Classification of multi-core fiber types.
\\n\\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\\n\\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"Highly Cited",originalUrl:"/media/original/117"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'IntechOpen is proud to announce that 191 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nThroughout the years, the list has named a total of 261 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\nReleased this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-supports-asapbio-s-new-initiative-publish-your-reviews-20220729",title:"IntechOpen Supports ASAPbio’s New Initiative Publish Your Reviews"},{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"8485",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Weather Forecasting",title:"Weather Forecasting",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Weather warnings are important because governments use them to protect life and property. In addition, predicting temperature and precipitation is important for agriculture. As such, weather forecasting is an integral part of meeting targets 2 and 13 of the United Nations’ Sustainable Development Goals: zero hunger and climate action, respectively. This book presents recent developments in scientific research on weather and climate in the extreme environments of Asian, African, and European regions. It provides in-depth case studies from Pakistan, the United States, Vietnam, Nigeria, and Africa. The global and inter-disciplinary results of these studies help us to understand and address the grand challenges of weather as well as its impact on society.",isbn:"978-1-83968-054-0",printIsbn:"978-1-83968-053-3",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83968-055-7",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.78861",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"weather-forecasting",numberOfPages:122,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"eadbd6f9c26be844062ce5cd3b3eb573",bookSignature:"Muhammad Saifullah",publishedDate:"October 13th 2021",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8485.jpg",numberOfDownloads:1682,numberOfWosCitations:2,numberOfCrossrefCitations:3,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:4,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:9,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"October 14th 2020",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"November 23rd 2020",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"January 22nd 2021",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"April 12th 2021",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"June 11th 2021",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"320968",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Saifullah",slug:"muhammad-saifullah",fullName:"Muhammad Saifullah",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/320968/images/system/320968.png",biography:"Dr. Muhammad Saifullah has research experience in the field of agricultural water resources and climate change. He obtained a Ph.D. from Hohai University, China. He is the recipient of two researcher awards from the Ministry of Education, China, as well as a second-place award from the Yellow River Institute of Hydraulic Research. He has published peer-reviewed international research articles and investigated different international and national research projects. Dr. Saifullah worked as an assistant professor at the University of Agriculture Faisalabad and the University of Faisalabad, Pakistan. Then, he worked as a researcher at the Institute of International Rivers and Eco-security, Yunnan University, China. Currently, he is an assistant professor in the Department of Agricultural Engineering, Muhammad Nawaz Shareef University of Agriculture, Multan, Pakistan.",institutionString:"Muhammad Nawaz Shareef University of Agriculture Multan",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:null}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"838",title:"Meteorology",slug:"meteorology"}],chapters:[{id:"75865",title:"The Role of Statistical Methods and Tools for Weather Forecasting and Modeling",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.96854",slug:"the-role-of-statistical-methods-and-tools-for-weather-forecasting-and-modeling",totalDownloads:410,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The need to understand the role of statistical methods for the forecasting of climatological parameters cannot be trivialized. This study gives an in depth review on the different variations of the Mann-Kendall (M-K) trend test and how they can be applied, regression techniques (Simple and Multiple), the Angstrom-Prescott model for solar radiation, etc. The study then goes ahead to apply some of them with data obtained from the Nigerian Meteorological Agency (NiMet), and applying tools like the python programming language and Wolfram Mathematica. Results show that the maximum ambient temperature for Calabar is increasing (Z = 2.52) significantly after the calculated p-value <0.05 (significant level). The seasonal M-K test was also applied for the dry and wet seasons and both were found to be increasing (Z = 3.23 and Z = 4.04 respectively) after their calculated p-values <0.05. The relationship between refractivity and other meteorological parameters relating to it was discerned using partial differential equations giving the gradient of each with refractivity; this was compared with results from the correlation matrix to show that the water vapor contents of the atmosphere contributes significantly to the variation of refractivity. Multiple linear regression has also been adopted to give an accurate model for the prediction of refractivity in the region after the residual error between the calculated refractivity and predicted refractivity was minimal.",signatures:"Emmanuel P. Agbo",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/75865",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/75865",authors:[{id:"337554",title:"Mr.",name:"Emmanuel P.",surname:"Agbo",slug:"emmanuel-p.-agbo",fullName:"Emmanuel P. Agbo"}],corrections:null},{id:"77124",title:"Evaluating the Performance of Different Artificial Intelligence Techniques for Forecasting: Rainfall and Runoff Prospective",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.98280",slug:"evaluating-the-performance-of-different-artificial-intelligence-techniques-for-forecasting-rainfall-",totalDownloads:263,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The forecasting plays key role for the water resources planning. Most suitable technique is Artificial intelligence techniques (AITs) for different parameters of weather forecasting and generated runoff. The study compared AITs (RBF-SVM and M5 model tree) to understand the rainfall runoff process in Jhelum River Basin, Pakistan. The rainfall and runoff of Jhelum river used from 1981 to 2012. The Different rainfall and runoff dataset combinations were used to train and test AITs. The data record for the period 1981–2001 used for training and then testing. After training and testing, modeled runoff and observed data was evaluated using R2, NRMSE, COE and MSE. During the training, the dataset C2 and C3 were found to be 0.71 for both datasets using M5 model. Similar results were found for dataset of C3 using RBF-SVM. Over all, C3 and C7 were performed best among all the dataset. The M5 model tree was performed better than other applied techniques. GEP has also exhibited good results to understand rainfall runoff process. The RBF-SVM performed less accurate as compare to other applied techniques. Flow duration curve (FDCs) were used to compare the modeled and observed dataset of Jhelum River basin. For High flow and medium high flows, GEP exhibited well. M5 model tree displayed the better results for medium low and low percentile flows. RBF-SVM exhibited better for low percentile flows. GEP were found the accurate and highly efficient DDM among the AITs applied techniques. This study will help understand the complex rainfall runoff process, which is stochastic process. Weather forecasting play key role in water resources management and planning.",signatures:"Muhammad Waqas, Muhammad Saifullah, Sarfraz Hashim, Mohsin Khan and Sher Muhammad",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/77124",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/77124",authors:[{id:"320968",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Muhammad",surname:"Saifullah",slug:"muhammad-saifullah",fullName:"Muhammad Saifullah"},{id:"356985",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",surname:"Waqas",slug:"muhammad-waqas",fullName:"Muhammad Waqas"},{id:"356986",title:"Dr.",name:"Sarfraz",surname:"Hashim",slug:"sarfraz-hashim",fullName:"Sarfraz Hashim"},{id:"418856",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohsin",surname:"Khan",slug:"mohsin-khan",fullName:"Mohsin Khan"}],corrections:null},{id:"77004",title:"Application of Kalman Filter and Breeding Ensemble Technique to Forecast the Tropical Cyclone Activity",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.97783",slug:"application-of-kalman-filter-and-breeding-ensemble-technique-to-forecast-the-tropical-cyclone-activi",totalDownloads:184,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Tropical cyclone (TC) is one of the major meteorology disasters, as they lead to deaths, destroy the infrastructure and the environment. Therefore, how to improve the predictability of TC’s activities, such as formation, track, and intensity, is very important and is considered an important task for current operational predicting TC centers in many countries. However, predicting TC’s activities has remained a big challenge for meteorologists due to our incomplete understanding of the multiscale interaction of TCs with the ambient environment and the limitation of numerical weather forecast tools. Hence, this chapter will exhibit some techniques to improve the ability to predict the formation and track of TCs using an ensemble prediction system. Particularly, the Local Ensemble Transform Kalman Filter (LETKF) scheme and its implementation in the WRF Model, as well as the Vortex tracking method that has been applied for the forecast of TCs formation, will be presented in subSection 1. Application of Breeding Ensemble to Tropical Cyclone Track Forecasts using the Regional Atmospheric Modeling System (RAMS) model will be introduced in subSection 2.",signatures:"Cong Thanh, Dao Nguyen Quynh Hoa and Tran Tan Tien",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/77004",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/77004",authors:[{id:"337249",title:"Dr.",name:"Cong",surname:"Thanh",slug:"cong-thanh",fullName:"Cong Thanh"},{id:"337609",title:"Prof.",name:"Tran",surname:"Tan Tien",slug:"tran-tan-tien",fullName:"Tran Tan Tien"},{id:"346914",title:"BSc.",name:"Dao",surname:"Nguyen Quynh Hoa",slug:"dao-nguyen-quynh-hoa",fullName:"Dao Nguyen Quynh Hoa"}],corrections:null},{id:"77040",title:"Prediction of Relative Humidity in a High Elevated Basin of Western Karakoram by Using Different Machine Learning Models",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.98226",slug:"prediction-of-relative-humidity-in-a-high-elevated-basin-of-western-karakoram-by-using-different-mac",totalDownloads:293,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Accurate and reliable prediction of relative humidity is of great importance in all fields concerning global climate change. The current study has employed Multivariate Adaptive Regression Spline (MARS) and M5 Tree (M5T) models to predict the relative humidity in the Hunza River basin, Pakistan. Both the models provided the best prediction for the input scenario S6 (RHt-1, RHt-2, RHt-3, Tt-1, Tt-2, Tt-3). The statistical analysis displayed that the MARS model provided a better prediction of relative humidity as compared to M5T at all meteorological stations, especially, at Ziarat followed by Khunjerab and Naltar. The values of root mean square error (RMSE), mean absolute error (MAE), and coefficient of determination (R2) were (5.98%, 5.43%, and 0.808) for Khunjerab; (6.58%, 5.08%, and 0.806) for Naltar; and (5.86%, 4.97%, 0.815) for Ziarat during the testing of MARS model whereas, the values were (6.14%, 5.56%, and 0.772) for Khunjerab; (6.19%, 5.58% and 0.762) for Naltar and (6.08%, 5.46%, 0.783) for Ziarat during the testing of M5T model. Both the models performed slightly better in training as compared to the testing stage. The current study encourages future research to be conducted at high altitude basins for the prediction of other meteorological variables using machine learning tools.",signatures:"Muhammad Adnan, Rana Muhammad Adnan, Shiyin Liu, Muhammad Saifullah, Yasir Latif and Mudassar Iqbal",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/77040",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/77040",authors:[{id:"320968",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Muhammad",surname:"Saifullah",slug:"muhammad-saifullah",fullName:"Muhammad Saifullah"},{id:"324015",title:"Prof.",name:"Shiyin",surname:"Liu",slug:"shiyin-liu",fullName:"Shiyin Liu"},{id:"324016",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",surname:"Adnan",slug:"muhammad-adnan",fullName:"Muhammad Adnan"},{id:"351521",title:"Dr.",name:"Rana Muhammad",surname:"Adnan",slug:"rana-muhammad-adnan",fullName:"Rana Muhammad Adnan"},{id:"351523",title:"Dr.",name:"Yasir",surname:"Latif",slug:"yasir-latif",fullName:"Yasir Latif"},{id:"351524",title:"Dr.",name:"Mudassar",surname:"Iqbal",slug:"mudassar-iqbal",fullName:"Mudassar Iqbal"}],corrections:null},{id:"75097",title:"Time Trends and Persistence in the Snowpack Percentages by Watershed in Colorado",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.95911",slug:"time-trends-and-persistence-in-the-snowpack-percentages-by-watershed-in-colorado",totalDownloads:197,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"In this paper we investigate the time trend coefficients in snowpack percentages by watershed in Colorado, US, allowing for the possibility of long range dependence or long memory processes. Nine series corresponding to the following watersheds are examined: Arkansas, Colorado, Gunnison, North Platte, Rio Grande, South Platte, San Juan-Animas-Dolores-San Miguel, Yampa & White and Colorado Statewide, based on annual data over the last eighty years. The longest series start in 1937 and all end in 2019. The results indicate that most of the series display a significant decline over time, showing negative time trend coefficients, and thus supporting the hypothesis of climate change and global warming. Nevertheless, there is no evidence of a long memory pattern in the data.",signatures:"Luis Alberiko Gil-Alana",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/75097",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/75097",authors:[{id:"339181",title:"Prof.",name:"Luis Alberiko",surname:"Gil-Alana",slug:"luis-alberiko-gil-alana",fullName:"Luis Alberiko Gil-Alana"}],corrections:null},{id:"77910",title:"Future Climate Change Impacts on River Discharge Seasonality for Selected West African River Basins",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99426",slug:"future-climate-change-impacts-on-river-discharge-seasonality-for-selected-west-african-river-basins",totalDownloads:335,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The changing climate is a concern to sustainable water resources. This study examined climate change impacts on river discharge seasonality in two West African river basins; the Niger river basin and the Hadejia-Jama’are Komadugu-Yobe Basin (HJKYB). The basins have their gauges located within Nigeria and cover the major climatic settings. Here, we set up and validated the hyper resolution global hydrological model PCR-GLOBWB for these rivers. Time series plots as well five performance evaluation metrics such as Kling–Gupta efficiency (KGE),); the ratio of RMSE-observations standard deviation (RSR); per cent bias (PBIAS); the Nash–Sutcliffe Efficiency criteria (NSE); and, the coefficient of determination (r2), were employed to verify the PCR-GLOBWB simulation capability. The validation results showed from satisfactory to very good on individual rivers as specified by PBIAS (−25 to 0.8), NSE (from 0.6 to 0.8), RSR (from 0.62 to 0.4), r2 (from 0.62 to 0.88), and KGE (from 0.69 to 0.88) respectively. The impact assessment was performed by driving the model with climate projections from five global climate models for the representative concentration pathways (RCPs) 4.5 and 8.5. We examined the median and range of expected changes in seasonal discharge in the far future (2070–2099). Our results show that the impacts of climate change cause a reduction in discharge volume at the beginning of the high flow period and an increase in discharge towards the ending of the high flow period relative to the historical period across the selected rivers. In the Niger river basin, at the Lokoja gauge, projected decreases added up to 512 m3/s under RCP 4.5 (June to July) and 3652 m3/s under RCP 8.5 (June to August). The three chosen gauges at the HJKYB also showed similar impacts. At the Gashua gauge, discharge volume increased by 371 m3/s (RCP8.5) and 191 m3/s (RCP4.5) from August to November. At the Bunga gauge, a reduction/increase of -91 m3/s/+84 m3/s (RCP 8.5) and -40 m3/s/+31 m3/s/(RCP 4.5) from June to July/August to October was simulated. While at the Wudil gauge, a reduction/increase in discharge volumes of −39/+133 m3/s (RCP8.5) and −40/133 m3/s (RCP 4.5) from June to August/September to December is projected. This decrease is explained by a delayed start of the rainy season. In all four rivers, projected river discharge seasonality is amplified under the high-end emission scenario (RCP8.5). This finding supports the potential advantages of reduced greenhouse gas emissions for the seasonal river discharge regime. Our study is anticipated to provide useful information to policymakers and river basin development authorities, leading to improved water management schemes within the context of changing climate and increasing need for agricultural expansion.",signatures:"Toju Esther Babalola, Philip Gbenro Oguntunde, Ayodele Ebenezer Ajayi and Francis Omowonuola Akinluyi",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/77910",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/77910",authors:[{id:"348110",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Toju Esther",surname:"Babalola",slug:"toju-esther-babalola",fullName:"Toju Esther Babalola"},{id:"420828",title:"Prof.",name:"Philip Gbenro",surname:"Oguntunde",slug:"philip-gbenro-oguntunde",fullName:"Philip Gbenro Oguntunde"},{id:"420829",title:"Prof.",name:"Ayodele Ebenezer",surname:"Ajayi",slug:"ayodele-ebenezer-ajayi",fullName:"Ayodele Ebenezer Ajayi"},{id:"420830",title:"Dr.",name:"Francis Omowonuola",surname:"Akinluyi",slug:"francis-omowonuola-akinluyi",fullName:"Francis Omowonuola Akinluyi"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"7767",title:"Rainfall",subtitle:"Extremes, Distribution and Properties",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9f9b3b7d86cb46e2ce3653587805475d",slug:"rainfall-extremes-distribution-and-properties",bookSignature:"John Abbot and Andrew Hammond",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7767.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"225780",title:"Dr.",name:"John",surname:"Abbot",slug:"john-abbot",fullName:"John Abbot"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5316",title:"Tsunami",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"43b9aa1649d76ec048022b3578bdc3f1",slug:"tsunami",bookSignature:"Mohammad Mokhtari",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5316.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"52451",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohammad",surname:"Mokhtari",slug:"mohammad-mokhtari",fullName:"Mohammad Mokhtari"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7484",title:"Topics in Hydrometerology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8d7e790445c691226a5778a32abd15cf",slug:"topics-in-hydrometerology",bookSignature:"Theodore V Hromadka II and Prasada Rao",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7484.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"181008",title:"Dr.",name:"Theodore V.",surname:"Hromadka II",slug:"theodore-v.-hromadka-ii",fullName:"Theodore V. 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\r\n\r\n\tThe book offers a deep view of flows in wings, airfoils, nozzles, boundary layers and wakes, and on the subject of wind tunnel measurements, flight control and stability.
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Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"58243",title:"Multi-Core Optical Fibers: Theory, Applications and Opportunities",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72458",slug:"multi-core-optical-fibers-theory-applications-and-opportunities",body:'Data traffic demand in access and backbone networks has been increased exponentially in the last three decades [1, 2]. Remarkably, in the last decade, the development of streaming transmissions and cloud computing has accelerated this growth [3]. Nowadays, in spite of the fact that this data traffic demand is easily covered by wavelength-division multiplexed (WDM) systems based on single-mode single-core fibers (SM-SCFs),1 recent works show that the WDM systems are rapidly approaching their Shannon capacity limit [4].
Aimed to overcome the Shannon capacity limit of WDM networks using SM-SCFs, space-division multiplexing (SDM) has been extensively investigated in recent years [5, 6, 7]. Remarkably, the SDM concept within the context of optical communications was proposed for the first time in the decade of 1980 [8, 9, 10]. Unfortunately, the technology underneath SDM was immature and extremely expensive. Nevertheless, the fabrication methods of the SDM fibers and optical devices have been extensively developed in the last decade reducing their manufacturing cost [11]. In this scenario, new types of optical fibers based on the SDM concept have been proposed [5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12]: fiber bundle based on SM-SCFs, multi-mode single-core fibers (MM-SCFs),2 single/multi-mode multi-core fibers (SM/MM-MCFs) and photonic crystal fibers.
In contrast with the other aforementioned SDM fibers, MCFs allow us to increase the channel capacity limit of SM-SCFs by exploiting the six signal dimensions (time, wavelength, amplitude, phase, polarization and space) through spatial multi-dimensional modulation formats and digital signal processing at the receiver [13, 14, 15]. Interestingly, SCFs have also been used as an experimental platform for testing different phenomena related to diverse branches of physics, such as fluid dynamics, quantum mechanics, general relativity and condensed matter physics, as well as to develop applications in other fields [16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23]. Along this line, MCFs are potential laboratories that could extend the possibilities offered by SCFs. As an example, disordered MCFs exhibiting transverse Anderson localization have been proposed with potential applications in biological and medical imaging [22].
Inspired by the potential applications of these new fibers, we perform a detailed review of the MCF technology including a theoretical analysis of the main physical impairments and new dispersive effects of these fibers, and we discuss their applications and opportunities in different branches of physics, engineering and medicine. The chapter is organized as follows. In Section II, the different MCF types are revisited. In Section III, we include some fundamental aspects of light propagation in the linear and nonlinear fiber regime. Specifically, we focus on the theoretical description of the physical impairments observed in these fibers in the single-mode regime: the linear and nonlinear inter-core crosstalk, the intra- and inter-core birefringent effects, the intermodal dispersion and higher-order coupling and nonlinear effects. In Section IV we discuss the main applications and opportunities of MCFs in photonics, medicine and experimental physics. Finally, in Section V the main conclusions of the chapter and the open research lines in the topic are highlighted.
MCF designs can be classified in different categories attending to diverse fiber parameters and characteristics. Table 1 shows the usual MCF designs employed for SDM transmissions and MCF laser and sensing applications:
The refractive index profile of each core allows us to differentiate between step-index (SI-MCF) and gradual-index MCFs (GI-MCF). In the former case, the refractive index profile of all cores has a step between two constant values in the core and cladding interface. However, in the latter case, a MCF is referred to as GI-MCF if at least one core has a continuous refractive index profile. Along this line, we can make a distinction with a third type of MCF: a trench- or hole-assisted MCF (TA-MCF or HA-MCF). In general, a TA- and HA-MCF present a multi-step refractive index profile in the cladding to reduce the mode-coupling (inter-core crosstalk) between the linearly polarized (LP) modes of adjacent cores [7, 11, 12, 24]. Specifically, in a HA-MCF an additional step is included in the cladding by performing holes around the cores [7].
A single-mode MCF (SM-MCF) supports only the LP01 mode in each core. In contrast, if a given core guides several LP modes, the fiber is known as a multi-mode MCF (MM-MCF). Moreover, a MCF supporting only the first three or four LP mode groups (LP01, LP11, LP21, LP02) is usually termed as a few-mode MCF (FM-MCF) [7].
Attending to the spatial homogeneity of the MCF structure, we can make a distinction between a homogeneous MCF (HO-MCF) or a heterogeneous MCF (HE-MCF). In the former case, all cores present the same refractive index profile, and in the latter case, the MCF comprises at least one core with a different refractive index profile3.
The core-to-core distance (or core pitch) is the main fiber parameter which determinates the inter-core crosstalk level among the LP modes of each core. Usually, if the core pitch between two homogeneous cores
If the intrinsic linear birefringence of each core Δ
Other designs of MCFs involve: dispersion-shifted cores (DS-MCFs) [30], selective-inscribed Bragg gratings [31] and hexagonal shaped cores [32].
Classification of multi-core fiber types.
Once the MCF cross-section design is established, the specific MCF fabrication method is of key importance for the final optical transmission characteristics. MCF fabrication processes have been refined and optimized in the last years with an intensive research work [5, 7, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37]. In this scenario, the main technological challenge in the design and fabrication of uncoupled MCFs is to minimize the crosstalk providing the maximum core isolation. Usually, the design work is performed numerically using commercial simulation packages. The simulation analysis targets to determine the cross-section modal distribution, the spectral power density of the LP modes, the associated power losses and the resulting inter-core crosstalk.
MCF fabrication can be addressed by microstructured stack-and-draw technology [36], a flexible technology which allows us to fabricate very different fibers on the same machinery. Unfortunately, MCF manufacturing is a complex process with nonlinear results on the process parameters. In particular, some rods or capillaries configurations may be technically difficult to draw into the designed form, which results in a MCF with higher crosstalk levels than in the original design. In this scenario, it is necessary to investigate the linear and nonlinear MCF propagation taking into account not only the MCF manufacturing imperfections, but also additional external fiber perturbations (see below). This would be of great benefit for investigating multi-dimensional modulation formats, spatial encoding techniques and sharing of receiver resources in MCF systems [38, 39, 40, 41].
In general, the electromagnetic analysis of a MCF should be performed by solving the macroscopic Maxwell equations (MMEs) in each dielectric region of the fiber (cores + cladding) and applying the boundary conditions between the cores-cladding interfaces. However, the calculation of the exact MCF eigenmodes from the MMEs presents a high degree of complexity, and usually, they should be calculated numerically. Therefore, in order to analyze theoretically the electromagnetic phenomena in MCF media, the perturbation theory is usually employed. Figure 1 shows a flowchart of this approach.
Flowchart of the perturbation theory in MCF media to derive the coupled equations from the macroscopic Maxwell equations.
The goal is to derive a set of coupled equations from the MMEs in terms of the complex envelopes of the electric field strength in each core performing the next steps:
First, we should propose the ansatz of the global electric field strength (
Each polarized core mode
In the third step, the wave equation of the MCF should be derived for the complex amplitudes
Finally, using the results of the first and second step in the MCF wave equation, we finally derive the coupled equations of the complex envelopes by assuming the slowly varying complex envelope approximation (SVEA), that is,
where
In the following subsections, we will review the new physical impairments observed in SM-MCFs using the aforementioned perturbation theory. First, we will describe the inter-core crosstalk among cores when assuming a single polarization. Second, we will discuss the intra- and inter-core birefringent effects by including two polarizations per core. Later, we will analyze the intermodal dispersion and its impact on Gaussian pulses and optical solitons. And finally, higher-order coupling and nonlinear effects will be investigated when propagating optical pulses in the femtosecond regime.
In multi-dielectric media, we can observe mode-coupling among adjacent dielectric regions. The continuity of the electromagnetic field in such media is the physical origin of the mode-coupling, referred to as the inter-core crosstalk (IC-XT) in MCFs.
The IC-XT behavior is induced by the longitudinal and temporal deterministic and random MCF perturbations. The longitudinal perturbations include the macrobending, microbending, fiber twisting and the intrinsic manufacturing imperfections of the fiber. The temporal perturbations are induced by external environmental factors, such as temperature variations and floor vibrations modifying the propagation constant of each polarized core mode, the bending radius and the twist rate of the optical medium. In spite of the fact that the deterministic nature of the intrinsic manufacturing imperfections, the remaining perturbations present a random nature, and therefore, the IC-XT will have a stochastic evolution in the time and space domain [33, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50].
Figure 2 shows the temporal evolution of the IC-XT measured during 26 hours in a homogeneous 4-core MCF [Fibercore SM-4C1500(8.0/125)] between two adjacent cores in the linear and nonlinear regimes (power launch levels of 0 and 17 dBm, respectively). Although the bending radius and the twist rate present a constant value in the experimental set-up (see [49] for more details), the slight longitudinal and temporal local variations of both fiber parameters induce a longitudinal and temporal random evolution of the IC-XT in both power regimes. In addition, in the nonlinear regime, the Kerr effect is stimulated in the illuminated core 3 reducing the index-matching between the measured cores 1 and 3. In this scenario, the homogeneous cores 1 and 3 become heterogeneous when high power launch levels are injected in a given core. As a result, the MCF can be modeled in the nonlinear regime as an asymmetric optical coupler with random behavior, and consequently, the IC-XT mean and variance is reduced.
Measured temporal profile of the linear and nonlinear IC-XT between adjacent cores in a homogeneous 4-core MCF (results based on [
From these results, we conclude that the IC-XT has a random nature in both linear and nonlinear power regimes. Hence, at this point it is natural to ask how the probability distribution is. In a first investigation of this impairment, the answer can be easily found from the perturbation theory by assuming several initial simplifications: two cores
where
and a similar expression is found for d
with Δ
Remarkably, the revisited CMT constitutes a fundamental tool to estimate numerically the IC-XT in SM-MCFs using the Monte Carlo method [50]. The numerical calculation can also be performed in HA- and TA-MCFs by using Eq. (5) along with the corresponding closed-form expression of the linear coupling coefficient
The starting point is to consider a constant or quasi-constant bending and twisting conditions, i.e. their average value much higher than their longitudinal random fluctuations. In such a case, the phase-mismatching function of Eq. (4) can be expressed as [52]:
where
In the phase-matching region, we can use a first-order solution of Eq. (5) to perform the statistical analysis of the IC-XT [33, 50]. Table 2 shows the analytical expressions of the linear and nonlinear IC-XT distribution and its statistical parameters derived from the CMT. As can be seen, the measured IC-XT pdf fits correctly to a chi-squared distribution with 4 degrees of freedom. In the linear regime, the mean, variance and
Statistical distribution and parameters of the linear and nonlinear IC-XT.
Furthermore, note that these statistical parameters can be estimated from the mean of the linear crosstalk
Finally, it should be noted that the statistical analysis previously described is only focused on the random longitudinal evolution of the IC-XT along the MCF considering a single polarization and temporal invariant conditions of the optical medium17. Hence, the following natural step is to consider temporal varying conditions of the dielectric medium and two polarizations per core.
Now, let us assume a 2-core SM-MCF operating in the monochromatic regime as in the previous section, but considering two polarizations per core and both longitudinal and time-varying random perturbations. These initial assumptions will allow us to predict the different crosstalk types between the polarized core modes (PCMs) in a SM-MCF: (i) the intra-core crosstalk (iC-XT) which describes the mode-coupling between orthogonal polarizations in a given core; (ii) the direct inter-core crosstalk (DIC-XT) modeling the mode coupling between the same polarization axis in different cores; and (iii) the cross inter-core crosstalk (XIC-XT) involving mode coupling between orthogonal polarizations in different cores.
As depicted in Figure 3, in a real MCF, each core
MCF comprising different birefringent segments in cores
In order to model theoretically this scenario, the concept of local mode is included in the perturbation theory. A local mode can be defined as an eigenfunction in a short core segment where the equivalent phase constant
where the semicolon symbol is used to separate explicitly longitudinal and temporal changes induced by the slowly varying MCF perturbations. Thus, note that the complex amplitude
with
where
In contrast with the previous section, the longitudinal and temporal MCF perturbations are now modeled, not only by the phase-mismatching functions Δ
The CLMT is completed by three additional coupled local-mode equations for the
The monochromatic equivalent refractive index model (ERIM) reported in [53] must be used to calculate numerically the coupling coefficients and the phase-mismatching functions. Thanks to the CLMT and the ERIM, we will observe that the temporal birefringence fluctuation of each core modifies the average value of the iC-, DIC- and XIC-XT.
First, in order to analyze the longitudinal MCF random perturbations induced by MCF bending and twisting, a Monte Carlo simulation was performed using the CLMT along with the ERIM considering a 2-m SI-SM-HO-UC-LB-2CF with cores
Numerical simulation of the crosstalk between PCMs varying the bending radius and the twist rate in a 2-m SI-SM-HO-UC-LB-2CF: (a) iC-XT mean
As it can be noticed from Figure 4(a), we cannot observe intra-core mode-coupling between
In addition, experimental measurements were performed on a 4CF [Fibercore SM-4C1500(8.0/125)] analyzing the temporal birefringence of the optical media and its impact on the mean of the crosstalk between the PCMs of the cores 1 and 3. Figure 5 shows the temporal fluctuation of the linear birefringence and the crosstalk mean behavior between the PCMs of cores 1 and 3 measured in different days and months19. As shown in Figure 5(a), cores 1 and 3 present a different average value of the linear birefringence estimated to be <Δ
Experimental results of the temporal linear birefringence fluctuation over different days and months of a 150-m 4CF, and corresponding intra- and inter-core crosstalk mean between cores 1 and 3 (NL: nonlinear regime). (a) Linear birefringence of the cores 1 and 3, (b) iC-XT and (c) DIC- and XIC-XT. Results based on [
Additional numerical calculations of the CLMT can be found in [53] involving both LB and HB cores. Interesting, it is worth mentioning that the CLMT and the ERIM can be used to design HB-MCFs with random orientation of the principal axes between adjacent cores to reduce the mode-coupling between their PCMs. The concept is similar to the crosstalk behavior which can be found in disordered MCFs exhibiting transverse Anderson localization [21]. Along this line, a TA- and HA-cladding can also be considered in these fibers to obtain low DIC- and XIC-XT levels. In all these scenarios, the CLMT can be used in the design work, with a lower computational time than numerical simulations based on FDTD (Finite-Difference Time Domain) calculations.
The temporal fluctuation of the crosstalk has also been investigated in [55], but considering a single polarization per core and inserting heuristically the MCF perturbations in the exponential terms of the CMT, in line with the initial crosstalk works [33, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50]. Specifically, in ref. [55], the crosstalk transfer function has been discussed at the MCF output considering small modulated signals, i.e. non-monochromatic electric fields. However, the comprehension of the MCF propagation and the IC-XT in the non-monochromatic regime is not as straightforward as initially foreseen. Hence, at this point, let us discuss the non-monochromatic regime with a similar rigorous formalism as in [53] for the monochromatic case.
The theoretical study of the non-monochromatic regime will allow us to describe the propagation of optical pulses through a MCF. Focusing our efforts on SM-MCFs, additional physical impairments should be included in Eq. (10), such as the group-velocity dispersion (GVD), polarization-mode dispersion (PMD), intermodal dispersion and additional nonlinear effects. Moreover, if we also consider the propagation of ultra-short optical pulses in the femtosecond regime, the analysis of higher-order coupling and nonlinear effects should also be incorporated to the coupled equations.
Although in the picosecond regime MCF propagation models have been proposed in [56, 57] including polarization effects and the random longitudinal fiber perturbations (but omitting the temporal fluctuations), in the femtosecond regime, existing MCF propagation models exclude polarization effects and omit both temporal and longitudinal random perturbations of the fiber [58, 59, 60]. In order to include these realistic fiber conditions in the mathematical description of the propagation of femtosecond optical pulses through a MCF, a theoretical model is proposed in [61] based on the concept of local modes. As can be seen later, the intermodal dispersion induced by the MCF random perturbations can become one of the major physical impairment in the single-mode regime of the fiber. Specifically, the intermodal dispersion, also referred to as the mode-coupling dispersion (MCD) in this work, is induced in the femtosecond regime not only by the mismatching between the propagation constants of the PCMs, but also by the frequency dependence of their mode overlapping.
Our initial goal is to revisit the CLMT of the previous section but now assuming non-monochromatic fields. In such a case, the ansatz of the global electric field strength of a SM-MCF should be written as:
where the complex amplitude
The functions involved in the previous equations are the same as in Eq. (8), but now expressed in the frequency domain. Nevertheless, a fundamental remark of the complex envelope should be taken into account at this point. As previously discussed in Figure 1, the slowly varying longitudinal changes should also be decoupled from the rapidly varying longitudinal fluctuations via the complex envelope. However, in Eq. (12) the rapidly and slowly varying longitudinal changes are coupled in the first exponential term via the function
Once we have written our ansatz of the global electric field strength, the following step is to propose the wave equation of the PCMs (second step) and the wave equation of the MCF (third step). In particular, in the third step, we will able to incorporate the higher-order nonlinear effects via the constitutive relation between the global electric field strength and the nonlinear polarization. Note that in the femtosecond regime, the aforementioned constitutive relation should include the delay response of the electronic and nuclei structure of silica atoms [62]. For optical frequencies well below the electronic transitions, the electronic contribution to the nonlinear polarization can be considered instantaneous. However, since nucleons (protons and neutrons) are considerably heavier than electrons, the nuclei motions have resonant frequencies much lower than the electronic resonances and, consequently, they should be retained in the constitutive relation as indicated in Eq. (S36) of [61]. Specifically, Raman scattering is a well-known effect arising from the nuclear contribution to the nonlinear polarization. All in all, the coupled local-mode equations can be derived to describe the propagation of ultra-short pulses in SM-MCFs. In particular, the coupled local-mode equation modeling the propagation of the PCM
where
It should be remarked that the linear operators of Eq. (14) are found to be longitudinal and temporal dependent, instead of constant coupling coefficients and unperturbed propagation constants. Thanks to these linear operators, Eq. (14) is able to describe accurately the linear and nonlinear propagation of each PCM and the linear and nonlinear MCD including the longitudinal and temporal MCF perturbations. Furthermore, it is worthy to note that the MCD is induced in each birefringent segment by two different dispersive effects when propagating femtosecond optical pulse through a MCF: (i) the frequency dependence of the local mismatching between the phase functions
Although the proposed model allows us to investigate a wide range of propagation phenomena in MCFs, our efforts are mainly focused on a deeper understanding of the IMCD induced by the fiber perturbations. In order to clarify the impact of the MCF birefringence on this physical impairment when propagating femtosecond optical pulses, Eq. (16) is solved numerically in the linear and nonlinear regime of the fiber. In all the analyzed cases, we considered a MCF comprising a fiber length of
As a first simple example, we considered an ideal homogeneous MCF, with
IMCD impact on Gaussian pulses and optical solitons propagating through a SM-MCF. (a) 350-fs Gaussian optical pulse propagation under ideal conditions. (b) 250-fs Gaussian optical pulse propagation with random bending conditions. (c) 600-fs fundamental bright soliton with random bending and twisting conditions. The numerical results for the PCMs
Another interesting effect of the first-order IMCD is related to the random birefringence that arises from a randomly varying fiber bending radius. In this case, the effect of the first-order PhMD along with the CCD can also be observed when considering a high number of MCF birefringent segments where the bending radius fluctuates with a Normal distribution between adjacent segments. We simulate the MCF of the first example considering a 250-fs Gaussian optical pulse and 50 birefringent segments with a bending radius Normal distribution
In the third example, the IMCD effects are also investigated in the nonlinear fiber regime along with the PMD (intra-core MCD). Specifically, the impact of such perturbations on a bright soliton is analyzed. A 600-fs fundamental soliton (~350 fs full width at half maximum) was launched into the PCM
Although we have only discussed the main effects of the longitudinal birefringence of the MCF, the analysis of the temporal perturbations of the medium can be found in [61]. It should be noted that the IMCD can also fluctuate in time due to the temporal fluctuation of the MCF birefringence modifying the value of the phase functions
For completeness, we investigate the fiber length scales over which the dispersive effects of the IMCD should be considered in the pulse propagation phenomena when comparing this physical impairment with the GVD. To this end, we compare the GVD, CCD and PhMD lengths considering a MCF without random perturbations, given by the expressions for the PCMs
Figure 7 depicts the comparison of the GVD, CCD and PhMD dispersion lengths. As can be seen, the IMCD induced by the CCD becomes the predominant impairment in dispersion-shifted coupled-core MCFs with a reduced core-to-core distance and Δ
Comparison of the dispersion lengths. (a) Group-velocity dispersion (GVD) length, (b) coupling coefficient dispersion (CCD) length, and (c) phase-mismatching dispersion (PhMD) length.
Finally, it should be noted that the extension of Eq. (14) to the multi-mode regime is straightforward when including additional LP mode groups in the complex amplitude of the global electric field strength
Once we have reviewed the fundamental aspects of the linear and nonlinear propagation in MCF media, we will discuss in this section the main applications and opportunities of the MCF technology in photonics and diverse branches of sciences.
SDM systems using MCFs have been extensively investigated in recent years targeting to overcome the exponential growth of data traffic in the backbone and in the access network [4, 5, 6, 7].
The first laboratory MCF transmission was demonstrated in May 2010 [64]. Zhu and co-workers used a SI-SM-HO-UC-LB-7CF with a hexagonal lattice. A novel network configuration was proposed for passive optical network (PON) based on a bidirectional parallel transmission at 1310 nm and 1490 nm and using a tapered MCF connector (TMC) for injecting and extracting the optical signals in the MCF.
A set of MCF experiments were reported since 2011. Scaling in capacity demonstrations, [65, 66, 67] should be mentioned. In [65] the authors demonstrated a 210 Tb/s self-homodyne transmission system using distributed feedback (DFB) lasers and a 19-core TA-SM-HO-UC-LB-MCF. Sakaguchi et al. reported in [66] a record capacity of 305 Tb/s over 10.1 km using the same MCF as in [65], with an IC-XT mean of −32 dB between adjacent cores at 1550 nm. The authors also fabricated a 19-channel SDM multiplexer/demultiplexer using free-space optics with low insertion losses and low additional crosstalk. As another interesting example, Takara et al. reported in [67] 1.01 Pb/s transmission over 52 km with the highest aggregate spectral efficiency of 91.4 b/s/Hz by using a one-ring-structured 12-core TA-SM-HO-UC-LB-MCF. They generated 222-channel WDM signals of 456-Gb/s PDM-32QAM-SC-FDM signals20 with 50-GHz spacing in the C and L bands. Following significant efforts on the design and fabrication of MCFs, demonstrations of SDM transmissions using MCF media for long-haul applications have shown impressive progress in terms of capacity, reach, and spectral efficiency, as detailed in Table 3.
Year | Ref. | Fiber type | Cores × modes | Distance (km) | Channel rate (Gb/s) | WDM channels per core | S/E (b/s/Hz) | Total capacity (Tb/s) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
2011 | [68] | SM-MCF | 7 × 1 | 2688 | 128 | 10 | 15 | 7 |
2012 | [67] | SM-MCF | 12 × 1 | 52 | 456 | 222 | 91.40 | 1012 |
2012 | [66] | SM-MCF | 19 × 1 | 10.1 | 172 | 100 | 30.50 | 305 |
2013 | [65] | SM-MCF | 19 × 1 | 10.1 | 100 | 125 | 33.60 | 210 |
2014 | [7] | FM-MCF | 7 × 2 | 1 | 4000 | 50 | 102 | 200 |
2015 | [69] | SM-MCF | 7 × 1 | 2520 | 100 | 73 | 16 | 51 |
2015 | [70] | FM-MCF | 36 × 2 | 5.5 | 107 | 40 | 108 | 432 |
2015 | [71] | FM-MCF | 12 × 2 | 527 | 80 | 20 | 90.28 | 45 |
2015 | [72] | FM-MCF | 19 × 4 | 9.8 | 40 | 8 | 345 | 29 |
2016 | [73] | FM-MCF | 19 × 4 | 9.8 | 60 | 360 | 456 | 2050 |
2017 | [74] | SM-MCF | 32 × 1 | 205.6 | 768 | 46 | 217.6 | 1001 |
Summary of progress in MCF transmissions in recent years. The MCF type indicates only the modal regime (additional characteristics of the MCF involving the index profile, the spatial homogeneity, the core pitch and the birefringence can be found in the corresponding reference). The number of modes indicate the number of LP mode groups supported by the MCF transmission. The channel rate includes PDM and the overhead for forward-error-correction (FEC). The spectral efficiency and total capacity exclude the FEC overhead.
On the other hand, cloud radio-access network (C-RAN) systems should also deal with this huge future capacity demand in the next-generation wireless systems, e.g. 5G cellular technology and Beyond-5G [75, 76, 77]. According to some telecom equipment manufacturers, it is expected that 5G cellular networks will be required to provide 1000 times higher mobile data traffic in 2025 as compared with 2013, including flexibility and adaptability solutions to maximize the energy efficiency of the network [78, 79]. A new radio-access model supporting massive data uploading will be required considering additional transport facilities provided by the physical layer [78, 79, 80].
Fronthaul connectivity performed by radio-over-fiber (RoF) transmission using single-input single-output (SISO), multiple-input multiple-output (MIMO) configuration [81], sub-Nyquist sampling [82], and ultra-wideband signals exceeding 400 MHz bandwidth has been proposed for the 5G cellular generation [76, 77, 83]. The required channel capacity is further extended in the case of Beyond-5G systems, where a massive number of antennas operating in MIMO configuration, should be connected using RoF. To overcome the massive increment in the data capacity demand, MCF has been recently proposed as a suitable medium for LTE-Advanced (LTE-A) MIMO fronthaul systems [52, 83, 84].
MCFs open up attractive possibilities in RoF systems as different wireless signals can be transmitted simultaneously over the same optical wavelengths and electrical frequencies in different cores of the optical waveguide to provide multi-wireless service using a single laser at the transmitter. Thus, MCF can also be proposed as an alternative to the classical SM-SCF [also termed in the literature as the standard single-mode fiber (SSMF)] providing fronthaul connectivity using multiple wavelength channels with multiple lasers. Additionally, MCFs with high core density are suitable for connecting large phase array antennas performing multi-user MIMO (MU-MIMO) processing [85]. Furthermore, network operators can offer a dynamic and scalable capacity in the next cellular generation due to the aggregated channel capacity provided by the MCF technology [86]. Moreover, the possibility of combining MCF-RoF transmissions with additional multiplexing techniques such as time-division multiplexing (TDM), WDM, PDM and mode-division multiplexing (MDM) [12] should be considered. Figure 8 depicts the proposed fronthaul provision applied to converged fiber-wireless PON including PDM to provide connectivity between the SSMF and MCF media.
Next-generation optical fronthaul system using MCF medium operating with a converged fiber-wireless PON including optical polarization-division multiplexing (PDM) and mode-division multiplexing (MDM) transmissions.
Remarkably, the use of MCFs in the next-generation RoF fronthaul systems is proposed for the first time in [52, 87]. In these works, it is investigated the performance of fully standard LTE-A signals in MIMO and SISO configurations with the random IC-XT fluctuations and the demonstration of fronthaul provision of both LTE-A and WiMAX signals using a 150-m SI-SM-HO-UC-LB-4CF. In order to reduce the random fluctuations of the error vector magnitude (EVM) induced by the IC-XT, the core interleaving nonlinear stimulation (CINLS) was proposed to mismatch the phase constant of adjacent core modes reducing the temporal and spectral EVM fluctuations of the MCF-RoF transmissions.
The potential application of MCFs is not only restricted to SDM transmissions. The inherent capability of a MCF to modify the propagated signals allows us to investigate a vast scenario of new applications for ultra-high capacity SDM transmissions and microwave photonics (MWP) based on signal processing techniques. As we will see, the basic concept of the signal processing using MCFs is a far richer scope than initially foreseen.
In particular, the use of MCFs for MWP applications based on signal processing was firstly proposed by Gasulla and Capmany in [88]. In this work the authors investigate the suitability of these new fibers to perform true-time delay lines (TTDLs), optical beamforming, optical filtering and arbitrary waveform generation using heterogeneous cores. These applications have been extensively researched in [30, 31, 89, 90, 91, 92, 93] with different MCF designs and experimental setups. As an attractive example, it should be remarked the proposal reported in [31, 90], where the inscription of selective Bragg gratings in a homogeneous MCF it was introduced in [90] and experimentally verified in [31] to achieve compact fiber-based TTDL without using heterogeneous cores. Along this line, other MWP applications such as optical beamforming can also be performed by using homogeneous cores as described in [94]. In this work, Llorente and co-workers propose a compact all-fiber beamformer based on a
On the other hand, the MCF signal processing also involves additional applications and functionalities such as pulse shaping, dispersion engineering, modal conversion and modal filtering applications. Remarkably, the engineering of the refractive index profile allows us to implement these fashion features in MCF media. In this scenario, a fascinating proposal recovered from the string and quantum field theory was firstly introduced in [95] within the framework of photonics and further developed in [19, 96] to design SCFs and MCFs: the supersymmetry (SUSY). Specifically, one-dimensional SUSY allows us to perform the aforementioned MWP applications. The specific details can be found in [96] for cylindrical potentials with axial symmetry. As an interesting example (among other applications detailed in this work), we include here the description of a true modal (de)multiplexer (M-MUX/DEMUX) using a 3-core MCF. Figure 9 shows the optical device and its functionality.
Modal (de)multiplexer based on a 60-cm 3-core MCF [
The device is designed using a 60-cm MCF comprising three cores
All-fiber designs of optical lasers, amplifiers and sensors using MCFs have been extensively investigated in recent years [32, 101, 102, 103, 104, 105, 106, 107, 108, 109, 110, 111]. In particular, the multi-mode interference (MMI) which can be observed through a chain SMF-MCF-SMF is widely employed in lasers, amplifiers and optical sensors to improve the performance of classical designs based on SCFs [32, 104].
As one can expect, the basic concept of an active MCF is the natural evolution for the cladding pumped rare-earth-doped fibers. The classical design using a single core offers an excellent combination of high efficiency and beam quality. However, high output powers are limited by the stimulation of nonlinear effects. In that case, the increment of the mode field area is the obvious solution to decrease the nonlinear effects. In this scenario, active MCFs offer the possibility of reducing the nonlinear effects using a coupled-core design to generate supermodes with large mode field area [101, 105]. Moreover, note that the gain medium is split at discrete regions (cores) inside the cladding, and therefore, the thermal dissipation is higher than in the classical single-core design. As a result, higher output powers can be achieved in MCF media [105]. On the other hand, in contrast with a SCF bundle, a
In this topic, an intense research work has been developed in the last decade [5, 11, 12]. To date, most CC-MCF lasers/amplifiers operate in the in-phase supermode combining high brightness and near-diffraction limited far field profile. The selection of the in-phase supermode can be performed by using diverse methods such as phase-locking and Talbot cavities [102]. As an example, a monolithic fiber laser using a CC-MCF with highly and lowly reflective fiber Bragg gratings (HR/LR-FBG) is shown in Figure 10(a) [104]. The MCF segment is located between the HR-FBG and the LR-FBG creating an active cavity, where the MMI allows us to obtain a high-contrast spectral modulation. In addition, the uniform illumination of the cores is achieved by performing a cladding pumping scheme. Remarkably, this MCF laser design demonstrates the direct correlation between the MMI in few-mode SCF systems and in the laser operation when multiple supermodes oscillate simultaneously. Following a similar approach, additional MCF laser and amplifier designs have been proposed in [103, 105]. Nevertheless, in long-haul SDM transmissions the usual design is the multi-core erbium-doped-fiber-amplifier based on a cladding pumped scheme [106, 107].
MCF laser and optical sensor operating on the principle of multi-mode interference (MMI). (a) MCF laser comprising a highly and lowly reflective fiber Bragg grating (HR/LR-FBG). (b) MCF optical sensor with hexagonal shaped cores. Results based on [
On the other hand, MCF sensors are also based on a similar concept as in the laser of the previous example [see Figure 10(b)]. The sensor comprises two SSMFs spliced to a short MCF segment with hexagonal shaped cores. The operating principle within the MCF segment is the MMI, which induces a deep peak in the transmission spectrum. An external environmental change shifts the spectral position of the minimum. As an specific example, let us consider a temperature change. When increasing the temperature, the thermal expansion of the MCF medium will increase the refractive index of the silica cores, and consequently, the peak will be shifted to a longer wavelength [32].
In the past, fiber optic sensors using SCFs have been widely discussed for sensing in a broad range of industrial and scientific applications including temperature, force, liquid level, pressure and acoustic waves, among other. Nowadays, the MCF technology allows us to design and fabricate new optical sensors providing accuracy, high resolution, compactness, stability, reproducibility and reliability [32, 108, 109, 110, 111].
Multi-core optical fibers have also been studied in recent years within the context of medicine for biomedical sensing and imaging applications [112, 113, 114, 115, 116, 117, 118, 119, 120, 121]. Basically, biomedical sensors using MCFs are based on the MMI technique previously described. Thus, let us now focus our attention on biomedical imaging applications in the next paragraphs.
Nowadays, the main challenge in biomedical imaging is the study of cells in biological tissues. In this scenario, the multiphoton microscopy and adaptive optics become fundamental technologies because of their benefits in cellular resolution, high sensitivity, and high imaging rate [121]. In particular, the two-photon excited fluorescence (TPEF) microscopy requires the use of adaptive optics to increase the imaging depth, in practice limited to 1 mm [122]. Remarkably, the so-called
MCFs and adaptive optics for medical imaging. (a) MCF with low IC-XT and periodically arranged cores [
In general, MCFs used for image transport require a high number of cores (>100) with low IC-XT levels and low intermodal dispersion among cores. Therefore, the preferred design is a SI-SM-HO-CC-LB-MCF, in line with the MCF shown in Figure 11(a). Examples of this MCF type fabricated for medical imaging purposes can be found in [113, 114, 115], with
On the other hand, adaptive optics is required in the TPEF microscopy to recover the initial imaging of the biological tissue [Figure 11(c)]. The advance on wave front shapers composed by 2-D SLMs and deformable mirrors have spurred the main evolution in ultrathin endoscopes [121]. Thompson et al. were the first to report imaging with a lensless endoscope based on a waveguide with multiple cores [112]. Later, in 2013, Andresen and co-workers realized a lensless endoscope employing a MCF similar to Figure 11(a) with extremely low IC-XT between adjacent cores [113]. In the same line, additional works have been reported combining MCF and MM-SCFs with adaptive optics in [114, 115, 116, 117, 118, 119, 120]. At present, the major aim in lensless endoscopy using MCF media is to increase the core density with a reduced IC-XT and intermodal dispersion between neighboring cores [121].
In the past, fiber-optical analogies have been investigated to use optical fibers as an experimental platform for testing different physical phenomena in various fields, such as in quantum mechanics, general relativity or condensed matter physics, among others [16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23]. In fact, a specific example of solid-state physics has already been discussed in the previous subsection, the Anderson effect, relying on the immobility of an electron in a disordered lattice [21, 22]. As Anderson localization involves an interfering phenomenon, this effect has been extended to optics. In [21], Anderson localization has been discussed in two-dimensional photonic lattices, and in [22] it has been discussed its potential applications for medical imaging using disordered MCFs, as pointed out before. More broadly, additional strong disorder phenomena in optics such as the self-organized instability in MM-SCFs [123] can be generalized to MM-MCFs.
Another interesting example can be found in fluid dynamics in the studio of rogue waves on deep water. The giant oceanic rogue waves emerge from the sea induced by many different linear and nonlinear wave propagating effects [124]. Indeed, these nonlinear phenomena can be investigated from a fiber-optical analogy [125]. The nonlinear wave propagation on deep water and in a SM-SCF is described in both cases by a master equation: the nonlinear Schrödinger equation (NLSE), as shown in Figure 12.
Analogy between fluid mechanics and optics. The NLSE describes the linear and nonlinear wave propagation in different physical systems. Analytical SFB solutions of the NLSE: Akhmediev breathers (ABs), the Peregrine soliton (PS) and the Kuznetsov-Ma (KM) solitons.
It can be seen that both propagating equations present a similar form, and therefore, the theoretical results can be directly extrapolated from one field to another. Significantly, the emergence of rogue waves can be analytically studied from the solutions of the NLSE referred to as
On the other hand, additional exotic physical phenomena can also be explored in MCF media expanding the possibilities of the classical SCFs. For example, an optical pulse propagating through a SCF establishes a moving medium which corresponds to a space-time geometry. Specifically, this gravitational approach was employed in [20] to demonstrate a fiber-optical analogy of the event horizon in a black hole. Along this line, additional gravitational anomalies could be investigated in a MCF when adjacent cores perturb the space-time geometry created by an optical pulse propagating in a given core of the fiber.
Finally, it is worth mentioning that MCFs are being explored in other branches of experimental physics as in astronomy [132]. The main advantage of these new fibers is the reduced core-to-core distance which can be achieved in a single cladding. In particular, this property has revealed special interest because of the superior fill factor22 to other approaches for creating spectroscopic maps of galaxies or detecting exoplanets. The Sydney-AAO Multi-object Integral field spectrograph (SAMI) project [133], responsible of performing a large spatial spectroscopy of galaxies, pioneered the introduction of MCFs in astronomical observatories.
Multi-core optical fibers have been developed during the last decade, remarkably within the context of SDM transmissions. In this chapter we have reviewed the main MCF types, the fundamental concepts of the linear and nonlinear propagation, and finally, their potential applications in diverse fields of science. In spite of the fact that the fundamentals of the MCF technology have been well elucidated in recent years, the main challenges in this topic involve the following points:
The analysis of the longitudinal and temporal fluctuations of the crosstalk should be further investigated in the multi-mode regime. To this end, the CLMT of [61] could be extended to MM-MCFs. In addition, other theoretical models based on the Manakov equations [56, 57] can also be employed and extended to the femtosecond regime.
Existing and additional MCF fabrication methods should be explored and optimized not only in the S + C + L optical bands, but also in the first and second transmission window. In general, the manufacturing cost of a MCF and the peripheral devices (fan-in/fan-out connectors, lasers, amplifiers, photonic lanterns, power combiners, couplers, multiplexers, etc) should be reduced.
The efforts in future MCF designs must be focused on the increment of the core density minimizing the IC-XT, the intermodal dispersion and the random linear birefringence induced by the microbends. The impact of external perturbations such as the macrobends and the fiber twisting should also be reduced in real-deployed MCF systems. Furthermore, new MCF designs should also be investigated for lensless endoscope integrating a high number of cores with a reduced evanescent field in the cladding. In this scenario, it has been proposed HB-MCFs with a random orientation of the principal axes in each core.
Fronthaul connectivity performed by MCF-ROF transmissions should be spurred for the next-generation wireless systems, e.g. 5G cellular technology and Beyond-5G. In this line, selective-inscribed FBGs [31] and SUSY MCFs [96] will allow us to process the propagated optical signals between the OLT and the microcell.
On-line MIMO processing of MDM transmissions using MM-MCFs should be developed to support real-time applications in backbone and access networks [134].
Quantum communications are emerging as a fundamental key in network security [135]. Nowadays, quantum key distribution (QKD) is making the transition from the laboratory to field trials [136]. In this scenario, the QKD through MCF media should be further investigated for the next-generation optical SDM networks [137].
This work was supported by Spanish National Plan projects MINECO/FEDER UE XCORE TEC2015-70858-C2-1-R and HIDRASENSE RTC-2014-2232-3. A. Macho work was supported by BES-2013-062952 F.P.I. Grant.
The popularization of general anesthesia by William Morton in the 1840’s and the concept of antisepsis introduced by Joseph Lister would lead to a paradigm shift and the emergence of modern surgery [1, 2]. The mastery of surgery was no longer associated with speed or flamboyance, but instead focused on meticulous dissection, careful handling of tissues, hemostasis, and correct approximation of tissue planes to promote adequate healing. Among operative specialties, this transition from “art” to “science” of surgery was most profound in the neurosurgical field, enabling rapid advances to occur.
\nEarly in the evolution of modern surgery, the issue of hemostatic control became prominent, as the heavily vascularized central nervous system and its propensity to bleed resulted in limitations of procedures and posed significant challenges [3, 4, 5]. Surgical ligation was utilized sparingly for fear of vessel rupture or vascular occlusion that may compromise entire vascular distributions. The instruments and techniques in neurosurgical armamentarium therefore relied predominately on application of pressure with gauze to combat bleeding [3, 6]. As a result, a search and incorporation of novel alternatives in hemostatic techniques would effectively lead to the development of modern neurosurgery as represented by Horsley’s use of bone wax and other pioneering hemostatic maneuvers [7, 8] and the introduction of electrosurgery by Cushing and Bovie in the 1920’s [9, 10]. Later in the revolutionary era of neurosurgery, biosurgical materials were introduced [6, 11].
\nIn its broadest sense, the term biosurgery relates to the utilization of biomaterials that are defined as systemically and pharmacologically inert substances designed for implementation within or incorporation with living systems [12, 13, 14]. In the context of the current chapter, biosurgical materials (BSMs) are defined as biomaterials that are intended as adjuncts in attaining surgical hemostasis [15, 16]. The gradual development of hemostatic techniques has greatly impacted not only the field of neurosurgery, but all of surgery. The application of biosurgical agents first developed in the neurosurgical theater proved immensely valuable across virtually all surgical applications.
\nOne of the earliest neurosurgical applications of biosurgical hemostats involved the control of bleeding in inaccessible areas with difficult tissue topography and in situations where use of electrocautery, sutures, or clips may simply not be feasible [4, 13, 17]. This chapter will review the categories, mechanism of action, efficacy, advantages, disadvantages, and complications of the various biological materials currently available for hemostasis in neurosurgery.
\nThe abundance of biosurgical materials available for use requires a system of categorization. These agents can be divided into specific categories based on their mechanism of action, including passive or active hemostatics, flowable agents, and sealants [18, 19, 20]. Passive or mechanical agents act through contact with the site of bleeding to promote platelet aggregation [21, 22]. They form a matrix type network at the site of bleeding, thereby activating the coagulation pathway to provide a platform for platelet aggregation and clot formation. At the same time, these agents will be ineffective if used on patients with known coagulopathies due to factor deficiencies or platelet dysfunction. These products include gelatins, collagens, cellulose, and polysaccharide spheres. They require no special storage, minimal or no preparation, and are relatively inexpensive [23, 24].
\nActive hemostatic agents act biologically and directly participate in the coagulation cascade to stimulate fibrinogen at the site of bleeding to produce a fibrin clot [21, 25]. These agents primarily include the different forms of thrombin, and are useful in patients with coagulopathies or platelet dysfunction [18, 26]. However, they rely on the presence of fibrinogen in the patient’s blood to be effective. In general, they control bleeding more effectively than passive agents, are more costly, and are prepared/available in various forms and formulations.
\nFlowable hemostatic agents consist of various combinations of active and passive components within a single application [20, 27]. This category includes products that work by providing a physical barrier to blood flow while actively converting fibrinogen in blood into fibrin at the bleeding site [26, 28]. Finally, sealants work by the formation of a barrier impervious to flow [24, 29]. There are several types of sealants currently available for use. Our subsequent discussion will focus on each of the various types of biosurgicals utilized, with emphasis on neurosurgical applications.
\nThis material contains 1-μm microcrystals of purified bovine dermal collagen available as flour-like or sheet-like format [30, 31]. The microcrystalline collagenous network provides surface for platelets to aggregate while coagulation factors are released [30, 31]. The effectiveness of microfibrillar materials may be decreased in cases of severe thrombocytopenia (<10,000 mL) [32]. The material should be kept dry prior to use because moisture may decrease its activity and the hydrophilic nature of product results in adherence to surgical gloves and possible mis-application. Consequently, the material is best handled with sterile forceps. As with other biologic hemostats, optimally the smallest amount required to arrest bleeding should be utilized, although this may not be precisely known in every situation.
\nOf importance, microfibrillar collagen is considered a foreign substance and can therefore serve as a nidus for infection and/or foreign body reaction [33]. The small particles of the flour-like material are useful for arresting bleeding from cancellous bone. In this setting, it has demonstrated superior efficacy when compared with other agents, such as thrombin alone or thrombin combined with gelfoam [7]. It also does not seem to interfere with bone healing in contrast to oxidized cellulose or bone wax [34]. It is recommended to firmly pack product into bone surface followed by direct pressure for 5–10 minutes. In terms of clinical application considerations, it should not be used in areas where it may exert pressure on adjacent structures because of fluid absorption and expansion. Also, excessive expansion along a dural sinus may lead to occlusion after bone flap replacement. Although collagen is relatively less antigenic and only results in minor inflammation there remains the very small risk of allergic reactions [35, 36]. Finally, it can also lead to infection, abscess, pseudo-abscess or granuloma formation [37, 38, 39].
\nThis type of biomaterial was developed in the 1940’s to help facilitate hemostasis [40, 41]. It is available as pads, strips or powder [40, 42, 43]. It can absorb seven to ten times its own weight [44]. This ubiquitous hemostatic agent is one of the most frequently used. Upon contact with blood, the material reacts to form a reddish black gelatinous mass containing hematin (accounts for the color change) [45]. The oxidation of cellulose results in a product of low pH with resultant bacteriostatic properties [46, 47]. Despite the antimicrobial properties the rates of infection do appear to correlate with the amount of retained product [48]. Consequently, though often left in place in surgical beds, excess amounts should be removed prior to wound closure. Of note, the addition of saline or thrombin to oxidized regenerated cellulose may decrease its effectiveness in addition to inactivating thrombin as a result of the acidic environment [49]. It may also interfere with bone healing and may cause blood vessel compression [49]. Finally, there are reports of excessive postoperative swelling of this type of biomaterial [50].
\nAlso introduced in the 1940’s this type of hemostatic material consists of water-insoluble sponges prepared from purified porcine skin gelatin [11]. It provides hemostasis by absorbing up to 45x its weight in fluid, thus restricting blood flow and providing stable matrix for clot formation [51]. Gelfoam with gentle pressure can tamponade and treat most dural sinus bleeding without occlusion of the sinus. Although hemostatically beneficial, this capacity to expand physically can lead to compression of neural (and vascular) structures [52]. Absorbable gelatin material is considered relatively nonreactive, however there have been case reports of giant-cell granuloma formation at the implantation site [53, 54]. Although generally non-antigenic, this type of biosurgical material is considered a foreign body and can serve as a nidus for infection [55].
\nThis is a relatively new category of biosurgicals, derived from vegetable starch containing no animal or human components [56, 57, 58]. It is available in powder form with a bellows-type applicator [56, 59]. The material requires no mixing and is available for immediate use. It produces a hydrophilic effect to dehydrate blood and concentrate solid components to increase barrier formation [59, 60]. It poses little risk to patients since it lacks any human or animal components and should not be used in closed spaces because of physical expansion / swelling.
\nThere are three forms of thrombin products differentiated based on type of plasma used to provide concentrated thrombin to rapidly convert fibrinogen to fibrin clot [61, 62, 63]. This class of biosurgicals should be used in cases of mild to moderate bleeding, mainly because such products tend to be easily washed off in the setting of brisk arterial bleeding or surgical irrigation [64]. In addition, thrombin-based hemostatic agents may be less effective in situations of severe fibrinogen deficiency [15]. Finally, thrombin products should not be allowed to enter the vascular system as intravascular thrombosis can occur [65].
\nAntibody formation represents a risk with the use of bovine thrombin, leading to coagulopathy and even death in rare cases [66, 67]. In fact, there is a “Black Box” warning associated with this complication. The use of bovine thrombin is contraindicated if the patient is allergic or has known sensitives to materials of bovine origin [23, 68]. On the other hand, pooled human plasma carries a potential risk of viral or prion disease transmission since multiple units of blood are required to manufacture each lot of product [69, 70].
\nThese products represent a combination of absorbable passive and active hemostatic components [71, 72]. One of the flowables currently available is a combination of bovine gelatin particles and pooled human thrombin [73, 74], while the other consist of absorbable porcine gelatin particles combined with stand-alone thrombin [27, 75]. In order to become effective, the flowables require direct contact with blood as fibrinogen source [76]. Reconstitution is required, with these products having a paste-like consistency and the ability to “remain in place” compared to liquid thrombin [43]. Flowables are applied with a syringe-like applicator and require 2–3 minutes of preparation time [28, 77]. Direct injection into emissary veins or venous sinuses should be avoided to decrease the risk of dural venous sinus thrombosis and post-operative venous stroke.
\nThis group of agents consists of concentrated fibrinogen and thrombin. They increase the rate of blood clot formation by providing higher concentrations of both fibrinogen and thrombin [78]. There are three available types: (a) Pooled human plasma [79, 80]; (b) Individual human plasma, bovine collagen, and bovine thrombin [81]; and (c) Pooled human plasma and equine collagen [82].
\nSealants may be used in coagulopathic patients with insufficient fibrinogen [64, 78, 83]. These agents can also be used in heparinized patients since they do not rely on host factors for hemostasis [84, 85, 86]. Typical indications are hemostasis during cardiopulmonary bypass, splenic injuries, and a number of less commonly utilized general surgical applications [23]. However, they are widely used as hemostatic adjuncts and sealants during neurosurgical procedures, including the prevention of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) leaks [87, 88].
\nThere are three different product types in this class of biosurgicals [89, 90]. They tend to be most efficacious when used on a relatively dry field to allow sufficient time for polymerization [91]. One type of polyethylene glycol polymers (PGPs) consists of a combination of 2 polyethylene glycol (PEG) polymers that cross-link to each other and contact tissue following application [92]. In effect, the PGP-based network acts as a sealant to tissue fluids as well as barrier to cell ingrowth and adhesion formation [92, 93].
\nAnother type of PGP material consists of a combination of PEG polymer, trilysine amine, and blue dye [94, 95]. This particular component mix produces a hydrogel able to help with dural closure because of its ability to form a watertight seal [96]. A modified derivative using a reduced molecular weight PEG component can be used in sutured dural repair during spinal surgery [96, 97]. The built-in blue dye is used to provide accurate placement of sealant [98, 99]. Some concerns about this particular material being associated with cases of postoperative spinal cord compression have been voiced [94, 100, 101, 102]. As such, specific non-expanding formulations exist for usage in the spinal canal [103].
\nThe third class of PEG polymer compound consists of a combination with human serum albumin. This substance is biodegradable and fairly well studied in terms of safety and effectiveness [104]. It provides a strong barrier, as evidenced by the FDA approval for use on visceral pleura to close air leaks of >2 mm during pulmonary surgeries [105]. There may also be associated economic benefits of using this type of biologic sealant [106].
\nIt is important to realize that biosurgical agents are adjuncts to hemostasis when standard methods like direct pressure, suturing, or cautery are impractical or ineffective [107, 108]. Good knowledge of the mechanism of action of different available biosurgical hemostats is critical, with multiple considerations including the patient’s anticoagulation status, the rate of bleeding, the presence of thrombocytopenia, fibrinogen level assessment, and many other factors. The choice of a specific biosurgical product should be dependent on the type of surgery, site of bleeding, other anatomic considerations, cost, and preference of the operating neurosurgeon [3, 16, 32, 109, 110].
\nThe continuous oozing encountered from dilated varicose intraspinal veins and bone during spinal surgery can be effectively managed with topical hemostats [111, 112]. With that said, such materials should not be left in contact with intra or extradural nerve roots due to possibility of granuloma formation [39, 53, 54, 113]. There have been reports of paraplegia from use of oxidized cellulose during thoracotomy from passage of material through the intervertebral foramen resulting in spinal cord compression [114, 115]. Therefore, it is recommended to use only the minimum required amount and any excess material should be removed once adequate hemostasis is attained.
\nBiosurgical materials are increasingly applied during spinal cord surgery to help with hemostasis since opportunities for electrocautery use are limited in this setting. Bipolar cautery, although more focused than monopolar cautery, can also allow dissipation of heat from the tips inducing thermal injury to vascular and neural structures. Fibrin glues are commonly used as hemostatic agents in neurosurgical procedures, including the management of epidural, cortical, and dural sinus bleeding [116].
\nDuring surgical resection of brain tumors, from craniotomy to extradural hemostasis following dural closure, one will find that these agents are generally used throughout the procedure. For example, oxidized regenerated cellulose is widely used during ablation of lesion(s) and at the end to prevent and abate any bleeding in the remaining cavity. However, excess agent should not be left along the surgical cavity. A single layer of oxidized regenerated cellulose should be sufficient for hemostasis without significant risk. Evaluations of the efficacy and safety of polysaccharide hemospheres reported no adverse events after use in brain surgery. There have been several reports of signal anomalies on post-operative imaging mimicking residual tumor or early recurrence, or even abscess when oxidized regenerated cellulose or gelatin sponges are left in the operative field. A pediatric case series of 3 patients who underwent intracerebral surgery with use of microfibrillar collagen reported that all required second surgery for new or recurrent seizures [38]. An MRI of preoperatively suspected tumor recurrence or abscess subsequently confirmed to be microfibrillar collagen-centric necrotizing granuloma surrounded with macrophages and eosinophils. One must remain aware of the above considerations and remove any local hemostatic agent prior to dural closure.
\nBleeding during surgery on the pituitary via a transsphenoidal approach may significantly impede visualization while not being conducive of the use of electrocautery [117]. The use of oxidized cellulose and Floseal (Baxter, Deerfield, IL) can be useful in this situation. Mild persistent oozing from brain tissue following excision can be controlled with application of oxidized regenerated cellulose followed by its removal from the remaining cavity prior to closure. Defects of the skull base in some cases require filling of the defect with bone graft, followed by suture and/or grafting of the dura reinforced with fibrin sealant. A minimally invasive treatment of spontaneous supratentorial intracerebral hemorrhage was also described using Floseal. Floseal was placed in 31 patients without evidence of vascular anomalies or coagulopathy following evacuation of hematoma from a 3 cm craniotomy. Hemostasis was achieved in all but 1 patient who required re-exploration [118].
\nA multicenter, prospective randomized study with 237 patients undergoing elective cranial surgery demonstrated PEG hydrogel (DuraSeal, Integra LifeSciences, Princeton, NJ) similarly safe when used with common dural sealing techniques (eg, sutures, autologous grafts, gelatin or collagen sponges, fibrin glues) or when used as dural closure augmentation in cranial surgery [99]. The incidences of neurosurgical complications, surgical site infections and CSF leaks were similar between treatment groups using PEG hydrogel and the control group using standard dural sealing techniques. DuralSeal was also found to be statistically significantly superior to fibrin sealant at preventing CSF leaks following posterior fossa craniotomy or craniectomy [119]. However, the special formulation of DuraSeal Exact should be used in areas where expansion can lead to neurologic compromise – such as the spinal canal [120]. This is because neurologic compromise after expansion has been described in the literature [101, 121]. This again emphasizes mindfulness to use to least amount of material to achieve closure and/or hemostasis while precluding migration or expansion of any excess materials.
\nHemostasis in neurosurgery – more so that many other surgical disciplines – is challenged by the closed space environment of the brain, spinal cord, and other critical structures [3, 122, 123]. Unlike other areas in which the “bulk” or space-occupying characteristics of biosurgicals may represent a potential benefit as they expand, this is less desirable in neurosurgical applications. In the closed environment of the skull, brain, or the spinal cord – even if bone is removed to help minimize the effect of swelling from edema – a relatively small amount of compression, especially in critical areas, like the brain stem, can have devastating consequences. As discussed in previous sections of this chapter, such compressive complications, if left untreated can result in irreversible neurologic damage [94, 100, 101, 102], with resultant “Black Box” warnings clearly outlining biomaterial-specific restrictions.
\nOf growing concern in all aspects of surgery is the increasing utilization of anticoagulants and anti-platelet therapies – and often various combinations of both [124, 125]. While the indications for such therapies are outside of the scope of this review, it is clear that more and more patients are being prescribed agents belonging to these broad medication classes. This is of special significance in the elderly population, where anticoagulants and antiplatelet drugs are used for stroke reduction (e.g., in non-valvular atrial fibrillation); various prophylaxis indications (e.g., orthopedic surgery); and of most concern, being used without any clear indications [126]. However, many clinical factors that prompt physicians to initiate antiplatelet or anticoagulant use also increase the neurosurgical risk associated with even minor traumatic events (e.g., falls and minor head injuries). Under such circumstances, even minor neurological injuries can quickly evolve into bleeding-related catastrophes when patients are anticoagulated [127, 128, 129].
\nNeurosurgical interventions in the setting of traumatic (or even spontaneous) subdural, epidural, and intraventricular hemorrhage, when confounded by drugs that inherently interfere with hemostasis can compound the difficulties and risks of an already complex clinical scenario [130, 131]. The overall challenge can be magnified even further as acute reversal agents tend to be expensive, may not always be available, reliable/effective, and could result in thrombotic complications in high-risk scenarios such as multi-trauma or massive transfusion [131, 132, 133, 134]. Furthermore, reversal algorithms and guidelines, while helpful do not always definitively address the acute problem once significant bleeding starts, and regardless of the mechanism and defect in the clotting cascade, a consumptive process may be triggered that might require a multi-faceted approach to effectively and timely manage the associated coagulopathy [134, 135, 136, 137]. Similar to other surgical scenarios, such as major trauma and cardiothoracic surgery, at times the best way of managing bleeding is via a timely and aggressive operative intervention. The above concepts are critical in the setting of neurosurgical applications of biosurgical hemostats in that it must be recognized that “bleeding” is a complex problem and often requires a combination of tools to control. Such basic tools require an understanding of the primary question – why is this patient bleeding?
Other patient factors and comorbidities can have unpredictable effects on hemostasis, but must be considered in the bleeding neurosurgical patients. Elderly, debilitated, and frail patients might be malnourished and hence have impaired protein stores which contribute to diminished clotting factor reserves – even in the setting of normal clotting tests. Patients might be taking herbal supplements (which might not even be reported in a medical record or medication lists) that have been correlated with bleeding risks [140, 141, 142].
Each of the above considerations requires a focused approach and highly specific management strategy. It is important to recognize that good surgical technique must be augmented with a broader understanding of the biologic mechanisms that contribute to the overall disease process and that there is no single tool that is ideal for all circumstances [108, 138]. Conversely, it must be recognized that there is a growing concern that using the wrong or inappropriate therapy for a given clinical scenario can be just as problematic, if not intrinsically ineffective or potentially dangerous. More so than ever in the past, optimal management of the neurosurgical patient (especially one who is bleeding) requires an in-depth and comprehensive understanding of the complex mechanisms of hemostasis pathways and the clotting cascade while also recognizing those variables, such as pharmaceutical therapies, that might adversely impact the normal balance between clotting and bleeding.
\nIn summary, in the setting of neurosurgical bleeding management, several key concepts must be recognized:
Use the right tool for the right job
Sometimes more than one approach is necessary to control bleeding
Different types of bleeding might require different management strategies
Difficult to access areas
Risk for post-operative re-bleeding
Compressive or expanding agents can cause devastating complications
Recognizing the differences between arterial and venous bleeding and how management of each might be different
Understanding the specific reasons why bleeding is occurring and what interventions – such as biosurgical agents – should be central to the overall hemostatic management.
Sometimes the best approach to managing bleeding is preventing it in the first place with strict attention to surgical technique and anatomy. It might sound inherently obvious, but the best way to avoid a dural sinus bleeding is to avoid injury in the first place.
Uncontrolled or difficult to control bleeding in neurosurgery is a challenging clinical problem and one that is becoming more common with wider use of anti-coagulant and anti-platelet agents in a population that is aging, becoming more frail, has more co-morbidities, and is at increasingly greater risk for neurotrauma. In addition, as more patients are undergoing major surgical interventions and re-interventions for complex neuro-axial pathologies the risks for bleeding complications also increase. Effective management of bleeding and bleeding related morbidity requires a thorough understanding of the mechanisms of bleeding and potential biologic defects in the normal hemostatic process. With such an understanding, management can be more focused and targeted towards the specific problem. Hence, an understanding of the adjuvant therapies, such as the full-spectrum of biosurgical agents that can be used to manage bleeding is imperative in achieving optimal patient outcomes.
\nThe authors would like to acknowledge Dr. Roy S. Hwang, for his support and expertise during the preparation of this manuscript.
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His studies in robotics lead him not only to a PhD degree but also inspired him to co-found and build the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems - world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"441",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Jaekyu",middleName:null,surname:"Park",slug:"jaekyu-park",fullName:"Jaekyu Park",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/441/images/1881_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"LG Corporation (South Korea)",country:{name:"Korea, South"}}},{id:"465",title:"Dr.",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Martens",slug:"christian-martens",fullName:"Christian Martens",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Rheinmetall (Germany)",country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"479",title:"Dr.",name:"Valentina",middleName:null,surname:"Colla",slug:"valentina-colla",fullName:"Valentina Colla",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/479/images/358_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sant'Anna School of Advanced Studies",country:{name:"Italy"}}},{id:"494",title:"PhD",name:"Loris",middleName:null,surname:"Nanni",slug:"loris-nanni",fullName:"Loris Nanni",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/494/images/system/494.jpg",biography:"Loris Nanni received his Master Degree cum laude on June-2002 from the University of Bologna, and the April 26th 2006 he received his Ph.D. in Computer Engineering at DEIS, University of Bologna. On September, 29th 2006 he has won a post PhD fellowship from the university of Bologna (from October 2006 to October 2008), at the competitive examination he was ranked first in the industrial engineering area. He extensively served as referee for several international journals. He is author/coauthor of more than 100 research papers. He has been involved in some projects supported by MURST and European Community. His research interests include pattern recognition, bioinformatics, and biometric systems (fingerprint classification and recognition, signature verification, face recognition).",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"496",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Leon",slug:"carlos-leon",fullName:"Carlos Leon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Seville",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"512",title:"Dr.",name:"Dayang",middleName:null,surname:"Jawawi",slug:"dayang-jawawi",fullName:"Dayang Jawawi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Technology Malaysia",country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"528",title:"Dr.",name:"Kresimir",middleName:null,surname:"Delac",slug:"kresimir-delac",fullName:"Kresimir Delac",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/528/images/system/528.jpg",biography:"K. Delac received his B.Sc.E.E. degree in 2003 and is currentlypursuing a Ph.D. degree at the University of Zagreb, Faculty of Electrical Engineering andComputing. His current research interests are digital image analysis, pattern recognition andbiometrics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Zagreb",country:{name:"Croatia"}}},{id:"557",title:"Dr.",name:"Andon",middleName:"Venelinov",surname:"Topalov",slug:"andon-topalov",fullName:"Andon Topalov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/557/images/1927_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Andon V. Topalov received the MSc degree in Control Engineering from the Faculty of Information Systems, Technologies, and Automation at Moscow State University of Civil Engineering (MGGU) in 1979. He then received his PhD degree in Control Engineering from the Department of Automation and Remote Control at Moscow State Mining University (MGSU), Moscow, in 1984. 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His current research interests are in the fields of intelligent control and robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Technical University of Sofia",country:{name:"Bulgaria"}}},{id:"585",title:"Prof.",name:"Munir",middleName:null,surname:"Merdan",slug:"munir-merdan",fullName:"Munir Merdan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/585/images/system/585.jpg",biography:"Munir Merdan received the M.Sc. degree in mechanical engineering from the Technical University of Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina, in 2001, and the Ph.D. degree in electrical engineering from the Vienna University of Technology, Vienna, Austria, in 2009.Since 2005, he has been at the Automation and Control Institute, Vienna University of Technology, where he is currently a Senior Researcher. His research interests include the application of agent technology for achieving agile control in the manufacturing environment.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"605",title:"Prof",name:"Dil",middleName:null,surname:"Hussain",slug:"dil-hussain",fullName:"Dil Hussain",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/605/images/system/605.jpg",biography:"Dr. Dil Muhammad Akbar Hussain is a professor of Electronics Engineering & Computer Science at the Department of Energy Technology, Aalborg University Denmark. Professor Akbar has a Master degree in Digital Electronics from Govt. College University, Lahore Pakistan and a P-hD degree in Control Engineering from the School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, University of Sussex United Kingdom. Aalborg University has Two Satellite Campuses, one in Copenhagen (Aalborg University Copenhagen) and the other in Esbjerg (Aalborg University Esbjerg).\n· He is a member of prestigious IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers), and IAENG (International Association of Engineers) organizations. \n· He is the chief Editor of the Journal of Software Engineering.\n· He is the member of the Editorial Board of International Journal of Computer Science and Software Technology (IJCSST) and International Journal of Computer Engineering and Information Technology. \n· He is also the Editor of Communication in Computer and Information Science CCIS-20 by Springer.\n· Reviewer For Many Conferences\nHe is the lead person in making collaboration agreements between Aalborg University and many universities of Pakistan, for which the MOU’s (Memorandum of Understanding) have been signed.\nProfessor Akbar is working in Academia since 1990, he started his career as a Lab demonstrator/TA at the University of Sussex. After finishing his P. hD degree in 1992, he served in the Industry as a Scientific Officer and continued his academic career as a visiting scholar for a number of educational institutions. In 1996 he joined National University of Science & Technology Pakistan (NUST) as an Associate Professor; NUST is one of the top few universities in Pakistan. In 1999 he joined an International Company Lineo Inc, Canada as Manager Compiler Group, where he headed the group for developing Compiler Tool Chain and Porting of Operating Systems for the BLACKfin processor. The processor development was a joint venture by Intel and Analog Devices. In 2002 Lineo Inc., was taken over by another company, so he joined Aalborg University Denmark as an Assistant Professor.\nProfessor Akbar has truly a multi-disciplined career and he continued his legacy and making progress in many areas of his interests both in teaching and research. He has contributed in stochastic estimation of control area especially, in the Multiple Target Tracking and Interactive Multiple Model (IMM) research, Ball & Beam Control Problem, Robotics, Levitation Control. He has contributed in developing Algorithms for Fingerprint Matching, Computer Vision and Face Recognition. He has been supervising Pattern Recognition, Formal Languages and Distributed Processing projects for several years. He has reviewed many books on Management, Computer Science. Currently, he is an active and permanent reviewer for many international conferences and symposia and the program committee member for many international conferences.\nIn teaching he has taught the core computer science subjects like, Digital Design, Real Time Embedded System Programming, Operating Systems, Software Engineering, Data Structures, Databases, Compiler Construction. 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There are many economic players on different levels with different tasks to achieve the final goal of the economy in a country, depending on the level of development [1]. The need for managing international business arises in the flowing areas or levels: 1. The international framework with all the institutions and organisations that determine country’s economic and support policy in emergent situations. 2. Impact of globalisation on international and national policy and activities. 3. The national framework, which fairly complicated because there are many active players: a) National economic policy: understanding it and the environment for trade activities. b) National economic structure and competiveness of the domestic companies. c) International management capacities. d) Local or regional environment and conditions for the companies. e) Focus on the world market conditions and their development",book:{id:"4686",slug:"perspectives-on-business-and-management",title:"Perspectives on Business and Management",fullTitle:"Perspectives on Business and Management"},signatures:"Schapour Zafarpour",authors:[{id:"175450",title:"Dr.",name:"Schapour",middleName:null,surname:"Zafarpour",slug:"schapour-zafarpour",fullName:"Schapour Zafarpour"}]},{id:"49102",title:"Measuring Urban Development and City Performance",slug:"measuring-urban-development-and-city-performance",totalDownloads:3808,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:"Cities represent the driving force of development in economic, social, and cultural life, reflecting also the spatial organization of human society. Taking into account the fact that cities are becoming generators of economic development and a source of growth for the national economy, there is an increasing urge to identify the stages of development and to establish a system for the ranking and positioning of cities and regions in this process (the level of categorization). This will allow the preparation of appropriate strategic and development guidelines for cities and urban regions to take place. In order to be able to compare the level of their efficiency in fostering development, there is an intensifying need to develop indicators that measure the performance of cities, are representative and comparable between countries, and allow verification to others. At present, there are many different urban indicators and institutions that compile and analyze them. Performance measurement systems, developed for internal use in some cities, already show a degree of measurement feasibility. The fundamental problem is that this variety of indicators lacks consistency and comparability (over time and between compared cities). Therefore, their use cannot be approved in a wider context (benchmark) of comparative situations. Upon the case of medium-sized cities, we consequently have to question the applicability of the methodology and indicators, used mostly in cases of large, global cities by internationally recognized institutions. With the established set of indicators and assistance of computer programs for multiparameter decision-making processes (analytic hierarchical process [AHP]), this paper also seeks to investigate comparisons between performance of selected European cities (on a qualitative basis).",book:{id:"4686",slug:"perspectives-on-business-and-management",title:"Perspectives on Business and Management",fullTitle:"Perspectives on Business and Management"},signatures:"Jasmina Mavrič and Vito Bobek",authors:[{id:"128342",title:"Prof.",name:"Vito",middleName:null,surname:"Bobek",slug:"vito-bobek",fullName:"Vito Bobek"},{id:"175370",title:"Dr.",name:"Jasmina",middleName:null,surname:"Mavrič",slug:"jasmina-mavric",fullName:"Jasmina Mavrič"}]},{id:"63697",title:"Strategic Thinking, Leadership and Governance for African Universities: Lessons from Successful Universities",slug:"strategic-thinking-leadership-and-governance-for-african-universities-lessons-from-successful-univer",totalDownloads:1287,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"In the 21st century, global competition is forcing tertiary institutions to excel in knowledge-creation that are relevant and innovative to bring solutions to societal problems. Perhaps a new system of thinking will enhance the relevance and sustainability of these universities. The paper takes a look at successful African universities and the lesson that can be learned from them. In depth discussions regards strategic thinking, leadership and governance of African universities are well digested with views and expectations collected through interviews with both past and current universities leadership. 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He has been listed among the top 2% of scientists in the world for the last three consecutive years, 2019 to 2021 as per studies conducted by the Stanford University, USA.",institutionString:"Praxis Business School",institution:null},{id:"320071",title:"Dr.",name:"Sidra",middleName:null,surname:"Mehtab",slug:"sidra-mehtab",fullName:"Sidra Mehtab",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00002v6KHoQAM/Profile_Picture_1584512086360",biography:"Sidra Mehtab has completed her BS with honors in Physics from Calcutta University, India in 2018. She has done MS in Data Science and Analytics from Maulana Abul Kalam Azad University of Technology (MAKAUT), Kolkata, India in 2020. Her research areas include Econometrics, Time Series Analysis, Machine Learning, Deep Learning, Artificial Intelligence, and Computer and Network Security with a particular focus on Cyber Security Analytics. Ms. Mehtab has published seven papers in international conferences and one of her papers has been accepted for publication in a reputable international journal. She has won the best paper awards in two prestigious international conferences – BAICONF 2019, and ICADCML 2021, organized in the Indian Institute of Management, Bangalore, India in December 2019, and SOA University, Bhubaneswar, India in January 2021. Besides, Ms. Mehtab has also published two book chapters in two books. Seven of her book chapters will be published in a volume shortly in 2021 by Cambridge Scholars’ Press, UK. Currently, she is working as the joint editor of two edited volumes on Time Series Analysis and Forecasting to be published in the first half of 2021 by an international house. Currently, she is working as a Data Scientist with an MNC in Delhi, India.",institutionString:"NSHM College of Management and Technology",institution:{name:"Association for Computing Machinery",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"226240",title:"Dr.",name:"Andri Irfan",middleName:null,surname:"Rifai",slug:"andri-irfan-rifai",fullName:"Andri Irfan Rifai",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/226240/images/7412_n.jpg",biography:"Andri IRFAN is a Senior Lecturer of Civil Engineering and Planning. He completed the PhD at the Universitas Indonesia & Universidade do Minho with Sandwich Program Scholarship from the Directorate General of Higher Education and LPDP scholarship. He has been teaching for more than 19 years and much active to applied his knowledge in the project construction in Indonesia. His research interest ranges from pavement management system to advanced data mining techniques for transportation engineering. He has published more than 50 papers in journals and 2 books.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universitas Internasional Batam",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"314576",title:"Dr.",name:"Ibai",middleName:null,surname:"Laña",slug:"ibai-lana",fullName:"Ibai Laña",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/314576/images/system/314576.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ibai Laña works at TECNALIA as a data analyst. He received his Ph.D. in Artificial Intelligence from the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU), Spain, in 2018. He is currently a senior researcher at TECNALIA. His research interests fall within the intersection of intelligent transportation systems, machine learning, traffic data analysis, and data science. He has dealt with urban traffic forecasting problems, applying machine learning models and evolutionary algorithms. He has experience in origin-destination matrix estimation or point of interest and trajectory detection. Working with large volumes of data has given him a good command of big data processing tools and NoSQL databases. He has also been a visiting scholar at the Knowledge Engineering and Discovery Research Institute, Auckland University of Technology.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"314575",title:"Dr.",name:"Jesus",middleName:null,surname:"L. Lobo",slug:"jesus-l.-lobo",fullName:"Jesus L. Lobo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/314575/images/system/314575.png",biography:"Dr. Jesús López is currently based in Bilbao (Spain) working at TECNALIA as Artificial Intelligence Research Scientist. In most cases, a project idea or a new research line needs to be investigated to see if it is good enough to take into production or to focus on it. That is exactly what he does, diving into Machine Learning algorithms and technologies to help TECNALIA to decide whether something is great in theory or will actually impact on the product or processes of its projects. So, he is expert at framing experiments, developing hypotheses, and proving whether they’re true or not, in order to investigate fundamental problems with a longer time horizon. He is also able to design and develop PoCs and system prototypes in simulation. He has participated in several national and internacional R&D projects.\n\nAs another relevant part of his everyday research work, he usually publishes his findings in reputed scientific refereed journals and international conferences, occasionally acting as reviewer and Programme Commitee member. Concretely, since 2018 he has published 9 JCR (8 Q1) journal papers, 9 conference papers (e.g. ECML PKDD 2021), and he has co-edited a book. He is also active in popular science writing data science stories for reputed blogs (KDNuggets, TowardsDataScience, Naukas). Besides, he has recently embarked on mentoring programmes as mentor, and has also worked as data science trainer.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"103779",title:"Prof.",name:"Yalcin",middleName:null,surname:"Isler",slug:"yalcin-isler",fullName:"Yalcin Isler",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRyQ8QAK/Profile_Picture_1628834958734",biography:"Yalcin Isler (1971 - Burdur / Turkey) received the B.Sc. degree in the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering from Anadolu University, Eskisehir, Turkey, in 1993, the M.Sc. degree from the Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, Suleyman Demirel University, Isparta, Turkey, in 1996, the Ph.D. degree from the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey, in 2009, and the Competence of Associate Professorship from the Turkish Interuniversity Council in 2019.\n\nHe was Lecturer at Burdur Vocational School in Suleyman Demirel University (1993-2000, Burdur / Turkey), Software Engineer (2000-2002, Izmir / Turkey), Research Assistant in Bulent Ecevit University (2002-2003, Zonguldak / Turkey), Research Assistant in Dokuz Eylul University (2003-2010, Izmir / Turkey), Assistant Professor at the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering in Bulent Ecevit University (2010-2012, Zonguldak / Turkey), Assistant Professor at the Department of Biomedical Engineering in Izmir Katip Celebi University (2012-2019, Izmir / Turkey). He is an Associate Professor at the Department of Biomedical Engineering at Izmir Katip Celebi University, Izmir / Turkey, since 2019. In addition to academics, he has also founded Islerya Medical and Information Technologies Company, Izmir / Turkey, since 2017.\n\nHis main research interests cover biomedical signal processing, pattern recognition, medical device design, programming, and embedded systems. He has many scientific papers and participated in several projects in these study fields. He was an IEEE Student Member (2009-2011) and IEEE Member (2011-2014) and has been IEEE Senior Member since 2014.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Izmir Kâtip Çelebi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"339677",title:"Dr.",name:"Mrinmoy",middleName:null,surname:"Roy",slug:"mrinmoy-roy",fullName:"Mrinmoy Roy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/339677/images/16768_n.jpg",biography:"An accomplished Sales & Marketing professional with 12 years of cross-functional experience in well-known organisations such as CIPLA, LUPIN, GLENMARK, ASTRAZENECA across different segment of Sales & Marketing, International Business, Institutional Business, Product Management, Strategic Marketing of HIV, Oncology, Derma, Respiratory, Anti-Diabetic, Nutraceutical & Stomatological Product Portfolio and Generic as well as Chronic Critical Care Portfolio. A First Class MBA in International Business & Strategic Marketing, B.Pharm, D.Pharm, Google Certified Digital Marketing Professional. Qualified PhD Candidate in Operations and Management with special focus on Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning adoption, analysis and use in Healthcare, Hospital & Pharma Domain. Seasoned with diverse therapy area of Pharmaceutical Sales & Marketing ranging from generating revenue through generating prescriptions, launching new products, and making them big brands with continuous strategy execution at the Physician and Patients level. Moved from Sales to Marketing and Business Development for 3.5 years in South East Asian Market operating from Manila, Philippines. Came back to India and handled and developed Brands such as Gluconorm, Lupisulin, Supracal, Absolut Woman, Hemozink, Fabiflu (For COVID 19), and many more. In my previous assignment I used to develop and execute strategies on Sales & Marketing, Commercialization & Business Development for Institution and Corporate Hospital Business portfolio of Oncology Therapy Area for AstraZeneca Pharma India Ltd. Being a Research Scholar and Student of ‘Operations Research & Management: Artificial Intelligence’ I published several pioneer research papers and book chapters on the same in Internationally reputed journals and Books indexed in Scopus, Springer and Ei Compendex, Google Scholar etc. Currently, I am launching PGDM Pharmaceutical Management Program in IIHMR Bangalore and spearheading the course curriculum and structure of the same. I am interested in Collaboration for Healthcare Innovation, Pharma AI Innovation, Future trend in Marketing and Management with incubation on Healthcare, Healthcare IT startups, AI-ML Modelling and Healthcare Algorithm based training module development. I am also an affiliated member of the Institute of Management Consultant of India, looking forward to Healthcare, Healthcare IT and Innovation, Pharma and Hospital Management Consulting works.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Lovely Professional University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"1063",title:"Prof.",name:"Constantin",middleName:null,surname:"Volosencu",slug:"constantin-volosencu",fullName:"Constantin Volosencu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/1063/images/system/1063.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Constantin Voloşencu graduated as an engineer from\nPolitehnica University of Timișoara, Romania, where he also\nobtained a doctorate degree. He is currently a full professor in\nthe Department of Automation and Applied Informatics at the\nsame university. Dr. Voloşencu is the author of ten books, seven\nbook chapters, and more than 160 papers published in journals\nand conference proceedings. He has also edited twelve books and\nhas twenty-seven patents to his name. He is a manager of research grants, editor in\nchief and member of international journal editorial boards, a former plenary speaker, a member of scientific committees, and chair at international conferences. His\nresearch is in the fields of control systems, control of electric drives, fuzzy control\nsystems, neural network applications, fault detection and diagnosis, sensor network\napplications, monitoring of distributed parameter systems, and power ultrasound\napplications. He has developed automation equipment for machine tools, spooling\nmachines, high-power ultrasound processes, and more.",institutionString:'"Politechnica" University Timişoara',institution:null},{id:"221364",title:"Dr.",name:"Eneko",middleName:null,surname:"Osaba",slug:"eneko-osaba",fullName:"Eneko Osaba",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/221364/images/system/221364.jpg",biography:"Dr. Eneko Osaba works at TECNALIA as a senior researcher. He obtained his Ph.D. in Artificial Intelligence in 2015. He has participated in more than twenty-five local and European research projects, and in the publication of more than 130 papers. He has performed several stays at universities in the United Kingdom, Italy, and Malta. Dr. Osaba has served as a program committee member in more than forty international conferences and participated in organizing activities in more than ten international conferences. He is a member of the editorial board of the International Journal of Artificial Intelligence, Data in Brief, and Journal of Advanced Transportation. He is also a guest editor for the Journal of Computational Science, Neurocomputing, Swarm, and Evolutionary Computation and IEEE ITS Magazine.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"275829",title:"Dr.",name:"Esther",middleName:null,surname:"Villar-Rodriguez",slug:"esther-villar-rodriguez",fullName:"Esther Villar-Rodriguez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/275829/images/system/275829.jpg",biography:"Dr. Esther Villar obtained a Ph.D. in Information and Communication Technologies from the University of Alcalá, Spain, in 2015. She obtained a degree in Computer Science from the University of Deusto, Spain, in 2010, and an MSc in Computer Languages and Systems from the National University of Distance Education, Spain, in 2012. Her areas of interest and knowledge include natural language processing (NLP), detection of impersonation in social networks, semantic web, and machine learning. Dr. Esther Villar made several contributions at conferences and publishing in various journals in those fields. Currently, she is working within the OPTIMA (Optimization Modeling & Analytics) business of TECNALIA’s ICT Division as a data scientist in projects related to the prediction and optimization of management and industrial processes (resource planning, energy efficiency, etc).",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"49813",title:"Dr.",name:"Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Del Ser",slug:"javier-del-ser",fullName:"Javier Del Ser",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49813/images/system/49813.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Javier Del Ser received his first PhD in Telecommunication Engineering (Cum Laude) from the University of Navarra, Spain, in 2006, and a second PhD in Computational Intelligence (Summa Cum Laude) from the University of Alcala, Spain, in 2013. He is currently a principal researcher in data analytics and optimisation at TECNALIA (Spain), a visiting fellow at the Basque Center for Applied Mathematics (BCAM) and a part-time lecturer at the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU). His research interests gravitate on the use of descriptive, prescriptive and predictive algorithms for data mining and optimization in a diverse range of application fields such as Energy, Transport, Telecommunications, Health and Industry, among others. In these fields he has published more than 240 articles, co-supervised 8 Ph.D. theses, edited 6 books, coauthored 7 patents and participated/led more than 40 research projects. He is a Senior Member of the IEEE, and a recipient of the Biscay Talent prize for his academic career.",institutionString:"Tecnalia Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"278948",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos Pedro",middleName:null,surname:"Gonçalves",slug:"carlos-pedro-goncalves",fullName:"Carlos Pedro Gonçalves",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRcmyQAC/Profile_Picture_1564224512145",biography:'Carlos Pedro Gonçalves (PhD) is an Associate Professor at Lusophone University of Humanities and Technologies and a researcher on Complexity Sciences, Quantum Technologies, Artificial Intelligence, Strategic Studies, Studies in Intelligence and Security, FinTech and Financial Risk Modeling. He is also a progammer with programming experience in:\n\nA) Quantum Computing using Qiskit Python module and IBM Quantum Experience Platform, with software developed on the simulation of Quantum Artificial Neural Networks and Quantum Cybersecurity;\n\nB) Artificial Intelligence and Machine learning programming in Python;\n\nC) Artificial Intelligence, Multiagent Systems Modeling and System Dynamics Modeling in Netlogo, with models developed in the areas of Chaos Theory, Econophysics, Artificial Intelligence, Classical and Quantum Complex Systems Science, with the Econophysics models having been cited worldwide and incorporated in PhD programs by different Universities.\n\nReceived an Arctic Code Vault Contributor status by GitHub, due to having developed open source software preserved in the \\"Arctic Code Vault\\" for future generations (https://archiveprogram.github.com/arctic-vault/), with the Strategy Analyzer A.I. module for decision making support (based on his PhD thesis, used in his Classes on Decision Making and in Strategic Intelligence Consulting Activities) and QNeural Python Quantum Neural Network simulator also preserved in the \\"Arctic Code Vault\\", for access to these software modules see: https://github.com/cpgoncalves. He is also a peer reviewer with outsanding review status from Elsevier journals, including Physica A, Neurocomputing and Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence. Science CV available at: https://www.cienciavitae.pt//pt/8E1C-A8B3-78C5 and ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0298-3974',institutionString:"University of Lisbon",institution:{name:"Universidade Lusófona",country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"310576",title:"Prof.",name:"Erick Giovani",middleName:null,surname:"Sperandio Nascimento",slug:"erick-giovani-sperandio-nascimento",fullName:"Erick Giovani Sperandio Nascimento",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0033Y00002pDKxDQAW/ProfilePicture%202022-06-20%2019%3A57%3A24.788",biography:"Prof. Erick Sperandio is the Lead Researcher and professor of Artificial Intelligence (AI) at SENAI CIMATEC, Bahia, Brazil, also working with Computational Modeling (CM) and HPC. He holds a PhD in Environmental Engineering in the area of Atmospheric Computational Modeling, a Master in Informatics in the field of Computational Intelligence and Graduated in Computer Science from UFES. He currently coordinates, leads and participates in R&D projects in the areas of AI, computational modeling and supercomputing applied to different areas such as Oil and Gas, Health, Advanced Manufacturing, Renewable Energies and Atmospheric Sciences, advising undergraduate, master's and doctoral students. He is the Lead Researcher at SENAI CIMATEC's Reference Center on Artificial Intelligence. In addition, he is a Certified Instructor and University Ambassador of the NVIDIA Deep Learning Institute (DLI) in the areas of Deep Learning, Computer Vision, Natural Language Processing and Recommender Systems, and Principal Investigator of the NVIDIA/CIMATEC AI Joint Lab, the first in Latin America within the NVIDIA AI Technology Center (NVAITC) worldwide program. He also works as a researcher at the Supercomputing Center for Industrial Innovation (CS2i) and at the SENAI Institute of Innovation for Automation (ISI Automação), both from SENAI CIMATEC. He is a member and vice-coordinator of the Basic Board of Scientific-Technological Advice and Evaluation, in the area of Innovation, of the Foundation for Research Support of the State of Bahia (FAPESB). He serves as Technology Transfer Coordinator and one of the Principal Investigators at the National Applied Research Center in Artificial Intelligence (CPA-IA) of SENAI CIMATEC, focusing on Industry, being one of the six CPA-IA in Brazil approved by MCTI / FAPESP / CGI.br. He also participates as one of the representatives of Brazil in the BRICS Innovation Collaboration Working Group on HPC, ICT and AI. He is the coordinator of the Work Group of the Axis 5 - Workforce and Training - of the Brazilian Strategy for Artificial Intelligence (EBIA), and member of the MCTI/EMBRAPII AI Innovation Network Training Committee. He is the coordinator, by SENAI CIMATEC, of the Artificial Intelligence Reference Network of the State of Bahia (REDE BAH.IA). He leads the working group of experts representing Brazil in the Global Partnership on Artificial Intelligence (GPAI), on the theme \"AI and the Pandemic Response\".",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"241400",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammed",middleName:null,surname:"Bsiss",slug:"mohammed-bsiss",fullName:"Mohammed Bsiss",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241400/images/8062_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"276128",title:"Dr.",name:"Hira",middleName:null,surname:"Fatima",slug:"hira-fatima",fullName:"Hira Fatima",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/276128/images/14420_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Hira Fatima\nAssistant Professor\nDepartment of Mathematics\nInstitute of Applied Science\nMangalayatan University, Aligarh\nMobile: no : 8532041179\nhirafatima2014@gmal.com\n\nDr. Hira Fatima has received his Ph.D. degree in pure Mathematics from Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh India. Currently working as an Assistant Professor in the Department of Mathematics, Institute of Applied Science, Mangalayatan University, Aligarh. She taught so many courses of Mathematics of UG and PG level. Her research Area of Expertise is Functional Analysis & Sequence Spaces. She has been working on Ideal Convergence of double sequence. She has published 17 research papers in National and International Journals including Cogent Mathematics, Filomat, Journal of Intelligent and Fuzzy Systems, Advances in Difference Equations, Journal of Mathematical Analysis, Journal of Mathematical & Computer Science etc. She has also reviewed few research papers for the and international journals. She is a member of Indian Mathematical Society.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"417317",title:"Mrs.",name:"Chiedza",middleName:null,surname:"Elvina Mashiri",slug:"chiedza-elvina-mashiri",fullName:"Chiedza Elvina Mashiri",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Midlands State University",country:{name:"Zimbabwe"}}},{id:"352140",title:"Dr.",name:"Edina",middleName:null,surname:"Chandiwana",slug:"edina-chandiwana",fullName:"Edina Chandiwana",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Midlands State University",country:{name:"Zimbabwe"}}},{id:"342259",title:"B.Sc.",name:"Leonard",middleName:null,surname:"Mushunje",slug:"leonard-mushunje",fullName:"Leonard Mushunje",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Midlands State University",country:{name:"Zimbabwe"}}},{id:"347042",title:"Mr.",name:"Maxwell",middleName:null,surname:"Mashasha",slug:"maxwell-mashasha",fullName:"Maxwell Mashasha",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Midlands State University",country:{name:"Zimbabwe"}}},{id:"2941",title:"Dr.",name:"Alberto J.",middleName:"Jorge",surname:"Rosales-Silva",slug:"alberto-j.-rosales-silva",fullName:"Alberto J. Rosales-Silva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Instituto Politécnico Nacional",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"437913",title:"Dr.",name:"Guillermo",middleName:null,surname:"Urriolagoitia-Sosa",slug:"guillermo-urriolagoitia-sosa",fullName:"Guillermo Urriolagoitia-Sosa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Instituto Politécnico Nacional",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"435126",title:"Prof.",name:"Joaquim",middleName:null,surname:"José de Castro Ferreira",slug:"joaquim-jose-de-castro-ferreira",fullName:"Joaquim José de Castro Ferreira",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Aveiro",country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"437899",title:"MSc.",name:"Miguel Angel",middleName:null,surname:"Ángel Castillo-Martínez",slug:"miguel-angel-angel-castillo-martinez",fullName:"Miguel Angel Ángel Castillo-Martínez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Instituto Politécnico Nacional",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"289955",title:"Dr.",name:"Raja",middleName:null,surname:"Kishor Duggirala",slug:"raja-kishor-duggirala",fullName:"Raja Kishor Duggirala",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Jawaharlal Nehru Technological University, Hyderabad",country:{name:"India"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"5",type:"subseries",title:"Parasitic Infectious Diseases",keywords:"Blood Borne Parasites, Intestinal Parasites, Protozoa, Helminths, Arthropods, Water Born Parasites, Epidemiology, Molecular Biology, Systematics, Genomics, Proteomics, Ecology",scope:"Parasitic diseases have evolved alongside their human hosts. In many cases, these diseases have adapted so well that they have developed efficient resilience methods in the human host and can live in the host for years. Others, particularly some blood parasites, can cause very acute diseases and are responsible for millions of deaths yearly. Many parasitic diseases are classified as neglected tropical diseases because they have received minimal funding over recent years and, in many cases, are under-reported despite the critical role they play in morbidity and mortality among human and animal hosts. The current topic, Parasitic Infectious Diseases, in the Infectious Diseases Series aims to publish studies on the systematics, epidemiology, molecular biology, genomics, pathogenesis, genetics, and clinical significance of parasitic diseases from blood borne to intestinal parasites as well as zoonotic parasites. We hope to cover all aspects of parasitic diseases to provide current and relevant research data on these very important diseases. In the current atmosphere of the Coronavirus pandemic, communities around the world, particularly those in different underdeveloped areas, are faced with the growing challenges of the high burden of parasitic diseases. At the same time, they are faced with the Covid-19 pandemic leading to what some authors have called potential syndemics that might worsen the outcome of such infections. Therefore, it is important to conduct studies that examine parasitic infections in the context of the coronavirus pandemic for the benefit of all communities to help foster more informed decisions for the betterment of human and animal health.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/5.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!0,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11401,editor:{id:"67907",title:"Dr.",name:"Amidou",middleName:null,surname:"Samie",slug:"amidou-samie",fullName:"Amidou Samie",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/67907/images/system/67907.jpg",biography:"Dr. Amidou Samie is an Associate Professor of Microbiology at the University of Venda, in South Africa, where he graduated for his PhD in May 2008. He joined the Department of Microbiology the same year and has been giving lectures on topics covering parasitology, immunology, molecular biology and industrial microbiology. 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