Technologies suitable to remove PAHs from contaminated soils.
\\n\\n
More than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\\n\\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\\n\\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\\n\\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\\n\\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\\n\\n\\n\\n
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"IntechOpen Maintains",originalUrl:"/media/original/113"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
Simba Information has released its Open Access Book Publishing 2020 - 2024 report and has again identified IntechOpen as the world’s largest Open Access book publisher by title count.
\n\nSimba Information is a leading provider for market intelligence and forecasts in the media and publishing industry. The report, published every year, provides an overview and financial outlook for the global professional e-book publishing market.
\n\nIntechOpen, De Gruyter, and Frontiers are the largest OA book publishers by title count, with IntechOpen coming in at first place with 5,101 OA books published, a good 1,782 titles ahead of the nearest competitor.
\n\nSince the first Open Access Book Publishing report published in 2016, IntechOpen has held the top stop each year.
\n\n\n\nMore than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\n\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\n\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\n\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\n\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\n\n\n\n
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-supports-asapbio-s-new-initiative-publish-your-reviews-20220729",title:"IntechOpen Supports ASAPbio’s New Initiative Publish Your Reviews"},{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"8316",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Normal and Malignant B-Cell",title:"Normal and Malignant B-Cell",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Normal and Malignant B-Cell is a collection of harmonious chapters contributed by different authors. This book sets out to describe the B-cell during different stages of ontogeny and the molecular mechanisms of its antigen receptor diversity. It also discusses the main clinical and etiopathogenic aspects when it is transformed into a malignant cell. The book will be interesting and useful for clinicians, biologists, researchers, teachers, and graduate students of both doctoral and master's degrees in the field of immunology.",isbn:"978-1-78985-601-9",printIsbn:"978-1-78985-430-5",pdfIsbn:"978-1-78985-602-6",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.78445",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"normal-and-malignant-b-cell",numberOfPages:162,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"a12608fa8d5fdb33c956f967974a4ef1",bookSignature:"Mourad Aribi",publishedDate:"February 26th 2020",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8316.jpg",numberOfDownloads:8173,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:2,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:2,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"August 29th 2018",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"October 24th 2018",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"December 23rd 2018",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"March 13th 2019",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"May 12th 2019",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"40046",title:"Prof.",name:"Mourad",middleName:null,surname:"Aribi",slug:"mourad-aribi",fullName:"Mourad Aribi",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/40046/images/system/40046.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Mourad Aribi, PhD, Dr. Hab., HDR, is a professor of immunology at the University of Tlemcen (Algeria), and the founder\r\nand director of the Laboratory of Applied Molecular Biology\r\nand Immunology (W0414100). His creativity allowed him to\r\nconstruct for the first time Master’s and PhD training programs\r\nin immunology at his university, welcoming students and young\r\nresearchers from different regions and countries. His current\r\nresearch focuses on the modulation of cell-mediated and inflammatory immune\r\nresponses in autoimmune diseases, cancer diseases, and infectious diseases. Thanks\r\nto his interdisciplinary skills, he was able to develop numerous high-level bilateral\r\nand multilateral collaboration projects with large teams, in particular with partners from CNRS and INSERM (Montpellier, Marseille, Burgundy-Franche-Comté,\r\nFrance), Institute for Immunodeficiency (Freibourg, Germany), and, more recently, with partners from Harvard Medical School (Boston, USA). He is a regular\r\nreviewer for many international scientific journals and is also a member of the\r\neditorial board of Frontiers in Immunology (the official journal of the International\r\nUnion of Immunological Societies).",institutionString:"University of Tlemcen",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"5",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"3",institution:{name:"University of Abou Bekr Belkaïd",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Algeria"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"1026",title:"Hematological Oncology",slug:"hematological-oncology"}],chapters:[{id:"70861",title:"Introductory Chapter: B-Cells",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.90636",slug:"introductory-chapter-b-cells",totalDownloads:1157,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:null,signatures:"Mourad Aribi",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/70861",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/70861",authors:[{id:"40046",title:"Prof.",name:"Mourad",surname:"Aribi",slug:"mourad-aribi",fullName:"Mourad Aribi"}],corrections:null},{id:"70842",title:"Immunogenetic Aspect of B-Cell Antigen Receptor Diversity Generation",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.90637",slug:"immunogenetic-aspect-of-b-cell-antigen-receptor-diversity-generation",totalDownloads:823,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The generation of antigen receptor diversity, and thus of the B-cell repertoire, is the result of very complex immunogenetic mechanisms. So, this chapter gives a brief overview on immunoglobulin (IG) gene organization and gene rearrangements, as well as the main mechanisms of immunoglobulin repertoire development.",signatures:"Mourad Aribi",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/70842",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/70842",authors:[{id:"40046",title:"Prof.",name:"Mourad",surname:"Aribi",slug:"mourad-aribi",fullName:"Mourad Aribi"}],corrections:null},{id:"70231",title:"B-Cell Lymphomas",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.87370",slug:"b-cell-lymphomas",totalDownloads:748,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"B-cell lymphomas arise from different stages of differentiation of B-cells and constitute a broad spectrum, extending from small- to large-cell types, and from low to high grades of clinical behavior. It has undergone several terminologies and classifications. Because of the diverse terminology that is used in the multiple classifications of lymphomas, there have been attempts to develop uniform pathologic descriptions with clinical usefulness. The current WHO classification uses morphologic, immunophenotypic, genotypic, and clinical features to classify the lymphoid neoplasms into five broad categories as precursor B-cell neoplasms, peripheral B-cell neoplasms, precursor T-cell neoplasms, peripheral T-cell neoplasms and Hodgkin lymphoma. Hodgkin lymphoma though originates from B-cell has distinctive pathologic features and is treated as a separate entity. This chapter discusses about the etiology and pathogenesis, clinical features, recent WHO classification of B-cell lymphoma (2016), the highlights of modifications brought in, the morphology, immunophenotype, staging, treatment and prognosis of various B-cell lymphomas.",signatures:"Subramanian Kalaivani Selvi, B.H. Srinivas and Sadhanandham Shrinuvasan",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/70231",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/70231",authors:[{id:"202500",title:"Dr.",name:"Sadhanandham",surname:"Shrinuvasan",slug:"sadhanandham-shrinuvasan",fullName:"Sadhanandham Shrinuvasan"},{id:"202846",title:"Dr.",name:"Subramanian Kalaivani",surname:"Selvi",slug:"subramanian-kalaivani-selvi",fullName:"Subramanian Kalaivani Selvi"},{id:"296733",title:"Prof.",name:"B.H.",surname:"Srinivas",slug:"b.h.-srinivas",fullName:"B.H. Srinivas"}],corrections:null},{id:"68170",title:"B Cell Lymphomagenesis",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.87241",slug:"b-cell-lymphomagenesis",totalDownloads:1202,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Lymphoid neoplasms are a heterogeneous group of malignancies whose diagnosis depends on a very good analysis of hematopathology and morphology, immunophenotype, cytogenetic, molecular, and clinical characteristics. B-cell lymphomas begin from different developmental stages of B cells in germinal centers of secondary lymphoid tissue. The evolution of B-cell lymphomagenesis depends on different numbers of signal pathways. Proteins that play key point of signaling networks are changed by aberrant chromosomal expression, translocation, and/or accumulation, and those events determine the fate of the affected B cells. Many chemokines and cytokines have been implicated in providing the line for the cellular surviving and interaction in lymphoid organogenesis. Specific chromosomal alterations were associated with significant changes in gene-expression signatures that reflect various aspects of lymphoma cell biology as well as the host response to the lymphoma. The goal of this study was to find out a correlation between tumor markers and survival in patients with subgroups of DLBCL. The goal is to find out chronic autoimmune or pathogen-induced immune reactions resulting in lymphoid neogenesis. So we address (i) chemokines and adhesion molecules involved in lymphoid neogenesis, (ii) the autoimmune diseases and pathogens which are associated with the development of B-cell lymphomas, and (iii) the molecular mechanisms involved in the initiation and progression of DLBCL.",signatures:"Željka Škunca",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/68170",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/68170",authors:[{id:"254947",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Željka",surname:"Škunca",slug:"zeljka-skunca",fullName:"Željka Škunca"}],corrections:null},{id:"66394",title:"Diffuse Large B-Cell Lymphoma",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.85489",slug:"diffuse-large-b-cell-lymphoma",totalDownloads:2483,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Diffuse large B-cell lymphoma (DLBCL) is a heterogenous class of aggressive lymphoma and is considered as the most common subtype of non-Hodgkin lymphomas (NHL). Several genetic anomalies such as point mutations, numerical alterations, and, more rarely, translocations and gene amplifications play a role in the pathogenesis of this class of B-cell lymphoma and have been related to specific histological and immunophenotypic subtypes. On the other hand, the treatment protocol in DLBCL did not witness significant changes during the last two decades. The widespread adoption of rituximab as an important adjuvant to standard chemotherapy protocol in CD20+ cases was a notable exception, which provided significant improvement in disease-free survival and overall survival, with limited toxicity. However, no less than 20% of patients diagnosed with DLBCL exhibit relapse after the initial response to R-CHOP regimen, while more than 15% of the patients exhibit primary refractory disease. This is the reason why a review of all the morphological, clinical, and therapeutic particularities of DLBCL is required.",signatures:"Patrascu Ana Maria, Ionela Rotaru, Valeriu Surlin and Stefan Patrascu",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/66394",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/66394",authors:[{id:"158096",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Valeriu",surname:"Surlin",slug:"valeriu-surlin",fullName:"Valeriu Surlin"},{id:"194539",title:"Dr.",name:"Stefan",surname:"Patrascu",slug:"stefan-patrascu",fullName:"Stefan Patrascu"},{id:"290810",title:"Dr.",name:"Ana Maria",surname:"Patrascu",slug:"ana-maria-patrascu",fullName:"Ana Maria Patrascu"},{id:"292959",title:"Dr.",name:"Ionela",surname:"Rotaru",slug:"ionela-rotaru",fullName:"Ionela Rotaru"}],corrections:null},{id:"66944",title:"B-Cell Precursors: Immunophenotypic Features in the Detection of Minimal Residual Disease in Acute Leukemia",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.84223",slug:"b-cell-precursors-immunophenotypic-features-in-the-detection-of-minimal-residual-disease-in-acute-le",totalDownloads:1020,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Minimal residual disease (MRD) as a tool to monitor response to therapy is both a criterion for detailed risk stratification and an independent prognostic factor in childhood acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL). Immunological assays particularly flow cytometry (FC) are priority methods in MRD monitoring. Multicolor flow cytometry makes it possible to most fully characterize the immunophenotype of tumor B lymphoblasts and reveal leukemia-associated immunophenotypes not only according to the CD58 and CD38 antigens but also as an additional criterion of aberrancy. This allows you to identify and select individual criteria for further monitoring of minimal residual disease for each patient with ALL. The aim of this chapter is to compare immunophenotyping features of normal B-cell precursors and B-lymphoblasts in acute leukemia and to show possibilities of use of a leukemia-associated immunophenotype in monitoring of the MRD.",signatures:"Olga Chernysheva, Lyudmila Yuryevna Grivtsova, Alexander Popa and Nikolay Nikolayevich Tupitsyn",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/66944",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/66944",authors:[{id:"253587",title:"Dr.",name:"Lyudmila Yuryevna",surname:"Grivtsova",slug:"lyudmila-yuryevna-grivtsova",fullName:"Lyudmila Yuryevna Grivtsova"},{id:"263416",title:"Prof.",name:"Nikolay Nikolayevich",surname:"Tupitsyn",slug:"nikolay-nikolayevich-tupitsyn",fullName:"Nikolay Nikolayevich Tupitsyn"},{id:"276031",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Olga",surname:"Chernysheva",slug:"olga-chernysheva",fullName:"Olga Chernysheva"},{id:"285688",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Popa",slug:"alexander-popa",fullName:"Alexander Popa"}],corrections:null},{id:"63647",title:"Splenectomy in Gastric Cancer: Influence of B Lymphocytes",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.80075",slug:"splenectomy-in-gastric-cancer-influence-of-b-lymphocytes",totalDownloads:740,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The spleen is the largest peripheral organ of the immune system. The standard volume of lymphodissection in stomach cancer during gastrectomy or proximal resection is D2, which implies splenectomy. Immunity disorders in patients after splenectomy primarily affect the B cell immune response. Peripheral blood B-lymphocytes subpopulations have been studied in patients with gastric cancer. Group 1 - patients with gastrectomy, D2 lymphodissection, group 2 - patients with gastrectomy, D2-lymphodissection, splenectomy. Evaluation of the expression of antigens (CD20, CD21, CD23, CD38, HLA-DR, CD71, CD10, CD95, CD25, CD5, CD56, κ- and λ-light was performed in the gate of CD19+ cells. Among peripheral blood lymphocytes the presence of CD19+CD5+ B cells (B1a cells), some of which express the activation antigens CD38 and CD23 is found; a small part of CD5+ B cells is CD25+CD38−. The number of CD23+ cells ranged from 25 to 40% in different patients. A significant number of B cells with a low level of CD21+ expression were detected. In group 2 after surgery, the percentage of cells with CD5+ expression significantly increased, the relative amount of CD19+ lymphocytes, CD19+CD21+ B cells decreased. Given data on B1 and BMZ populations, this can lead to a weakening of both general and antitumor immunity.",signatures:"Chulkova Svetlana Vasilievna, Lyudmila Yuryevna Grivtsova, Ivan Sokratovich Stylidi, Nikolay Nikolayevich Tupitsyn and Zamira Magometovna Galaeva",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/63647",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/63647",authors:[{id:"253587",title:"Dr.",name:"Lyudmila Yuryevna",surname:"Grivtsova",slug:"lyudmila-yuryevna-grivtsova",fullName:"Lyudmila Yuryevna Grivtsova"},{id:"263416",title:"Prof.",name:"Nikolay Nikolayevich",surname:"Tupitsyn",slug:"nikolay-nikolayevich-tupitsyn",fullName:"Nikolay Nikolayevich Tupitsyn"},{id:"254241",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Chulkova Svetlana",surname:"Vasilievna",slug:"chulkova-svetlana-vasilievna",fullName:"Chulkova Svetlana Vasilievna"},{id:"263428",title:"Prof.",name:"Ivan",surname:"Sokratovich Stylidi",slug:"ivan-sokratovich-stylidi",fullName:"Ivan Sokratovich Stylidi"},{id:"267621",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Zamira Magometovna",surname:"Galaeva",slug:"zamira-magometovna-galaeva",fullName:"Zamira Magometovna Galaeva"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"5991",title:"Natural Killer Cells",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ea5a1d2f5030a6af3f29cc75fdb9f559",slug:"natural-killer-cells",bookSignature:"Mourad Aribi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5991.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"40046",title:"Prof.",name:"Mourad",surname:"Aribi",slug:"mourad-aribi",fullName:"Mourad Aribi"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5467",title:"Immunopathogenesis and Immune-based Therapy for Selected Autoimmune Disorders",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c7843c501b6842ae6f0f150bfd46370d",slug:"immunopathogenesis-and-immune-based-therapy-for-selected-autoimmune-disorders",bookSignature:"Mourad Aribi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5467.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"40046",title:"Prof.",name:"Mourad",surname:"Aribi",slug:"mourad-aribi",fullName:"Mourad Aribi"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1830",title:"Hematology",subtitle:"Science and Practice",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5bcd8875467e51b02e0ea4aec429ad51",slug:"hematology-science-and-practice",bookSignature:"Charles H. 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M. Sohel",middleName:null,surname:"Murshed",slug:"s.-m.-sohel-murshed",fullName:"S. M. Sohel Murshed"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"93483",title:"Prof.",name:"Md Salim Newaz",middleName:null,surname:"Kazi",fullName:"Md Salim Newaz Kazi",slug:"md-salim-newaz-kazi",email:"salimnewaz@um.edu.my",position:null,institution:{name:"University of Malaya",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"187135",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Kah Hou",middleName:null,surname:"Teng",fullName:"Kah Hou Teng",slug:"kah-hou-teng",email:"alex_teng1989@hotmail.com",position:null,institution:{name:"Liverpool John Moores University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},{id:"194347",title:"Prof.",name:"Abu Bakar",middleName:null,surname:"Mahat",fullName:"Abu Bakar Mahat",slug:"abu-bakar-mahat",email:"ir_abakar@um.edu.my",position:null,institution:{name:"Liverpool John Moores University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},{id:"194348",title:"Dr.",name:"Bee Teng",middleName:null,surname:"Chew",fullName:"Bee Teng Chew",slug:"bee-teng-chew",email:"chewbeeteng@um.edu.my",position:null,institution:{name:"Liverpool John Moores University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},{id:"194349",title:"Prof.",name:"Ahmed",middleName:null,surname:"Al-Shamma'A",fullName:"Ahmed Al-Shamma'A",slug:"ahmed-al-shamma'a",email:"A.Al-Shamma'a@ljmu.ac.uk",position:null,institution:{name:"Liverpool John Moores University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},{id:"194350",title:"Prof.",name:"Andy",middleName:null,surname:"Shaw",fullName:"Andy Shaw",slug:"andy-shaw",email:"A.Shaw@ljmu.ac.uk",position:null,institution:{name:"Liverpool John Moores University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}}]}},chapter:{id:"52929",slug:"industrial-heat-exchanger-operation-and-maintenance-to-minimize-fouling-and-corrosion",signatures:"Teng Kah Hou, Salim Newaz Kazi, Abu Bakar Mahat, Chew Bee Teng,\nAhmed Al-Shamma’a and Andy Shaw",dateSubmitted:"March 23rd 2016",dateReviewed:"October 10th 2016",datePrePublished:null,datePublished:"April 26th 2017",book:{id:"6080",title:"Heat Exchangers",subtitle:"Advanced Features and Applications",fullTitle:"Heat Exchangers - Advanced Features and Applications",slug:"heat-exchangers-advanced-features-and-applications",publishedDate:"April 26th 2017",bookSignature:"S M Sohel Murshed and Manuel Matos Lopes",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6080.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"24904",title:"Prof.",name:"S. M. Sohel",middleName:null,surname:"Murshed",slug:"s.-m.-sohel-murshed",fullName:"S. M. Sohel Murshed"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"93483",title:"Prof.",name:"Md Salim Newaz",middleName:null,surname:"Kazi",fullName:"Md Salim Newaz Kazi",slug:"md-salim-newaz-kazi",email:"salimnewaz@um.edu.my",position:null,institution:{name:"University of Malaya",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"187135",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Kah Hou",middleName:null,surname:"Teng",fullName:"Kah Hou Teng",slug:"kah-hou-teng",email:"alex_teng1989@hotmail.com",position:null,institution:{name:"Liverpool John Moores University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},{id:"194347",title:"Prof.",name:"Abu Bakar",middleName:null,surname:"Mahat",fullName:"Abu Bakar Mahat",slug:"abu-bakar-mahat",email:"ir_abakar@um.edu.my",position:null,institution:{name:"Liverpool John Moores University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},{id:"194348",title:"Dr.",name:"Bee Teng",middleName:null,surname:"Chew",fullName:"Bee Teng Chew",slug:"bee-teng-chew",email:"chewbeeteng@um.edu.my",position:null,institution:{name:"Liverpool John Moores University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},{id:"194349",title:"Prof.",name:"Ahmed",middleName:null,surname:"Al-Shamma'A",fullName:"Ahmed Al-Shamma'A",slug:"ahmed-al-shamma'a",email:"A.Al-Shamma'a@ljmu.ac.uk",position:null,institution:{name:"Liverpool John Moores University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},{id:"194350",title:"Prof.",name:"Andy",middleName:null,surname:"Shaw",fullName:"Andy Shaw",slug:"andy-shaw",email:"A.Shaw@ljmu.ac.uk",position:null,institution:{name:"Liverpool John Moores University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}}]},book:{id:"6080",title:"Heat Exchangers",subtitle:"Advanced Features and Applications",fullTitle:"Heat Exchangers - Advanced Features and Applications",slug:"heat-exchangers-advanced-features-and-applications",publishedDate:"April 26th 2017",bookSignature:"S M Sohel Murshed and Manuel Matos Lopes",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6080.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"24904",title:"Prof.",name:"S. 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\r\n\tCartilage lesions of the knee are common and should be treated correctly if symptomatic. Until now, multiple (surgical) techniques have been described; however, there is no consensus on which one should be used. Also, treatment techniques using platelet-rich plasma, mesenchymal stem cells, and different king of growth hormones have been mentioned. In this book, the importance of other knee structures when treating these knee cartilage defects will be discussed as the meniscus, integrity of ligaments, and the importance of the alignment of the lower limb will be emphasized. The book will give an update on the different treatment approaches in knees with this (osteo-)chondral lesion.
",isbn:"978-1-83768-204-1",printIsbn:"978-1-83769-984-1",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83768-205-8",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"90b8cac7c6b437387a540790d072699f",bookSignature:"Dr. Karl Almqvist, Dr. Ahmed Ebrahim El Hamaky and Dr. Taiceer Abdulwahab",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11693.jpg",keywords:"Defect, Cartilage Function, Subchondral Bone, Envelope of Function, Alignment, Knee Stability, Meniscal Function, Surgical Treatment, Microfracture, Use of Scaffolds, Debridement",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"May 4th 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"July 7th 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"September 5th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"November 24th 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"January 23rd 2023",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"a month",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!1,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"An experienced researcher, specializing in sports medicine and knee pathologies, is currently involved in the development of innovative techniques for the treatment of cartilage lesions. Dr. Almqvist is an editorial board member at Sage Journals, Affiliated with the Orthocure Clinic, Dubai as an Orthopedic Consultant, Mediclinic City Hospital as a Consultant Orthopaedic surgeon, and is a member of ISAKOS.",coeditorOneBiosketch:"Dr. El Hamaky is a practitioner with over 11 years of experience in Orthopedic Surgery, is a member of the Egyptian Board of Orthopedic Surgery, a member of the AO Foundation, and was awarded his medical degree from the University of Cairo.",coeditorTwoBiosketch:"Dr. Taiceer Abdulwahab is an experienced practitioner, specializing in orthopedic surgery, trauma, and sports medicine, previously affiliated with The University of Bristol, The University of Edinburgh, The University of Warwick, and The University of Leicester, and is a member of the Royal College of Surgeons (MRCS) London, UK.",coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"251312",title:"Dr.",name:"Karl",middleName:null,surname:"Almqvist",slug:"karl-almqvist",fullName:"Karl Almqvist",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/251312/images/system/251312.jpg",biography:"Prof. Dr. Almqvist trained at the University of Ghent in Belgium and worked at the Ghent University Hospital where he was Head of Clinic, Department of Physical Medicine and Orthopaedic Surgery, prior to moving to Dubai in 2014. He also has considerable teaching experience and is an assistant professor in Physiotherapy and Orthopaedic Surgery at Ghent University. Karl Fredrik has published extensively and written a number of book chapters. He is a regular speaker at international meetings and is on the editorial board or is a reviewer for the major sports orthopedic journals.\r\nHe obtained his Ph.D. in 2001 (Human differentiated articular cartilage cells in biodegradable matrices – Preparative studies for their use in the repair of cartilage defects).\r\nKarl Fredrik is active in a number of orthopaedic organisations, and is the past Chairman of the Sports Committee of the International Society of Arthroscopy, Knee Surgery & Orthopaedic Sports Medicine as well as the past Chairman of the Cartilage Committee of the European Society of Sports Traumatology, Knee Surgery & Arthroscopy.\r\nThe main area of interest Karl Fredrik is knee surgery. His expertise covers the whole range of knee conditions from sports injuries to knee replacement.",institutionString:"Orthocure Dubai",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:null}],coeditorOne:{id:"452670",title:"Dr.",name:"Ahmed",middleName:null,surname:"Ebrahim El Hamaky",slug:"ahmed-ebrahim-el-hamaky",fullName:"Ahmed Ebrahim El Hamaky",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003N9dpTQAR/Profile_Picture_2022-03-04T13:32:24.jpg",biography:"An orthopedic surgeon with 11 years experience in orthopedic surgery, trained in highly specialized facilities in Egypt such as Al kasr al ainy University hospitals, Al Helal Orthopedic tertiary hospital, Air force specialized hospital. His interest and specialty are mainly sports medicine and surgery either shoulder or knee arthroscopic and primary arthroplasty surgeries. He shifted his career to Dubai Mediclinic City Hospital, Dubai.",institutionString:"Mediclinic City Hospital",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Mediclinic City Hospital",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Arab Emirates"}}},coeditorTwo:{id:"204153",title:"Dr.",name:"Taiceer",middleName:null,surname:"Abdulwahab",slug:"taiceer-abdulwahab",fullName:"Taiceer Abdulwahab",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204153/images/system/204153.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Taiceer Abdulwahab, is an Orthopaedic Surgeon at Mediclinic City Hospital, Dubai, United Arab Emirates. He is also an Assistant Clinical Professor of Orthopaedic Surgery at Mohammed Bin Rashid University of Medicine and Health Sciences (MBRU), Dubai.\r\nHe is a Master of Surgery (ChM) in Trauma & Orthopaedic Surgery, degree obtained at the University of Edinburgh School of Medicine in partnership with the Royal College of Surgeons of Edinburgh, UK. He received his Master of Science (MSc) in Trauma & Orthopaedic Surgery degree from Warwick School of Medicine, University of Warwick, UK. He also received a Postgraduate Award (PGA) in Understanding Research & Critical Appraisal at the Warwick School of Medicine, University of Warwick, UK.\r\nDr. Abdulwahab obtained his primary medical qualification, Bachelor of Medicine & Bachelor of Surgery (MBChB) from the Bristol School of Medicine, University of Bristol, UK.\r\nDr. Taiceer Abdulwahab is a Member of the Royal College of Surgeons of England (MRCS).\r\nHe has presented at various international conferences including the International Congress for Joint Arthroplasty (ICJR) and the European College of Sports & Exercise Physicians (ECOSEP) with FIFA update, as well as published in peer-reviewed journals, Editor for a book titled 'Meniscus of the Knee', and investigator in several randomized controlled trials.\r\nHe is Trauma Doctor for the annual Emirates Rugby 7s.\r\nHe has a special interest in Sports Surgery (Arthroscopic Shoulder and Knee surgery).",institutionString:"Mediclinic City Hospital",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Mediclinic City Hospital",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Arab Emirates"}}},coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"16",title:"Medicine",slug:"medicine"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"466998",firstName:"Dragan",lastName:"Miljak",middleName:"Anton",title:"Mr.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/466998/images/21564_n.jpg",email:"dragan@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review, to approval and revision, copy-editing and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. A unique name with a unique work ethic right at your service."}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"6550",title:"Cohort Studies in Health Sciences",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"01df5aba4fff1a84b37a2fdafa809660",slug:"cohort-studies-in-health-sciences",bookSignature:"R. Mauricio Barría",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6550.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"88861",title:"Dr.",name:"R. Mauricio",surname:"Barría",slug:"r.-mauricio-barria",fullName:"R. 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However, leaching and spills that occur during exploration, production, refining, transport and storage cause pollution problems. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are organic molecules that have two or more fused aromatic rings arranged in a linear, angular or cluster array. PAHs are found ubiquitously in the environment and are present in oil‐based fuels. Currently, PAHs had become increasingly important because they are considered as emerging contaminants by their high risk to humans and the environment. According to the US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), they are toxic, mutagenic and carcinogenic, and are priority to be eliminated from the environment. There are several biological alternatives to eliminate PAHs and this chapter focuses on developments in bioaugmentation, biostimulation and bioattenuation for the removal of PAHs.
\nMethods to remove PAHs have been classified as physicochemical, chemical and biological, and are briefly described in Table 1. Among biological techniques, bioremediation is considered a viable technology, environmental friendly and inexpensive that uses the metabolic diversity of some microorganisms to degrade and decrease the concentration of toxic compounds.
\nTechnology | \nPurpos | \n
---|---|
Solvent extraction | \nTreatment with two or more solvents, either alone or within mixtures to extract PAHs. | \n
Chemical oxidation | \nDifferent types of oxidants such as Fenton’s reagent, ozone, potassium permanganate, hydrogen peroxide are used to oxidize PAHs. | \n
Photocatalist degradation | \nPhotocatalytic oxidation‐reaction is used to destroy PAHs in presence of UV light. | \n
Electrokinetic remediation | \nIt is applied mainly to treat soils with low permeability and contaminated with heavy metals. In addition, co‐contaminated soils with organic pollutants can also be treated. | \n
Thermal technology | \nPAHs can be either destroyed or volatilized by the use of high temperatures. | \n
Phytoremediation | \nPlants are commonly used to extract and sequester heavy metals from contaminated soil. However, PAHs removal can also occur through synergistic interaction in the rhizosphere (plant and microorganism). | \n
Biological remediation | \nMineralization or biotransformation of toxic organic compounds either by specialized microorganisms or by their enzymes. | \n
Technologies suitable to remove PAHs from contaminated soils.
Biological removal or (biodegradation) is a process carried out by aerobic organisms mainly indigenous microorganisms and commonly it reaches the mineralization of toxic compounds to inorganic forms (CO2 and H2O). However, anaerobically PAHs biodegradation under denitrifying and sulphate‐reducing conditions has been well recognized [1]. The aerobic biodegradation mechanism of PAHs begins with the initial oxidation step, either where two atoms of oxygen are incorporated into the aromatic ring to form
Three technological processes are well recognized for in situ bioremediation: (1) bioattenuation, which depends on the natural degradation processes to dissipate contaminants through biotransformation; (2) biostimulation, involving the addition of nutrients, water, electron donors or acceptors that stimulates microbial growth; and (3) bioaugmentation, which requires the inoculation of indigenous, allochthonous or genetically modified microorganisms with specific capabilities to degrade or biotransform the contaminant of concern. Bioaugmentation can follow two strategies: (1) isolation of microorganisms able to remove the contaminants from contaminated soils, culturing them in the laboratory and returning them to the original site (reinoculation of indigenous bacteria), or (2) inoculation of microorganisms obtained from different contaminated sites with proven abilities to degrade the contaminants of concern [2].
\nIn the past decades, prominent microorganisms have been obtained and isolated, as consortia or individual strains, able to grow using aromatic compounds as the only carbon and energy source. These microorganisms have been used for PAHs’ degradation in soil by bioaugmentation, as it is mentioned in the following section.
\nIt relies on natural processes to dissipate contaminants through biological transformation, during which the indigenous microbial populations degrade recalcitrants or xenobiotics compounds based on their metabolic processes. Bioattenuation includes a variety of chemical, physical and biological processes that reduce the mass, toxicity, volume or concentration of contaminants. These processes include aerobic and anaerobic biodegradation, sorption, volatilization, and chemical or biological stabilization, transformation of contaminants. The time is not a limiting factor and usually is applied on sites with low concentration of contaminants, where no other remedial techniques are applicable.
\nIn order to reveal that bioattenuation occurs in remote areas consistently and continuously, deep‐sea sediments of Artic Ocean were collected in the summer of 2010; the PAHs compositions were examined and the 16 EPA‐priority PAHs were from 2.0 to 41.6 ng g-1 dry weight, among them, phenanthrene was relatively abundant in all sediments. The 16S rRNA gene of the total environmental DNA revealed potential degraders. Meanwhile, 40 PAH‐degrading bacteria were isolated though enrichment culture, of which
In terrestrial environments, where the biodegradation of a mixture of PAHs (fluorene, phenanthrene and pyrene) in mangrove sediments chronically exposed to industrial discharge, livestock and household waste and wastewater was revealed, the bioattenuation favoured the removal of fluorene and phenanthrene up to 99% while pyrene removal (98%) was only improved by adding salt medium as a nutrient supplement [4]. Besides, the bioattenuation was effective in the removal of total petroleum hydrocarbons (TPHs) and high molecular weight PAH residuals after applying a pilot‐scale biopile remediation treatment, by properly enhancing their catabolic capacities with the addition of lignocellulosic substrate as a biostimulant [5].
\nBiostimulation is the addition of nutrients to a contaminated site in order to encourage the growth of naturally occurring chemical‐degrading microorganisms. Generally, inorganic additions of macro (as N, P, K) or micronutrients (as Mg, S, Fe, Cl, Zn, Mn, Cu, Na) are important to recover depleted soils by agricultural management systems or contaminated with PAHs, in order to improve the degradation activity of native or foreign microorganisms. Thus, the type and concentration of nutrient can play an important role in biodegradation of PAHs. Particularly, the effect of biostimulation on phenanthrene removal from contaminated soil via adding macro and/or micronutrients revealed that the optimal phenanthrene reduction resulted when a high level of macronutrient in the range of 67–87% and low level of micronutrient in the range of 12–32% were used with the nitrogen as the dominant macronutrient [6]. Other strategies had been implemented by the use of stable organic supplements such as compost, sewage sludge, manure, vermicompost, etc., as biostimulant nutrients to activate the catabolic potentials of microorganisms. The success of applying stable organic residuals may be a promissory technology due to the high content of essential nutrients and the harbouring of large quantities of diverse microorganisms that accelerates the biodegradation of some contaminants in soil. The biostimulation with compost achieves an improved removal of PAHs in an artificially contaminated agricultural soil [7]. The dissipation of phenanthrene, anthracene and benzo(a)pyrene in a spiked agricultural soil amended with manure and vermicompost resulted in a transient effect in the removal of PAHs during the first 30 days [8]. Furthermore, it was observed that the inorganic nutrients or biosolid amendment have a similar effect on the degradation of phenanthrene and anthracene in an artificially contaminated agricultural soil. Polyacrylamide, a flocculant used in wastewater treatment, was added in two different artificially contaminated soils, and the concentrations of phenanthrene and anthracene were removed rapidly in both soils (agricultural soil and alkaline‐saline soil) [9].
\nIt is defined as a technique for improvement of the removal capacity of contaminated areas by the introduction of specific competent strains or consortia of microorganisms to the contaminated site, thus favouring the biodegradation process. In this way, a bacterial mixed culture was added to a PAHs (pyrene and benzo[a]pyrene)‐contaminated soil, and after the treatment, the mineralization rate of pyrene was about 36% (after 150 days), and benzo[a]pyrene 5% (after 70 days) [10]. Similar results were observed with
Some reports showed that the addition of microorganisms (bioaugmentation) or nutrients (biostimulation) either individually or combined have negligible effects on the removal of PAHs at field or microcosm level. In this manner, the effect of applying bacterial or fungus consortium to artificially contaminated forest soil with a mixture of PAHs reported that bioaugmentation did not improve the removal of naphthalene, phenanthrene, anthracene and pyrene as compared to bioattenuation [13]. However, successful approaches were achieved when nutrients and microorganisms were added simultaneously [14] or successively during the treatment [15]. Therefore, some modifications have been made in bioremediation techniques to improve the removal efficiency of PAHs. A strategy is the use of carriers and the results obtained are promising. Biocarriers have particular characteristics that allow microbial survival by providing a temporary nutrition medium and a protective niche. Immobilization of cells also avoids protozoan grazing and promotes a slow release of cells from the biocarriers, prolonging their degrading activity. Encapsulated
The addition of compounds with similar characteristics to the contaminants can stimulate indigenous microorganisms of the soils suggested that the ability of indigenous microorganisms to remove a particular contaminant could be enhanced by the presence of other contaminants or by the repeated exposure to the contaminant of concern, which favours the selection of specific microorganisms with desired specific metabolic capabilities. Additionally, the effect of adding various types of chlorophenols at different concentrations on the indigenous population from a calcareous agricultural soil without a previous history of exposure to such contaminants helped microorganisms to survive and stay alive during the treatment even in the presence of a more toxic compound [18]. On the other hand, knowledge of the physicochemical properties of soil is important to establish and design the best strategy bioremediation. The response of indigenous microorganisms in an artificially contaminated agricultural soil was studied, and it was faster during the removal of phenanthrene than fluoranthene. This difference was attributed to the physicochemical properties of both contaminants and the specific metabolic capacity showed by the microorganisms at the onset of the experiment [19]. PAHs‐contaminated soil has a negative impact on the stability of an ecosystem, therefore the physicochemical properties of a contaminated soil and its associated microbial community should be considered to ensure the success of bioremediation. The knowledge of these parameters will avoid conflicting reactions between the different techniques of bioremediation. Therefore, it is necessary to conduct assays of the combinations of techniques at laboratory level to determine the synergistic effects and to achieve improvements in the PAHs degradation in the soil.
\nBioremediation is influenced by abiotic factors such as temperature, humidity, pH, aeration, nutrient content, redox potential and soil type; however, interaction of biotic factors such as competition, predation and biological factors also play a major role in the success of this technique [20]. Some studies have shown that the microorganisms added for degrading contaminants at laboratory level were not able to mineralize, survive or compete with the native microorganisms when they were introduced into foreign environments, probably due to susceptibility to toxins or predators in the environment, due to the preferential use of easily assimilated organic compounds or due to slow motion throughout the inner porous soil that harbours the contaminant [21]. To facilitate the adaptation of microorganisms added to a soil, the following criteria must be considered: contaminant‐availability for microorganisms; microbial activity; survival of microorganisms in the foreign environment; and environmental conditions such as nutrient availability, water content and pore size of the aggregates [20]. On the other hand, when a population is introduced into a foreign site, it tends to decrease with time due to the abiotic and biotic factors mentioned above, and thus the treatment can be adjusted either by adding more specialized microorganisms or by using immobilized bacteria [22]. The introduction of a microorganism in an environment is complex and its permanence may be only temporarily, depending on the ability of the microorganism to adapt to environmental conditions. The strategy to isolate indigenous microorganisms and incorporate them into the environmental is a viable alternative; however, this technique does not always produce the expected results, suggesting that the above factors play an important role.
\nSoil is composed of organic and inorganic components separated by pores containing water or air. The interactions between hydrocarbons and mineral surfaces (clay, silt and sand) are only significant when the organic matter content is <0–1%. Thus, organic matter is very important in the fate and behaviour of organic contaminants in soil. The soil organic matter can be divided into two types: soft carbon (rubbery), which is defined as expanded and flexible structures with humic and fulvic acids as component with reversible sorption, and hard carbon (glassy), defined as rigid and condensed structures with humin, kerogen and pyrogenic carbon as commonly identified components, which are involved in irreversible sequestration [23]. Therefore, the organic matter content can directly affect the bioavailability of contaminants to microorganisms by sorption or sequestration mechanisms, and thus the success of bioremediation technologies can be hindered. The effect of organic matter on the degradation of PAH was studied in [24], and it was found that microbial activity was influenced by the amount of organic matter in the soil by either nutrient limitation or PAHs sequestration. In addition, microbial activities developed in humic acid were much higher than those developed in humin (aged organic matter), demonstrating that humin is able to sequester organic contaminant in a stronger way. In another study, it was demonstrated that a high content of organic carbon in the soil produces a low degradation rate of PAHs by indigenous microorganisms [25], indicating The sequestration of PAHs by organic carbon is the major mechanism for the accumulation of PAH in soils. On the other hand, it has been proposed that humic acids promote degradation of aromatic compounds by changing pore size and the structure of the soil [26]. It has been well known that the mineral complexes also affect the bioavailability of some contaminants because they could be involved in sorption phenomena (adsorption and desorption). Different bioremediation techniques were applied to a clay soil artificially contaminated with diesel oil and the removal rate of PAH was depending on adsorption and desorption phenomena [27]. Additionally, the soil organic matter presents different sorption properties due to its biochemical contents, which include substances such as polysaccharides, lipids, lignin, proteins, humic substances, kerogen and black carbon.
\nThe particle size of the aggregates, the shape and the interconnections amongst the pores of a soil are physical factors that determine the microbial colonization, since they have effect on air diffusion and water infiltration. The association of soil organic matter with secondary minerals, such as clay and amorphous oxides, form complex organomineral aggregates which participates in the soil structure. Furthermore, it has been observed that PAHs distribution in soil depends mainly on the hydrophobicity of the PAH and their affinity towards microcompartments of the aggregates [28]. It is known that as time goes on in a contaminated soil, the contaminants diffuse into hydrophobic areas (ageing), reducing the bioavailability to the microorganisms and thus slowing down their removal. Some authors suggest that biodegradation and removal of contaminants become difficult with ageing of soil; moreover, the rate of desorption of PAH decreases, persisting even in the presence of indigenous microorganism degraders [29]. Bioavailability of anthracene in freshly and aged spiked agricultural soil were studied by its removal efficiency. The 72% of anthracene was removed in freshly spiked soil, while only 34% was degraded in aged soil [30]. However, in experiments conducted in [31], the lack of response of microorganisms to some contaminants is not related to a limited bioavailability, but rather is related to microbial factors, such as lack of co‐metabolic substrates or insufficient numbers of hydrocarbon‐degrading populations. Besides, it was found that biostimulation with inorganic nutrients and terminal electron acceptors did not improve the removal of PAHs in freshly spiked soil with phenanthrene or pyrene [32]. Moreover, total biodegradation extent was evident in ageing but not in freshly spiked soil, which was considered to be the result of the adaptation of indigenous bacteria
The different responses of indigenous microorganisms to the PAHs degradation in agricultural contaminated soils are attributed mainly to the deficiency in nitrogen and phosphorous availability. As discussed above, organic matter plays a key role in the bioavailabilty of organic contaminants; however, the organic matter in the soil is also the primary source of essential nutrients such as nitrogen, phosphorous and sulphur [34], and it is often a carbon source easier to assimilate than the contaminant. Therefore, a good understanding of soil management systems can help to infer how soil microorganisms behave when facing to a contaminant. By studying the effects of soil management systems (no till and conventional tillage with sequenced or rotation cropping) on the soil microbial community, it was found that an untilled soil and appropriate crop rotation systems favoured richness and diversity of the microbial community. Changes in microbial communities have also been observed in soils with different agricultural management systems, having a considerable impact on the biological activity of the soil [35]. Furthermore, it has been observed that variations in the microbial communities associated with soils are influenced by the type of land use and by time [36]. The leguminous crops contribute to enhance the organic matter levels resulting in small changes in bacterial populations [37]. Besides, the reducing tillage with retention of crop residues improves and preserves the diversity of bacterial communities [35]. On the other hand, soil enzymes are involved in the cycling of nutrients and they can react rapidly to make changes in soil derived from contamination or by the use of different management systems [38]. The activity of six soil enzymes (β‐1‐4‐glucosidase,
Otherwise, soils can be exposed to physical, chemical or biological degradation having an effect on the diversity of microbial communities. From the foregoing, a good agricultural management system may positively change the microbial diversity and improve the nutrient quality in soil as well as the metabolic variety of the microorganisms, leading to a favourable response in the removal of some contaminants. The response of microbial communities in an agricultural land used to grow wheat and sunflower was studied after the addition of diesel fuel. Despite the majority volatilization of aliphatic hydrocarbons, the soil microbial population was able to entirely remove the aliphatic hydrocarbons, and only 1% of the initial contaminant load in the soil remained after 400 days of monitoring. In addition, soil quality indicators (dehydrogenase activity and soil microbial biomass) decreased their values in the first 18 days; however, they recovered their original levels and then exceeded them, reaching a maximum value at the end of the study [44]. Agricultural management system impacts on the response of microbial population to contaminants by producing changes in the biological activity of the soil accelerating or delaying the biodegradation process, which should be considered as the relevant factor in the remediation at field level.
\nThe sorption phenomena, sequestering mechanisms, content and quality of organic matter and nutrient availability have a direct role in biodegradation success, together with the microbial metabolism and the biological interactions between the populations, which also play a major role. Many authors have reported some bioattenuation failures in contrast to biostimulation or bioaugmentation, thereby a proper creation of the environmental conditions may be sufficient to remove PAHs as discussed earlier. Therefore, the variation in biodegradation results obtained by several authors can be attributed to complex‐multiplex interactions between biological inter‐ or intra‐relationships, soil constituents, the physicochemical properties of contaminants and the environmental conditions. They may stall or diminish the biological activity given by allochthonous or indigenous microbial. A proper understanding of the selection of indigenous or allochthonous microbial consortia, agricultural management systems, the quantity and quality of nutrients and the diversity of microbial communities in the contaminated soils must be envisaged and studied in detail, in order to increase our understanding about the complex physicochemical‐biological interactions between the microbial community and its environment. The addition of organic residuals combined with a specialized microbial consortium has the potential to enhance the degradation of such contaminants and may become a promising technology in the near future. However, a combined election of different bioremediation technologies may raise the costs and may become too expensive to use.
\nThis work was supported by the grant SIP20161060 and SIP20160325 from Instituto Politécnico Nacional (IPN). JACM, MSVM, JCCD and JJR appreciate the COFAA and EDI, IPN fellowships and the support provided by SNI‐CONACyT.
As more and more devices are being embedded with networking capabilities, the Internet of Things (IoT) paradigm is becoming more entrenched in the society. IoT devices communicate with other devices on the Internet seamlessly. To date, IoT has found ample applications in diverse areas such as health, agriculture, safety and security, smart homes, smart water management, smart grids, fleet management and traffic monitoring.
With the accelerated adoption of 5G, companies’ plans to invest in IoT solutions will increase even more rapidly. The recent fourth annual Global IoT Executive Survey [1] shows that the number of IoT devices will increase from 8 billion in 2019 to more than 41 billion IoT devices by 2027. Furthermore, the IoT market is geared to grow to over $ 2.4 trillion annually by 2027.
IoT connectivity was primarily based on short range wireless technologies such as Bluetooth mesh networking, Wi-Fi (IEEE 802.11 standard) and Zigbee (IEEE 802.15.4 standard). The trend is, however, shifting toward Low-Power Wide Area Networks (LPWANs), which provide low power, low data rate and long range wireless transmission in the unlicensed frequency bands, configured in a star topology network [2, 3, 4]. Interest in LPWANs is further fueled by low deployment costs, large coverage, and the absense of competitors from cellular technologies in the IoT arena [3]. Examples of LPWAN technologies include Sigfox, Narrowband-IoT (NB-IoT) and Long-Range Wide Area Networks (LoRaWAN) [5].
The LoRaWAN technology currently enjoys greater popularity because it is supported by the LoRa Alliance, which is a non-profit association of more than 500 member companies [6]. It is for this reason that this work focuses on this technology. The LoRaWAN network is a star-of-stars topology, where messages are relayed between end devices (EDs) and the central network server (NS) through gateways (GWs). Gateways are linked to the network server through standard IP connections. They act as transparent bridges by converting RF packets to IP packets and vice versa [7].
Although gateways in LoRaWAN networks can cover large areas of end devices, coverage problems still arise when the areas are too big. In such cases, the need to deploy multiple gateways arises [8, 9]. In [8] the impact of redundant packet reception at multiple gateways on data reliability in the LoRaWAN architecture studied, while in [9], an adaptive algorithm for spreading factor selection in LoRaWAN networks with multiple gateways is proposed. In the latter, the maximum number of number of gateways was four and their locations were fixed deterministically.
This work builds on those earlier works by investigating the efficacy of Particle Swarm Optimization (PSO) for gateway placement in a LoRaWAN network. It draws its the motivation from recent studies on PSO based placement of Master Nodes (MNs) in smart water metering networks (SWMNs) [10, 11]. In these networks, Wi-Fi links were used to create a mesh network for the transmission of readings from Smart Meters to Master Nodes. The need to extend PSO approach to LoRaWAN arises naturally because of the advantages of this technology and its growing popularity in the IoT community.
This work adopts a square area, where EDs are deployed randomly and gateways are deployed by using three approaches: 1) the optimal approach based on the standard PSO; 2) the optimal approach based on the PSO algorithm that incorporates gateway distancing mechanisms to prevent gateway interference; 3) and the deterministic approach, where the area is broken down into a number of equally-sized sub-areas, according to the number of gateways and having one gateway deployed at the centre of each sub-area. The LoRaWAN scripts have been implemented using the LoRaWAN NS-3 [12] module [13]. For the PSO approaches, the optimiser which operates at a higher level, invokes the LoRaWAN script, on every function evaluation to calculate the Packet Delivery Ratio for the gateway position configuration created by the algorithm at that moment.
The rest of this Chapter is organized as follows. Section 2 briefly describes the LoRaWAN technology. An overview of Particle Swarm Optimization (PSO) is given in Section 3. Section 4 presents the distancing mechanisms that have been added to standard PSO in order to enhance the spreading of the gateways in the network. Section 5 presents the experimental setup, the results and discussions, and Secton 6 concludes the Chapter.
This section gives a brief overview of the aspects of LoRa and LoRaWAN technologies, that are relevant to this study.
LoRa (Long Range) [6] is a physical layer LPWAN technique, developed by Cycleo in France and acquired by Semtech [14]. This technique uses the chirp spread spectrum (CSS) technology, which spreads a narrow-band signal over a wider channel bandwidth. This process greatly enhances the signal’s robustness to interference thereby creating long range, low data rate communication over the license-free sub-1GHz Industrial Scientific Medical (ISM) radio bands. The transmission range in LoRa depends on various parameters: bandwidth, coding rate, transmission power, carrier frequency, and six spreading factors (SF), ranging from 7 to 12. These SFs are known to be quasi-orthogonal because they enable simultaneous receptions of packets with different SFs. Another important characteristic is that the increase in SF is accompanied by the signal’s resilience to noise, at the expense of data throughput.
LoRaWAN is an upper layer technique that relies on the physical layer LoRa technique. While the LoRa technology is proprietary, LoRaWAN is an open standard, developed and supported by the LoRa Alliance [6]. It is an ALOHA-based protocol which organizes networks in a star-of-stars topology, with the following major components:
The LoRaWAN standard defines three types of EDs, namely Class A, Class B, and Class C. Class A is the default class which must be supported by all LoRaWAN EDs. In this class, communication is always initiated by the ED and is fully asynchronous. Uplink transmission is followed by two short downlink windows, to cater for bi-directional communication and/or the transmission of network control commands. In addition to all the components of Class A, Class B EDs provide regular receive windows for potential downlink traffic. In Class C, the EDs remain in continuous receive mode thereby reducing latency on the downlink path.
The LoRaWAN standard also supports an Adaptive Data Rate (ADR) scheme, which enables the NS to maximize both battery battery life of the EDs and overall network capacity, by setting the data rate (DR) and RF output power for each ED individually. When radio conditions are bad, data rate is lowered by increasing th SF, leading to low coverage. Conversely, when radio conditions are good, data rate is increased by lowering the SF or by reducing the transmit power of a node in order to maximize the battery lifetime and optimize overall network capacity. LoRaWAN also suffers from collisions of packets at the gateways [9, 15, 16, 17]. This happens when two or more signals arrive at the the gateway in same time duration. These collisions lower the data rates drastically.
Furthermore, this standard also faces the problem of network coverage when the network area is very large. In this case, one GW cannot cater for all the EDs in the area. As a result, there is a need for multiple gateways. To ensure that the network is optimally covered, there is a need for sufficient inter-gateway distance. The work in [9] implemented a maximum of 4 gateways in a 16 km
Since this work focuses on the determining the effectiveness of Particle Swarm Optimization (PSO) for the placement of multiple gateways, the next section presents an overview of the standard PSO algorithm.
Introduced by Kennedy and Eberhart in 1995, the Particle Swarm Optimization (PSO) draws inspiration from the social behavior of animals living in swarms, such as flocks of birds [18]. PSO is initialized with a population of
where
The values of
In order to keep the particle’s velocity bounded, a further arbitrary parameter
In terms of implementation, the PSO algorithm goes through the following steps:
The next section discusses the gateway distancing measures that have been incorporated in the standard PSO algorithm in order to spread out the locations of gateways in the LoRaWAN network.
This section presents the gateway distancing measures that were incorporated in the PSO algorithm. Properly distanced GWs will help to ensure that the network coverage is high, thereby increasing the packet delivery rate (PDR). Before presenting these measures, the GW placement optimization problem has to be presented.
The GW placement optimization problem adopts the approach used in the Master Node optimization problem in [10, 11]. A LoRaWAN network is assummed to contain
where
where
GW distancing measures can be applied during the initialization process as well as during flight time. During initialization, the initial GW positions can be set in such a way that they are sufficiently far away from each other. During the iterative process, only those particles that depict sufficient average inter-gateway distance are evaluated. Next, the two techniques that would address GW distancing requirements will be presented.
This technique aims at initiliazing the locatons for the respective GWs to some equal but distinct sub-areas of the LoRaWAN. The lengths of the sides of each of those sub-areas be denoted by
and
For instance, if 4 GWs are initialized in a square LoRaWAN area of sides 4 km by 4 km,
Illustration of the sub-areas used in the GW initialization process.
For some LoRaWAN network areas and designated number of GWs, it will not be possible to fit all the GWs into the network by using the aforementioned approach. In such cases, the extra GWs can be randomly initialized with coordinates drawn from the entire area. The number of extra GWs
The parameter that governs GW distancing during flight time is the average inter-gateway distance
where
After the initialization process, the initial average inter-gateway distance
The decision on whether to evaluate particle
Algorithm 1 shows the modified PSO algorithm, with the GW distancing measures highlighted in blue color. On lines 15 and 30, the LoRaWAN script is invoked and the PDR value emanating from that process is construed as the fitness function value,
Since the goal of this work is to determine the efficacy of PSO in GW placement in LoRaWAN networks, the standard PSO and the modified PSO (with distancing measures) are compared with a deterministic approach. For brevity, the standard PSO, will be referred to as PSO, while the modified PSO will be refered to as PSODIST. For purposes of ease of comparison and discussion of the ensuing results, a square LoRaWAN area is adopted. Parameters
The LoRaWAN script is implemented in the NS-3 LoRaWAN module [13]. In order to reduce the simulation time for the LoRaWAN script during the optimization process, the number of EDs,
With the introduction of multiple GWs, a single packet may find its way to the Network Server (NS) through two or more GWs. In order to remove such packets from the number of unique packets received at the NS, some modifications were made to the LoRaWAN module. The default LoRa physical layer parameters in [13] were used in the simulations. The rest of the parameters in the LoRaWAN script are shown in Table 1. For the PSO algorithms, parameters are set as follows:
Parameter | Value |
---|---|
Spreading factors | 7, 8, 9, 10, 11 and 12 |
GW height | 20 m |
ED height | 2 m |
Packet generation rate | 12 packets/h |
Simulation time | 3000 s |
LoRaWAN simulation parameters.
The basic C++ PSO code used in this study have been downloaded from [19]. The PSODIST code was developed by incorporating the GW distancing measures, explained in Section 4, in the basic PSO code. A personal computer with an Intel® Core™ i7-7500U CPU @ 2.70GHz
In this subsection, the efficacy of the GW distancing measures in the PSODIST algorithm is investigated by examining the mechanics of PSODIST against the basic PSO approach. Figures 2–5 show the evolution of the optimization process for PSO and PSODIST approaches for the best optimization runs for 4, 9, 25, and 49 GWs. In the case of 4 GWs, in Figure 2, the difference in the evolution of the PDR value between the two approaches is very minimal. In fact, contrary to expectation, the PSODIST approach starts from a worse off position at around 36% while PSO starts from 38%. The GW distancing process during the initialization process does not help simply because the partitions in which the GWs are initialized are too big. The flight time GW distancing process helps to push PSODIST barely above the PSO. It can, therefore, be observed that GW distancing measures do not improve the performance of PSO when the number of GWs is low.
PDR values of the best particle in the PSO swarms as the number of generations increases, with the number of GWs set to 4.
PDR values of the best particle in the PSO swarms as the number of generations increases, with the number of GWs set to 9.
PDR values of the best particle in the PSO swarms as the number of generations increases, with the number of GWs set to 25.
PDR values of the best particle in the PSO swarms as the number of generations increases, with the number of GWs set to 40.
In the case of 9 GWs, as shown in Figure 3, PSODIST starts with a PDR of 49.2% while PSO starts with 45.5%. The trend becomes even more prominent as the number of GWs increases (see Figures 4 and 5). At 25 GWs, PSO and PSODIST register initial PDR values of 47.4% and 52.3% respectively, while at 49 GWs, the initial PDR values are 47% and 49.9% respectively. This shows that the benefits of GW distancing measures in the initializition process are only realized as the number of GWs increases. This is due to the reduction in the sizes of the partitions in which the GWs are initialized.
As the number of GWs increases, the flight time GW distancing process seems to be more effective than in the case of 4 GWs. Figure 3 shows that at 9 GWs, PSODIST converges to a PDR value of 51.63% at the 24th generation, while PSO converges to 50.98% at the 38th generation. In the case of 25 GWs, as shown in Figure 4, PSODIST converges to a PDR value of 53.95% at the 27th generation, while PSO converges to 50.65% at the 38th generation. When 49 GWs are used, as shown in Figure 5, PSODIST converges to a PDR value of 54.8% at the 34th generation, while PSO converges to 51.1% at the 37th generation. These results show that the basic PSO suffers from delayed convergence as well as suboptimal convergence because the initial positions of the GWs are not properly distanced. It can, therefore, be concluded that GW distancing measures improve the performance of PSO when the number of GWs is increased.
Figures 6–9 illustrate the spread of the GW locations in the LoRaWAN area. From these graphical presentations, it is easy to see that the PSODIST achieves a better GW spread than PSO. In the PSO approach, there are some sections where the GWs are too crowded. For instance, in Figure 6, the subarea bounded by coordinates (20, 0), (20, 10, 30, 10, 30, 0), has four GWs, while in the north-western corner, there are no GWs in a subarea that is 2.5 times the former. In Figure 8, a similar trend is observed as there are even up 6 GWs in the central 10 km x 10 km subarea. The EDs in the subareas with little GW coverage suffer from GW reachability issues. On the other hand, subareas with many GWs also suffer from increased downlink traffic interference. Both of these conditions lead to the reduction of PDR.
Locations of 25 GWs in the 50 km
Locations of 25 GWs in the 50 km
Locations of 49 GWs in the 50 km
Locations of 49 GWs in the 50 km
A separate simulation exercise was conducted using the deterministic approach for benchmarking purposes. Ten simulation runs were also conducted for 4, 9, 25, and 49 GWs. Table 2 shows the minimum, mean and maximum PDR values from the two PSO approaches along with the deterministic approach. Results depicting the best performing approach are shown in bold text. For 4 GWs, there is no significant difference among the three approaches as best minimum value of 39.8% is from PSO. On the other hand, the deterministic approach and PSODIST achieve the best mean and maximum values of 40.23% and 40.70% respectively. With 9 GWs, PSODIST seems to have an upper hand in the sense that it achieves the best minimum and mean values of 51.28% and 51.51% respectively, while the deterministic approach gets the best maximum value of 52.38%. At 25 GWs, all the best values come from PSODIST, while at 50GWs, they all come from the deterministic approach. The basic PSO seems not to compete well with the other two approaches.
No. of GWs | Deterministic | PSO | PSODIST | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Min | Mean | Max | Min | Mean | Max | Min | Mean | Max | |
4 | 38.66 | 42.68 | 40.06 | 40.58 | 39.55 | 40.17 | |||
9 | 48.15 | 49.95 | 48.28 | 49.81 | 50.98 | 51.63 | |||
25 | 49.70 | 51.78 | 53.28 | 50.65 | 51.50 | 52.15 | |||
49 | 50.43 | 50.81 | 51.10 | 53.50 | 54.33 | 54.80 |
Benchmarking of PSO approaches with the deterministic approach.
Figure 10 illustrates the same results from a graphical perspective, where the performance of PSODIST compares fairly well with the deterministic approach. It even outperforms the deterministic approach at 25 GWs. This clearly shows that when PSO approach is used for GW placement in LoRaWAN networks, there is a need for GW distancing mechanisms in order to prevent GWs from accumulating in some specific zones thereby jeopardizing performance in terms of PDR.
A comparison of the PDR values for the three approaches when the number of GWs is set to 4, 9, 25 and 50.
This Chapter investigated the efficacy of using Particle Swarm Optimization (PSO) in determining the optimal locations for gateways in large LoRaWAN networks. The coordinates of the gateways are coded into a vector, which denotes particle in PSO terminology. Gateway distancing measures have been proposed for the initiliazation and flight time phases of the PSO in order to spread out the gateways in the network. This process created a modified PSO algorithm, herein refered to as PSODIST. During initialization, the LoRaWAN area is broken down into a number of subareas and each gateway is initiliazed in a specific area. If there are some extra gateways, which cannot fit in the subareas, such gateways are initialized randomly within the entire area. During flight time, only new particle positions, that exhibit a sufficiently high inter-gateway distance, are evaluated. Optimization experiments are conducted to verify the effectiveness of the PSODIST approach. The LoRaWAN script, used in the optimization process, is implemented in NS-3 [12] using the recently proposed LoRaWAN module [13]. The function evaluation routines in the PSO algorithms invoke the LoRaWAN script and the resulting packet delivery rate (PDR) is retained as the fitness for the respective particle.
The mechanics of the optimization process show that there is no difference between PSODIST and PSO when the number of gateways is small. Nevertheless, as the number of gateways increases, the impact of distancing measures becomes evident; PSODIST yields better optimization rates as well as much faster convergence than PSO. The much more even spread of the gateway locations determined by PSODIST has also been demonstrated graphically. The results from the PSO approaches have been further compared with the deterministic approach which arranges the gateways uniformly over the LoRaWAN area. PSODIST yields similar PDR values as the deterministic approach in the 50 km
Internet of Things
Narrowband
Long Range Wide Area Network
Low-Power Wide Area Networks
Long Range
Particle Swarm Optimization
End Devices
Gateway
Network Server
Smart Water Metering Network
Chirp Spread Spectrum
Spreading Factor
Packet Delivery Ratio
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\\n\\nIntechOpen is a dynamic, vibrant company, where exceptional people are achieving great things. We offer a creative, dedicated, committed, and passionate environment but never lose sight of the fact that science and discovery is exciting and rewarding. We constantly strive to ensure that members of our community can work, travel, meet world-renowned researchers and grow their own career and develop their own experiences.
\\n\\nIf this sounds like a place that you would like to work, whether you are at the beginning of your career or are an experienced professional, we invite you to drop us a line and tell us why you could be the right person for IntechOpen.
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Integrity - We are consistent and dependable, always striving for precision and accuracy in the true spirit of science.
\n\nOpenness - We communicate honestly and transparently. We are open to constructive criticism and committed to learning from it.
\n\nDisruptiveness - We are eager for discovery, for new ideas and for progression. We approach our work with creativity and determination, with a clear vision that drives us forward. We look beyond today and strive for a better tomorrow.
\n\nIntechOpen is a dynamic, vibrant company, where exceptional people are achieving great things. We offer a creative, dedicated, committed, and passionate environment but never lose sight of the fact that science and discovery is exciting and rewarding. We constantly strive to ensure that members of our community can work, travel, meet world-renowned researchers and grow their own career and develop their own experiences.
\n\nIf this sounds like a place that you would like to work, whether you are at the beginning of your career or are an experienced professional, we invite you to drop us a line and tell us why you could be the right person for IntechOpen.
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Various technical variants of this test can detect antigen (native or foreign) or antibody, determine the intensity of the immune response whether pathological or not; the type of induced immune response as well as the innate immunity potential; and much more. These capabilities, as well as the high sensitivity and robustness of the test and a small price, make it possible to quickly and reliably diagnose diseases in most laboratories. Besides, ELISA is a test that is also used in veterinary medicine, toxicology, allergology, food industry, etc. Despite the fact that it has existed for almost 50 years, different ELISA tests with different technical solutions are still being developed, which improves and expands the application of the this exceptional test. The aim of this chapter is to empower the rider to optimize, standardize and validate an enzyme linked immunosorbent assay.",book:{id:"9850",slug:"norovirus",title:"Norovirus",fullTitle:"Norovirus"},signatures:"Rajna Minic and Irena Zivkovic",authors:[{id:"325806",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Irena",middleName:null,surname:"Zivkovic",slug:"irena-zivkovic",fullName:"Irena Zivkovic"},{id:"325839",title:"Dr.",name:"Rajna",middleName:null,surname:"Minic",slug:"rajna-minic",fullName:"Rajna Minic"}]},{id:"56750",title:"Laboratory Approach to Anemia",slug:"laboratory-approach-to-anemia",totalDownloads:6255,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:"Anemia is a major cause of morbidity and mortality worldwide and can be defined as a decreased quantity of circulating red blood cells (RBCs). The epidemiological studies suggested that one-third of the world’s population is affected with anemia. Anemia is not a disease, but it is instead the sign of an underlying basic pathological process. However, the sign may function as a compass in the search for the cause. Therefore, the prediagnosis revealed by thorough investigation of this sign should be supported by laboratory parameters according to the underlying pathological process. We expect that this review will provide guidance to clinicians with findings and laboratory tests that can be followed from the initial stage in the anemia search.",book:{id:"5942",slug:"current-topics-in-anemia",title:"Current Topics in Anemia",fullTitle:"Current Topics in Anemia"},signatures:"Ebru Dündar Yenilmez and Abdullah Tuli",authors:[{id:"183998",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Ebru",middleName:null,surname:"Dündar Yenilmez",slug:"ebru-dundar-yenilmez",fullName:"Ebru Dündar Yenilmez"},{id:"209103",title:"Prof.",name:"Abdullah",middleName:null,surname:"Tuli",slug:"abdullah-tuli",fullName:"Abdullah Tuli"}]},{id:"33133",title:"Waist Circumference in Children and Adolescents from Different Ethnicities",slug:"waist-circumference-in-children-and-adolescents-from-different-ethnicities",totalDownloads:8023,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:7,abstract:null,book:{id:"642",slug:"childhood-obesity",title:"Childhood Obesity",fullTitle:"Childhood Obesity"},signatures:"Peter Schwandt and Gerda-Maria Haas",authors:[{id:"29867",title:"Prof.",name:"Peter",middleName:null,surname:"Schwandt",slug:"peter-schwandt",fullName:"Peter Schwandt"}]},{id:"54411",title:"Isolation and Characterization of Escherichia coli from Animals, Humans, and Environment",slug:"isolation-and-characterization-of-i-escherichia-coli-i-from-animals-humans-and-environment",totalDownloads:6182,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:8,abstract:"Working on a diverse species of bacteria that have hundreds of pathotypes representing hundreds of strains and many closely related family members is a challenge. Appropriate research design is required not only to achieve valid desired outcome but also to minimize the use of resources, including time to outcome and intervention. This chapter outlines basics of Escherichia coli isolation and characterization strategies that can assist in research designing that matches the set objectives. Types of samples to be collected, collection and storage strategies, and processing of samples are described. Different approaches to isolation, confirmation and concentration of various E. coli strains are summarized in this chapter. Characterization and typing of E. coli isolates by biochemical, serological, and molecular methods have been explained so that an appropriate choice is made to suite a specific E. coli strain/pathotype. Some clues on sample and isolate preservation for future use are outlined, and general precautions regarding E. coli handling are also presented to the researcher to avoid improper planning and execution of E. coli-related research. Given different options, the best E. coli research design, however, should try as much as possible to shorten the length of time to outcomes.",book:{id:"5493",slug:"-i-escherichia-coli-i-recent-advances-on-physiology-pathogenesis-and-biotechnological-applications",title:"Escherichia coli",fullTitle:"Escherichia coli - Recent Advances on Physiology, Pathogenesis and Biotechnological Applications"},signatures:"Athumani Msalale Lupindu",authors:[{id:"185959",title:"Dr.",name:"Athumani",middleName:"Msalale",surname:"Lupindu",slug:"athumani-lupindu",fullName:"Athumani Lupindu"}]},{id:"53085",title:"Malaria in Pregnancy",slug:"malaria-in-pregnancy",totalDownloads:3220,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Malaria infection during pregnancy is an important public health problem with substantial risks to both the mother and foetus. Pregnant women are the most vulnerable group of malaria‐associated morbidity and mortality. A pregnant woman has an increased risk (up to four times) of getting malaria and twice the chances of dying from malaria, compared to a non‐pregnant adult, becuase the immune system is partially suppressed during pregnancy. Malaria in pregnancy not only affects the mother but also has a dangerous sequel for the developing foetus, resulting in premature delivery or intrauterine growth retardation. Diagnosis of malaria in pregnancy remains a challenge due to the low parasite density and placental sequestration of Plasmodium falciparum. Thus, there is an urgent need for new diagnostic methods to detect malarial parasites in the pregnant women. Though antimalarial drugs are available, which can be safely given in the pregnancy, increasing drug resistance of malarial parasite may pose a big problem in the future. In this chapter, we review the burden of pregnancy‐associated malaria (PAM), its pathogenesis, diagnostic issues during pregnancy and recent guidelines for chemoprophylaxsis and treatment.",book:{id:"5270",slug:"current-topics-in-malaria",title:"Current Topics in Malaria",fullTitle:"Current Topics in Malaria"},signatures:"Kapil Goyal, Alka Sehgal, Chander S. 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Much of biochemistry is devoted to enzymes, proteins that catalyze chemical reactions, enzyme structures, mechanisms of action and their roles within cells. Biochemistry also studies small signaling molecules, coenzymes, inhibitors, vitamins, and hormones, which play roles in life processes. Biochemical experimentation, besides coopting classical chemistry methods, e.g., chromatography, adopted new techniques, e.g., X-ray diffraction, electron microscopy, NMR, radioisotopes, and developed sophisticated microbial genetic tools, e.g., auxotroph mutants and their revertants, fermentation, etc. More recently, biochemistry embraced the ‘big data’ omics systems. Initial biochemical studies have been exclusively analytic: dissecting, purifying, and examining individual components of a biological system; in the apt words of Efraim Racker (1913 –1991), “Don’t waste clean thinking on dirty enzymes.” Today, however, biochemistry is becoming more agglomerative and comprehensive, setting out to integrate and describe entirely particular biological systems. The ‘big data’ metabolomics can define the complement of small molecules, e.g., in a soil or biofilm sample; proteomics can distinguish all the comprising proteins, e.g., serum; metagenomics can identify all the genes in a complex environment, e.g., the bovine rumen. 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Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. He has published more than 100 peer-reviewed research articles and graduated numerous Ph.D. and postdoctoral students.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"New York University Langone Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:4,paginationItems:[{id:"3",title:"Bacterial Infectious Diseases",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/3.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"205604",title:"Dr.",name:"Tomas",middleName:null,surname:"Jarzembowski",slug:"tomas-jarzembowski",fullName:"Tomas Jarzembowski",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRKriQAG/Profile_Picture_2022-06-16T11:01:31.jpg",biography:"Tomasz Jarzembowski was born in 1968 in Gdansk, Poland. He obtained his Ph.D. degree in 2000 from the Medical University of Gdańsk (UG). After specialization in clinical microbiology in 2003, he started studying biofilm formation and antibiotic resistance at the single-cell level. In 2015, he obtained his D.Sc. degree. His later study in cooperation with experts in nephrology and immunology resulted in the designation of the new diagnostic method of UTI, patented in 2017. He is currently working at the Department of Microbiology, Medical University of Gdańsk (GUMed), Poland. Since many years, he is a member of steering committee of Gdańsk branch of Polish Society of Microbiologists, a member of ESCMID. He is also a reviewer and a member of editorial boards of a number of international journals.",institutionString:"Medical University of Gdańsk, Poland",institution:null},editorTwo:{id:"484980",title:"Dr.",name:"Katarzyna",middleName:null,surname:"Garbacz",slug:"katarzyna-garbacz",fullName:"Katarzyna Garbacz",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003St8TAQAZ/Profile_Picture_2022-07-07T09:45:16.jpg",biography:"Katarzyna Maria Garbacz, MD, is an Associate Professor at the Medical University of Gdańsk, Poland and she is head of the Department of Oral Microbiology of the Medical University of Gdańsk. She has published more than 50 scientific publications in peer-reviewed journals. She has been a project leader funded by the National Science Centre of Poland. Prof. Garbacz is a microbiologist working on applied and fundamental questions in microbial epidemiology and pathogenesis. Her research interest is in antibiotic resistance, host-pathogen interaction, and therapeutics development for staphylococcal pathogens, mainly Staphylococcus aureus, which causes hospital-acquired infections. Currently, her research is mostly focused on the study of oral pathogens, particularly Staphylococcus spp.",institutionString:"Medical University of Gdańsk, Poland",institution:null},editorThree:null},{id:"4",title:"Fungal Infectious Diseases",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/4.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"174134",title:"Dr.",name:"Yuping",middleName:null,surname:"Ran",slug:"yuping-ran",fullName:"Yuping Ran",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bS9d6QAC/Profile_Picture_1630330675373",biography:"Dr. Yuping Ran, Professor, Department of Dermatology, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China. Completed the Course Medical Mycology, the Centraalbureau voor Schimmelcultures (CBS), Fungal Biodiversity Centre, Netherlands (2006). International Union of Microbiological Societies (IUMS) Fellow, and International Emerging Infectious Diseases (IEID) Fellow, Centers for Diseases Control and Prevention (CDC), Atlanta, USA. Diploma of Dermatological Scientist, Japanese Society for Investigative Dermatology. Ph.D. of Juntendo University, Japan. Bachelor’s and Master’s degree, Medicine, West China University of Medical Sciences. Chair of Sichuan Medical Association Dermatology Committee. General Secretary of The 19th Annual Meeting of Chinese Society of Dermatology and the Asia Pacific Society for Medical Mycology (2013). In charge of the Annual Medical Mycology Course over 20-years authorized by National Continue Medical Education Committee of China. Member of the board of directors of the Asia-Pacific Society for Medical Mycology (APSMM). Associate editor of Mycopathologia. 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Kasenga",hash:"91cde4582ead884cb0f355a19b67cd56",volumeInSeries:4,fullTitle:"Malaria",editors:[{id:"86725",title:"Dr.",name:"Fyson",middleName:"Hanania",surname:"Kasenga",slug:"fyson-kasenga",fullName:"Fyson Kasenga",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/86725/images/system/86725.jpg",institutionString:"Malawi Adventist University",institution:{name:"Malawi Adventist University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Malawi"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"7123",title:"Current Topics in Neglected Tropical Diseases",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7123.jpg",slug:"current-topics-in-neglected-tropical-diseases",publishedDate:"December 4th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",hash:"61c627da05b2ace83056d11357bdf361",volumeInSeries:3,fullTitle:"Current Topics in Neglected Tropical Diseases",editors:[{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"7064",title:"Current Perspectives in Human Papillomavirus",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7064.jpg",slug:"current-perspectives-in-human-papillomavirus",publishedDate:"May 2nd 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Shailendra K. Saxena",hash:"d92a4085627bab25ddc7942fbf44cf05",volumeInSeries:2,fullTitle:"Current Perspectives in Human Papillomavirus",editors:[{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null}]},subseriesFiltersForPublishedBooks:[{group:"subseries",caption:"Bacterial Infectious Diseases",value:3,count:2},{group:"subseries",caption:"Parasitic Infectious Diseases",value:5,count:4},{group:"subseries",caption:"Viral Infectious Diseases",value:6,count:7}],publicationYearFilters:[{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2022",value:2022,count:2},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2021",value:2021,count:4},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2020",value:2020,count:3},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2019",value:2019,count:3},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2018",value:2018,count:1}],authors:{paginationCount:303,paginationItems:[{id:"280338",title:"Dr.",name:"Yutaka",middleName:null,surname:"Tsutsumi",slug:"yutaka-tsutsumi",fullName:"Yutaka Tsutsumi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/280338/images/7961_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Fujita Health University",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"116250",title:"Dr.",name:"Nima",middleName:null,surname:"Rezaei",slug:"nima-rezaei",fullName:"Nima Rezaei",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/116250/images/system/116250.jpg",biography:"Professor Nima Rezaei obtained an MD from Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Iran. He also obtained an MSc in Molecular and Genetic Medicine, and a Ph.D. in Clinical Immunology and Human Genetics from the University of Sheffield, UK. He also completed a short-term fellowship in Pediatric Clinical Immunology and Bone Marrow Transplantation at Newcastle General Hospital, England. Dr. Rezaei is a Full Professor of Immunology and Vice Dean of International Affairs and Research, at the School of Medicine, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, and the co-founder and head of the Research Center for Immunodeficiencies. He is also the founding president of the Universal Scientific Education and Research Network (USERN). Dr. Rezaei has directed more than 100 research projects and has designed and participated in several international collaborative projects. He is an editor, editorial assistant, or editorial board member of more than forty international journals. He has edited more than 50 international books, presented more than 500 lectures/posters in congresses/meetings, and published more than 1,100 scientific papers in international journals.",institutionString:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",institution:{name:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"180733",title:"Dr.",name:"Jean",middleName:null,surname:"Engohang-Ndong",slug:"jean-engohang-ndong",fullName:"Jean Engohang-Ndong",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180733/images/system/180733.png",biography:"Dr. Jean Engohang-Ndong was born and raised in Gabon. After obtaining his Associate Degree of Science at the University of Science and Technology of Masuku, Gabon, he continued his education in France where he obtained his BS, MS, and Ph.D. in Medical Microbiology. He worked as a post-doctoral fellow at the Public Health Research Institute (PHRI), Newark, NJ for four years before accepting a three-year faculty position at Brigham Young University-Hawaii. Dr. Engohang-Ndong is a tenured faculty member with the academic rank of Full Professor at Kent State University, Ohio, where he teaches a wide range of biological science courses and pursues his research in medical and environmental microbiology. Recently, he expanded his research interest to epidemiology and biostatistics of chronic diseases in Gabon.",institutionString:"Kent State University",institution:{name:"Kent State University",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"188773",title:"Prof.",name:"Emmanuel",middleName:null,surname:"Drouet",slug:"emmanuel-drouet",fullName:"Emmanuel Drouet",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/188773/images/system/188773.png",biography:"Emmanuel Drouet, PharmD, is a Professor of Virology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, the University Grenoble-Alpes, France. As a head scientist at the Institute of Structural Biology in Grenoble, Dr. Drouet’s research investigates persisting viruses in humans (RNA and DNA viruses) and the balance with our host immune system. He focuses on these viruses’ effects on humans (both their impact on pathology and their symbiotic relationships in humans). He has an excellent track record in the herpesvirus field, and his group is engaged in clinical research in the field of Epstein-Barr virus diseases. He is the editor of the online Encyclopedia of Environment and he coordinates the Universal Health Coverage education program for the BioHealth Computing Schools of the European Institute of Science.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Grenoble Alpes University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",biography:"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (especially arboviral diseases). He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},{id:"332819",title:"Dr.",name:"Chukwudi Michael",middleName:"Michael",surname:"Egbuche",slug:"chukwudi-michael-egbuche",fullName:"Chukwudi Michael Egbuche",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/332819/images/14624_n.jpg",biography:"I an Dr. Chukwudi Michael Egbuche. I am a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Parasitology and Entomology, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nnamdi Azikiwe University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"284232",title:"Mr.",name:"Nikunj",middleName:"U",surname:"Tandel",slug:"nikunj-tandel",fullName:"Nikunj Tandel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/284232/images/8275_n.jpg",biography:'Mr. Nikunj Tandel has completed his Master\'s degree in Biotechnology from VIT University, India in the year of 2012. He is having 8 years of research experience especially in the field of malaria epidemiology, immunology, and nanoparticle-based drug delivery system against the infectious diseases, autoimmune disorders and cancer. He has worked for the NIH funded-International Center of Excellence in Malaria Research project "Center for the study of complex malaria in India (CSCMi)" in collaboration with New York University. The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. Received the CSIR-SRF (Senior Research Fellow) award-2018, FIMSA (Federation of Immunological Societies of Asia-Oceania) Travel Bursary award to attend the IUIS-IIS-FIMSA Immunology course-2019',institutionString:"Nirma University",institution:{name:"Nirma University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334383",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Simone",middleName:"Ulrich",surname:"Ulrich Picoli",slug:"simone-ulrich-picoli",fullName:"Simone Ulrich Picoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334383/images/15919_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from Universidade Luterana do Brasil (1999), Master in Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology from Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (2002), Specialization in Clinical Microbiology from Universidade de São Paulo, USP (2007) and PhD in Sciences in Gastroenterology and Hepatology (2012). She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"333753",title:"Dr.",name:"Rais",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"rais-ahmed",fullName:"Rais Ahmed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333753/images/20168_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). 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