industrial flames.
The finite-rate chemistry model allows the computation of reaction rates described by the molecular interaction between the components in the fluid. It can be combined with the eddy dissipation model for flames where chemical reaction rates might be slow compared with the reactant mixing rates. The finite-rate chemistry model is best applied to situations where the chemical time scale is rate-limiting. This model can be used in conjunction with both laminar and turbulent flow.
The flamelet model can provide information on minor species and radicals, such as CO and OH, and accounts for turbulent fluctuations in temperature and local extinction at high scalar dissipation rates, for the cost of solving only two transport equations. The model is only applicable for two-feed systems (fuel and oxidizer) and requires a chemistry library as input. The model can be used only for non-premixed systems.
The flamelet concept for non-premixed combustion describes the interaction of chemistry with turbulence in the limit of fast reactions (large Damköhler number). The combustion is assumed to occur in thin sheets with inner structure called flamelets. The turbulent flame itself is treated as an ensemble of laminar flamelets which are embedded into the flow field.
The main advantage of the flamelet model is that even though detailed information of molecular transport processes and elementary kinetic reactions are included, the numerical resolution of small length and time scales is not necessary. This avoids the well-known problems of solving highly nonlinear kinetics in fluctuating flow fields and makes the method very robust. Only two scalar equations have to be solved independent of the number of chemical species involved in the simulation. Information of laminar model flames are pre-calculated and stored in a library to reduce computational time (PDF table). On the other hand, the model is still restricted by assumptions like fast chemistry or the neglecting of different Lewis numbers of the chemical species.
The coupling of laminar chemistry with the fluctuating turbulent flow field is done by a statistical method. The PDF used can in principle be calculated at every point in the flow field by solving a PDF transport equation.
The most often mentioned advantage of this method is that the nonlinear chemical source term needs no modeling. Even though the method avoids some modeling which is necessary if using moment closure, it still requires modeling of some of the most important terms, in particular, the fluctuating pressure gradient term and the molecular diffusion term. If combustion occurs in thin layers as assumed here, the molecular diffusion term is closely coupled to the reaction term, and the problem of modeling the chemical source term is then shifted towards modeling the diffusion term.
The burning velocity model (BVM) and the extended coherent flame model (ECFM) model the propagation of a premixed or partially premixed flame by solving a scalar transport equation for the reaction progress. The BVM uses an algebraic correlation for modeling the turbulent burning velocity (propagation speed of the flame in turbulent flow). When using the ECFM, the turbulent burning velocity is closed by solving an additional transport equation for the flame surface density.
The BVM is a combined model using:
A model for the progress of the global reaction: burning velocity model (BVM), also called turbulent flame closure (TFC).
A model for the composition of the reacted and nonreacted fractions of the fluid: laminar flamelet with PDF.
The ECFM is a combined model employing:
A model for the progress of the global reaction: extended coherent flame model (ECFM), which is a member of the class of flame surface density models.
Aa model for the composition of the reacted and nonreacted fractions of the fluid: laminar flamelet with PDF.
The model solves the unfiltered Navier-Stokes equations for a global chemical reaction mechanism. The method uses no sub-grid closure models but employs the inherent numerical scheme dissipation to account for the energy transferred to the sub-grid scales.
LEM is a stochastic approach aimed at stimulating the turbulent mixing, molecular diffusion, and the chemical reaction in a one-dimensional domain embedded in the LES cells of the computational domain (LEMLES). LEM is the only known combustion model that does not use the scale separation hypothesis and is, therefore, valid even in regimes where the hypothesis fails. Also, the model is highly compatible with the large eddy simulation (LES) technique and very flexible in terms of the chemical reaction mechanism used to describe the chemical reactions. Nevertheless, the approach has some limitations. Most importantly, LEMLES is relatively much more expensive than conventional LES models, such as EBULES. However, it is highly scalable, so the overall computation time can be decreased by increasing the number of processors. Laminar molecular diffusion across LES cells is not included, but this limitation is significant only in laminar regions, whereas LEMLES is designed for high Reynolds number turbulent flow applications. Also, the viscous work is neglected in the sub-grid temperature equation but is explicitly included in the LES energy equation, which is used to ensure total energy conservation. Finally, the flame curvature effect is not explicitly present in the sub-grid.
The desire to use top aviation technology in ground applications has led, through the years, to the transformation of a series of aviation gas turbines into drivers as part of industrial power plants. Some of these transformations have been made by the gas turbine producers, others even by beneficiaries or research institutions, such as COMOTI Romanian R&D Institute for Gas Turbines.
This section is focused on the behavior of a turboshaft with a structural construction allowing the modification of the entire fuel system, from the feeding lines, to the injection ramp and the actual injectors, as well as the relatively easy replacement of the aggregates.
From the theoretical point of view, several gaseous fuels have been studied as alternatives for the initial one, kerosene, such as methane and biogas with different chemical compositions (Figure 4). Obtaining chemical equilibrium for the combustion of these fuels has allowed to determine the parameters to be used as input data in numerical simulations of the combustion process in the gas turbine’s combustor.
The variation of the combustion temperature (T3M) with the air excess (λ) for different fuels (with focus on the usual zone for gas turbines).
The numerical simulations, starting from data provided by either the producer, theoretical computations or experimental, include four cases, for the two mentioned alternative fuels, at two different operating regimes of the gas turbine: nominal and idle. The working fluids are defined as ideal gases: air as bicomponent mixture with 21% oxygen and 79% nitrogen; methane from the software library and biogas, as reacting mixture with 50% methane and 50% carbon dioxide. The cases are summarized in Table 1.
Case/parameter | Reference pressure | Air mass flow rate | O2 mass fraction | Fuel mass flow rate | CH4 mass fraction | CO2 mass fraction | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
[Pa] | [kg/s] | [kg/s] | |||||
C1 | Methane, nominal | 760,000 | 0.825 | 0.233 | 0.010683 | 1 | 0 |
C2 | Methane, idle | 232,500 | 0.314 | 0.233 | 0.003212 | 1 | 0 |
C3 | Biogas, nominal | 760,000 | 0.825 | 0.233 | 0.0419 | 0.267 | 0.733 |
C4 | Biogas, idle | 232,500 | 0.314 | 0.233 | 0.0118 | 0.267 | 0.733 |
Input data for numerical cases.
The numerical grid and boundary conditions are shown in Figure 5.
Computational grid with defined regions for the boundary conditions [
The eddy dissipation model, within ANSYS CFX [11], controls the formation of the reaction products, while the NO formation is controlled by two reaction schemes, WD1 and WDS. The advantage of the WDS scheme is that it also contains the CO creation model, through water-gas shift mechanism, allowing for higher accuracy, a fact also confirmed by the comparison with the experimental results, while the disadvantage consists in the necessity for higher computational resources and up to 50% more computing time. Some images with the temperature distribution in the combustion chamber are displayed in Figures 6 and 7.
General aspect of the temperature field in the combustor.
Temperature fields at the end of the combustor.
Using the 17 double thermocouples mounted on the engine, Figure 8 containing a comparison between numerical and experimental results was obtained. It can be seen that the numerical results predict that two areas of maximum temperature exist at the end of the combustion chamber, and it was confirmed by the experiments on the entire engine.
Hybrid experimental diagram for biogas combustion [
The numerical simulation of the gas-thermodynamic processes inside a Garrett micro gas turbine has been conducted using the commercial software ANSYS CFX. This work is part of the [12] PhD. thesis. The purpose of these numerical simulations was to validate the combination of numerical models used to simulate the turbulence process, combustion process, and liquid fuel atomization process and compare the numerical results with the functioning data of the used micro gas turbine engine.
The Garrett micro gas turbine is composed of an intake device, a single-stage centrifugal compressor, a tubular-type combustion chamber, a single-stage radial turbine, and an exhaust device (Figure 9).
Garrett micro gas turbine geometry.
The numerical simulation was performed only on the combustion chamber assembly. An unstructured-type computational grid, having 3.576.588 tetrahedral-type elements and 592.465 nodes, has been generated using ICEM CFD. A density was created near the injector to better capture the field near the fuel inlet (Figure 10).
Computational grid: (a) the exterior of the combustion chamber assembly, (b) the interior of the combustion chamber assembly, (c) the fire tube, (d) the injector.
The nominal functioning regime (20 KW load) has been considered for the simulation; thus, the fuel mass flow rate has been set at 0.0075 kg/s, and the air mass flow has been set at 0.522 kg/s. The air excess is of 4.7. Generally, for a gas turbine engine, the excess air should be between 3 and 5 [1]. The initial air temperature was set at 420 K. The used liquid fuel, Jet A, has been considered to enter the computational domain in the form of droplets. The mean diameter of the droplets has been assumed to be 30 μm, a value chosen based on the liquid droplet distribution diagram. The initial fuel temperature has been set at 300 K. The fuel spray cone angle has been set at 70°, based on the data presented in the micro gas turbine’s maintenance manual [13].
A Reynolds averaged Navier-Stokes (RANS)-type turbulence model has been chosen, namely, the k-ε model, which is a numerically stable and robust model and very popular in the realization of technical applications numerical simulations [14, 15, 16, 17].
The chosen combustion model has been the EDM model, based on a two-step kerosene-air reaction mechanism, imported from the ANSYS library. A simple reaction mechanism has been chosen because the purpose of these numerical simulations was to see if the used numerical models give a good approximation of the turbo engine functioning as a whole. The pollutant emission level has not been of interest at this stage. Using a more complex reaction mechanism would have been more time-consuming and would have required more powerful computational resources. The EDM combustion model has been chosen because of its simplicity and robust performance in predicting turbulent reacting flows. Because of these, the model is very often used in the realization of technical application numerical simulations [18, 19, 20, 21].
The fuel droplet atomization and evaporation processes have been simulated using the cascade atomization and breakup (CAB) model, respectively, and the liquid evaporation model, both models imported from ANSYS library.
The reference pressure has been set at 101,325 Pa.
In Figure 11 the pressure field through the micro gas turbine is presented. The pressure levels are relative to the reference pressure.
The total pressure field inside the combustion chamber assembly: (a) plan XY and (b) plan YZ.
The pressure inside the fire tube is quasi-constant, as it can be seen in Figure 3, thus conforming the hypothesis that the combustion process inside a gas turbine combustion chamber takes place at constant pressure. The average air absolute total pressure at compressor exit-combustion chamber entrance is 275.466 Pa, thus obtaining an overall compression ratio of 2.7:1 which is close to the reported overall compression ratio of 3:1. The obtained pressure loss through the combustion chamber assembly is of 15%.
In Figure 12 the total temperature field through the micro gas turbine is presented.
The total temperature field inside the combustion chamber assembly: (a) plan XY and (b) plan YZ.
From Figure 12(a) it can be observed that high-temperature zone is found only inside the fire tube and does not extend into the volute that redirects the exhaust gases to the turbine stator. The average total temperature at combustion chamber exit-turbine entrance is 992 K.
In Figure 13 the fuel spray cone and the fuel droplet diameter distribution are presented.
Fuel spray cone and droplet diameter distribution.
From Figure 13 it can be observed that the fuel is completely evaporated in the primary zone of the fire tube, before reaching the walls. This confirms that the numerical models chosen to simulate the spraying and vaporization processes of the liquid fuel are appropriate for the given application.
In Figure 14 Jet A vapor mass fraction field is presented.
Jet A vapor mass fraction field: (a) plan XY and (b) plan YZ.
The results presented in Figures 13 and 14 are in good correlation. Jet A vapors obtained from the vaporization of the liquid fuel are located in the primary zone of the fire tube. They are completely consumed inside the fire tube, as it should happen in the case of a properly functioning turbo engine. The average Jet A vapor mass fraction at combustion chamber assembly exit is of 7 × 10−7.
In Figures 15 and 16, the CO mass fraction field and the CO2 mass fraction field, inside the combustion chamber, are presented, respectively.
The CO mass fraction field: (a) plan XY and (b) plan YZ.
The CO2 mass fraction field: (a) plan XY and (b) plan YZ.
The highest CO and CO2 concentrations are found inside the fire tube. This is in good correlation with the temperature field (Figure 12) and Jet A vapor field (Figure 14), suggesting that the combustion reaction takes place and is completed inside the fire tube. The average CO and CO2 mass fractions at combustion chamber assembly exit are 7.4 × 10−6 and 0.0465532, respectively.
Based on the obtained results, the temperature and pressure fields, the fuel vapor, and CO and CO2 mass fraction fields, it has been concluded that the numerical models used for the numerical simulation of the gas-thermodynamic processes inside the combustion chamber are appropriate for the given application, the results being consistent with actual functioning data of the Garrett micro gas turbine.
The afterburning system is a component that is added to aviation engines (gas turbine engines), usually military ones, in order to maximize the thrust force of the planes. But it also has industrial applications like cogeneration. Cogeneration is a modern solution which allows simultaneous production of electricity and heat. Due to cogeneration units, not only it is possible to lower the costs associated with heating and electricity producing, but it can also generate it in a way that is efficient and environmentally friendly. The fact that the combustion process in the gas turbine consumes only a small part of the oxygen from the intake air flow makes possible the application of a supplementary firing (afterburning) for increasing the steam flow rate of the heat recovery steam generator. A new patented afterburner installation was proposed, for use in cogenerative applications (Figure 17) [22].
Afterburning system for cogeneration: (a) partial 3D viewing and (b) assembly of the installation.
This study focuses on Stage I of the afterburner (Figure 18) for which a special experimental installation was designed. Here experimental measurements and numerical results of mean velocity and temperature are presented. The velocity measurements are carried out using particle image velocimetry (PIV), and the temperature measurements are performed using Rayleigh spectroscopy. Supplementary, flame front position measurements are presented, obtained with the planar laser-induced fluorescence (PLIF) technique [23]. The experimental setup, closely reproduced by the numerical simulations, consists of a post-combustion system, designed and manufactured at COMOTI and installed behind a Garrett 30–67 gas turbine engine serving as a gas generator. The flame is stabilized by means of a V-shaped flame holder, placed in the gas generator exhaust flow. Methane is injected into the flow upstream of the flame holder and ignited downstream of it, at a location where premixed conditions are reached.
Experimental setup design: (a) afterburner; (b) casing; and (c) flame stabilizer.
The afterburning system, shown in Figure 18, has the following overall dimensions: length = 304 mm, height = 228 mm, and width = 168 mm. The afterburning system is composed of a casing and flame stabilizer assembly. The casing has 240 mm in height and 304 mm in length. The casing also includes a gas fueling pipe with the following dimensions: diameter = 10 mm and height = 470 mm. The gas pipe has 20 equally spaced holes of 2 mm in diameter. The flame stabilizer assembly includes the actual, “V”-shaped flame stabilizer. The assembly also includes the ignition pipe, of the following dimensions: diameter = 16 mm and height = 115 mm. The post-combustion system presented above can raise the exhaust gas temperature up to a temperature of maximum 1800 K.
The gas turbine engine Garrett 30-67 [24] was fitted with a pipe that allows PIV flow seeding and transfers the seeded exhaust gas to the afterburning system (Figure 19).
Experimental setup.
The experimental program presented here aimed at determining the instantaneous three-dimensional velocity field in the exhaust gas downstream of the post-combustion system. For the measurement a medium intensity laser beam was used, emitted by a Nd:YAG double-pulsed laser (Litron Lasers, wavelength of 532 nm and a maximum output power of 1200 mj), simultaneously with the triggering of two fast charge-coupled device (CCD) cameras that record the images thusly formed. The laser beam is passed through a light sheet optic device that converts the beam to a light sheet in the experimental zone. The time interval between two laser impulses was of 10 μs [25].
Rayleigh scattering (RS) is a nonresonant elastic effect in contrast to the commonly used laser-induced fluorescence. RS is instantaneous and therefore completely independent of the molecules’ environment [26].
The planar laser-induced fluorescence method is presented here. When laser radiation is tuned to specific wavelengths, it will excite certain species (molecules) within a flame to a higher energy level. Fluorescence occurs when this excited state decays and emits radiation of a longer wavelength than the incident laser radiation. In the atmospheric pressure flame created by the afterburner, quenching is negligible, and the fluorescence signal is proportional to the OH concentration. For the OH measurements presented here, the coumarin 153 dye was used. Laser light has a fundamental frequency of 1064 nm. The fluorescent light photons are captured by an intensified charge-coupled device (ICCD) camera equipped with a filter that lets through only the fluorescent light wavelength [23].
In order to evaluate the effect of the combustion model validity on the accuracy of the numerical simulation, the reference numerical simulation will use an extended EDM [27] combustion model, implemented in a fully three-dimensional numerical simulation conducted using the commercial software ANSYS CFX. In this study, the shear stress transport (SST) model has been used. The computational domain includes the post-combustion system described in the previous section and extends 350 mm downstream of the bluff body stabilizer. In the transversal direction, the extension measures 300 mm, centered on the post-combustion symmetry axis, and in the spanwise direction, it reaches the edges of the post-combustion chamber.
The following results will be shown. Combustion temperature has a significant effect on NOX. NO emissions increase, but N2O emissions decrease, with increasing temperature. Velocity—the speed at which premixed laminar and turbulent flames propagate—is a fundamental parameter in many combustion applications, such as engines and gas turbines. Flame speeds influence knocking events in spark-ignited engines and play an important role in their performance and emissions. OH concentration shows flame front shape and stability. Figures 4 and 5 present, respectively, the mean temperature and velocity components along the symmetry axis of the afterburner. The length of the recirculation region that is created in the flow by the presence of the bluff body stabilizer is of about 90 mm, and the maximum absolute value of the negative velocity reaches about 25 m/s. The far-field free stream velocity is about 35 m/s.
In Figures 20–23, various comparisons between numerical and experimental results are presented.
Temperature profile along the centerline.
Axial velocity profile along the centerline.
Left: numerical mean axial velocity field. Right: PIV experimental mean axial velocity field (the same velocity color scale).
Left: numerical mean transversal velocity field. Right: experimental mean transversal velocity field (the same velocity color scale).
The mean velocity field of the flow inside the previously defined computational domain and its axial and transversal components are presented.
Below the variation of the mean OH concentration along the axis of symmetry is presented. The reaction mechanism used in numerically simulation did not allow the concentration of hydroxyl (OH) to be captured so that it is presented experimentally and not numerically validated. It must be noted from the beginning that the OH radical is a very fast radical, which is created and destroyed rapidly in the combustion process. For this reason, its presence can be detected in the flame front only, being a very precise indication on its position. As seen in Figure 24, the position of the mean flame front coincides to the recirculation region that forms downstream of the flame stabilizer. The turbulent flame brush, clearly visible in Figure 24, determines a significant increase of the mean flame front, as compared to its instantaneous thickness. The turbulent flame brush is an effect of the turbulent intermittency, which causes, through the effect of the turbulent fluctuation of the flame, a given point in space in the flame front region to be part of the time inside the flame front and part of the time outside it. Therefore, the averaging process leads to a region much thicker than the very thin flame front characteristic to a laminar flame, where the mean fields have characteristics corresponding partially to the flame front, partially to the preheating region, and partially to the oxidation zone [28]. In the axial direction in Figure 25, the maximum OH concentration, of about 5000 ppm, is reached at about 50 mm from the flame stabilizer trailing edge, and the turbulent flame brush extends between 0 and 100 mm with respect to the same axial coordinate origin.
Mean OH axial concentration.
The variation in the mean OH concentration along the axis of symmetry.
Hydrogen is studied as a possible fuel in gas turbines due to its high calorific value and promising results in the field of environmental protection. More, hydrogen become actual again, since new ways for producing and transporting it developed lately. One interesting idea is to produce the hydrogen on site by electrolysis, using wind power or solar energy, and to transport it using the existing natural gas distribution network. Combining hydrogen with natural gas strongly influences the combustion parameters, due to the different properties of the mixture. Using the existing equipment would face new problems, like the modification of the flame front, the risk of flashback, and higher temperatures.
By numerical simulation on the combustion chamber of a small gas turbine, for 100% CH4 and 100% H2, a clear difference can be observed in Figure 26, indicating probable working problems and a possible installation’s component damage.
Temperature field distribution for CH4 and H2 combustion.
Thus, the idea of searching for a new solution was born, by changing the type of injector and part of the geometry of the combustion chamber.
In the process of designing of the new injector solution, numerical simulations were used, testing and comparing different types, in order to obtain an optimized variant to be produced and experimentally tested later on. For example, in Figure 27, two types of geometries for swirl injectors were compared in respect to the flow characteristics and temperature and velocity fields.
CFD analysis for two different types of swirled injectors [
The second type of injector shows better volume flame repartition and more intense recirculation zones, benefic characteristics for flame stability, and pollutant emission formation/inhibition. Also the higher swirl number resulted for type 2 is promising, influencing the inlet turbulence, with the mention that other authors of [30] suggest that it is not the case that a rise in the swirl number leads always to an increase in combustion efficiency, but there is an optimum angle for swirling vanes at which the combustion efficiency, temperature, and radiation heat transfer of the flame stand at their maximum. In the same time, the higher local temperatures can lead to thermal NOx formation, a disadvantage that can be controlled by flame cooling technics.
The CFD results show a clear picture of the differences between the two types, with very similar results to the later conducted experiments (Figure 28), helping in choosing the right geometry and leading to the optimized version to be manufactured and tested (Figure 29) [31].
Comparison of CFD results and visualization during the experiment. (a) Temperature field (combustion simulation); (b) velocity fields (cold simulation); and (c) experimental images.
The swirl injector and working principle [
The design of the new swirl injector was patented, considering some innovative ideas. For example, the convergent shape of the nozzle avoids the uneven velocities between the base section and tip section at the exit of the channel and leads to higher velocity in the exit section than the burning velocity of the fuel, eliminating the danger of flashback phenomenon.
The specific numerical simulation methods also helped for studying the main subject of the work, mentioned above, focusing on the different aspects of combustion of the mixtures CH4-H2, with various volumetric proportions (Figure 30). The results show relevant data, with very similar results as in the experiments, validating the chosen CFD methods and input values, as part of a PhD. thesis [32] and part of a Romanian Research Authority-funded project [33].
Isometric section for 0% H2 and 20% H2 (airflow 0.04 kg/s, excess air 3.5).
For all these RANS simulations, k-ε model turbulence model was used. As for combustion model, the flamelet probability density function (FPDF) model was chosen, because of the CFX available kinetic reaction library, which provided a fast and easy way to mix the two gaseous fuels. This mathematical model has some known drawbacks too, like slightly higher temperature estimations and the absence of NOx calculation, but this case did not require high precision; the only purpose was just getting a correct image of the combustion process for different cases, in order to optimize the solution and to have a clear preview to the experimental phase.
For this specific case, the combustion of CH4-H2 mixtures, there is also an interesting important issue that has no solution for the moment: the existing mathematical models do not take into consideration the very different reaction times of the two fuels in this mixture and thus cannot capture and validate the hypothesis that the hydrogen from the mixture burns faster and consumes at a higher rate from the oxygen required to burn the entire mixture, thus resulting in incomplete combustion of methane.
Considering all these aspects, depending on the studied case and on the purpose of the research, different CFD methods should be chosen, considering the resources, the allocated time, and the requested detail level of the results.
CFD represents a powerful tool that can be used even for studying the complex process taking place into the combustion chamber of a gas turbine. There exist many simple models giving relatively good results since of main interest in this field is the combustion temperature which is a measure of the entire gas turbine performance. Still, if someone needs to predict the pollutant emissions, complex models including reaction mechanisms must be employed.
The given examples show that good correlation can be obtained between CFD simulations and experiments at gas turbine assembly level, no matter the size of the gas turbine nor the fuel. An afterburning application was also analyzed since higher velocities are expected, but the results are still conclusive.
Female circumcision or female genital mutilation has been defined by the world health organization as “all procedures that involve partial or complete removal of the external female genitalia, or other injury to the female genital organs for non-medical reasons” [1]. Although the procedure is called female circumcision in the countries that perform it, its negative physical and psychological effects have led to the use of the Latin term “mutylatio” that means to maim, to cut off (mutilation) in the medical literature [2, 3].
There is very little information about the origin of female circumcision. However, observations of some female mummies in Egypt and the description of circumcision on ancient Egyptian wall paintings supports the opinion that this tradition dates back very long and that it has continued for many years.
The historian Herodotus states that circumcision was practiced by the Phoenicians, Hittites, and Ethiopians.
In addition to this, information obtained has revealed that circumcision is also practiced in the tropical areas of Africa, the Philippines and by the tribes of the upper amazon and the women of the Arunta tribe in Australia [4]. The practice of circumcision is also called “tahara” in Arabic which means the procedure of cleaning. About the relationship between cleanliness and circumcision, the historian Herodotus asks, “where did the ancient Egyptians learn this, when the reproductive organs of all peoples on earth are remaining the same?”. It has also been pointed out that cleanliness came before beauty for the ancient Egyptians [5].
The world health organization has classified circumcision into four different groups [2, 3, 6]:
Type I: partial or complete removal of the preputium and/or clitoris (Sunna).
Type 2: excision of the clitoris together with the partial or total excision of the labia minora (excision).
Type 3: cutting nearly all of the labia minora and majora together with the clitoris and preputium and sowing the edges of the open wound together leaving only a small orifice for urine and menstruation blood to pass (infibulation).
Type 4: is an unclassified group and comprises other mutilating practices (piercing, pricking, tattooing, scraping, cauterization).
Many applications have been carried out in unhygienic conditions without anesthesia and mixtures of plants, cow dung and butter have been used for wound healing [5]. Severe pain, bleeding, urinary retention, ulcers in genetical area, adjacent organ injury, sepsis and even death can be seen following procedures with scissors, part of glass, blade, bark, plant thorn performed by persons who do not medical professional training [7].
Infections, keloids, genital tract infections, sexual inherited diseases, especially genital herpes, increasing HIV infection risk, labor complications, sexual disorders and post-traumatic stress disorder can be listed among late period complications. Also, cases with Type 3 female genital mutilation are more risky since complaints such as requirement of deinfibulation, frequent recurrence, re-requirement of surgery, urinary retention, menstrual problems and painful sexual intercourse are frequently seen [8].
The symptoms of lower urinary system are frequently seen in females with Type 2 and 3 female genital mutilations [9]. Decreasing in urinary flow rate depending on infibulation causes urinary stasis and therefore causes repetitive urinary infections. Consequently, formation of urinary or vaginal stone can be seen [10]. In these cases, recommended treatment method is the deinfibulation. Urethral strictures or fistulas can be seen depending on urethral trauma during mutilation. In our case, urinary retention depending on adherences secondarily developed with mutilation was thought. It was observed that case urinated easily after deinfibulation operation. Cases with inability to have a sexual intercourse and therefore dyspareunia depending on improved vulvovaginal laceration and adherences in genital region after female genital mutilation performed in unhygienic conditions was reported [11]. It has been thought that genital mutilation applications increase infertility by causing sexual disorders (dyspareunia, apareunia) and genital infections. In case control study, it was stated that there was a relationship between primary infertility and female mutilation [12]. It was reported that psychological disorders such as secondary anxiety disorder and posttraumatic stress disorder against female genital mutilation could be seen [13].
Mutilation is still practiced in 30 countries in Africa, a few countries in the Arabian Peninsula, in some societies in southeastern Asia and secretly in ethnic groups that have migrated to Europe, America or Australia from these countries [2, 14]. Although the historical origin of this traditional practice is not entirely understood, there is evidence that it has existed since the ancient Egyptian civilization [15]. According to the reports of the World Health Organization, approximately 100–150 million women alive have been subjected to these practices, 6000 African girls between the ages 4 and 12 are subjected to these practices every day, and 2 million new procedures are performed annually worldwide [1, 14].
In earlier studies it has been identified that FGM is performed as part of the culture and tradition (like an initiation rite into womanhood) or religion, to make finding a spouse easier, or for reasons like chastity, genital hygiene, high morality or virginity [16]. It is known that circumcision is performed by Muslim, Christian, Jewish and also irreligious societies in Africa. In addition, no relationship was identified between religion and the prevalence of circumcision [17]. The prevalence of circumcision in Muslim countries Egypt, Sudan, Somalia and some middle-eastern countries has led to the emergence of an opinion that circumcision is a recommendation and a requirement of Islam. Sudan is an Islamic Republic that applies Islamic rules in social life and government procedures. Thus, religious rules and principles have an important role in the lives of the Sudanese people. The sayings and deeds of religious opinion leaders and imams hold a significant value in the eyes of the public.
The expression circumcision that is the subject of this study refers only to female circumcision. The tradition of female circumcision that is originally a concept of the religions of African tribes has been associated with the religion Islam even though there is no reference to female circumcision at all in the Quran. The differences between religious systems in countries that practice female circumcision show that circumcision exists as a cultural phenomenon in other non-Islamic cultures. In this respect, it is believed that the tradition of female circumcision in Islamic African countries originates from African tribes. The highest levels of the tradition of female circumcision practiced by some African Animist groups in the pre-Islamic era have been encountered in the Yoruba and Bakango tribes. In addition to this, it is known that it was practiced widely in the era of the Kingdom of Kush ruled by Black pharaohs in Nubia in Upper Egypt during the time of the 18th dynasty. While Islam was spreading among the Animist tribes of Africa, the tradition of female circumcision influenced some schools of Islam through mutual interactions. Leaders of African tribes that converted to Islam and wanted to continue the practices of female circumcision associated it with Islam. Consequently, a belief that this practice is a requirement of Islam emerged [18].
The practice of female circumcision differs by country and can be performed at any time starting from babyhood until the ages of 13–14 [7, 8]. In half of the countries circumcision is performed in, it is done before the age of 5 by a woman called a “daya,” usually without numbing the genital area and by using non-sterile tools like knives, razor blades, sharp pieces of glass or sharp edges of tin. Acacia thorns, bone nails, needles, strings made from animal hair or leather are used to close the wound, and then the girl’s legs are tied together tightly from the knee to the hip in an upright position. The circumcised girl lies without moving for a few weeks and is helped to urinate and defecate where she lies. During the circumcision, apart from the daya, other women gathered around the girl hold the girls’ arms and legs tightly, some press her shoulders down to prevent her from moving. To prevent the girl from swallowing or biting her tongue a cloth or stick is placed in her mouth, and the other women play the tambourine and sing songs loudly to mask the screaming [4, 9, 10].
According to the UNICEF report, around 125 million women have been circumcised to this day, and nearly 30 million girls are in danger of circumcision. Girls between the ages of 3 and 10 are subjected to this torture every year. Egypt (most prominently), Sudan, Ethiopia, Nigeria, Kenya, Indonesia, Malaysia, and Somali are among the countries where the tradition of female circumcision is practiced. It is rarer in Syria, Iraq and Iran and is also seen in Europe, Canada, America and Australia as a result of migration [9, 10, 12].
Our research revealed that female genital mutilation was used in past to treat some female disorders like hysteria, epilepsy, masturbation, lesbianism, sex addiction and mental disorders in the United States of America and west Europe [4, 13].
The social scientists studying this topic have separate views that support each other. Among these, there are opinions that female circumcision dates back to the Neolithic era, that the Egyptians used circumcision to prevent their relatives and slaves from getting pregnant and that it was also prevalent in the Arabian Peninsula before Islam [19].
Another aspect of the origin and spread of the tradition of female circumcision is the economic and geographic background. Harsh climate changes between Africa and the inner parts of Asia accelerated the replacement of the democratic and peaceful matriarchal society with a patriarchal society. As Nevâl es-Sa‘dâvî has also stated, during the era of the pharaohs Egyptian women held important positions in the field of governing as well as religion. Research conducted supports the opinion that ancient pagan gods were also female. However, the period of goddesses dates further back than the origin of patriarchal societies and feudalism. Women in ancient agricultural societies succeeded to preserve their social and political positions. However, the advancements in agriculture and its evolution into a means of living led to the birth of private ownership. The rise of class discrimination and the developments disrupted the position of women and made them lose their prior prestige and reputation. They were pushed towards the lower levels in all of the hierarchic systems [20].
The works of Nevâl es-Sa‘dâvî and Esma ed-Darîr on this subject have enabled access to first-hand reliable information and have facilitated raising awareness at a global level. Besides this, apprehension has increased with the development of feminist awareness and the international women’s health movement [21].
If we examine the religious aspect of female circumcision here, we must say that it is not included in any of the heavenly religions. However, there is also mention of inauthentic hadith on the subject of female circumcision. In one of these fake hadiths, it is reported that the prophet Muhammad (pbuh) summoned a woman that circumcised girls in Mecca and said, “do not cut too deep that is better for the woman and more liked by her husband [22]. Besides this, according to a hadith narrated by Abu Hureyrah, the prophet (pbuh) said: The fitrah (human nature) is five things—circumcision, shaving the pubes, cutting the nails, plucking the armpit hairs, and trimming the mustache [23].” It is clearly stated that this expression does not concern female circumcision and that it was interpreted with bias. Those opposing the people that base this practice on religious requirements cite the Quran as a source for their opposing opinions. In this context they refer to the holy book that is the source of Islam and give examples from verses of the Quran (Surah [passage]:verse of the Quran; Furkan:2, Nur:115, Rum:30, Âli İmrân:6) [22].
One of the best arguments that female circumcision is prohibited in Islam is that the Quran and the sunnah (the verbally transmitted record of the teachings, deeds and sayings, silent permissions (or disapprovals) of the Islamic prophet Muhammad) of the prophet reject practices against human nature. In this context, female circumcision contradicts the systematic thought of the holy Quran [22].
The religious assessment should also include the fatwa (Islamic legislation) issued by renowned people and institutions of the Islamic community based on religious foundations that contradict these opinions. These are fatwa that state that female circumcision is legal in Islam and that its prohibition is unwarranted [23].
The continuation of the practice despite knowledge of its harms can be attributed to the culture and the associated emotional behaviors. When the condition is examined in Sudan, the country where female circumcision is most prevalent and where it is practiced in its most severe form, it will be seen that female circumcision is one of the most delicate subjects of that culture. In the Sudanese society where the pride of a family depends on virginity, being circumcised bears the characteristics of a cachet. In the Sudanese society, women must be virgins physically and symbolically, and this is possible with circumcision [19].
Although it is incorrect according to religious references, the opinion that women are a source of mischief and that they should be kept under control that is customary in Muslim societies plays an important role in the continuation of female circumcision in the countries it is practiced in. In a society where non-circumcised women are regarded as prostitutes, the highest authority in the family, the grandmothers continue this practice that is an indispensable aspect of their culture to them. Because it is a matter of honor and pride for the family they themselves deliver the girls to the dayas.
According to Nevâl es-Sa‘dâvî, economic reasons play an important role in the origination and persistence of female circumcisions. The historical process shows that the oppression of women began with the evolution into a patriarchal society. The economic interests of society and the moral and religious values of the patriarchal system overlapped and gained support. Historical research shows that chastity belts, circumcision and other forms of violence were methods used to suppress female sexuality. It was aimed to restrain female sexuality and women were not allowed to experience sexuality unless it was for economic reasons. The daya and doctors that earn a living by performing these procedures must also be remembered among economic reasons. The fact that women in Sudan suffer this procedure multiple times due to reasons like marriage, birth, divorce, and re-marriage displays the economic dimensions concerning the practitioners of circumcision. It is known that daya are also required the wedding night [24].
The subject of circumcision is directly related to female sexuality. Together with the most delicate subjects of society, religion and policy, this relationship is more prominent in less developed countries. Girls that are circumcised are turned into targets vulnerable to physical and mental abuse without the capacity of thinking, understanding and judgment.
Cultural, social, psychological and economic conditions appear to be the major factors in persisting the practice of female circumcision. Esthetic concerns may also be added to these factors. It is also stated that the concepts of tradition and religion are also strong encouragers [25]. In addition to this opinion, many of the Muslims and academics in the west argue that circumcision is more related to culture than religion. Likewise, the authentic and apodictic references of Islam reject female circumcision. Accordingly, the philosophy of Islamic law (fiqh) only accepts circumcision of boys known by the name “hıtân.” Unfortunately, it can be seen that the religion has been manipulated to express that female circumcision is a religious requirement in many countries in Africa [26].
Raising public awareness has a major importance in combating female circumcision. While the public is enlightened religiously and medically, the rights of women in this area must be protected legally through legal enforcement. The Egyptian Mufti Office has announced that they are against female circumcision and that this practice has no religious basis. Similarly, the Religious Affairs Administration of the Republic of Turkey also states that female circumcision is a procedure that the religion Islam prohibits. At this point, the explanations of Nevâl es-Sa‘dâvî are important in the religious and medical aspects: Religion comprises the concept of health, love, justice, equality and honesty for all people, man or woman. Thus, a religion that desires to harm and sicken the bodies of girls and women is unthinkable. How could religion order to cut off an organ created by Allah? No organ or anything else is created by Allah randomly [22]. Islam does not allow human nature to be disrupted. On the other hand, male circumcision has been categorized as Sunnah and wajib (that which is proven on the basis of ambiguous evidence) on the basis of Islamic law and certain health benefits.
The importance of informing the public and education in ending the practice of female genital circumcision that has no religious basis and endangers the future of children and affects them is evident. Also, the society must acquire a high level of consciousness with the capacity to handle and resolve the problems of children to protect them instead of maiming them by circumcision. Families that want these harmful customs and traditions to come to an end want to enlighten the public and also demand laws and punishments that the whole society will be bound by.
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