Beam expansion and wondering at altitude of 100 km.
\\n\\n
These books synthesize perspectives of renowned scientists from the world’s most prestigious institutions - from Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute in Japan to Stanford University in the United States, including Columbia University (US), University of Sidney (AU), University of Miami (USA), Cardiff University (UK), and many others.
\\n\\nThis collaboration embodied the true essence of Open Access by simplifying the approach to OA publishing for Academic editors and authors who contributed their research and allowed the new research to be made available free and open to anyone anywhere in the world.
\\n\\nTo celebrate the 50 books published, we have gathered them at one location - just one click away, so that you can easily browse the subjects of your interest, download the content directly, share it or read online.
\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:null},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched formed a partnership to support researchers working in engineering sciences by enabling an easier approach to publishing Open Access content. Using the Knowledge Unlatched crowdfunding model to raise the publishing costs through libraries around the world, Open Access Publishing Fee (OAPF) was not required from the authors.
\n\nInitially, the partnership supported engineering research, but it soon grew to include physical and life sciences, attracting more researchers to the advantages of Open Access publishing.
\n\n\n\nThese books synthesize perspectives of renowned scientists from the world’s most prestigious institutions - from Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute in Japan to Stanford University in the United States, including Columbia University (US), University of Sidney (AU), University of Miami (USA), Cardiff University (UK), and many others.
\n\nThis collaboration embodied the true essence of Open Access by simplifying the approach to OA publishing for Academic editors and authors who contributed their research and allowed the new research to be made available free and open to anyone anywhere in the world.
\n\nTo celebrate the 50 books published, we have gathered them at one location - just one click away, so that you can easily browse the subjects of your interest, download the content directly, share it or read online.
\n\n\n\n\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"8149",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Selected Aspects of Non-Profit Organisations",title:"Selected Aspects of Non-Profit Organisations",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"The volatility of the economy, political instability, and greater demands on not-for-profit organisations (non-profits) will require considerable rethinking and refocusing for many organisations. These days, non-profits evolve while attempting to regain financial ground, focusing more on workflow, fundraising, and staffing. The book highlights the upcoming challenges, among others funding instability, with a continuing shift in funding with more grantors focusing on funding mobilisation instead of intervention. Another challenge is clustering, which is where organisations are more likely to band together with others to share overhead costs, resources, and personnel. The non-profit sector will undergo essential integrations where the free flow of data and information will be crucial. Non-profits will continue to adjust their goals and priorities to meet changing trends. While the top priority was once acquiring new donors, that has now been eclipsed by the need for non-profits to engage the community and promote general brand awareness.",isbn:"978-1-78985-628-6",printIsbn:"978-1-78985-627-9",pdfIsbn:"978-1-78985-559-3",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.78098",price:100,priceEur:109,priceUsd:129,slug:"selected-aspects-of-non-profit-organisations",numberOfPages:92,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"22e2741eb76adf7847648890eda7968e",bookSignature:"Tatjana Horvat",publishedDate:"February 5th 2020",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8149.jpg",numberOfDownloads:4193,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:1,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:1,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:2,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"February 11th 2019",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"April 11th 2019",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"June 10th 2019",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"August 29th 2019",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"October 28th 2019",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"293992",title:"Dr.",name:"Tatjana",middleName:null,surname:"Horvat",slug:"tatjana-horvat",fullName:"Tatjana Horvat",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002hXb0hQAC/Profile_Picture_1642419002203",biography:"Tatjana Horvat works as a professor for accountant and auditing at the University of Primorska, Slovenia. 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The aim is to present collaboration practices between public sector organisations, non-governmental organisation, social economy organisations and citizens, known as co-creation, with a focus on drivers and barriers of this collaboration in Slovakia. The chapter focuses on channelling solidarity produced by non-profits into social policy through co-creation. 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\r\n\tThe number of people is rising steadily and the human impact on the environment is approaching its critical level, requiring ultimate effort to reduce the footprint on the surrounding environment. To make justified and timely decisions for sustainable existence, reliable and detailed information about environmental parameters is inevitable.
\r\n\tWe need such information of the environmental indicators day and night, from the crowded cities and the most remote locations. Therefore the study, development, and application of automated sensing systems have been booming during the last decades and the progress in this field is really fast.
\r\n\tThe current book intends to provide the reader with the most recent trends in the development of sensing technologies for environmental control and monitoring, application of these novel technologies for the detection and monitoring of different environmental indicators, but also identification of hazardous chemical compounds and pathogens, and to introduce various aspects of using the online sensing data for decision-making in different fields of social life.
\r\n\t
In this chapter, we consider the unknown system called laser propulsion. Designing the system is a mixture of various engineering fields, including propulsion engineering, laser engineering, electromagnetic wave engineering, flight dynamics, and control engineering, which are interconnected to each other. The laser propulsion has been studied in the field of the propulsion engineering for more than 50 years. Moreover, the laser propulsion appeared as a gadget in several sci-fi works [1, 2]. (Strangely, in all those works, the laser propulsion is introduced as a technology of aliens rather than an earth-oriented technology. It would reflect that this technology is full of mysterious images.) However, in view of the practical application, few have achieved so far. This is mainly because no laser facilities whose continuous power is sufficiently high have been available. However, in 2010, the world has changed. A 100 kW fiber laser has been commercialized by IPG Photonics Inc. A 100 kW fiber laser facility has been delivered to the NADEX laser R&D Center in Fukui, Japan. We come to the place where we can do genuine experiments of laser propulsion. Surrounding situations are being prepared today. Laser propulsion is one step short of practical application.
\nAs shown in Figure 1, in the laser launch system, a vehicle is propelled by transmitting the propulsive energy via laser beam from the ground. Gaining the specific impulse higher than the practical chemical propulsions, the laser propulsion is of the same class of the electric propulsion for spacecraft. At the same time, by leaving the heavy part of the energy source on the ground, the lightweight vehicle on the basis of simple propulsion energy system is realized.
\nLaser launch system.
In the following, at first, we are going to consider why the laser propulsion is necessary. For this, we need to consider what kind of launch systems will be required in near future. The conventional rocket technology is in the period of maturity, while the fetal movement for new launch system of high specific impulse that is not limited by the chemical reaction has been ignited. Then, we need to investigate what kind of the laser propulsion system is technologically feasible. Ensuring the foregoing studies of the laser propulsion, we shall consider the practical laser launch system. The technological problems to be solved are numerous. The laser transmission through turbulent atmosphere gives critical problems to the feasibility in the laser launch system although they have been half ignored so far. Solving the numerous technological problems that are necessary to realize the laser launch system is related to the advanced technology such as Starshot project [3], space-based solar power [4], and laser communication in space [5]. Naturally, the space will become familiar by realizing the laser propulsion. Laser propulsion is the technology that is worth challenging.
\nLaser propulsion is a variation of the wireless power transfer (WPT) technology, which transfers power remotely using electromagnetic (EM) waves such as microwaves or laser beams. When electric power is necessary at the receiving side, the power of EM waves is transformed to dc current using semiconductors. For the laser propulsion, the power of EM waves is transformed directly into the enthalpy of a working fluid to generate momentum via thermal propulsion mechanisms. This can be called the laser thermal propulsion (LTP). Similar idea would be the laser electric propulsion (LEP) that converts the EM wave power to the dc power to store in the battery once, and then the dc power is used to generate thrust via electric propulsion mechanisms. The LEP is a new idea that allows the storage of the energy on board. However, the heavy weight of the battery would be the bottleneck for the feasibility of this system. Moreover, the LTP will be more energy efficient than LEP because the LEP requires multiple energy conversion processes, which lose the power at each stage. On the other hand, for LTP, it is necessary that the laser beam is always irradiated on the vehicle so that the control mechanisms keep the linkage between a laser source on ground and a fast-moving vehicle. Moreover, it is necessary to keep the vehicle in sight of the laser source so that available flight trajectory of the vehicle is largely limited. Furthermore, the atmospheric perturbation to the laser beam may be a critical factor in the feasibility study of the LTP. A laser beam is transmitted across turbulent atmosphere for a long distance up to 100 km from ground to space.
\nThere are two kinds of the laser propulsion: repetitive pulse (RP) laser type and continuous wave (CW) laser type. The concept of laser propulsion is first proposed by Kantrowitz in 1971 [7]. His concept was to irradiate the laser beam on the ablator installed on the bottom surface of the vehicle as propellant. At that time, it was unknown how much the momentum can be generated for a certain laser power. The research team led by Kantrowitz first investigated the momentum coupling performances of RP laser propulsion and its physical mechanisms. As a result, the impulse generation mechanisms of laser-supported detonation waves and laser-supported combustion waves have been developed. At the beginning of 2000s, Myrabo invented a new vehicle design called a Lightcraft, which is illustrated in Figure 2, to perform first launch demonstrations using a 10-kW-class CO2 RP laser facility of US Air force [8]. He succeeded in the independent flight of the vehicle without any external guide or support except for the laser beam for the first time in the world. The world record of the flight altitude was 71 m. Through the development of the Lightcraft, Myrabo developed the concept of “beam-riding.” The vehicle must be kept irradiated to generate the momentum all the time of flight. Lightcraft was designed to keep its trajectory along a fixed laser beam, while this is the meaning of the term of beam-riding. When the vehicle position is deviated from the laser beam, the recovery side force is generated to the vehicle to keep the trajectory. His consideration was epoch-making because no previous studies in the laser propulsion have considered the flight dynamics of the vehicle. In the same periods, Sasoh invented the in-tube laser propulsion, which is illustrated in Figure 3, and investigated the concept experimentally using a 1-kW-class RP CO2 laser. A projectile could be accelerated in a tube efficiently due to the confinement effect of the tube wall. In the times of early 2000s, several different types of RP laser propulsion have been invented and investigated experimentally. The concepts of laser propulsion that have been proposed so far are reviewed in the two review papers in detail [9, 10]. From the research team of the author, new laser launch system using “donut-beam,” whose power density has hollow distribution on the cross-sectional plane, higher at peripheral of the cross section than at the center, and a spherical vehicle for stable acceleration has been proposed. This concept is studied in experiments [11] and numerical simulations [12]. Because the concept uses the atmospheric air as propellant, the acceleration performance of vehicle is determined by the aerodynamic drag and the atmospheric air density to be propelled using the laser power. Each concept of RP laser propulsion uses only gaseous propellant or only solid propellant, called the laser ablative propulsion, or the both. The gaseous propellant mostly used is the air atmosphere, and air-breathing propulsion concepts have been studied by many researchers. By focusing an intense laser pulse in the air, a laser-supported detonation wave is generated instantaneously to generate a blast wave around the optical focal point, as illustrated in Figure 4. The impulsive thrust is generated as recoil of the blast wave reflection in the nozzle. This method is a variation of the pulse detonation engine (PDE), which generates the thrust via isochoric heating and unsteady gas expansion. The source of the gas expansion, the LSD wave can be generated even in the hypersonic flow, and it can be applied in the air-breathing engines that can operate in hypersonic speeds.
\nMyrabo’s Lightcraft.
Sasoh’s LITA.
Laser-supported detonation wave.
For the CW laser propulsion, only gaseous propellants have been used, because strong momentum coupling from laser ablation requires intense and short laser pulse, and the power density from the CW lasers is too small to be used for the laser ablative propulsion. Moreover, no air-breathing engines have been studied for CW laser propulsion. Two different kinds of rocket were proposed. The laser-sustained plasma (LSP) engines, illustrated in Figure 5, use the plasma kept by laser absorption to heat the gaseous propellant running through it [13]. The strong point of this type is high specific impulse more than 1000 seconds because of the high temperature of plasma more than 10,000 K. Mystery remains in plasma stability to the perturbation of the laser power density and its distribution relative to the flows of propellant. Strict optical alignment is necessary for operation. Another kind is heat exchanger (HX) rocket proposed by Kare, which is illustrated in Figure 6 [14]. The laser power is converted to the propellant enthalpy via solid heat exchanger so that the specific impulse is limited up to 900 seconds due to the allowable maximum temperature for the heat exchanger. However, the strict optical alignment is not necessary for its operation, and this type is robust to the perturbation to the laser power density and the distribution that is expected during the flight. In the CW laser propulsion, the propellant is heated through the isobaric process, and a propellant pump for an additional compression process is necessary. Hence, the engine for CW laser propulsion is more complicated and then heavier than the RP laser propulsions. This is why no launch test has been accomplished until today.
\nLSP type CW laser propulsion.
Heat exchanger rocket.
High-power laser is the first priority to realize the laser launch system (LLS). In all the previous studies, except for Myrabo’s campaign, the time-average power of the laser was around a few kilowatt is too low for the practical experiment. As mentioned above, 1 MW laser power is necessary to launch 1 kg payload. Hence, if you want to launch 1-ton payload as in the case of the conventional chemical rockets, you need to prepare 1 GW laser facility. This power is 106 times as high as in the previous experiments, and it would be natural to think that even the basic phenomena should be different for such high-power laser in the foregoing experiments. In the previous experiments, it is impossible to generate and maintain continuously a laser-supported detonation wave using CW laser, while it will become possible if one uses the MW or GW-class laser. Once the heating mechanism is changed, the propulsion design will change. Evolution of super high-power CW laser will induce a new research domain of “high-power CW laser engineering.”
\nOn the other hand, it should be reasonable to assume that the minimum weight of launch vehicle should be heavier than 100 g. As the vehicle becomes smaller, the structural mass ratio is expected to increase to assure the structural strength. Hence, the minimum CW laser power for launch demonstrations should be around 100 kW. Of course, this estimate is quite rough, and the structural design of vehicle, propulsion performance, and trajectory plans should be considered for more detailed feasibility study. The launch system of laser power at 100 kW–1 MW is possible soon. There exists 100 kW fiber laser. It is technically possible to build a 1 MW laser by increasing the number of bundled fibers, and it is the matter of budget. Recently, high-power, energy-efficient, and compact fiber laser has been evolving. CW laser is easier to attain high power rather than RP laser especially in the case of fiber laser. If we could construct the LLS powered by CW laser, the launch demonstration will be completed at early times. As noted above, the design of LLS is the art of the integration in a broad area of engineering field. The relevant field includes propulsion, laser, beam transmission, flight dynamics, and control engineering.
\nEven after a high-power laser becomes available, a number of the engineering problems are remained. If we could have a proper propulsion system, we should determine the trajectory of a vehicle. The basic guidance law of conventional launch vehicles is the bilinear tangent law. Typical trajectory is illustrated in Figure 7. However, for LLS, we need to concern the special issue that a vehicle must stay on the laser beam. Kantrowitz assumed a circular trajectory at which center the laser source is located. It is illustrated in Figure 8. For such a trajectory, a good point is that the laser beam can always be irradiated onto the side surface of the vehicle fuselage. Similar trajectory was considered by Escape Dynamics Inc. Possible bad point is the unknown effects of the atmospheric turbulence on the laser beam transmission. Because the atmospheric turbulence is especially strong near the ground, the laser beam should be distorted drastically. This effect gives the degradation of the energy efficiency of the laser beam transmission and the engineering problem to keep a “laser link” between the vehicle and the ground laser facility. Katsurayama et al. proposed a zenith trajectory for LLS as illustrated in Figure 9 [15]. The zenith trajectory gives the minimum influence of the turbulence on the beam transmission. A vehicle is transferred via apogee-kick efficiently to the orbit around the earth. They consider using air-breathing engines, which can produce higher velocity increments on horizontal flight, and the optimum trajectory will be possibly determined from the trade-off between the effect of the air turbulence on the laser beam transmission and the air-breathing engine performance. Phipps et al. solved the optimum trajectory for RP laser ablative rocket, without any air-breathing engine, from the ground to the orbit [16]. They commented simply to the effect of the air turbulence on the laser beam propagation. They concluded that the effect of the air turbulence is ignorable to the laser beam whose cross-sectional diameter is smaller than the “seeing size,” which will be explained below; typical value is around 10 cm for the wavelength at 530 nm. They also suggested how to correct the pointing error due to the wave front tilt. More detailed estimation and system design in this aspect is important for the feasibility of LLS.
\nTypical trajectory of conventional launch vehicles.
A circular trajectory concept for laser launch.
A zenith trajectory concept for laser launch G.
Moreover, the control mechanisms to keep the laser link between the ground and vehicle are indispensable to maintain the continuous energy supply via laser beam for the operation of the propulsion system. Sasoh’s LITA and Myrabo’s Lightcrafts are the concepts of the passive way to maintain the laser link. On the other hand, Phipps considered an active control of the optics onboard of the vehicle of the ablative launch system for the first time. Finally, the cooperative control between vehicle and beam pointing will be the natural solution for this issue. For the beam pointing control, the information of the beam position and vehicle position should be resolved precisely. The spatial resolution should be around 1 cm. We need to innovate a high-resolution method to measure vehicle and beam position. After considering these problems, it is clear that the propulsion design and the air turbulence effect on the beam transportation are the root problem.
\nIn order to expand the human activities in space, it is indispensable to drastically reduce the cost of transportation from ground to orbit. For an example of today’s launch cost, the launch cost for a unit payload mass of the actual rocket of Japan, H-II, to launch a 6 ton payload to geo transfer orbit is around 20,000 $/kg. Today the price competition is intense so that much of the same is the launch cost value in the USA and EU. Drastic reduction of the launch cost for the unit payload mass has been at stake for a long period. The space shuttle is the first attempt to reduce the launch cost. Shuttle was the first partly reusable launch vehicle. The orbiter was designed reusable to reduce the launch cost by using the orbiter repetitively at a high frequency. However, as it is well-known today, the space shuttle launch system was too huge and complex to reduce the launch cost due to the expensive maintenance. The Space Shuttle Project left the severe lessons for the engineers who still dream to develop a new reusable launch vehicle. Today, the expandable launch vehicles (ELVs) are still major way to the orbit, and the engineers are reducing the cost mainly by the standardization and the simplification. For an example, the next H-III rocket of Japan is claimed to halve the launch cost.
\nFalcon Heavy produced by SpaceX is a huge rocket that can deliver 26.7 ton to GTO, which is four times as heavy as H-IIA, reducing the launch cost for an unit payload mass around to 6000 $/kg, which is around one-third of the H-IIA. This is not surprising. On the basis of the statistical data of the ELV developed so far, the launch cost of the ELV has a trend to decrease inversely with the vehicle size [6]. The launch cost for a unit payload mass draws a unique curve decreasing with the payload mass for the same launch mission. Falcon Heavy owes its low price to its large size. It is unclear if the price would continue to decrease with increasing the rocket size, like a huge launch vehicle for the interplanetary transport system designed by SpaceX. For the drastic cost cut, revolutionary breakthrough is necessary to compete the launch market.
\nTo the opposite direction, the unit launch cost naturally increases with the decreasing the payload weight. Recently, R&D of small satellites is very active, and the nanosats (lighter than 10 kg) and picosats (<1 kg) will become in practice soon. Then, the demand for very small launch vehicle (VSLV) at reasonable cost is increasing. Several teams are now developing VLSV using liquid propellant. The Vector Space System Inc. is launching small-sat launch vehicle, which can deliver a 65 kg payload to LEO using liquid propellant rocket using propylene and LOX. The Interstellar Technologies Inc. is launching a gas pressure-pumped liquid propellant rocket called MOMO, while the Rocket Lab Inc. developed electrically pumped liquid rocket engines. In general, liquid propellant offers the specific impulse higher the solid propellant rockets. On the other hand, the liquid propellant rockets tend to be more complicated than solid rockets partly because the liquid propellant needs to be pressurized and pumped to the combustion chamber of rocket engines. The final price would be determined by the balance between structural complexity and increase in the specific impulse.
\nThis can be explained in more quantitatively as follows. The launch cost of ELV mainly consists of the production cost of the launch vehicle and the propellant cost, if we could ignore the development of the system and the infrastructure maintenance of launch site. We shall start from the Tsiolkovsky rocket equation:
\nHere, Δ
From this equation, it is proved that the launch cost for a unit payload mass decreases monotonously with
This will be attained by using laser propulsion. By using only hydrogen as propellant,
Then, assuming that a 100-kW-class CW fiber laser is available, we shall consider how to build the LLS. At first, we need to expect the fluctuations of the laser power, the laser beam incident angle, and the cross-sectional distribution. For this reason, the heat exchanger type requires no precise optical alignment of the incident laser beam on the vehicle. Kare’s concept of heat exchanger rocket is illustrated in Figure 6. This is similar to the microwave rocket concept illustrated by the Escape Dynamics Inc. in 2015. In principle, the nuclear thermal rocket, like NERVA, is a kind of heat exchanger rocket. The specific impulse of a thermal rocket is maximized by using propellant of minimum molecular weight, hydrogen. If the propellant temperature could reach at 3000 K, the specific impulse in vacuum becomes 900 seconds [17, 18]. Nevertheless, Kare’s estimation of the proper-specific impulse is around 600 seconds. In this concept, the laser beam is irradiated and absorbed on the side surface of the vehicle fuselage, where the temperature is highest, and the propellant is heated through the heat convection on the inner surface of the fuselage. The temperature of the propellant never exceeds the temperature of the outer surface. Because the maximum temperature of the outer surface of the heat exchanger limits the maximum temperature of the propellant, the specific impulse is limited by the thermal resistance of the materials for the outer surface. Because the atmosphere includes the oxygen, the oxidation resistance is also an important issue for the outer materials. Moreover, a large amount of black-body radiation is emitted from the outer surface and is dissipated in the air as a significant factor of the energy loss. Furthermore, this type of the heat exchanger requires quite narrow flow channel to assure high heat transfer rate, and this causes the significant pressure loss of the propellant in the heat exchanger.
\nAn alternative design of heat exchanger rocket is illustrated in Figure 10. We shall consider the zenith angle launch similar to Katsurayama’s concept. As mentioned earlier, the zenith angle launch minimizes the effect of the atmospheric turbulence on the laser beam transmission and the complexity of the guidance and control. The vehicle introduces the laser beam of high-power density from the bottom surface of vehicle. Due to the atmospheric turbulence, the laser beam is expanded and deflected. In addition to the propulsion system of high performance (efficient and high specific impulse), precise beam pointing to a small window on the bottom surface of the vehicle is another key issue. A thrust-vectoring gimbal is assumed here for the attitude control. The pointing control and guidance are performed in a cooperative system consisting the propulsion thrust, gimbal, and laser beam optical system on the ground. The vehicle position is always informed onto the ground station. This will be done by the GPS signal from the vehicle or the optical tracking system on the ground or on orbit. On the basis of the information, the beam direction is controlled on the ground. At the same time, the exact position of the laser spot is detected on the vehicle and informed to the ground station. The beam position is adjusted from the ground, while vehicle adjusts its position transverse to the beam direction. Although more detailed analysis and design are necessary, we shall leave this issue for the future work. Before this issue, it is critical to investigate the effect of the atmospheric turbulence on the laser beam propagation through the atmosphere. As mentioned later, the high-frequency fluctuation of the laser beam direction (scintillation) should be critical when the vehicle attains the altitude higher than 10 km. Unfortunately, there is no control technique real-time correction of the scintillation today. The astronomers are taking pictures of stars at short exposure time, by catching the instantaneous image. The real-time correction of the beam direction should be based on the adaptive optics, for which we need to detect the atmospheric turbulence on the ray line between the ground station and the vehicle by some means. We need to develop anti-scintillation techniques in the near future. However, for the development of the launch system, we need to move forward step by step. It should be better to start from the aim to a 10 km altitude along the zenith angle trajectory. Myrabo reached at 71 m. The 10 km is a well worthful challenge. For the control and guidance techniques, before going to the cooperative control, it is realistic to accomplish more simple method of the active bream-riding flight along a vertical trajectory.
\nAlternative LLS.
For the propulsion, we shall investigate an externally heated rocket, similar to Kare’s concept, using liquid hydrogen as propellant. For the externally heated rocket, the specific impulse is limited by the thermal and oxidation resistance of the high-temperature materials, while the propellant can be selected per request. The propulsion system is illustrated in Figure 11. In this new concept, the inside of the engine is separated via glass window from the outside. Porous material is filed inside of the engine. The porous material absorbs the laser power introduced across the window and coverts the laser energy to the enthalpy of the hydrogen gas, which passes through the porous material. One feature of the porous heat exchanger is high rate of heat convection and low-pressure loss when using high porosity and high heat-resistance porous material like DONACARBO Felt© Osaka Gas Chemical Inc. shown on the right of Figure 4. Because the diameter of carbon fiber is around 10 mm, large surface area and high rate of heat convection are attainable even at high-porosity condition, which leads to the low-pressure loss. Because the heat exchanger is in a close cell filled with the hydrogen, the maximum temperature of the graphite materials will be more than 3000 K. (Sublimation point of graphite under anaerobic condition at one atmosphere pressure lies between 3895 and 4020 K [19].) Another feature of the porous media heat exchanger is the moderate absorption length that can be varied by the bulk size and the porosity of the porous material. This may lead to the reabsorption of the radiation from the high-temperature part of the porous material and the suppression of the energy loss due to radiation. By heating up the hydrogen gas to around 3000 K, the specific impulse in vacuum condition will reach at 900 seconds. In Figure 12, the “volume absorber” in the present concept is compared with the conventional Kare’s concept of the so-called surface absorber. We shall consider the theoretical modeling of the volume absorber.
\nSchematic of volume absorber-type laser rocket engine.
Surface absorber vs. volume absorber.
For the energy balance of the bulk material of porous media and the gas past the porous media, we shall consider the one-dimensional model as
\nHere,
The calculation results for laser power at 100 kW and hydrogen propellant are shown in Figure 13. The total temperature and the energy efficiency defined as the fraction of the laser power that is converted to the gas enthalpy are plotted as functions of the incident laser power density,
Result of propulsion model.
The laser beam transmission through the atmosphere is a critical issue for the feasibility of LLS. For the LLS, the laser beam propagates from 0 to 100 km across the atmosphere to point continuously and precisely on a vehicle. The laser beam expands both due to diffraction and atmospheric turbulence. In the studies of the LLS, to the best of author’s knowledge, as noted above, only Phipps et al. have considered the atmospheric beam transmission simply using the Fried parameter. Several studies considered the solar power satellite, SPS, using laser beam though there is no systematic study for the beam transmission through the atmospheric turbulence. This is partly because relevant theory has not been fully developed. The light wave propagation through the turbulent atmosphere has been studied in the field of astronomy in terms of the adaptive optics [20]. Only numerical simulations on the basis of the random phase screen method is useful for the exact analyses. To be exact, the atmospheric turbulence depends on local and instantaneous weather conditions. For a particular launch site, the numerical studies and the launch tests are necessary to verify the local effects of the atmospheric turbulence on the laser beam transmission. In some cases, it is necessary to apply the adaptive optics (AO) techniques like the large telescope like Subaru. On the other hand, qualitative discussion is also useful for typical cases, but it is not easy on the basis of numerical simulations. The analytical formula for the effects of the air turbulence on the Gaussian beam was found in 2009 [21]. What is necessary now is to know how and how much the air turbulence can affect the beam propagation. In this section, we shall discuss the impact of air turbulence on the laser beam propagation qualitatively on the basis of recent result in the research field of AO.
\nIn order to attain high-transmission efficiency, the laser spot on the vehicle is adjusted to a proper size. The beam diffraction is regulated using the focusing optics. From the formula of diffraction limit, the minimum spot diameter of a Gaussian beam,
Substituting
The effect of the atmospheric turbulence on the laser beam propagation is categorized: (1) scintillation, (2) beam expansion, and (3) beam wonder. Scintillation is the so-called twinkle of stars. The intensity of the light varies unsteadily at high frequency. Beam expansion means the additional expansion of the beam diameter after propagating on a long path across the atmosphere. Beam wonder means the variation of the center of the laser beam axis on the cross-sectional surface. This is induced by the additional angular deflection of the laser beam due to the air turbulence. These effects are originated from the fluctuation in the deflection index distributed in the atmosphere; described using the structure constant of deflection index
Fried parameter (or called coherence length or seeing size)
Here,
The typical value for the visible light (λ = 500 nm) is 7 μrad, and considering θ0 ∝ λ1.2, typical value is 16 μrad for λ = 1 μm. In HV 7/5 model, the altitude distribution of
Here,
Here, the units of
Examples of
Moreover, the angular fluctuation due to the beam wondering is formulated as
\nAs shown in Figure 14, δ
The results are summarized in Table 1. The beam diameter on the ground is assumed 10 cm. The increment of the beam diameter δ
λ (μm) | \nϕ0 (cm) | \nθ0 (μrad) | \nδα (μrad) | \nδ | \n|
---|---|---|---|---|---|
0.5 | \n10 | \n10 | \n7 | \n3.0 | \n2.0 | \n
1 | \n10 | \n23 | \n16 | \n3.0 | \n1.7 | \n
10 | \n10 | \n364 | \n254 | \n3.0 | \n1.1 | \n
Beam expansion and wondering at altitude of 100 km.
It is clear that we need to develop a launch system of high specific impulse to expand our universe. Laser launch system (LLS) is a promising candidate that can generate the specific impulse higher than 900 seconds. As a 100-kW-class fiber laser has been developed today, actual launch to the orbit will happen in near future. In this chapter, we looked around the technical problems and tried some analyses for the propulsion performance and the atmospheric turbulence effect on the laser beam transmission. The latter problem will become important in the near future when the laser launch vehicle can reach the altitude higher than 10 km. This problem is linked with the methodologies for the guidance and control of vehicle. Future studies will clarify the design features and technical problems of LLS in more detail.
\nCarotid artery stenting (CAS) might be a potentially safe and effective therapeutic alternative to carotid endarterectomy (CEA) for carotid artery disease, especially in high-risk patients, because CAS may avoid anesthetic and surgical risk. In this regard, the merit of using CAS has been questioned in specific subgroups of patients [1, 2]. The role of gender in the selection of the most effective carotid intervention remains a matter of debate. Historically, large randomized controlled studies looking at CEA had indicated an increased perioperative risk for women when gender subgroup analysis was performed. Additionally, all of the large CEA trials showed decreased or no benefit in women when compared to men mostly because these trials were underpowered to show any utility in the relatively small female population studied and, secondly, because the long-term benefit was undermined by the high perioperative morbidity seen in women [3, 4]. The SAPPHIRE trial was the first stenting trial to show noninferiority of CAS to CEA in high-risk patients, but the study did not compare outcomes for gender subgroups and women were underrepresented within the recruited population [5]. More recent trials reported conflicting results regarding risk of peri- and postprocedural adverse events for women and men [1, 6]. Then, reports comparing CEA and CAS failed either to analyze the influence of gender or to show a clear benefit for men or women [7].
\nThus, to further inform the debate, we sought to conduct a systematic review of recent publications to assess epidemiologic and diagnostic hypotheses, which could underpin gender-related differences. Moreover, we report a retrospective observational study to determine the impact of gender on the outcomes of both carotid interventions in our institution.
\nAn extensive review on gender differences in stroke epidemiology has shown that stroke is more common in men than in women and male patients are on average younger than female when they are affected by their first stroke [8]. Western European studies demonstrated that stroke incidence was about 30% higher in men than in women, but the strokes that did occur in women tended to be more severe [9]. During the last decade, an extensive number of papers have been published on epidemiological differences between genders.
\nA systematic review around gender differences in stroke epidemiology, presented by Appelros et al., including 59 incidence studies from 19 countries and 5 continents, showed that the mean age at first-ever stroke was 68.6 years among men and 72.9 years among women [10]. Stroke incidence and prevalence rates were 33 and 41% higher in male than in female, respectively, with large variations between age bands and between populations. The incidence rates of brain infarction and intracerebral hemorrhage were higher among men, whereas the rate of subarachnoid hemorrhage was higher among women, although this difference was not statistically significant. Stroke tended to be more severe in women with a 1-month case fatality of 24.7% compared with 19.7% for men.
\nThe lower stroke incidence in women has been analyzed in systematic reviews in the last decades. A plausible reason might be the protective role of ovarian estrogen on the cerebral circulation [11, 12, 13], even if randomized trials currently recommend that postmenopausal hormone therapy should not be used in the primary prevention of stroke [14].
\nOther possible factors might be genetic factors, but no evidence for this expectation was found in the literature. Conversely, a recent systematic review showed that women with stroke have a higher familiarity of stroke than men [15].
\nNumerous studies have shown that blood pressure value was higher in men than women of same age [16, 17]. Moreover, peripheral artery disease [18, 19], ischemic heart disease [18, 20, 21, 22], and cigarette consumption [18, 19, 20, 23, 24] are more frequent among male stroke patients. Women have been shown to be at higher risk than men for atrial fibrillation-related cardioembolic stroke [22, 25, 26, 27, 28]. The Swedish Stroke Register has shown that women with atrial fibrillation receive oral anticoagulant therapy less often than men [24]. The higher prevalence of embolic strokes among women could justify their higher stroke severity.
\nThe North American Symptomatic Carotid Endarterectomy Trial (NASCET) investigators standardized the method of quantifying the degree of carotid stenosis, and they considered arteriography the most predictable method for evaluating carotid stenosis [29].
\nCarotid duplex ultrasound scan (DUS) compares favorably with arteriography, and many physicians are using carotid DUS as the definitive diagnostic procedure before CEA even if it is mandatory to submit the patient to computer tomography angiography (CTA) or magnetic resonance angiography (MRA) for CAS to explore arch anatomy [30, 31]. Diagnostic criteria for carotid DUS have been accepted as predictable from laboratories accredited by the Intersocietal Commission for the Accreditation of Vascular Laboratories with ongoing quality programs.
\nNevertheless, carotid DUS frequently resulted in overestimation of disease severity in women. This underlined the issue that women may have higher velocities in their carotid arteries than men for similar carotid stenosis. The question is: Are we overdiagnosing disease in women according to gender differences in carotid stenosis? The purpose of Comerota’s study was to examine whether there were velocity differences based on gender in patients with carotid artery disease and whether different velocity criteria should be used in women, especially at clinically relevant thresholds of disease [32].
\nPatients who underwent carotid arteriography and carotid DUS were the basis for this study. Data from 1019 carotid bifurcations were available. Comparison was performed on the basis of 938 carotid arteries. Analyses were made in 536 male and 402 female carotid arteries. Arteriography was performed on average 23 days after the ultrasound examination, with 74% of arteriographic examinations performed within 30 days and 95% performed within 82 days of carotid DUS. Additionally, the single most diseased artery per patient was analyzed by gender. Peak systolic velocity (PSV) and end-diastolic velocity (EDV) were averaged for data subsets according to 10% intervals of internal carotid artery (ICA) stenoses. For all intervals, PSV and EDV averaged 9 and 6% higher in women than in men. Significant gender differences existed between PSV and EDV for 60 and 70% stenoses. For 70% stenosis, PSV averaged 285 ± 16 cm/s in women and 236 ± 11 cm/s in men (
Williams et al. demonstrated that the diameter of the common carotid arteries (CCA), ICA, and external carotid arteries (ECA) were considerably smaller in women compared to those in men [33]. Schultz et al. showed a remarkable gender-specific difference in the distribution of atherosclerotic plaque. They reviewed 5395 arteriograms from the European Carotid Surgery Trial and compared diameter ratios of the ICA, CCA, and ECA with minimal disease to obtain a real relationship between vessels [34]. Among the 2930 arteriograms available for review, the mean ICA/CCA, ICA/ECA, and outflow/inflow area ratios were larger in women than in men (
Hansen et al. showed changes in arterial wall compliance in women who display higher age-related stiffness of their arteries and develop a higher degree of pulsatility with a higher velocity for any given blood pressure [35, 36].
\nMoreover, the natural history of carotid atherosclerosis emerges to be divergent in women compared with men. Independently from age, the risk for stroke is higher in men than in women [37]. The risk for stroke is greater in men with similar degrees of carotid stenosis [4, 29, 38] due to the fact that men have greater prevalence of high-risk carotid plaques. Joakimsen et al. showed that atherosclerotic lesions in men were more instable and ultrasound characteristics showed soft and lipid-rich plaques, with more common intraplaque hemorrhage. These characteristics are associated with an increased risk for ischemic events, including myocardial infarction (MI) and stroke [39, 40, 41].
\nAccording to those anatomic and pathologic gender-related differences, the higher velocity profiles observed in women compared with men could be explained. It needs to be adjusted in guidelines for an accurate and proper diagnosis in carotid stenosis in the near future.
\n\n
Considerably smaller carotid diameter.
Higher arterial velocity in carotid artery: PSV and EDV.
Different distribution of atherosclerotic plaque with greater degree of plaque within the carotid bulb and more severe disease in the ECA.
Different arterial wall compliance with higher age-related stiffness and higher degree of pulsatility.
Presence of artifacts increasing arterial velocity (anemia).
The literature shows that women have a higher risk of perioperative adverse events during carotid revascularization. In the Asymptomatic Carotid Atherosclerosis Study (ACAS), women had a higher rate of perioperative events (3.6% female [F] vs. 1.7% male [M]) during CEA [42] with a lower rate of events for female (8.7% F vs. 12.1% M) treated with best medical therapy. This result shows a lower 5-year risk reduction for female (17%) compared with male (66%).
\nThe Asymptomatic Carotid Surgery Trial (ACST) suggested a lower long-term benefit of surgery for female, with male collecting a higher 5-year risk reduction than female (8.21% M vs. 4.08% F) [43]. In the International Carotid Stenting Study (ICSS), female had a higher 120-day event rate for CEA (7.6% F vs. 4.2% M) but a lower rate for CAS (8.0% F vs. 8.7% M) [44]. Reverse results was found in the Carotid Revascularization Endarterectomy vs. Stenting Trial (CREST) [6]. In this study, 2502 patients were randomly assigned to CEA (n = 1240) or CAS (n = 1262), 872 (34.9%) of whom were female. Rates of the primary endpoint for CAS compared with CEA were 6.2% vs. 6.8% in male (hazard ratio [HR] 0.99, 95% confidence interval [CI] 0.66–1.46) and 8.9% vs. 6.7% in female (HR 1.35, 95% CI 0.82–2.23). There was no significant interaction in the primary endpoint between genders (interaction
In 2014, Jim et al. presented data from the Society for Vascular Surgery Vascular Registry to determine the effect of gender on outcomes after carotid revascularization [45]. There were 9865 patients (40.6% female) who underwent CEA (n = 6492) and CAS (n = 3373). The primary end point was a composite of death, stroke, and MI at 30 days. There were no differences in age and ethnicity between genders, but males were more likely to be symptomatic (41.6% M vs. 38.6% F;
A database of 912 consecutive patients with symptomatic or asymptomatic carotid artery stenosis undergoing CEA or CAS for carotid revascularization in the Department of Surgery of a single Institution from 2010 to 2017 was analyzed. Carotid stenosis was ≥80% for asymptomatic or ≥50% for symptomatic patients, as detected by DUS and confirmed by CTA or MRA using NASCET criteria [29].
\nThe choice of revascularization technique (CAS/CEA) was based on general guideline recommendations, for example, European Society for Vascular Surgery (ESVS), American College of Cardiology and American Heart Association (ACC/AHA), and the team center experience according to morphologic and clinical data indicating best suitability with the aim of performing CAS and CEA with low procedural risks. Usually, patients with unfavorable aortic arch anatomy, severe peripheral vascular disease precluding femoral access, or extremely tortuous carotid anatomy were excluded from CAS. Similarly, unstable plaque, known allergies to aspirin, clopidogrel, or contrast media, and renal insufficiency (creatinine ≥1.5 mg/dL) were considered exclusion criteria for CAS.
\nFor CAS, the patient was given dual antiplatelet therapy beginning 1 day before the procedure. All patients received a 300 mg loading dose of clopidogrel 1 hour before the procedure.
\nClinical investigation included a baseline assessment of a physical examination, carotid DUS of the supra-aortic vessels, procedural angiography, and neurological assessment measured using the National Institutes of Health Stroke Scale (NIHSS) [47]. All aortic arch types were included.
\nAll procedures were performed following a standardized protocol in the operating room, equipped with a portable imaging fluoroscopic C-arm (OEC 9900 elite; GE Medical Siemens, Waukesha, WI, USA), by a single vascular team. Two skilled operators with high volume experience (>50 CEA/CAS procedures per year as first operator) performed all procedures [48, 49, 50]. Iodinated or gadolinium contrast was used in patients with normal creatinine level or creatinine >1.5 mg/dL (132 mmol/L), respectively. All patients received an intravenous heparin bolus (100 units/kg heparin) to achieve intraoperative anticoagulation (activated clotting time (ACT) ≥ 250 s throughout the procedure). In our center, with increasing experience, the number of CAS increased over time allowing CEA to be used for fewer and more complex cases in recent years. All procedures were carried out via femoral access. The introducer sheath (8 Fr) and guiding catheters (Zuma, Medtronic, MN, USA; Flexor, Cook Medical, IN, USA; Mach 1, Boston Scientific Corporation, MA, USA) ranged from 6 to 8 Fr, using inner catheters (coaxial method) with different shapes according to the anatomy of the arch (Imager II, Boston Scientific Corporation). Variable models of carotid stents (open-cell, closed-cell, hybrid, and micromesh stents) were employed, as a function of lesion characteristics and vessel anatomy. Temporary distal (Emboshield NAV6, Abbott Vascular, Santa Clara, CA, USA) or proximal (Mo.Ma, Medtronic, Minneapolis, MI, USA) cerebral protection devices were used as per internal protocol. Predilation was performed at the operator’s discretion, with 2.0–4.0 mm TREK coronary balloons (Abbott Vascular). Postdilation was performed with a 4.5- or 5.5-mm diameter Rx Viatrac 14 Plus balloons (Abbott Vascular). CAS postoperative medical therapy included clopidogrel (75 mg once daily) for 1 month and aspirin (100 mg once daily) for a lifelong period.
\nFor CEA, patients were usually maintained on aspirin therapy. CEA was performed under local anesthesia under electroencephalography (EEG) monitoring or transcutaneous oxygen saturation monitoring. Dacron or bovine pericardium graft angioplasty, or eversion endarterectomy were performed.
\nPostprocedural patient evaluation was performed at the periprocedural (30 days) and at the postprocedural periods, at 3 months, 6 months, and yearly thereafter within 3 years, by a neurologist and a vascular surgeon.
\nPatient data were captured using a paper case report form. Symptoms status and exact information about clinical adverse events were obtained. Carotid DUS of the supra-aortic vessels was obtained to determine the degree of carotid stenosis.
\nPrimary endpoints were rates of death; stroke; MI; a composite of the incidence of any stroke, MI, or death; and restenosis within 30 days. Secondary endpoints were rates of death; stroke; MI; a composite of the incidence of any stroke, MI, or death; and restenosis, during the follow-up period, within 36 months after the procedure.
\nFor the composite of any stroke, MI, or death, patients might have had more than one event. For example, fatal stroke events are included in both death and stroke outcomes, and subjects might have had both an ipsilateral and a subsequent contralateral stroke. The diagnosis and quantification of restenosis was performed using carotid DUS. Carotid restenosis was set at ≥40% [51, 52].
\nCategorical variables were reported as number and percentages. For numeric variables, minimum, maximum, mean, and standard deviation were calculated. Continuous data are presented as percentages or mean ± standard deviation (SD). Rates for comorbidities, complications, and 30-day outcomes were compared between male and female patients and between those undergoing CAS and CEA by χ2 test. Survival, stroke, MI, and restenosis rates were calculated using Kaplan-Meier analysis to compensate for patient dropouts and were reported using current Society for Vascular Surgery (SVS) criteria [53]. Standard errors (SE) are reported in Kaplan-Meier analyses. The log-rank test was used to determine differences among patients submitted to CEA and CAS.
\nA value of
The study was approved by the local Ethic Committee of Istituto Auxologico Italiano (statement CE 30.05.2006). Written consent was obtained from all patients before both CAS and CEA revascularization.
\nFrom 2010 to 2017, a total of 912 patients underwent interventions for carotid stenosis. There were 544 (59.7%) males and 368 (40.3%) females. Mean age was 71.1 ± 8.6 and 69.4 ± 9.0 for male and female patients, respectively. About 193 (35.4%) male and 128 (34.7%) female patients were symptomatic. Of the 912 carotid revascularizations, 407 (44.6%) were by CEA and 505 (55.4%) were by CAS. Demographic and baseline characteristics of study participants after separation by gender and procedure are presented in Table 1. Female patients were older (72.1 ± 9.0 F vs. 68.4 ± 8.6 M,
\n | M (n = 544) | \nF (n = 368) | \nCEA (n = 407) | \nCAS (n = 505) | \n||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
M (n = 326) | \nF (n = 200) | \nM (n = 241) | \nF (n = 145) | \n|||
Age, mean ± SD | \n68.4 ± 8.6 | \n72.1 ± 9.0 | \n68.9 ± 8.5 | \n71.5 ± 9.3 | \n68.0 ± 8.7 | \n72.8 ± 8.6 | \n
Symptomatic, n (%) | \n193 (35.4%) | \n128 (34.7%) | \n108 (33.1%) | \n70 (34.9%) | \n85 (35.0%) | \n58 (40.1%) | \n
Smokers, n (%) | \n191 (35.0%) | \n123 (33.3%) | \n109 (33.4%) | \n77 (38.8%) | \n82 (33.8%) | \n45 (31.3%) | \n
Hypertension, n (%) | \n395 (72.5%) | \n293 (79.7%) | \n222 (68.0%) | \n164 (82.0%) | \n173 (71.5%) | \n129 (89.5%) | \n
Diabetes, n (%) | \n172 (31.7%) | \n127 (34.5%) | \n81 (24.8%) | \n78 (39.3%) | \n91 (37.9%) | \n48 (33.5%) | \n
Hyperlipidemia, n (%) | \n376 (69.2%) | \n274 (74.4%) | \n202 (62.0%) | \n154 (77.1%) | \n174 (72.0%) | \n120 (82.9%) | \n
CAD, n (%) | \n152 (28.0%) | \n96 (26.1%) | \n86 (26.4%) | \n55 (27.5%) | \n66 (27.3%) | \n41 (28.5%) | \n
History of stroke, n (%) | \n133 (24.5%) | \n78 (21.3%) | \n71 (21.9%) | \n44 (21.8%) | \n62 (25.6%) | \n35 (24.0%) | \n
History of MI, n (%) | \n107 (19.7%) | \n64 (17.5%) | \n66 (20.3%) | \n32 (16.0%) | \n41 (17.0%) | \n32 (22.4%) | \n
Chronic renal insufficiency, n (%) | \n112 (20.5%) | \n44 (11.9%) | \n68 (20.9%) | \n24 (12.0%) | \n43 (18.0%) | \n20 (13.8%) | \n
CHF, n (%) | \n54 (9.8%) | \n42 (11.5%) | \n29 (8.8%) | \n19 (9.5%) | \n25 (10.3%) | \n23 (16.1%) | \n
COPD, n (%) | \n105 (19.4%) | \n54 (14.6%) | \n61 (18.6%) | \n30 (15.1%) | \n45 (18.5%) | \n24 (16.5%) | \n
Cancer history, n (%) | \n101 (18.6%) | \n72 (19.5%) | \n53 (16.3%) | \n37 (18.5%) | \n48 (19.7%) | \n35 (24.1%) | \n
Baseline characteristics of study participants (n = 912).
M: male; F: female; CEA: carotid endarterectomy; CAS: carotid artery stenting; SD: standard deviation; CAD: coronary artery disease; MI: myocardial infarction; CHF: congestive heart failure; and COPD: chronic obstructive pulmonary disease.
Patients were required to undergo DUS and neurological examination at 1 month and subsequently at 3, 6, 12, 24, and 36 months after the procedure.
\nPeriprocedural outcome measures in male patients compared with female patients are reported in Table 2. The death rate in the overall population was 0.3% (3/912), with no significant differences in rates between the two groups (0.4% M vs. 0.3% F) and between the two procedures (0.5% CEA vs. 0.2% CAS). Periprocedural outcomes were similar for male and female patients for 30-day death, stroke, MI, and a composite of any stroke, MI, or death rates. Female patients had higher periprocedural restenosis rate (2.7% F vs. 0.9% M;
\n | M (n = 544) | \nF (n = 368) | \nCEA (n = 407) | \nCAS (n = 505) | \n||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
M (n = 326) | \nF (n = 200) | \nM (n = 241) | \nF (n = 145) | \n|||
Short-term (≤30 days) outcomes, n (%) | \n||||||
Death | \n2 (0.4%) | \n1 (0.3%) | \n1 (0.3%) | \n1 (0.5%) | \n1 (0.4%) | \n0 (0.0%) | \n
Stroke | \n7 (1.3%) | \n5 (1.4%) | \n2 (0.6%) | \n3 (1.5%) | \n5 (2.1%) | \n2 (1.4%) | \n
MI | \n13 (2.4%) | \n10 (2.7%) | \n6 (1.8%) | \n5 (2.5%) | \n7 (2.9%) | \n5 (3.5%) | \n
Stroke, MI, or death | \n9 (1.7%) | \n6 (1.6%) | \n10 (3.1%) | \n11 (5.5%) | \n13 (5.4%) | \n11 (7.6%) | \n
Restenosis | \n5 (0.9%) | \n10 (2.7%) | \n2 (0.6%) | \n3 (1.5%) | \n3 (1.2%) | \n7 (4.8%) | \n
Long-term (>30 days) outcomes, n (%) | \n||||||
Death | \n37 (6.8%) | \n35 (9.5%) | \n17 (5.2%) | \n12 (6.0%) | \n20 (8.3%) | \n23 (15.9%) | \n
Stroke | \n52 (9.6%) | \n59 (16.0%) | \n22 (6.7%) | \n28 (14.0%) | \n30 (12.4%) | \n31 (21.4%) | \n
MI | \n38 (7.0%) | \n22 (6.0%) | \n20 (5.1%) | \n11 (4.1%) | \n18 (6.4%) | \n11 (5.2%) | \n
Stroke, MI, or death | \n101 (18.6%) | \n87 (23.7%) | \n45 (13.8%) | \n46 (23.1%) | \n56 (23.2%) | \n41 (28.4%) | \n
Restenosis | \n25 (4.6%) | \n42 (11.4%) | \n8 (2.5%) | \n23 (11.5%) | \n17 (7.0%) | \n19 (13.1%) | \n
Periprocedural (30 days) outcomes after carotid revascularization in male and female patients receiving CEA or CAS.
M: male; F: female; CEA: carotid endarterectomy; CAS: carotid angioplasty and stenting; and MI: myocardial infarction.
For long-term follow-up, 95, 91, 78, 75, and 62% of patients attended their 3-, 6-, 12-, 24-, and 36-month follow-up appointments, respectively. Patients were not able to attend follow-up mainly because they moved to remote locations or because they declined further visits for personal reasons. Most recent patients could not attend their 24- and 36-month appointments yet.
\nLong-term outcomes were similar for male and female patients for 36-month death and stroke. Male patients experienced a slightly higher rate of MI. Female patients had higher long-term restenosis rate (11.4% F vs. 4.6% M;
The 36-month risk of any cause mortality was 5.6 (1.6)% (mean (SD)) for male patients and 15.2 (3.3)% for female patients, with a significant difference in Kaplan-Meier estimates at 36 months between the two groups according to log-rank test. Female patients undergoing CAS experience lower 3-year freedom from death rate, with no significance difference with respect to the other groups (82.5% vs. 94.5, 94.2, and 86.4% for F-CAS, M-CAS, M-CEA, and F-CEA patients, respectively,
Mortality. Male and female patients submitted to CEA or CAS who survived during follow-up. Error bars are omitted for clarity. Standard errors did not exceed 10% at all-time intervals that were analyzed. The number of patients at risk at each time interval is shown below the figure.
The risk of stroke at 36 months was 10.8 (2.2)% for male and 21.4 (3.7)% for female (
Stroke. Male and female patients submitted to CEA or CAS who experienced a stroke during follow-up. Error bars are omitted for clarity. Standard errors did not exceed 10% at all-time intervals that were analyzed. The number of patients at risk at each time interval is shown below the figure.
Male patients had a greater risk of MI than female patients. The 12-, 24-, and 36-month estimates of MI rates were 4.9 (1.4)%, 6.0 (1.6)%, and 7.6 (1.8)% for male and a constant rate equal to 5.8 (2.0)% for female (
Myocardial infarction (MI). Male and female patients submitted to CEA or CAS who experienced a MI during follow-up. Error bars are omitted for clarity. Standard errors did not exceed 10% at all-time intervals that were analyzed. The number of patients at risk at each time interval is shown below the figure.
The overall risk of any stroke, MI, or death was equal to 20.4 (2.8)% for male patients and 30.9 (4.2)% for female patients (
Stroke, MI, or death. Male and female patients submitted to CEA or CAS who experienced any stroke, MI, or death during follow-up. Error bars are omitted for clarity. Standard errors did not exceed 10% at all-time intervals that were analyzed. The number of patients at risk at each time interval is shown below the figure.
During follow-up, female patients exhibited higher restenosis risk with respect to male [2.5 (1.0)%, 3.0 (1.1)%, and 3.6 (1.3)% vs. 8.2 (2.3)%, 10.8 (2.7)%, and 13.5 (3.0)% for 12-, 24-, and 36-month rates, for male and female patients, respectively (
Restenosis. Male and female patients submitted to CEA or CAS who experienced a restenosis during follow-up. Error bars are omitted for clarity. Standard errors did not exceed 10% at all-time intervals that were analyzed. The number of patients at risk at each time interval is shown below the figure.
Stroke has been shown to be more common in male than in female. Male patients are affected by first stroke on average in younger age with respect to female [8]. Stroke incidence was demonstrated to be about 30% higher in men than in women in Western European studies, but strokes in women tend to be more severe [9].
\nDuring the last decade, an extensive number of papers have been published on epidemiological differences between gender. The lower stroke incidence in female has been analyzed in systematic reviews in the last decades. Plausible reasons might be the protective role of ovarian estrogen on the cerebral circulation [11, 12, 13], genetic factors [15], sensitivity for antiplatelet therapy [54], lower blood pressure values [16, 17], lower frequency of peripheral artery diseases [18, 19], ischemic heart diseases [20, 21, 22], and cigarettes consumption [23, 24] in female patients with respect to male patients.
\nCarotid revascularization outcomes in female compared with male showed that the former have a higher risk of perioperative adverse events [55]. The ACAS reported a higher rate of perioperative events for female with respect to male (3.6% F vs. 1.7% M) during CEA [42] with a lower rate of events for female (8.7% F vs. 12.1% M) treated with best medical therapy. Moreover, this study showed a lower 5-year risk reduction for female (17% F vs. 66% M). In more recent trials, carotid revascularization outcomes were similar between genders, but restenosis was more common in female [6, 45].
\nIn the study presented herein, 912 consecutive patients with symptomatic and asymptomatic carotid artery stenosis underwent CEA (44.6%) or CAS (55.4%) in a single institution. The death rate in the overall population was 0.3% (3/912), with no significant differences in rates between male and female patients (0.4% M vs. 0.3% F) and between the two procedures (0.5% CEA vs. 0.2% CAS).
\nPeriprocedural outcomes were similar for male and female patients for 30-day death, stroke, MI, and a composite of any stroke, MI, or death rates. Female patients had higher periprocedural restenosis rate (2.7% F vs. 0.9% M;
Female patients undergoing CEA had a higher 30-day rate of any stroke, MI, or death (5.5% F vs. 3.1% M,
Long-term outcomes were similar for male and female patients for 36-month death and stroke. Female patients had higher long-term restenosis rate (11.4% F vs. 4.6% M;
In light of this, in the near future, female anatomic and pathologic parameters should be used, such as carotid diameter which is considerably smaller in female than in male, thus determining higher arterial velocity in carotid artery. The greater degree of atherosclerotic plaque within the carotid bulb, the higher age-related arterial wall stiffness and degree of pulsatility, and the presence of artifacts increasing arterial velocity should be taken into account for an accurate diagnosis of carotid stenosis and guidelines should be adjusted consequently.
\nGender subgroup analyses from large randomized trials, such as ACST-2, an international randomized trial comparing CEA with CAS for long-term stroke prevention, which planned the recruitment of 3600 patients by the end of 2019 [56, 57, 58], may report interesting and important results on the impact of gender on the peri- and postprocedural outcomes after carotid revascularization procedures.
\n"Open access contributes to scientific excellence and integrity. It opens up research results to wider analysis. It allows research results to be reused for new discoveries. And it enables the multi-disciplinary research that is needed to solve global 21st century problems. Open access connects science with society. It allows the public to engage with research. To go behind the headlines. And look at the scientific evidence. And it enables policy makers to draw on innovative solutions to societal challenges".
\n\nCarlos Moedas, the European Commissioner for Research Science and Innovation at the STM Annual Frankfurt Conference, October 2016.
",metaTitle:"About Open Access",metaDescription:"Open access contributes to scientific excellence and integrity. It opens up research results to wider analysis. It allows research results to be reused for new discoveries. And it enables the multi-disciplinary research that is needed to solve global 21st century problems. Open access connects science with society. It allows the public to engage with research. To go behind the headlines. And look at the scientific evidence. And it enables policy makers to draw on innovative solutions to societal challenges.\n\nCarlos Moedas, the European Commissioner for Research Science and Innovation at the STM Annual Frankfurt Conference, October 2016.",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"about-open-access",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"The Open Access publishing movement started in the early 2000s when academic leaders from around the world participated in the formation of the Budapest Initiative. They developed recommendations for an Open Access publishing process, “which has worked for the past decade to provide the public with unrestricted, free access to scholarly research—much of which is publicly funded. Making the research publicly available to everyone—free of charge and without most copyright and licensing restrictions—will accelerate scientific research efforts and allow authors to reach a larger number of readers” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
\\n\\nIntechOpen’s co-founders, both scientists themselves, created the company while undertaking research in robotics at Vienna University. Their goal was to spread research freely “for scientists, by scientists’ to the rest of the world via the Open Access publishing model. The company soon became a signatory of the Budapest Initiative, which currently has more than 1000 supporting organizations worldwide, ranging from universities to funders.
\\n\\nAt IntechOpen today, we are still as committed to working with organizations and people who care about scientific discovery, to putting the academic needs of the scientific community first, and to providing an Open Access environment where scientists can maximize their contribution to scientific advancement. By opening up access to the world’s scientific research articles and book chapters, we aim to facilitate greater opportunity for collaboration, scientific discovery and progress. We subscribe wholeheartedly to the Open Access definition:
\\n\\n“By “open access” to [peer-reviewed research literature], we mean its free availability on the public internet, permitting any users to read, download, copy, distribute, print, search, or link to the full texts of these articles, crawl them for indexing, pass them as data to software, or use them for any other lawful purpose, without financial, legal, or technical barriers other than those inseparable from gaining access to the internet itself. The only constraint on reproduction and distribution, and the only role for copyright in this domain, should be to give authors control over the integrity of their work and the right to be properly acknowledged and cited” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
\\n\\nOAI-PMH
\\n\\nAs a firm believer in the wider dissemination of knowledge, IntechOpen supports the Open Access Initiative Protocol for Metadata Harvesting (OAI-PMH Version 2.0). Read more
\\n\\nLicense
\\n\\nBook chapters published in edited volumes are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License (CC BY 3.0). IntechOpen upholds a very flexible Copyright Policy. There is no copyright transfer to the publisher and Authors retain exclusive copyright to their work. All Monographs/Compacts are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0). Read more
\\n\\nPeer Review Policies
\\n\\nAll scientific works are Peer Reviewed prior to publishing. Read more
\\n\\nOA Publishing Fees
\\n\\nThe Open Access publishing model employed by IntechOpen eliminates subscription charges and pay-per-view fees, enabling readers to access research at no cost. In order to sustain operations and keep our publications freely accessible we levy an Open Access Publishing Fee for manuscripts, which helps us cover the costs of editorial work and the production of books. Read more
\\n\\nDigital Archiving Policy
\\n\\nIntechOpen is committed to ensuring the long-term preservation and the availability of all scholarly research we publish. We employ a variety of means to enable us to deliver on our commitments to the scientific community. Apart from preservation by the Croatian National Library (for publications prior to April 18, 2018) and the British Library (for publications after April 18, 2018), our entire catalogue is preserved in the CLOCKSS archive.
\\n\\nOpen Science is transparent and accessible knowledge that is shared and developed through collaborative networks.
\\n\\nOpen Science is about increased rigour, accountability, and reproducibility for research. It is based on the principles of inclusion, fairness, equity, and sharing, and ultimately seeks to change the way research is done, who is involved and how it is valued. It aims to make research more open to participation, review/refutation, improvement and (re)use for the world to benefit.
\\n\\nOpen Science refers to doing traditional science with more transparency involved at various stages, for example by openly sharing code and data. It implies a growing set of practices - within different disciplines - aiming at:
\\n\\nWe aim at improving the quality and availability of scholarly communication by promoting and practicing:
\\n\\n\\n"}]'},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
The Open Access publishing movement started in the early 2000s when academic leaders from around the world participated in the formation of the Budapest Initiative. They developed recommendations for an Open Access publishing process, “which has worked for the past decade to provide the public with unrestricted, free access to scholarly research—much of which is publicly funded. Making the research publicly available to everyone—free of charge and without most copyright and licensing restrictions—will accelerate scientific research efforts and allow authors to reach a larger number of readers” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
\n\nIntechOpen’s co-founders, both scientists themselves, created the company while undertaking research in robotics at Vienna University. Their goal was to spread research freely “for scientists, by scientists’ to the rest of the world via the Open Access publishing model. The company soon became a signatory of the Budapest Initiative, which currently has more than 1000 supporting organizations worldwide, ranging from universities to funders.
\n\nAt IntechOpen today, we are still as committed to working with organizations and people who care about scientific discovery, to putting the academic needs of the scientific community first, and to providing an Open Access environment where scientists can maximize their contribution to scientific advancement. By opening up access to the world’s scientific research articles and book chapters, we aim to facilitate greater opportunity for collaboration, scientific discovery and progress. We subscribe wholeheartedly to the Open Access definition:
\n\n“By “open access” to [peer-reviewed research literature], we mean its free availability on the public internet, permitting any users to read, download, copy, distribute, print, search, or link to the full texts of these articles, crawl them for indexing, pass them as data to software, or use them for any other lawful purpose, without financial, legal, or technical barriers other than those inseparable from gaining access to the internet itself. The only constraint on reproduction and distribution, and the only role for copyright in this domain, should be to give authors control over the integrity of their work and the right to be properly acknowledged and cited” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
\n\nOAI-PMH
\n\nAs a firm believer in the wider dissemination of knowledge, IntechOpen supports the Open Access Initiative Protocol for Metadata Harvesting (OAI-PMH Version 2.0). Read more
\n\nLicense
\n\nBook chapters published in edited volumes are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License (CC BY 3.0). IntechOpen upholds a very flexible Copyright Policy. There is no copyright transfer to the publisher and Authors retain exclusive copyright to their work. All Monographs/Compacts are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0). Read more
\n\nPeer Review Policies
\n\nAll scientific works are Peer Reviewed prior to publishing. Read more
\n\nOA Publishing Fees
\n\nThe Open Access publishing model employed by IntechOpen eliminates subscription charges and pay-per-view fees, enabling readers to access research at no cost. In order to sustain operations and keep our publications freely accessible we levy an Open Access Publishing Fee for manuscripts, which helps us cover the costs of editorial work and the production of books. Read more
\n\nDigital Archiving Policy
\n\nIntechOpen is committed to ensuring the long-term preservation and the availability of all scholarly research we publish. We employ a variety of means to enable us to deliver on our commitments to the scientific community. Apart from preservation by the Croatian National Library (for publications prior to April 18, 2018) and the British Library (for publications after April 18, 2018), our entire catalogue is preserved in the CLOCKSS archive.
\n\nOpen Science is transparent and accessible knowledge that is shared and developed through collaborative networks.
\n\nOpen Science is about increased rigour, accountability, and reproducibility for research. It is based on the principles of inclusion, fairness, equity, and sharing, and ultimately seeks to change the way research is done, who is involved and how it is valued. It aims to make research more open to participation, review/refutation, improvement and (re)use for the world to benefit.
\n\nOpen Science refers to doing traditional science with more transparency involved at various stages, for example by openly sharing code and data. It implies a growing set of practices - within different disciplines - aiming at:
\n\nWe aim at improving the quality and availability of scholarly communication by promoting and practicing:
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Here, in this review, we provide a brief overview of the current status of promising MS-based metabolomics strategies and their emerging roles, as well as possible challenges.",book:{id:"8400",slug:"molecular-medicine",title:"Molecular Medicine",fullTitle:"Molecular Medicine"},signatures:"Sinem Nalbantoglu",authors:[{id:"147712",title:"Dr.",name:"Sinem",middleName:null,surname:"Nalbantoglu",slug:"sinem-nalbantoglu",fullName:"Sinem Nalbantoglu"}]},{id:"33119",doi:"10.5772/38349",title:"Additive Manufacturing Solutions for Improved Medical Implants",slug:"additive-manufacturing-solutions-for-improved-implants",totalDownloads:8066,totalCrossrefCites:7,totalDimensionsCites:21,abstract:null,book:{id:"1899",slug:"biomedicine",title:"Biomedicine",fullTitle:"Biomedicine"},signatures:"Vojislav Petrovic, Juan Vicente Haro, Jose Ramón Blasco and Luis Portolés",authors:[{id:"116774",title:"Dr.",name:"Vojislav",middleName:null,surname:"Petrovic",slug:"vojislav-petrovic",fullName:"Vojislav Petrovic"},{id:"116777",title:"MSc.",name:"Juan",middleName:"Vicente",surname:"Haro González",slug:"juan-haro-gonzalez",fullName:"Juan Haro González"},{id:"116778",title:"BSc.",name:"José Ramón",middleName:null,surname:"Blasco Puchades",slug:"jose-ramon-blasco-puchades",fullName:"José Ramón Blasco Puchades"},{id:"116779",title:"BSc.",name:"Luís",middleName:null,surname:"Portolés Griñán",slug:"luis-portoles-grinan",fullName:"Luís Portolés Griñán"}]},{id:"33113",doi:"10.5772/33951",title:"Encapsulation and Surface Engineering of Pancreatic Islets: Advances and Challenges",slug:"encapsulation-and-surface-engineering-of-pancreatic-islets-advances-and-challenges-",totalDownloads:3519,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:9,abstract:null,book:{id:"1899",slug:"biomedicine",title:"Biomedicine",fullTitle:"Biomedicine"},signatures:"Veronika Kozlovskaya, Oleksandra Zavgorodnya and Eugenia Kharlampieva",authors:[{id:"97932",title:"Prof.",name:"Eugenia",middleName:null,surname:"Kharlampieva",slug:"eugenia-kharlampieva",fullName:"Eugenia Kharlampieva"},{id:"101333",title:"Dr.",name:"Veronika",middleName:null,surname:"Kozlovskaya",slug:"veronika-kozlovskaya",fullName:"Veronika Kozlovskaya"},{id:"135852",title:"MSc.",name:"Oleksandra",middleName:null,surname:"Zavgorodnya",slug:"oleksandra-zavgorodnya",fullName:"Oleksandra Zavgorodnya"}]},{id:"33114",doi:"10.5772/38852",title:"In-Situ Forming Biomimetic Hydrogels for Tissue Regeneration",slug:"in-situ-forming-biomimetic-hydrogels-for-tissue-regeneration",totalDownloads:4087,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:9,abstract:null,book:{id:"1899",slug:"biomedicine",title:"Biomedicine",fullTitle:"Biomedicine"},signatures:"Rong Jin",authors:[{id:"120160",title:"Dr.",name:"Rong",middleName:null,surname:"Jin",slug:"rong-jin",fullName:"Rong Jin"}]},{id:"61418",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.77154",title:"Effect of Infra-Low Frequency Neurofeedback on Infra-Slow EEG Fluctuations",slug:"effect-of-infra-low-frequency-neurofeedback-on-infra-slow-eeg-fluctuations",totalDownloads:2148,totalCrossrefCites:7,totalDimensionsCites:6,abstract:"Infra-low frequency neurofeedback (ILF NF) has been proposed as an alternative or complementary treatment method. Previous studies have reported a good effect of ILF training on the subjective perception of positive psychological changes after training. Here we study whether the objective physiological parameters reflecting the brain function also change under the influence of ILF NF. Eight participants 21–50 years of age with no history of neurological or psychiatric diseases, but reporting about some physiological or psychological complaints, performed 20 sessions of infra-low frequency neurofeedback training. EEG in visual Go/NoGo test was recorded before the course of Neurofeedback and after its completion. The spectral power of slow EEG oscillations in the post-training recording was compared with the pretraining baseline. Along with remission of the clinical complaints, significant increase of spectral power in 0–0.5 Hz frequency band was observed in all eight participants in the post-training EEG patterns compared to the pretraining EEG, which may be linked to the improvement in the metabolic balance in the brain tissue and increasing efficiency of compensatory mechanisms in the stress regulation systems.",book:{id:"6632",slug:"biofeedback",title:"Biofeedback",fullTitle:"Biofeedback"},signatures:"Vera A. Grin-Yatsenko, Valery A. Ponomarev, Olga Kara, Bernhard\nWandernoth, Mark Gregory, Valentina A. Ilyukhina and Juri D.\nKropotov",authors:[{id:"234121",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Vera",middleName:null,surname:"Grin-Yatsenko",slug:"vera-grin-yatsenko",fullName:"Vera Grin-Yatsenko"},{id:"238431",title:"Prof.",name:"Valery",middleName:null,surname:"Ponomarev",slug:"valery-ponomarev",fullName:"Valery Ponomarev"},{id:"238434",title:"Dr.",name:"Olga",middleName:null,surname:"Kara",slug:"olga-kara",fullName:"Olga Kara"},{id:"238435",title:"Dr.",name:"Bernhard",middleName:null,surname:"Wandernoth",slug:"bernhard-wandernoth",fullName:"Bernhard Wandernoth"},{id:"238437",title:"Dr.",name:"Mark",middleName:null,surname:"Gregory",slug:"mark-gregory",fullName:"Mark Gregory"},{id:"238439",title:"Prof.",name:"Valentina",middleName:null,surname:"Ilyukhina",slug:"valentina-ilyukhina",fullName:"Valentina Ilyukhina"},{id:"238441",title:"Prof.",name:"Juri",middleName:null,surname:"Kropotov",slug:"juri-kropotov",fullName:"Juri Kropotov"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"67272",title:"Introductory Chapter: Insight into the OMICS Technologies and Molecular Medicine",slug:"introductory-chapter-insight-into-the-omics-technologies-and-molecular-medicine",totalDownloads:1513,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:null,book:{id:"8400",slug:"molecular-medicine",title:"Molecular Medicine",fullTitle:"Molecular Medicine"},signatures:"Sinem Nalbantoglu and Abdullah Karadag",authors:[{id:"147712",title:"Dr.",name:"Sinem",middleName:null,surname:"Nalbantoglu",slug:"sinem-nalbantoglu",fullName:"Sinem Nalbantoglu"}]},{id:"68486",title:"Metabolomics: Basic Principles and Strategies",slug:"metabolomics-basic-principles-and-strategies",totalDownloads:2699,totalCrossrefCites:19,totalDimensionsCites:31,abstract:"Metabolomics is the study of metabolome within cells, biofluids, tissues, or organisms to comprehensively identify and quantify all endogenous and exogenous low-molecular-weight (<1 kDa) small molecules/metabolites in a biological system in a high-throughput manner. Metabolomics has several applications in health and disease including precision/personalized medicine, single cell, epidemiologic population studies, metabolic phenotyping, and metabolome-wide association studies (MWAS), precision metabolomics, and in combination with other omics disciplines as integrative omics, biotechnology, and bioengineering. Mass spectrometry (MS)-based metabolomics/lipidomics provides a useful approach for both identification of disease-related metabolites in biofluids or tissue and also encompasses classification and/or characterization of disease or treatment-associated molecular patterns generated from metabolites. Here, in this review, we provide a brief overview of the current status of promising MS-based metabolomics strategies and their emerging roles, as well as possible challenges.",book:{id:"8400",slug:"molecular-medicine",title:"Molecular Medicine",fullTitle:"Molecular Medicine"},signatures:"Sinem Nalbantoglu",authors:[{id:"147712",title:"Dr.",name:"Sinem",middleName:null,surname:"Nalbantoglu",slug:"sinem-nalbantoglu",fullName:"Sinem Nalbantoglu"}]},{id:"62128",title:"Body Mass Index and Colorectal Cancer",slug:"body-mass-index-and-colorectal-cancer",totalDownloads:1186,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Colorectal cancer (CRC) is one of the most common cancers in the world. Obesity is an established risk factor for colorectal carcinogenesis. Many epidemiological and experimental studies support this link and tumor-promoting effects of obesity. Body mass index (BMI) is a marker of general obesity. Obesity is also a global health problem and is defined by World Health Organization as BMI > 30 kg/m2. In this chapter, we give a general review about the mechanisms of obesity on colorectal carcinogenesis and the effects of obesity on clinical outcomes such as disease-free survival (DFS), progression-free survival (PFS) and overall survival (OS), in adjuvant setting and metastatic disease, respectively.",book:{id:"7159",slug:"body-mass-index-and-health",title:"Body-mass Index and Health",fullTitle:"Body-mass Index and Health"},signatures:"Nuri Faruk Aykan, Mehmet Artac and Tahsin Özatli",authors:[{id:"94089",title:"Prof.",name:"Nuri Faruk",middleName:null,surname:"Aykan",slug:"nuri-faruk-aykan",fullName:"Nuri Faruk Aykan"},{id:"257212",title:"Prof.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:null,surname:"Artaç",slug:"mehmet-artac",fullName:"Mehmet Artaç"},{id:"257213",title:"Dr.",name:"Tahsin",middleName:null,surname:"Özatlı",slug:"tahsin-ozatli",fullName:"Tahsin Özatlı"}]},{id:"65402",title:"Pharmacogenetics and Cancer Treatment: Progress and Prospects",slug:"pharmacogenetics-and-cancer-treatment-progress-and-prospects",totalDownloads:1621,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"The response of cancer patients to chemotherapy follows a very heterogeneous pattern. Pharmacogenetics is the study of inherited differences in interindividual drug disposition and effects, with the goal of selecting the optimal drug therapy and dosage for each patient. Pharmacogenetics for cancer treatment is very significant, as cancer therapies exhibit severe systemic toxicity and unpredictable efficacy. There is presence of genetic polymorphisms in the genes which code for the metabolic enzymes and cellular targets for the majority of chemotherapy agents, but to predict the outcome of chemotherapy in patients is not currently possible for most treatments. A greater understanding of the genetic determinants of drug response can revolutionize the use of many medications. By identifying the patients at risk for severe toxicity, or those likely to benefit from a particular treatment, individualized cancer therapy can be achieved for most cancer patients. The prediction of cancer treatment outcome based on gene polymorphisms is becoming possible for many classes of chemotherapy agents, and the most clinically significant examples of chemotherapy agents are discussed in the chapter. However, further studies are needed in well characterized and larger cancer populations with proper validation of pharmacogenetic markers in experimental settings before application in clinical routine diagnostics.",book:{id:"8400",slug:"molecular-medicine",title:"Molecular Medicine",fullTitle:"Molecular Medicine"},signatures:"Munindra Ruwali",authors:[{id:"245866",title:"Dr.",name:"Munindra",middleName:null,surname:"Ruwali",slug:"munindra-ruwali",fullName:"Munindra Ruwali"}]},{id:"62138",title:"Body Mass Index (BMI) and Anthropometric Measurement of the Developing Fetus",slug:"body-mass-index-bmi-and-anthropometric-measurement-of-the-developing-fetus",totalDownloads:1058,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"Medical and scientific study of the measurements and size of the human body is known as anthropometry. In anthropometry, body mass index (BMI) is one of the best indirect methods for the estimation of body fat and mass. Other methods of indirect methods include weight, stature, and abdominal circumference. Direct methods include total body water, total body counting, and criterion methods include body density. Other factors like the size and weight of the mother also influence the size and mass of the body. An earlier work was conducted by K.L. Mukherjee on the systemic anthropometric measurements of the aborted human fetus. The following chapter will deal with the importance of parental and fetal BMI and its influence on the development of the fetus at varying stages of development and their relationship with anthropometric measurements.",book:{id:"7159",slug:"body-mass-index-and-health",title:"Body-mass Index and Health",fullTitle:"Body-mass Index and Health"},signatures:"Niranjan Bhattacharya and Priyodarshi Sengupta",authors:[{id:"245970",title:"Prof.",name:"Niranjan",middleName:null,surname:"Bhattacharya",slug:"niranjan-bhattacharya",fullName:"Niranjan Bhattacharya"},{id:"252992",title:"Mr.",name:"Priyodarshi",middleName:null,surname:"Sengupta",slug:"priyodarshi-sengupta",fullName:"Priyodarshi Sengupta"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"169",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:89,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:104,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:32,numberOfPublishedChapters:318,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:141,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:113,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:106,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:5,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:15,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",issn:"2632-0983",scope:"Biochemistry, the study of chemical transformations occurring within living organisms, impacts all areas of life sciences, from molecular crystallography and genetics to ecology, medicine, and population biology. Biochemistry examines macromolecules - proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and lipids – and their building blocks, structures, functions, and interactions. Much of biochemistry is devoted to enzymes, proteins that catalyze chemical reactions, enzyme structures, mechanisms of action and their roles within cells. Biochemistry also studies small signaling molecules, coenzymes, inhibitors, vitamins, and hormones, which play roles in life processes. Biochemical experimentation, besides coopting classical chemistry methods, e.g., chromatography, adopted new techniques, e.g., X-ray diffraction, electron microscopy, NMR, radioisotopes, and developed sophisticated microbial genetic tools, e.g., auxotroph mutants and their revertants, fermentation, etc. More recently, biochemistry embraced the ‘big data’ omics systems. Initial biochemical studies have been exclusively analytic: dissecting, purifying, and examining individual components of a biological system; in the apt words of Efraim Racker (1913 –1991), “Don’t waste clean thinking on dirty enzymes.” Today, however, biochemistry is becoming more agglomerative and comprehensive, setting out to integrate and describe entirely particular biological systems. The ‘big data’ metabolomics can define the complement of small molecules, e.g., in a soil or biofilm sample; proteomics can distinguish all the comprising proteins, e.g., serum; metagenomics can identify all the genes in a complex environment, e.g., the bovine rumen. This Biochemistry Series will address the current research on biomolecules and the emerging trends with great promise.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/11.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"June 29th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:32,editor:{id:"31610",title:"Dr.",name:"Miroslav",middleName:null,surname:"Blumenberg",slug:"miroslav-blumenberg",fullName:"Miroslav Blumenberg",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/31610/images/system/31610.jpg",biography:"Miroslav Blumenberg, Ph.D., was born in Subotica and received his BSc in Belgrade, Yugoslavia. He completed his Ph.D. at MIT in Organic Chemistry; he followed up his Ph.D. with two postdoctoral study periods at Stanford University. Since 1983, he has been a faculty member of the RO Perelman Department of Dermatology, NYU School of Medicine, where he is codirector of a training grant in cutaneous biology. Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. He has published more than 100 peer-reviewed research articles and graduated numerous Ph.D. and postdoctoral students.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"New York University Langone Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:4,paginationItems:[{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/14.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"165627",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosa María",middleName:null,surname:"Martínez-Espinosa",slug:"rosa-maria-martinez-espinosa",fullName:"Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/165627/images/system/165627.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa has been a Spanish Full Professor since 2020 (Biochemistry and Molecular Biology) and is currently Vice-President of International Relations and Cooperation development and leader of the research group 'Applied Biochemistry” (University of Alicante, Spain). Other positions she has held at the university include Vice-Dean of Master Programs, Vice-Dean of the Degree in Biology and Vice-Dean for Mobility and Enterprise and Engagement at the Faculty of Science (University of Alicante). She received her Bachelor in Biology in 1998 (University of Alicante) and her PhD in 2003 (Biochemistry, University of Alicante). She undertook post-doctoral research at the University of East Anglia (Norwich, U.K. 2004-2005; 2007-2008).\nHer multidisciplinary research focuses on investigating archaea and their potential applications in biotechnology. She has an H-index of 21. She has authored one patent and has published more than 70 indexed papers and around 60 book chapters.\nShe has contributed to more than 150 national and international meetings during the last 15 years. Her research interests include archaea metabolism, enzymes purification and characterization, gene regulation, carotenoids and bioplastics production, antioxidant\ncompounds, waste water treatments, and brines bioremediation.\nRosa María’s other roles include editorial board member for several journals related\nto biochemistry, reviewer for more than 60 journals (biochemistry, molecular biology, biotechnology, chemistry and microbiology) and president of several organizing committees in international meetings related to the N-cycle or respiratory processes.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"441442",title:"Dr.",name:"Şükrü",middleName:null,surname:"Beydemir",slug:"sukru-beydemir",fullName:"Şükrü Beydemir",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003GsUoIQAV/Profile_Picture_1634557147521",biography:"Dr. Şükrü Beydemir obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 1995 from Yüzüncü Yıl University, MSc in Biochemistry in 1998, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2002 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He performed post-doctoral studies at Max-Planck Institute, Germany, and University of Florence, Italy in addition to making several scientific visits abroad. He currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Anadolu University, Turkey. Dr. Beydemir has published over a hundred scientific papers spanning protein biochemistry, enzymology and medicinal chemistry, reviews, book chapters and presented several conferences to scientists worldwide. He has received numerous publication awards from various international scientific councils. He serves in the Editorial Board of several international journals. Dr. Beydemir is also Rector of Bilecik Şeyh Edebali University, Turkey.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Anadolu University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorTwo:{id:"13652",title:"Prof.",name:"Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Ekinci",slug:"deniz-ekinci",fullName:"Deniz Ekinci",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYLT1QAO/Profile_Picture_1634557223079",biography:"Dr. Deniz Ekinci obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 2004, MSc in Biochemistry in 2006, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2009 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He studied at Stetson University, USA, in 2007-2008 and at the Max Planck Institute of Molecular Cell Biology and Genetics, Germany, in 2009-2010. Dr. Ekinci currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Agriculture and is the Head of the Enzyme and Microbial Biotechnology Division, Ondokuz Mayıs University, Turkey. He is a member of the Turkish Biochemical Society, American Chemical Society, and German Genetics society. Dr. Ekinci published around ninety scientific papers, reviews and book chapters, and presented several conferences to scientists. He has received numerous publication awards from several scientific councils. Dr. Ekinci serves as the Editor in Chief of four international books and is involved in the Editorial Board of several international journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ondokuz Mayıs University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorThree:null},{id:"17",title:"Metabolism",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/17.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"138626",title:"Dr.",name:"Yannis",middleName:null,surname:"Karamanos",slug:"yannis-karamanos",fullName:"Yannis Karamanos",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002g6Jv2QAE/Profile_Picture_1629356660984",biography:"Yannis Karamanos, born in Greece in 1953, completed his pre-graduate studies at the Université Pierre et Marie Curie, Paris, then his Masters and Doctoral degree at the Université de Lille (1983). He was associate professor at the University of Limoges (1987) before becoming full professor of biochemistry at the Université d’Artois (1996). He worked on the structure-function relationships of glycoconjugates and his main project was the investigations on the biological roles of the de-N-glycosylation enzymes (Endo-N-acetyl-β-D-glucosaminidase and peptide-N4-(N-acetyl-β-glucosaminyl) asparagine amidase). From 2002 he contributes to the understanding of the Blood-brain barrier functioning using proteomics approaches. He has published more than 70 papers. His teaching areas are energy metabolism and regulation, integration and organ specialization and metabolic adaptation.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Artois University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"France"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"18",title:"Proteomics",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/18.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"200689",title:"Prof.",name:"Paolo",middleName:null,surname:"Iadarola",slug:"paolo-iadarola",fullName:"Paolo Iadarola",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSCl8QAG/Profile_Picture_1623568118342",biography:"Paolo Iadarola graduated with a degree in Chemistry from the University of Pavia (Italy) in July 1972. He then worked as an Assistant Professor at the Faculty of Science of the same University until 1984. In 1985, Prof. Iadarola became Associate Professor at the Department of Biology and Biotechnologies of the University of Pavia and retired in October 2017. Since then, he has been working as an Adjunct Professor in the same Department at the University of Pavia. His research activity during the first years was primarily focused on the purification and structural characterization of enzymes from animal and plant sources. During this period, Prof. Iadarola familiarized himself with the conventional techniques used in column chromatography, spectrophotometry, manual Edman degradation, and electrophoresis). Since 1995, he has been working on: i) the determination in biological fluids (serum, urine, bronchoalveolar lavage, sputum) of proteolytic activities involved in the degradation processes of connective tissue matrix, and ii) on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. In this context, he has developed and validated new methodologies (e.g., Capillary Electrophoresis coupled to Laser-Induced Fluorescence, CE-LIF) whose application enabled him to determine both the amounts of biochemical markers (Desmosines) in urine/serum of patients affected by Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (Human Neutrophil Elastase, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in sputa of these patients. More recently, Prof. Iadarola was involved in developing techniques such as two-dimensional electrophoresis coupled to liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry (2DE-LC/MS) for the proteomic analysis of biological fluids aimed at the identification of potential biomarkers of different lung diseases. He is the author of about 150 publications (According to Scopus: H-Index: 23; Total citations: 1568- According to WOS: H-Index: 20; Total Citations: 1296) of peer-reviewed international journals. He is a Consultant Reviewer for several journals, including the Journal of Chromatography A, Journal of Chromatography B, Plos ONE, Proteomes, International Journal of Molecular Science, Biotech, Electrophoresis, and others. He is also Associate Editor of Biotech.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorTwo:{id:"201414",title:"Dr.",name:"Simona",middleName:null,surname:"Viglio",slug:"simona-viglio",fullName:"Simona Viglio",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRKDHQA4/Profile_Picture_1630402531487",biography:"Simona Viglio is an Associate Professor of Biochemistry at the Department of Molecular Medicine at the University of Pavia. She has been working since 1995 on the determination of proteolytic enzymes involved in the degradation process of connective tissue matrix and on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. She gained considerable experience in developing and validating new methodologies whose applications allowed her to determine both the amount of biomarkers (Desmosine and Isodesmosine) in the urine of patients affected by COPD, and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (HNE, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in the sputa of these patients. Simona Viglio was also involved in research dealing with the supplementation of amino acids in patients with brain injury and chronic heart failure. She is presently engaged in the development of 2-DE and LC-MS techniques for the study of proteomics in biological fluids. The aim of this research is the identification of potential biomarkers of lung diseases. She is an author of about 90 publications (According to Scopus: H-Index: 23; According to WOS: H-Index: 20) on peer-reviewed journals, a member of the “Società Italiana di Biochimica e Biologia Molecolare,“ and a Consultant Reviewer for International Journal of Molecular Science, Journal of Chromatography A, COPD, Plos ONE and Nutritional Neuroscience.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorThree:null}]},overviewPageOFChapters:{paginationCount:36,paginationItems:[{id:"82195",title:"Endoplasmic Reticulum: A Hub in Lipid Homeostasis",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105450",signatures:"Raúl Ventura and María Isabel Hernández-Alvarez",slug:"endoplasmic-reticulum-a-hub-in-lipid-homeostasis",totalDownloads:4,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Updates on Endoplasmic Reticulum",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11674.jpg",subseries:{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology"}}},{id:"82409",title:"Purinergic Signaling in Covid-19 Disease",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105008",signatures:"Hailian Shen",slug:"purinergic-signaling-in-covid-19-disease",totalDownloads:5,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Purinergic System",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10801.jpg",subseries:{id:"17",title:"Metabolism"}}},{id:"82374",title:"The Potential of the Purinergic System as a Therapeutic Target of Natural Compounds in Cutaneous Melanoma",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105457",signatures:"Gilnei Bruno da Silva, Daiane Manica, Marcelo Moreno and Margarete Dulce Bagatini",slug:"the-potential-of-the-purinergic-system-as-a-therapeutic-target-of-natural-compounds-in-cutaneous-mel",totalDownloads:10,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Purinergic System",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10801.jpg",subseries:{id:"17",title:"Metabolism"}}},{id:"82103",title:"The Role of Endoplasmic Reticulum Stress and Its Regulation in the Progression of Neurological and Infectious Diseases",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105543",signatures:"Mary Dover, Michael Kishek, Miranda Eddins, Naneeta Desar, Ketema Paul and Milan Fiala",slug:"the-role-of-endoplasmic-reticulum-stress-and-its-regulation-in-the-progression-of-neurological-and-i",totalDownloads:6,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Updates on Endoplasmic Reticulum",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11674.jpg",subseries:{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology"}}}]},overviewPagePublishedBooks:{paginationCount:32,paginationItems:[{type:"book",id:"7006",title:"Biochemistry and Health Benefits of Fatty Acids",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7006.jpg",slug:"biochemistry-and-health-benefits-of-fatty-acids",publishedDate:"December 19th 2018",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Viduranga Waisundara",hash:"c93a00abd68b5eba67e5e719f67fd20b",volumeInSeries:1,fullTitle:"Biochemistry and Health Benefits of Fatty Acids",editors:[{id:"194281",title:"Dr.",name:"Viduranga Y.",middleName:null,surname:"Waisundara",slug:"viduranga-y.-waisundara",fullName:"Viduranga Y. 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He also obtained an MSc in Molecular and Genetic Medicine, and a Ph.D. in Clinical Immunology and Human Genetics from the University of Sheffield, UK. He also completed a short-term fellowship in Pediatric Clinical Immunology and Bone Marrow Transplantation at Newcastle General Hospital, England. Dr. Rezaei is a Full Professor of Immunology and Vice Dean of International Affairs and Research, at the School of Medicine, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, and the co-founder and head of the Research Center for Immunodeficiencies. He is also the founding president of the Universal Scientific Education and Research Network (USERN). Dr. Rezaei has directed more than 100 research projects and has designed and participated in several international collaborative projects. He is an editor, editorial assistant, or editorial board member of more than forty international journals. He has edited more than 50 international books, presented more than 500 lectures/posters in congresses/meetings, and published more than 1,100 scientific papers in international journals.",institutionString:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",institution:{name:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"180733",title:"Dr.",name:"Jean",middleName:null,surname:"Engohang-Ndong",slug:"jean-engohang-ndong",fullName:"Jean Engohang-Ndong",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180733/images/system/180733.png",biography:"Dr. Jean Engohang-Ndong was born and raised in Gabon. After obtaining his Associate Degree of Science at the University of Science and Technology of Masuku, Gabon, he continued his education in France where he obtained his BS, MS, and Ph.D. in Medical Microbiology. He worked as a post-doctoral fellow at the Public Health Research Institute (PHRI), Newark, NJ for four years before accepting a three-year faculty position at Brigham Young University-Hawaii. Dr. Engohang-Ndong is a tenured faculty member with the academic rank of Full Professor at Kent State University, Ohio, where he teaches a wide range of biological science courses and pursues his research in medical and environmental microbiology. Recently, he expanded his research interest to epidemiology and biostatistics of chronic diseases in Gabon.",institutionString:"Kent State University",institution:{name:"Kent State University",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"188773",title:"Prof.",name:"Emmanuel",middleName:null,surname:"Drouet",slug:"emmanuel-drouet",fullName:"Emmanuel Drouet",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/188773/images/system/188773.png",biography:"Emmanuel Drouet, PharmD, is a Professor of Virology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, the University Grenoble-Alpes, France. As a head scientist at the Institute of Structural Biology in Grenoble, Dr. Drouet’s research investigates persisting viruses in humans (RNA and DNA viruses) and the balance with our host immune system. He focuses on these viruses’ effects on humans (both their impact on pathology and their symbiotic relationships in humans). He has an excellent track record in the herpesvirus field, and his group is engaged in clinical research in the field of Epstein-Barr virus diseases. He is the editor of the online Encyclopedia of Environment and he coordinates the Universal Health Coverage education program for the BioHealth Computing Schools of the European Institute of Science.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Grenoble Alpes University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",biography:"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (especially arboviral diseases). He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},{id:"332819",title:"Dr.",name:"Chukwudi Michael",middleName:"Michael",surname:"Egbuche",slug:"chukwudi-michael-egbuche",fullName:"Chukwudi Michael Egbuche",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/332819/images/14624_n.jpg",biography:"I an Dr. Chukwudi Michael Egbuche. I am a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Parasitology and Entomology, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nnamdi Azikiwe University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"284232",title:"Mr.",name:"Nikunj",middleName:"U",surname:"Tandel",slug:"nikunj-tandel",fullName:"Nikunj Tandel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/284232/images/8275_n.jpg",biography:'Mr. Nikunj Tandel has completed his Master\'s degree in Biotechnology from VIT University, India in the year of 2012. He is having 8 years of research experience especially in the field of malaria epidemiology, immunology, and nanoparticle-based drug delivery system against the infectious diseases, autoimmune disorders and cancer. He has worked for the NIH funded-International Center of Excellence in Malaria Research project "Center for the study of complex malaria in India (CSCMi)" in collaboration with New York University. The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. Received the CSIR-SRF (Senior Research Fellow) award-2018, FIMSA (Federation of Immunological Societies of Asia-Oceania) Travel Bursary award to attend the IUIS-IIS-FIMSA Immunology course-2019',institutionString:"Nirma University",institution:{name:"Nirma University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334383",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Simone",middleName:"Ulrich",surname:"Ulrich Picoli",slug:"simone-ulrich-picoli",fullName:"Simone Ulrich Picoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334383/images/15919_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from Universidade Luterana do Brasil (1999), Master in Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology from Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (2002), Specialization in Clinical Microbiology from Universidade de São Paulo, USP (2007) and PhD in Sciences in Gastroenterology and Hepatology (2012). She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:null},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). He was also awarded 'Outstanding Clinician in General Medicine” by Venus International Foundation for his extensive research expertise and services, perform over and above the standard expected in the advancement of healthcare, patient safety and quality of care.",institutionString:"Interfaith Medical Center",institution:{name:"Interfaith Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"93517",title:"Dr.",name:"Clement",middleName:"Adebajo",surname:"Meseko",slug:"clement-meseko",fullName:"Clement Meseko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/93517/images/system/93517.jpg",biography:"Dr. Clement Meseko obtained DVM and PhD degree in Veterinary Medicine and Virology respectively. He has worked for over 20 years in both private and public sectors including the academia, contributing to knowledge and control of infectious disease. Through the application of epidemiological skill, classical and molecular virological skills, he investigates viruses of economic and public health importance for the mitigation of the negative impact on people, animal and the environment in the context of Onehealth. \r\nDr. Meseko’s field experience on animal and zoonotic diseases and pathogen dynamics at the human-animal interface over the years shaped his carrier in research and scientific inquiries. He has been part of the investigation of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza incursions in sub Saharan Africa and monitors swine Influenza (Pandemic influenza Virus) agro-ecology and potential for interspecies transmission. He has authored and reviewed a number of journal articles and book chapters.",institutionString:"National Veterinary Research Institute",institution:{name:"National Veterinary Research Institute",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"94928",title:"Dr.",name:"Takuo",middleName:null,surname:"Mizukami",slug:"takuo-mizukami",fullName:"Takuo Mizukami",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94928/images/6402_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Institute of Infectious Diseases",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"233433",title:"Dr.",name:"Yulia",middleName:null,surname:"Desheva",slug:"yulia-desheva",fullName:"Yulia Desheva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/233433/images/system/233433.png",biography:"Dr. Yulia Desheva is a leading researcher at the Institute of Experimental Medicine, St. Petersburg, Russia. 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