Changes in Vastus Lateralis muscle width at each measurement site throughout training and detraining. * Significantly different to baseline (P<0.05) ** Significantly different to baseline (P<0.01)
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Barely three months into the new year and we are happy to announce a monumental milestone reached - 150 million downloads.
\n\nThis achievement solidifies IntechOpen’s place as a pioneer in Open Access publishing and the home to some of the most relevant scientific research available through Open Access.
\n\nWe are so proud to have worked with so many bright minds throughout the years who have helped us spread knowledge through the power of Open Access and we look forward to continuing to support some of the greatest thinkers of our day.
\n\nThank you for making IntechOpen your place of learning, sharing, and discovery, and here’s to 150 million more!
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Skeletal muscle possesses the ability to change its structural and mechanical characteristics in response to its external environment (i.e. it is adaptable). The exact nature of such adaptations is manipulated by, amongst other things, the mechanical stimulus provided to the said muscle. Resistance exercise is an example of one such stimulus, and is used in a variety of settings, such as athletic performance, general health and fitness, injury prevention and rehabilitation. It is also now commonplace for resistance exercise to be used to offset the debilitating effects of illness, disease and sarcopenia (the latter being a term used to describe the age-related loss in muscle mass, which is also accompanied by increased fatty tissue infiltration and the ensuing decrement in muscle ‘quality’). The objectives of the resistance exercise protocol therefore, will vary due to the unique nature of each setting, and therefore should be optimised in order to bring about a specific and desirable set of adaptations. Frequent adaptations that are sought from resistance exercise regimes include an increase in muscle cross-sectional area (CSA) and strength [1], alterations to muscle architecture (spatial arrangement of muscle fibres within a muscle [2]), and greater maximal activation of the musculature [3].
Muscle activation has been widely assessed using surface electromyography (SEMG), and in many cases is expressed as a relative level (%) of maximal voluntary contraction (or MVC). It comprises the sum of the electrical contributions made by the active motor units in proximity to the measurement site. The global characteristics of the surface EMG, such as its amplitude and power spectrum, depend on the membrane properties of the muscle fibres as well as on the timing of the single fibre action potentials. Thus the surface EMG reflects both peripheral and central properties of the neuromuscular system [4]. For many muscles, optimal firing rate, which is that elicited by a maximal voluntary effort, is sufficient to generate a fused tetanus in individual motor units. In predominantly fast-twitch muscles (e.g. biceps brachii), this firing rate is ~30Hz whereas in predominantly slow-twitch muscles (e.g. soleus), this firing rate is ~10Hz [5]. This electromyographic signature is warranted in order for the muscle to express its maximal force generating capabilities, and there have been many studies carried out that have reported a significant increase in agonist SEMG recordings following a resistance training program in both males and females, and in the young as well as the elderly [3, 6-12]. As mentioned previously, muscle adapts in a specific manner to the stimulus provided, and in the case of the aforementioned studies, increases in agonist muscle activation has been shown to be specific to the mode of muscular contraction employed during the resistance training period, and has been fairly well characterised. It is however unclear whether chronic changes in the magnitude of the EMG signal occur with training.
One aspect of resistance training that is scarcely reported in the literature is the acute (and/ or chronic) responses to resistance training programs whereby the length of the muscle when it is loaded is being manipulated. Acutely, it has been demonstrated that there are significantly different responses to exercising at different joint-angles (and thus different muscle lengths). De Ruiter et al. [13] showed that during isometric MVC exercise at 30o, 60o, and 90o of knee flexion, maximal activation of the knee extensors was significantly greater at 90o than the other two angles, despite having identical torque production as 30o (90o; 199±22Nm, 30o; 199±29Nm) and significantly lower torque production than 60o (298±41Nm). A subsequent study [14] found that maximal muscle oxygen consumption was reached significantly later, and was on average ~60% less at 30o compared to 60o and 90o knee flexion. Furthermore, Hisaeda et al.[15] found that when performing isometric contractions at 50% MVC to failure at either 50o or 90o of knee flexion, endurance time was significantly shorter at 90o than 50o. This effect was present both when the exercise was performed with the local circulation occluded and not occluded, thereby highlighting local events as being key to the performance of the musculature at discrete knee angles (or muscle lengths). In addition to this, the slope of the iEMG-time to fatigue regression was significantly greater in the 90o condition compared to 50o. It is proposed that one of the reasons for an increase in oxygen consumption at longer muscle lengths (or more flexed joint angles) is that to produce the same external torque, the internal mechanical stress must be higher at more flexed angles (90o) compared to extended angles (30o or 50o) because the moment arm of the in-series elastic component (i.e. the distance between the tendon and the joint centre of rotation, a factor which impacts on the forces required at the muscle) is shorter [16] at more flexed angles. The above studies provide compelling evidence of the link between the muscle length during a bout of resistance exercise and the acute impact on muscle activation levels, energetic provision, fatigability, as well as torque production. It has therefore been important to determine the nature of the acute effects of length-specific training because it is the accumulation of the acute responses that ultimately are reflected in the chronic muscle adaptations (known as the repeated bout effect).
Previous investigations have also identified the link between muscle length (or joint-angle) and gains in strength and/ or levels of muscle activation following more extended periods of resistance training [17-21]. Briefly, these studies have shown that significantly greater increases in isometric strength are attained when tested at the training length or position, and that these changes in strength are accompanied by significantly greater activation of the muscle at the training position. Furthermore, several studies have outlined that at shorter muscle lengths, the phenomenon of length-specific adaptations are more marked compared to those at longer muscle lengths [19, 21]. For example, performing resistance training at a shorter muscle length results in increases in strength at, and close to the training muscle length, whereas training at longer muscle lengths results in strength increases at, and around a larger range of muscle lengths. However, all of the above data is provided via controlled isometric (static) contractions, when resistance training programs for most individuals are predominantly of a dynamic nature, and therefore warrants further research to extend the knowledge in this area. Therefore the aims of the body of work presented for the first time here were:
1. To describe the acute differences in activation of the Vastus Lateralis (VL) muscle whilst performing dynamic resistance exercise over relatively short muscle lengths compared to long muscle lengths; here comparisons were carried out a) where the external ‘perceived’ workload is matched, and b) when the internal workload is systematically matched between the two training modalities. 2. To describe the changes in oxygen consumption and cardiovascular responses during these exercise protocols. 3. To identify any link between the acute responses to loading at shorter vs longer muscle lengths; and the more chronic adaptations on VL muscle activation following 8 weeks of length-specific resistance training and 4 weeks detraining.
Diagram showing the various knee-joint ranges-of-motion used in the training protocols with a view to describe both acute and chronic training responses
Ten males (23±3 years, 1.79±0.06m, 73.4±8.4Kg) gave written informed consent to take part in the study. All procedures and experimental protocols were approved by the Ethics Committee at the Manchester Metropolitan University. Exclusion criteria for participation in the study were the presence of any known musculoskeletal, neurological, inflammatory or metabolic disorders or injury. Participants were physically active, involved in recreational activities such as team sports, and had either never taken part in intensive (more than two hours a week) lower limb resistance training or not within the previous 12 months. Participants attended the laboratory for a total of five occasions. The first visit included demonstration of the appropriate squat technique for a standard barbell back squat, and familiarisation of the exercise protocol and testing equipment. The following week participants returned on four occasions, firstly to record their one repetition maximum over each range-of-motion, which was defined as the maximum amount of external weight (Kg) that could be lifted in a controlled manner through the entire range-of-motion, and their MVC on an isokinetic dynamometer ( Cybex, Phoenix Healthcare Products, UK) at 50o and 90o of knee flexion. The time-line of the sessions was as follows: Day 1; 1RM & MVC, Day 2; Rest, Day 3; Protocol 1, Day 4; Rest, Day 5; Protocol 2, Day 6; Rest, Day 7; Protocol 3. During each of the resistance exercise protocol days, the participants were randomly allocated to perform the resistance exercise session of one of the three designated ranges-of-motion. During each of the resistance exercise sessions, all acute variables (EMG, VO2, heart rate, blood pressure) were measured.
Thirty two activity-matched participants were allocated to a training group – SL (shorter muscle length 0-50o; 6 males, 4 females; aged 19±2.2 years, 1.76±0.15m, 75.7±13.2Kg), LL (longer muscle length; 5 males, 6 females 40-90o; 21±3.4 years, 1.75±0.14m, 74.9±14.7Kg) or LX (Whole range of motion, 6 males, 5 females 0-90o;19.2±2.6 years, 1.71±0.11m, 73.8±14.9Kg). Ten participants (6 males and 4 females; 23±2.4 years, 1.76±0.09m, 77.9±13.1Kg) were assigned to the non-training control group (Con), and continued their normal habitual activity throughout the study period. A One-way ANOVA revealed that the population was homogeneous at baseline for all parameters of interest (P>0.05). All groups were assessed at baseline (week 0), post-training (week 8), after two weeks of detraining (week 10) and following a further two weeks of detraining (week 12).
Vastus Lateralis activation in SL (black bars), LL (white bars) and LX (grey bars) following varying magnitudes of absolute and relative loading. * Significantly different to SL
Oxygen Consumption (VO2); There was no significant changes in VO2 between any of the absolute loading conditions or between any ROM (P>0.05). Furthermore, in the relative loading conditions, mean VO2 was significantly greater at 80% 1RM compared to 40% 1RM (6.4±0.9 ml/kg-1/min-1 vs. 9.93±1.3 ml/kg-1/min-1, P<0.05). VO2 was greater at 40% and 60% 1RM in LL and LX than SL, however there were no significant differences between these ROMs. At 80% 1RM there was a significantly greater VO2 (Figure 3) in the LL ROM compared to SL (P<0.05), however there were no significant differences between LL and LX, or SL and LX at this loading intensity (P>0.05).
Oxygen consumption (VO2) during relative loading in SL (black bars), LL (white bars) and LX (grey bars). * Significantly different to 40% 1RM. # Significantly different to SL.
Heart rate & Blood Pressure; There was a significantly greater (P<0.05) mean heart rate difference between LL (139±10 beats per minute) and LX (136±11bpm) compared to SL (118±12bpm) in both absolute and relative loading conditions, with no difference between LL and LX (P>0.05). Mean systolic blood pressure yielded no significant differences (P>0.05) between the three ROMs under relative loading conditions, however LX (148±8 mmHg) mean systolic blood pressure was significantly greater than both SL (138±6 mmHg) and LL (135±8 mmHg) following loading under absolute loads (P<0.05).
Agonist (VL) Muscle Activation; Figures 4 and 5 shows absolute (i.e. raw RMS_EMG signal) and relative (i.e. RMS_EMG normalised for values at baseline) changes in muscle activation at baseline and post-training. At week 8, absolute maximal agonist activation did not appear to increase significantly in chronic response to the training protocols, with no significant difference between training groups at any knee angle (P>0.05, Figure 4). However, on further investigation, it was found that in fact, post-training there was a significant relative increase in activation at 50o (23±15%, P<0.05), 70o (26±15%, P<0.01) and 90o (16±13%, P<0.05) in the LX group and at 70o (24±9%, P<0.01) and 90o (25±9%, P<0.01) in LL group. In the SL group there was no significant change at 50o, although there were significant (P<0.05) reductions in VL activation at both 70o (-15±6%) and 90o (-13±5%). Following detraining, muscle activation at 70o decreased at week 10, and levelled off for the remainder of the detraining period (week 12) in both LL and LX groups with no significant changes compared to week 8. In the SL group, activation reduced at both weeks 8, 10 and 12 compared to baseline, however despite larger decrements in this group, there was no significant differences between all three training groups (Figure 6, P>0.05).
Absolute Changes in VL activation at baseline (pre) and week 8 (post) training at 50o (black bars), 70o (white bars) and 90o (grey bars) knee flexion in A) SL, B) LX and C) LL groups.
Relative changes in VL activation at week 8 at three knee joint-angles in SL (black bars), LX (white bars) and LL (grey bars). * Significantly different to baseline. # Significantly different to SL group.
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t||||
SL | \n\t\t\t25 | \n\t\t\t12.7±2.3 | \n\t\t\t13.9±2.0* | \n\t\t\t13.2±1.8 | \n\t\t\t12.9±1.6 | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t | 50 | \n\t\t\t12.8±2.7 | \n\t\t\t14.2±2.5** | \n\t\t\t13.6±1.9 | \n\t\t\t13.3±1.9 | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t | 75 | \n\t\t\t9.6±2.2 | \n\t\t\t11.0±1.9* | \n\t\t\t10.1±1.2 | \n\t\t\t9.6±1.1 | \n\t\t
LL | \n\t\t\t25 | \n\t\t\t14.0±1.3 | \n\t\t\t15.3±1.6** | \n\t\t\t15.6±1.1** | \n\t\t\t15.3±0.9** | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t | 50 | \n\t\t\t13.8±1.6 | \n\t\t\t15.6±2.0** | \n\t\t\t15.8±1.5** | \n\t\t\t15.4±1.3** | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t | 75 | \n\t\t\t9.4±1.8 | \n\t\t\t11.4±1.4** | \n\t\t\t11.5±1.2** | \n\t\t\t11.1±1.3** | \n\t\t
LX | \n\t\t\t25 | \n\t\t\t12.2±2.7 | \n\t\t\t14.2±1.9** | \n\t\t\t13.0±2.0** | \n\t\t\t12.4±1.8 | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t | 50 | \n\t\t\t12.1±2.6 | \n\t\t\t14.3±2.3** | \n\t\t\t13.1±2.0** | \n\t\t\t12.3±2.0 | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t | 75 | \n\t\t\t8.2±2.2 | \n\t\t\t10.6±1.5** | \n\t\t\t9.6±1.6** | \n\t\t\t8.8±1.2* | \n\t\t
Changes in Vastus Lateralis muscle width at each measurement site throughout training and detraining. * Significantly different to baseline (P<0.05) ** Significantly different to baseline (P<0.01)
Strength measures; 1RM in knee extension did not increase significantly compared to baseline until week 4 of the training program (data pooled, P<0.05) with each training group making similar increments in weight (SL; 11±4%, LL; 9±5%, LX 12±5%). There were further significant increases at week 6 (mean of groups 16±6%, P<0.01) and week 8 (mean of groups 22±8%, P<0.001), with no significant difference in the rate of relative increase in 1RM between groups (P>0.05). When muscle activation was normalised against torque at week 8 (Figure 7) as a marker for muscle efficiency, both LL and LX groups showed significantly better improved muscle efficiency compared with SL (P<0.01) at 90o of knee flexion, however there were no differences in muscle activation per unit torque at 50o or 70o following training (P>0.05). LL and LX were not significantly different to each other in terms of the degree of muscle efficiency increase.
Absolute changes in VL activation throughout training and detraining periods at 70o knee flexion. No significant were detected between phases or training groups (P>0.05).
Resistance training presents a medium through which muscular function can be enhanced. In order to devise an appropriate and effective resistance training program tailored with functional and structural enhancement objectives, it is necessary to understand the responses to both an acute bout of exercise, and the adaptations to exercise over a prolonged period of training. An important aspect for muscular performance is the degree to which the muscle can be activated. Previous work using isometric contractions of the knee extensors, has demonstrated that the magnitude of maximal muscle activation is dependent on the joint-angle (and thus muscle-length) used during exercise, even when external torque produced is maintained at a similar level at the different joint angles [13]. This earlier study showed that activation of the quadriceps is significantly greater at 90o knee flexion compared to both 30o and 60o, despite isometric MVC torque being significantly less than 60o and identical to 30o. In the current study, unlike previous research, our participants exercised dynamically over a range-of-motion that was predominantly over shorter muscle lengths (0-50o), longer muscle lengths (40-90o) or over both short and long muscle lengths (0-90o) during exercise using absolute and relative loading patterns. During absolute loading, weight lifted increased in a graded manner, and was reflected by significantly increased muscle activation between each absolute load in the training groups. This result was a more easily predicted outcome and reflects one of the fundamental properties of the neuromuscular system, i.e. the size principle [22], where a greater number of motor units are recruited in order to meet the increasing demands of force production. When exercising over longer muscle lengths (LL) and the complete ROM (LX), muscle activation was significantly greater during absolute and relative loading compared to shorter muscle lengths (SL). So why would a muscle exhibit greater activation whilst moving the same external weight but at different muscle lengths? By moving through a range of muscle lengths or joint-angles, the moment arm of the in-series elastic component (i.e. the tendon) also changes. As the amount of force needed to lift an external load (F) is F = f × d, where f is the internal force produced by the muscle and d is the length of the moment arm, when d is greater f will be smaller and vice versa, and therefore when the external force produced is the same but the moment arm (d) is smaller, the contribution from internal muscle force production increases. An example of this experienced in daily living is the increased difficulty in rising from a low seat position compared to a higher seated position. It has been demonstrated previously that when the joint-angle in the knee extensors is at 90o flexion (such as the end of LL and LX group ROM), the moment arm is considerably shorter [16] than when at 50o (the end of SL ROM). Therefore when exercising at 90o, internally the muscle must produce a greater amount of contractile force to overcome the external weight than that required at 50o knee angle. Again due to the overloading principle of training response, a larger number of motor units will have needed to be recruited to match the force demands at the longer muscle lengths, reflected by the increase in RMS-EMG activity of the VL muscle. In support of this hypothesis, Kubo et al. [21] trained the knee extensors isometrically at either 50o or 100o of knee flexion. Based on their MVC and EMG recordings, they estimated that the internal force on the quadriceps muscles was 2.3 times greater at longer muscle lengths (i.e. 100o) than at shorter lengths. A further variable that must be considered is the influence of changing muscle lengths on the force-length relationship of muscle (for review see [23]). In short, when one alters the length of a muscle, the basic contractile units of individual muscle fibres, known as sarcomeres, also change length. The ability of sarcomeres (and thus muscle) to exert force is determined mainly by actin and myosin filaments interaction and cross-bridge formation. As sarcomere (or muscle) lengths increase, cross-bridges number and force is increased up to an optimal length. Beyond this length (i.e. with further lengthening), decreases cross-bridges formation and force are seen (NB. The caveat here is lies with contractile speed, and preceding type and degree of muscle contraction [24]. If longer muscle lengths are less optimal for force production and cross-bridge formation than shorter muscle lengths, then greater motor unit recruitment will be necessary to overcome the external resistance. Therefore the two factors likely for greater activation in LL and LX compared to SL may be due to the greater internal mechanical stress on the muscle because of a shorter moment arm, and/ or the length of the muscle reducing cross-bridge formation and force production per sarcomere, all other things (contraction type, speed and history) being equal.
Vastus Lateralis muscle efficiency (i.e. activation per unit of torque) at week 8 at three joint-angles in SL (black bars), LL (white bars) and LX (grey bars). * Significantly different to SL (P<0.05). N.B. there were no between group differences at baseline.
In the current study, oxygen consumption (VO2) was shown to be significantly greater at 80%1RM compared to 40% 1RM, and also significantly greater in both the LL and LX ROMs compared to SL ROM at 80% 1RM loading. VO2 is used in exercise physiology to provide valuable information, such as an indicator of energy expenditure. Oxygen is ‘consumed’ by the working muscle during oxidative phosphorylation in order to produce, maintain and/ or replenish the energy used during the many different processes involved with muscular contraction. Therefore if a particular form of exercise requires the use of greater volumes of oxygen, this indicates that the system is working harder in order to meet the demands. It has been demonstrated previously in humans that oxygen consumption increases with work intensity during constant isometric loading of the knee extensors [13, 14], and this is reflected by the increased VO2 at 80% 1RM compared to 40% 1RM, where although performing the same ROMs, participants were exerting greater force, requiring more energy to supply muscular contraction. The relative VO2 levels are much lower than normally encountered during aerobic exercise for example, due to the shorter duration of exercise bouts and greater contribution to energy supply from anaerobic sources such as ATP-PCr system and glycolysis. Of more interest in the present study was the fact that both LL and LX ROMs had significantly greater VO2 compared to SL at 80% 1RM. Previous research using near-infrared spectroscopy has demonstrated that during isometric exercise of the knee extensors, VL muscle VO2 is significantly increased at longer muscle lengths (60o and 90o) compared to shorter muscle lengths (30o). This was even despite the fact that MVC torque relative to the maximum torque capacity (MTC) tended to be greater (~85% of MTC) at 30o compared to both 60o and 90o (~75% MTC). A subsequent study by Kooistra et al. [14] demonstrated that knee extensor muscle activation and VO2 were significantly less, and time to VO2max significantly longer at the same relative torque levels at 30o compared to 60o and 90o. An additional indication of the increased stress at longer muscle lengths was the observation that at 80% 1RM, although covering almost half the ROM of LX, LL group showed a trend (though not statistically significant) to consuming greater volumes of oxygen. This suggests that the energetic cost of constantly working at longer muscle lengths is at least just as, if not more demanding than, alternating between longer and shorter muscle lengths even when over a relatively large ROM. With significantly higher heart rates in both LL and LX groups (and also greater blood pressure in LX) compared to SL during exercise, the results also suggest that the cardiovascular system was also under greater stress at longer muscle lengths. Taken into consideration with both the aforementioned differences between the LL and LX groups compared to SL with regards muscle activation and oxygen consumption, it appears that performing exercise over predominantly longer muscle lengths (or incorporating longer muscle lengths into a full ROM) present a more potent stress to both neuromuscular and cardiovascular systems than performing exercise over mainly shorter muscle lengths. So what factors are present that would require greater oxygen consumption at longer muscle lengths? First of all, as mentioned previously, there are a number of processes that occur in order for a muscle to contract and produce force. One such process has been termed excitation-contraction coupling, where an action potential induces the release of calcium ions (Ca2+) from the muscle membrane (sarcoplasmic reticulum) and these ions interact with the thin filaments of a sarcomere, allowing muscle contraction to occur. Ca2+ ions are then transported back into the sarcoplasmic reticulum for storage, allowing the muscle to relax. These processes are ATP-dependent (i.e. energy consuming) and as energy is consumed during activation, the amount of energy is measured as heat [25]. Therefore if greater activation of the muscle is occurring at longer muscle lengths, the possibility exists that the energy cost of this activation is also greater, and that this mechanism requires greater oxygen consumption to supply the energy. In addition, potentiation is force enhancement following muscle contraction, and is dependent on the contractile history. Place et al.[26] showed that following fatiguing contractions in the quadriceps muscles at either shorter (35o) or longer (75o) muscle lengths, peak twitch potentiation and doublet force were significantly greater at shorter muscle lengths, which may also allow for a reduction in energy cost as activation may be reduced. Secondly, we have already discussed the likelihood that due to the internal architecture of muscles and tendons, that the length of the moment arm will dictate that greater muscle force will have to be produced at longer muscle lengths compared to shorter muscle lengths. Production of the additional force through recruitment of more motor units would mean that more of the contractile machinery would be used and be consuming energy, as muscular contraction from cross-bridge cycling also requires ATP [27, 28]. Therefore the additional oxygen consumption observed at longer muscle lengths may be the result of both the energetic requirements of muscle activation and the increased energetic requirements of force production. This hypothesis is consistent with the fact that endurance performance is significantly reduced with time to fatigue at longer muscle lengths compared to shorter muscle length, regardless of of the intensities of loading and circulatory conditions [15, 26, 29]. Consistent with an increased oxygen demand, would be an increase in heart rate which was observed between the groups.
When exercise is performed on a regular basis, the above acute responses to a bout of exercise will eventually result in long-term adaptations (i.e. repeated bout effect), which will allow the body to complete the same exercise bout as before but with relatively less disturbance to homeostasis. During the resistance training program, the three groups performed exercise over the same range-of-motion as during the acute bouts (i.e. SL, LL and LX), with the only differences being the degree of loading. SL and LX exercised at 80% 1RM, whereas LL exercised at 55% 1RM, where this was to allow the length of muscle excursion (50o) and the internal muscle forces to be as similar as possible during resistance training between SL and LL. Following 8 weeks of resistance training, absolute changes in muscle activation did not increase significantly at any of the angles tested (50o; shorter lengths, 70o more optimal lengths, 90o longer lengths) during an isometric MVC. There have been conflicting reports throughout the literature concerning the possible increase in agonist activation following resistance training, as there have been studies published that have reported significant changes [3, 6-12], whereas some have not [30-33]. However, comparing longitudinal changes in agonist EMG both within and between studies can prove difficult due to methodological differences [34]. In one length-specific resistance training study, Thepaut-Mathieu et al. [19] reported an increase in iEMG-force relationships at the specific joint angles used during training. These findings were also supported by Kubo et al. [21] who found that iEMG of the quadriceps (rectus femoris, vastus lateralis and vastus medialis) increased significantly in groups that trained at either shorter or longer muscle lengths, with no differences between the groups at any of the joint-angles tested. In the current study there were also no significant differences in maximal activation levels between groups and muscle lengths. However, one of the main findings from the current study was the significant relative increases in activation at all muscle lengths in LX, at longer muscle lengths in LL, and significant decreases in activation at longer muscle lengths in SL. This is further evidence of the muscle length (or joint-angle) specificity phenomenon following resistance training. Whereas a previous study [21] found that relative quadriceps iEMG increased at all measured knee angles (40-110o) following 12 weeks of isometric resistance training at shorter muscle lengths, our results show a decrease in activation at longer muscle lengths occurred following training at shorter muscle lengths. Interestingly from the study of Kubo et al. [21] was the fact that although iEMG increased within the range of ~25-45% over all testing angles (40-110o) following training at shorter muscle lengths, MVC only significantly increased between 40-80o in this group. Previous work from our laboratory has shown that MVC torque did not change significantly at longer muscle lengths following a period of resistance training at shorter muscle lengths [35], and results from the current investigation show that this could be in part be mediated by a reduction in maximal activation at these lengths. Further evidence of muscle-length specificity was the fact that only LX group, who covered an entire ROM, actually demonstrated a significant relative increase in activation at each angle tested, and also that LL only showed significant relative increases in activation at longer muscle lengths (lengths where the majority of training would have taken place). In order to allow us to describe the impact of changes in activation on strength changes, we have shown that there was significantly greater muscule efficiency (EMG per unit of torque) at longer muscle lengths (i.e. in LL and LX) compared to SL, following the 8-week training program. Changes in torque generating capacity are not accounted for solely, or at times at all by increased muscle activation. Changes in muscle architecture, morphology and/ or muscle specific tension are just a few of the many other factors that can impact a muscle’s ability to produce force following resistance training as well as neural adaptations (for review see [34]). However in this case, there appears to be a relationship between the increased activation of the VL muscle and the changes in torque production following resistance training in LL and LX at longer muscle lengths.
As indicated above, one of the other factors influencing changes in torque or force production following resistance exercise is muscle morphology, such as size. There is a strong positive relationship between the size of a muscle and the force it is able to exert [1]. In the current study, all of the three training groups increased the size of the VL muscle at proximal (25%), central (50%) and distal (75% of femur length) measurement sites at week 8. However in the SL group, the muscle size increment was more significant centrally rather than at proximal and distal sites of the VL, whereas both LL and LX had fairly equal distribution of size increment along the length of the muscle. Firstly, this information suggests that the resistance training program was effective in increasing muscle size, which is a well established characteristic of resistance training. Secondly, the results also suggest that the ROM involved during resistance training (i.e. the muscle lengths used) may produce region specific variations in muscle growth. Our laboratory has provided more conclusive evidence that muscle size increments at distal regions are enhanced to a greater degree immediately following resistance training at longer muscle lengths [35], however in the current study this was only apparent following two weeks of detraining, although these were still present following a total of four weeks detraining. The region specific variation in muscle size has been previously documented throughout literature (e.g. [31]), and is probably due to the unique way in which forces are transmitted along the length of a muscle when exercised at different lengths. Forces in muscles are transmitted both serially and in parallel [36], and when training at longer muscle lengths, there may be a more pronounced parallel transmission of force at distal regions of the muscle, providing a stimulus for growth in this location. In terms of muscle growth, force production and muscle stretch are potent stimulators of muscle protein synthesis, with a combination of both having an additive effect [37]. In vitro experiments have shown that when muscle cells are stretched to longer lengths, there is a marked increase in protein synthesis and growth factor mRNA [38]. The LL and LX groups when performing exercise at longer muscle lengths would have experienced a larger degree of muscle stretch compared to SL, and would have also been simultaneously producing force. In addition, because LX group worked at an intensity of 80% 1RM, peak force generation would also have been greater in this group. This is supported by the mean relative increase in VL muscle width being greatest in this group at all measurement sites, although due to the variation between subjects, this was not statistically significant. It is encouraging that despite the greater absolute force generations in LX compared to LL, the LL group (who remained at longer muscle lengths throughout each training session, and therefore muscle stretch would probably have persisted compared to LX group who worked between shorter and longer muscle lengths), these two groups exhibited similar muscle hypertrophy responses. What is more, yet another encouraging aspect of LL training was the fact that at week 10, VL muscle widths were significantly greater in LL and LX at all measurement sites compared to baseline, whereas the SL group had returned to baseline values. Following a further two weeks of detraining, LX group muscle widths only remained significantly greater than baseline values at 75% femur length, whereas LL group retained post-training increments in muscle width at all measurement sites for the entirety of the detraining period. Therefore not only does training at longer muscle lengths possibly confer more beneficial adaptations following training, but it also appears to allow retention of these adaptations for a longer period of time. This is a positive finding from the current study, in that following any periods on illness, injury or tapering that occur to the individual, longer-term retention of the benefits of the preceding resistance exercise will minimise the impact of such deleterious events.
Performing resistance training over predominantly longer muscle lengths compared to shorter muscle lengths produces stepwise degrees of acute muscular, energetic and cardiovascular responses, which then culminate to differential magnitudes of chronic training as well as detraining adaptations. As a progression to the earlier research evidence from isometric exercise in terms of both acute [13, 14] and chronic [21] muscle length-specific training, the current study is the first to systematically show that dynamic exercise at longer muscle lengths also results in greater activation and oxygen consumption. The nature of the acute responses suggests that the muscle is more physiologically stressed at longer muscle lengths. Following a prolonged period of resistance training (i.e. an accumulation of training bouts), we show that long-length trained muscle exhibits relatively greater muscle activation, neuromuscular efficiency and hypertrophy compared with its short-length trained counterpart. Similarly with detraining, long-length training was associated with a greater retention of improvements in muscle characteristics. It is likely that in this case also, the more beneficial size increments in particular, were the result of greater physiological stress, a result of the combined effects of smaller moment arm and enhanced muscle stretch. These findings have implications for athletic, elderly, or post-operative populations to name but a few end users.
Rice (
However, the occurrence of diseases poses a major threat to rice production. Numerous fungal, bacterial, viral, and nematode diseases occur in rice-growing regions, causing significant yield and quality losses annually [2]. Rice blast caused by
Rapid and accurate identification and detection of rice disease are the first essential step for effective management of these diseases. Diagnosis of diseases by their visual characteristic symptoms is the most common practice at present. However, this disease detection process is time consuming and labor-some. Accuracy of disease identification and detection is highly dependent on the knowledge and experience of the inspector. For example, to detect and monitor sheath blight, visual inspection should start at the panicle differentiation growth stage of rice by walking across the field in a zigzag pattern many times [8]. Many stops are needed to scout for the presence of the disease based on its symptoms in the lower portion of canopy. This process repeats weekly at the early stages and more frequently (biweekly) at the late stages or under conditions most favorable for sheath blight to develop until heading.
Unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) remote sensing provides a new way to detect and monitor disease development. UAV remote sensing offers a quick, accurate, large area coverage, and low-cost tool for disease assessment. Remote sensing is the science and art of acquiring information about material objects from measurements made at a distance without coming in physical contact with the objectives [9]. Remote sensors can sense the changes in spectral reflectance that results from the changes of external biophysical and internal biochemical characteristics of plant tissue [10]. Spectral properties of vegetation are determined by plant tissue features, including pigment and moisture content of tissue, leaf area index, ratio of live and senesced tissue biomass, and spatial arrangement of cells and structures [11]. Changes in the spectral properties of vegetation occur in the three distinguished spectral domains of vegetation reflectance, invisible (VIS: 0.4 to 0.7 μm), near-infrared (NIR: 0.7 to 1.3 μm), and mid-infrared (mid-IR: 1.3 to 2.5 μm) [11]. Infected or diseased plants change their spectral properties of vegetation. A reduction in chlorophyll production in infected tissue results in less absorption of blue and red band visible light. These changes are reflected in all the three blue, green, and red bands. So, yellow or brown color is present in infected tissue image. In infected plants, NIR bands are not absorbed by mesophyll cells but by stressed and dead cells, resulting in the presence of dark tones in acquired image. Therefore, remote sensing can detect these changes in spectral reflection pattern in infected or diseased plant tissue. This is the basis for the application of remote sensing on plant disease detection and quantification. Various sensors, including digital RGB (Red, Green and Blue) sensor, multispectral sensor, hyperspectral sensor, fluorescence imaging, and infrared thermal sensors, have been widely utilized to characterize plant disease symptoms, detect different diseases, and even quantify severity of many plant diseases in the laboratory and field [12, 13, 14].
UAV can also be used as an aerial fungicide sprayer for disease control. UAV spraying can operate at low altitudes and various speeds, and apply with low volumes, making it suitable for situations where arial and ground applications are unavailable or infeasible and where precision applications are needed for more economically and environmentally effective control of diseases. With the development of UAV technology, the use of UAV for aerial fungicide application has become a new means for control of diseases in rice and other crops in recent years [15]. Considerable acreage of rice crops has been treated with UAV spraying in many countries, especially China and Japan [15, 16, 17, 18]. In 2020, total treated areas of crops were over 450 million hectares in China [16]. In Japan, approximately 40% of rice acreage is treated with UAV spraying [17, 18].
This article reviews the recent advances in the research and use of UAV remote sensing for the detection and management of crop diseases, with a focus on sheath blight and NBLS, two important fungal diseases in rice. This review article covers disease symptoms, traditional disease detection methods, remote sensing for disease detection, and UAV used as a tool for disease management. Conclusion and prospects are also included at the end of this review article.
Sheath blight is soilborne disease and the fungus can survive as sclerotia in soil for up to 2 years [19]. The disease starts with the contact of sclerotia with leaf sheaths at or just above the water line after the sclerotia float out of the soil with irrigation water. The sclerotia germinate and infect the leaf sheaths at the stages of later tillering to early reproduction. Initial symptoms develop on the leaf sheaths and are circular, oval or ellipsoid, water-soaked spots in greenish-gray color (Figure 1A). The lesions enlarge and coalesce forming bigger lesions with irregular outlines and grayish-white centers surrounded by dark brown borders (Figure 1A and B). As lesions coalesce on the sheaths, entire leaves eventually die. Lesions on the leaf blades are more irregular with dark green, brown or yellow-orange margins. The lesions can develop extensively and coalesce on partial or whole leaf blades, producing a rattlesnake skin pattern (Figure 1C). Sheath blight spreads in the field vertically and horizontally. The disease moves up the plants (Figure 2) and may infect the flag leaves and panicles (Figures 1D and 3A) under severe conditions. The fungus spreads in the field by growing its runner hyphae from tiller to tiller, from leaf to leaf, and from plant to plant, resulting in a circular pattern of damage (Figure 3A). The fungus can spread into the culms from early sheath infections and weaken the infected culms, resulting in the lodging and collapse of tillers (Figure 3B). Diseased plants reduce grain filling, especially in the lower portion of the panicles. Losses in yield tend to be more severe with increased lodging [8].
Sheath blight lesions on the sheaths (A and B), leaf (C) and flag leaf (D), and white (E) and dark (F) sclerotia on the sheaths.
Vertical development of sheath blight in pathogen-inoculated field plot (A) in comparison with healthy plants in non-inoculated field plot (B) at Eagle Lake, Texas, USA.
Infected flag leaves and panicles in the circular infection area of field research plot (A), and lodging caused by sheath blight in a commercial rice field at Beaumont (B), Texas, USA.
Sclerotia, the survival structures of the fungus, form on the surfaces of some sheaths and leaf blades. The sclerotia are white (Figure 1E) when first formed, and then turn brown or dark brown (Figure 1F). The sclerotia fall off the plants and serve as primary inoculum the following season. Mycelia in infect plant debris can also service as primary inoculum. Sheath bight is considered a monocyclic disease since the pathogen infection cycle occurs only once during a cropping season. The fungus does not produce any asexual or sexual spores for repeated infections under the field conditions [20].
The NBLS fungus is seedborne and survives in infected seed and rice plant residue year after year, serving as primary inoculum. The fungus produces conidia, the structures for infection. Infection starts when the conidia germinate and penetrate host plant tissue through the stomata and grow intercellularly in the tissue [7]. The fungus attacks the leaves (Figure 4A), sheaths (Figure 4B), internodes, panicle branches and glumes (Figure 4D). On leaf blades, it causes short, linear, narrow, brown lesions parallel to the leaf veins (Figure 4A). Infection of the leaf sheaths results in a large, brown blotch or “net blotch” caused by the browning of the leaf veins (Figure 4C). The fungus also can cause a “neck blight,” where the internodal area above and below the node at the base of the panicle becomes light brown to tan (Figure 4E). The affected tissue area dies and the kernels in the lower portion of the panicle fail to fill (Figure 4D). As plants approach maturity, leaf spotting can become severe on susceptible cultivars and result in severe leaf blighting and premature death (Figure 5). The disease can cause premature ripening, yield reduction, and reduced milling quality. Low nitrogen levels increase the severity of the disease. The disease tends to be more severe at late plantings and in ratoon (second) crop. Ratooning is a common practice following main crop harvest in Texas and Louisiana to maximize the returns of rice production [21].
Narrow brown leaf spot (NBLS) lesions on the leaves (A) and sheath (B); NBLS net blotch symptoms on the sheath (C); NBLS lesions on panicle branches and glumes (D); and NBLS “neck blast” symptoms at the base of the panicle (E).
Severe narrow brown leaf spot (NBLS) and premature death in the field at Beaumont, Texas, USA.
NBLS is a typical polycyclic foliar disease and infection occurs multiple times within a cropping season. The development of symptoms may take 7 days under conducive conditions (Zhou, unpublished data) to 30 days after infection [7]. The disease is airborne and spreads long distances by wind-borne spores, resulting in uniform distribution of the disease in the field [22].
Rapid and accurate identification and detection of sheath blight are critical for rice growers to employ a right measure such as fungicide application for control of this disease. Diagnosis of sheath blight by visual symptoms is the common practice to detect the presence of the disease. However, diagnosis based on symptoms is difficult since sheath blight may be confused with other sheath diseases with similar symptoms, such as sheath spot (also known bordered sheath spot) caused by
Scouting for sheath blight and determining the need to trigger fungicide application are important for profitable production of rice. As other diseases, it is difficult to precisely estimate the potential levels of sheath blight in a field to make an assessment on the economic feasibility of applying a fungicide. However, given the high costs of fungicide applications and farmers’ need to reduce production costs, the proper disease scouting and assessment is highly recommended. Damage caused by the disease depends on several factors that include cultivar susceptibility, disease pressure, weather conditions, plant density, and nitrogen fertilizers.
Sheath blight develops quickly under favorable environmental conditions. The following field scouting procedure is recommended for the rice farmers in Texas [8]. Detecting and monitoring the development of sheath blight should start scouting for the presence of sheath blight at the panicle differentiation growth stage of rice by walking across the field in a zigzag pattern (Figure 6). Farmer should periodically inspect rice plants above the water line for the early symptoms. If there is no sheath blight observed, the farmer should wait a week and monitor again; if some sheath blight is found, a more detailed monitoring procedure should be followed to accurately determine the severity of sheath blight. A large field should be divided into 45 to 50 acres (18 to 20 hectares) sections and inspection made in each section separately (Figure 6) to monitor more precisely. The farmer should walk the field sections in a “U” pattern and randomly stop to check for the presence of sheath blight. The stopping point is considered positive for sheath blight even if only one small sheath blight lesion is found on a single plant; the stopping point is considered negative if no sheath blight symptoms is observed. The total number of stops should be at least equivalent to the number of areas scouted (i.e. 50 acres (20 hectares) = 50 or more stops). To the end of the scouting, the percentage of positive sheath blight stopping points can be calculated by dividing the number of positive stops where sheath blight was found by the number of stops and multiplying by 100. Alternatively, the percentage of tillers infected can be calculated by dividing the number of tillers infected by the total number of tillers inspected and multiplying by 100. For the tiller infection assessment, the number of tillers with at least one sheath blight lesion and the total number of tillers inspected should be recorded in each stop.
Scouting procedure for sheath blight detection in the 15-, 45-, and 135-acre (6-, 18-, and 55-hectare) field (source: [
The thresholds for economical fungicide application are based on the amount of sheath blight present and the susceptibility of the cultivar planted. With very susceptible and susceptible cultivars, 35% positive stops indicate that a fungicide is necessary; moderately susceptible cultivars require 50% positive stops to justify a fungicide application. Alternatively, with very susceptible and susceptible cultivars, 5 to 10% tillers infected indicate that spraying a fungicide is warranted; moderately susceptible cultivars require 10 to 15% tillers infected to justify a fungicide application.
This scouting procedure should be repeated until the heading growth stage. However, if most conducive conditions are present and persistent at the growth stages after panicle differentiation, sheath blight should be scouted at the intervals of two times a week.
NBLS has its own characteristic symptoms that can be distinguished from other diseases in rice. This is especially true when the disease is at its late development stages. However, diagnosis of NBLS by visual symptoms may be confused with other diseases, including brown spot (caused by
Scouting for NBLS and monitoring its development are relatively simple compared to sheath blight. NBLS spreads by air-borne spores and its distribution in the field is uniform, which contrasts with sheath blight that is soilborne and spreads in the field in an aggregated pattern. NBLS symptoms first appear on old leaves and then develop on the upper leaves. Rice plants are susceptible to NBLS at all growth stages but become more susceptible from panicle emergence to maturity. Due to relatively slow development of the disease, weekly scouting for NBLS is recommended and the scouting procedure should start at the boot stage until heading.
The thresholds for economical fungicide application have not been established for NBLS yet. However, determining the need to trigger a fungicide application is based on the susceptibility of the cultivar planted, its growth stage, and weather conditions. Significant differences in susceptibility among rice cultivars are present. Some cultivars, especially hybrids, with acceptable levels of resistance do not need a fungicide treatment. A fungicide application may be warranted under the most conducive environments, including combinations of very susceptible cultivars, early growth stages infected, favorable weather conditions and a consideration of ratoon cropping.
Remote sensing is an innovation to plant disease detection and monitoring since it provides rapid, accurate and objective observations and can be available real time and all the time. With remote sensing technology, we can rapidly and accurately observe and assess crop growth and disease development at large field scales and make it possible conduct multiple surveys and assessments within a short period of time. This is especially useful when surveying field crops such as rice to cover large field areas. The average size of field crops per farm in the US is relatively large and has continued increase. For example, average rice hectares per U. S. rice farm have been increased from 160 hectares in 2000 to 243 hectares in 2013 [33]. Using traditional field observations and ground surveys for crop diseases, such as rice sheath blight detection method described above, is a challenge to farmers since such visual inspection methods are time-consuming and labor-some. Such manual inspection is also subjective and random, and its accuracy is dependent on the knowledge and experience of the inspector.
Various sensors, including digit (RGB) camera, multispectral camera, hyperspectral camera, infrared thermal imager, and fluorescence imaging, have been used in remote sensing for plant disease detection and monitoring [10, 12, 34]. RGB camera is one of the most used sensors because of its light weight, low cost, ease of operation, simple data processing, and low work environment requirements [34]. RBG camera can acquire grayscale or color images, which enables to detect diseased plant tissues with modifications in color, texture, and other spectral information. Hoverer, due to the limitation of fewer visible light bands, RGB camera might provide insufficient spectral information to accurately characterize symptoms and identify diseases. Vegetation features can be identified by extracting color indices from high-resolution images since each pixel value of image can be calculated from the reflectance or radiance of specific bands [34]. RGB camera has been used for the identification and detection of cotton bacterial angular (
Multispectral camera is the second most used sensor for plant disease detection. Multispectral sensors can sense and record the radiations from the visible and invisible portions of the electromagnetic spectrum. To the users, multispectral sensors are relatively inexpensive and have the advantages of fast frame imaging and high work efficiency. However, multispectral sensors have their limitations since they have low number of bands, discontinuous spectrum, and low spectral resolution [34]. Multispectral sensing has been used for the classification and detection of more than 16 fungal and bacterial diseases in over 11 field crops [12]. In rice, Zhang et al. [38] reported that multispectral sensor performed better in the detection of sheath blight in field plots compared to RGB sensor. Cai et al. [41] successfully used a multiple spectral sensor to detect and quantify NBLS in the field. Shi et al. [42] used PlanetScope multispectral imaging to classify and detect rice blast, dwarf virus, and glume blight (
Hyperspectral sensing is another common method to diagnose and detect plant diseases. Hyperspectral sensors can sense and record a large number of very narrow bands and continuous spectra. They can provide more spectral band information and higher spectral resolution than multispectral sensors. Therefore, hyperspectral imagers have more capacity to capture spectral characteristics of symptoms and crops and to distinguish the differences in spectral traits between different crops [34]. The hyperspectral sensing approach has been used for the detection of more than 12 fungal, bacterial, and nematode diseases in 15 field crops [12]. In rice, sheath blight, rice blast and bacterial leaf blight can be identified with an accuracy of more than 93% using hyperspectral imaging data through machine leaning methods [44]. Most recently, Lin et al. [45] analyzed and compared the spectral responses to rice leaf and sheath tissue infected with sheath blight with healthy tissue and found that the hyperspectral sensing approach performed very well on the identification of sheath blight with an accuracy of more than 95%. Hyperspectral sensor could distinguish the spectral response curves of the diseased leaf blade (Figure 7A) and leaf sheath (Figure 7B) from their healthy tissues. Transformed data (SDr/SDg) could even distinguish the leaf blade lesions from the leaf sheath lesions (Figure 7C).
Comparison of spectral curves of sheath blight-infected rice leaf blade (A) and leaf sheath (B) with their healthy tissues, and the ability of SDr/SDs to distinguish the leaf lesions from the leaf blade lesions (C) (source: [
Infrared thermal sensors can detect radiation emitted in the thermal infrared range of 8 to 14 μm. They can be used to assess the surface temperature of leaves and plant canopies that are affected by water status [12]. Diseased plants and tissues usually suffer from water stress due to loss of healthy tissue, stomatal conductance, and photosynthesis, resulting in the changes in canopy temperature among different disease-related environments. Infrared thermal imaging has been used for the detection of more than six fungal and bacterial diseases in seven crops [10, 12]. Yamamoto et al. [46] reported the use of infrared thermal image to detect the occurrence of rice blast in Japan.
Using fluorescence technical approach for plant disease detection has not been widely studied as compared to other sensors described above. Fluorescence has been used for the detection of only several diseases, including wheat leaf rust [47] and citrus canker [48]. Fluorescence can assess the changes in photosystem II activity of plants under different levels of stress [12]. Infection causes chlorophyll degradation and reduced photosynthetic leaf area, resulting in the changes in the capacity of photosynthesis between diseased and healthy crops.
Satellite, airborne (aircraft), UAV, and ground are the most common platforms that have been used for the detection and monitoring of plant diseases. Applications of remote sensing on agriculture and disease detection and management are first studied and implemented using satellite and aircraft platforms equipped with remote sensors. For example, Colwell [49] conducted the first airborne imagery to monitor the occurrence of black stem rust of wheat and yellow dwarf of oat. Qin and Zhang [50] used Airborne Data Acquisition and Registration (ADAR) to detect and monitor the development of rice sheath blight with high accuracy for late development stages of the disease. Use of satellite image data has successfully detected and monitored rice diseases (sheath blight, blast, glume blight, and dwarf virus) [41, 51] and wheat diseases (powdery mildew and leaf rust) [52]. Ground-based sensors has also been used to detect crop diseases including fire blight of apple [53] and late blight of potato [54]. Satellite, airborne and ground-based remote sensing have been widely investigated and some of the developed techniques have been used for plant disease detection and management. However, most of the satellite and airborne remote sensing results and findings still remain in the research phases and wide implementations of theses remote sensing technologies for field crop disease detection and monitoring are limited due to their high costs of acquiring data, high technique demand for data processing, limited availability of needed and real-time data, and being inaccessible to end users (farmers). Ground-based remote sensing is difficult to meet the on-time detection of crop diseases at large scale farming setting for disease management. So far, these remote sensing technologies have not been used for the detection and monitoring of rice diseases in the US.
Recent advances in UAV remote sensing platform and data processing make it possible using remote sensor techniques to identify, detection and quantify plant diseases [12]. UAV-based remote sensing provides low costs, ease of use, high-resolution images, high efficiency, real-time inspection, and the ability to cover a large field scale. A study has been conducted by Garcia-Ruiz et al. [55] to compare the performance of UAV with a single engine fixed-wing aircraft using multispectral imaging sensor on the detection of citrus greening disease. The study found that UAV-based sensor provided 67 to 85% of identification accuracy whereas the accuracy was 61 to 74% with the aircraft-based sensor. The results of this comparative performance study demonstrate that UAV can be a low cost and reliable tool for crop disease detection.
Multi-rotors, helicopters, fixed wings, blimps, and flying wings are among the most UAVs used for crop phenotyping and disease detection [34]. Selection of UAVs is based on the purpose and budget of the research and implementation. Each UAV has its advantages and disadvantages in costs, flying ability (flying speed, altitude and duration), and payload capacity [34]. Multi-rotors are the most common used UAVs at present. Multi-rotor UAVs are low costs, can hover, and have low take-off and landing requirements. However, multi-rotor UAVs have their disadvantages of low payload, short flight duration, and being easy to be affected by weather conditions. Each UAV has a flight control system that can plan flight routes and setup flight parameters such as flight location, flight altitude, and flight speed.
UAV remote sensing provides an unprecedented spectral, spatial, and temporal resolution and an innovation tool for the detection of crop diseases [12, 56]. Investigations and reports on the use of UAV equipped with different sensors for field crop disease detection and monitoring have continued increase for the past five years [12]. In 2016 through 2019, there were at least 15 published research articles that involved more than 15 diseases in 12 field crops [12]. Sensors used in these studies include RGB sensor, multispectral sensor and infrared thermal sensor, and accuracy of disease identification and detection ranges from 0.64 to 0.97. These diseases studied are fire blight of apple [53], Ascochyta blight of chickpea [57], mistletoes of eucalyptus [58], myrtle rust of lemon myrtle [59], tar spot complex of maize [60], leaf spot of oilseed rape [61], myrtle rust of paperbark tea [62], late blight of potato [54], sheath blight [38] and NBLS of rice [41], needle blight of scots pine [63], gummy stem blight of watermelon [64], and leaf blotch, powdery mildew and yellow rust of wheat [65, 66, 67]. However, using UAV remote sensing for disease detection is still premature in comparison with research on the detection of crop drought stress [12]. Continuous research and further development on UAV remote sensing will make this innovation become a useful tool for farmers to detect and manage diseases. In this article, we focus on the development of UAV remote sensing for the detection and quantification of sheath blight and NBLS, two important rice diseases, as an example to demonstrate the usefulness of UAV remote sensing technology.
A study was conducted in the field plots at Texas A&M AgriLife Research Center, Beaumont, TX, USA to evaluate the potential of using UAV remote sensing to detect and quantify sheath blight of rice [38]. A total of 67 rice cultivars and elite breeding lines with different levels of resistance to sheath blight were planted into plots of each consisting of seven 2.4-m rows, spaced 18 cm between rows. Each plot was divided into two equal-length sections, with one end section being inoculated with the sheath blight pathogen while the other end section left with no pathogen inoculation for the disease-free control. Ground truth sheath blight severity data were collected by visual assessment based on a scale of 0 to 9 where 0 represents no symptoms and 9 represents most severe in symptoms and damage.
Four-rotor Phantom 2 Vision+ UAV equipped with high resolution digit camera or multispectral camera was used to capture field plot images (Figure 8). The digit camera had 4384 x 3288 pixel resolution with three bands of red, green, and blue whereas the multispectral sensor Micansense RedEdge™ has five bands of blue, green, red, red edge, and near-infrared (Figure 9). The UAV flew at 27 m altitude to cover all 67 plots per image and 5.5 m to cover four plots per image, at a speed between 0 and 10 m/s depended on wind speed. Pix 4D was utilized to covert images automatically and Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) and other vegetation indices of 67 plots were calculated and extracted by ArcGIS 9.1. Ground truth NDVI values of 67 plots were acquired by using GreenSeeker handheld crop sensor.
Four-rotor Phantom 2 Vision+ UAV equipped with a high-resolution digit RGB camera used in this study.
Comparison of spectral responses of multispectral Micansense camera (upper) and digit RGB camera (lower) (source: [
In this study, high-resolution 3-band RGB and 5-band multispectral images were analyzed to detect sheath blight-infected areas in the plots. Multispectral RBG image (Figure 10B) could more accurately reflect field environments such as green weeds, ground earth and plot shadow, and canopy characteristics including color, texture and structure information compared to original RGB image collected from digit camera (Figure 10A). Therefore, multispectral camera could provide more details than regular digit camera since the former has the narrow spectral band as shown in Figure 9. Transformation to HLS (hue, lightness, and saturation) (Figure 10C) from the false color image resulted in more apparent display of the sheath blight-infected areas with yellow to white in color in the plots. After NDVI values were calculated and the NDVIs map of 67 plots was developed (Figure 10D), it clearly showed the diseased areas were clearly differentiated from the healthy areas in each of the plots. The darker the image color, the more severe the sheath blight disease. These differentiation effects were more apparent compared to the differentiations made by original RGB, multispectral RBG and HLS images. This can be explained that red and near-infrared lights are more sensitive to the changes in canopy color from the healthy green color to the diseased yellow color and the changes in canopy structure from dense to sparse in density caused by sheath blight. Therefore, the vegetation index NDVI is a good indicator of different levels of sheath blight observed in this study.
Original RGB (A), multispectral RGB (B), HLS (C), and NDVI (D) images of 67 field plots, with rice cultivars and elite breeding lines having different levels of resistance to sheath blight, at Beaumont, Texas, USA (source: [
Image-based NDVIs were also compared to the ground truth NDVIs acquired by GreenSeeker sensor and it was found that there was a strong correlation between them with a high
Correlation between image-based NDVIs and ground-based NDVIs (source: [
Correlation between image-based NDVIs and ground truth sheath blight severity (source: [
The results of this study show multispectral image has more advantages of color and spectral information than regular RGB image, providing a strong ability to detect the sheath blight disease in the field. Use of multispectral camera can not only detect sheath blight but also quantify different levels of the disease in the field. An UAV equipped with a multispectral camera can be a new tool to aid in scouting and monitoring the development of sheath blight in rice.
The spread of NBLS in the field is different from the spread of sheath blight. NBLS spreads by air-borne spores and its distribution in the field is uniform whereas sheath blight is soilborne and it spreads in the field in an aggregated pattern. A study was conducted at Texas A&M AgriLife Research Center, Beaumont, TX, USA to evaluate the performance of UAV remote sensing on the detection and quantification of the NBLS disease in field research plots [41]. Rice cultivar Presidio, susceptible to NBLS, was seed drilled in 40 plots (Figure 13). Plots consisted of seven 4.9-m rows, spaced 18 cm between rows, with field blocks separated by 2.7-m wide allies. NBLS developed from natural inoculum and the symptoms initially appeared at the tillering stage and developed progressively with time, reaching high levels of disease severity as rice approached maturity. Differentiation in NBLS severity among the 40 plots was achieved by applying with 10 different fungicide treatments at the mid-boot stage. NBLS severity was rated by visual symptoms on a scale of 0 to 9 where 0 represents no symptoms and 9 represents most severe in symptoms and damage (leaves dead) (Figure 13).
Field plots and narrow brown leaf spot (NBLS) severity ratings at Beaumont, Texas, USA (source: [
Four-rotor DJI INSPIRE 2 UAV equipped with Sentera Multispectral Double 4 K sensor was used to capture field plot images (Figure 14). The multispectral camera offers five spectral bands of blue, green, red, red edge, and near-infrared (NIR) and can capture 12.3 MP still images. UAV images were acquired by flying the UAV over the field plots at the altitudes of 10 and 15 m, with a ground sampling resolution of 0.42 and 0.63 cm, respectively. Image data were preprocessed for image mosaic, radiation correction, and band coincidence using Photoscan 1.4.1 and Envi 5.3 software. Different vegetation indices (Vis) and color space HIS, HSV, HSL and YCbCr were extracted from the ENVI mass cut images and used to determine their performance on the detection of different levels of NBLS severity at the two flight altitudes. Most effective vegetation index and color space were selected and the inversion model of NBLS with good correlation was developed to predict the levels of NBLS severity.
Four-rotor DJI INSPIRE 2 UAV equipped with Sentera Multispectral Double 4K camera used in this study.
Results of comparison of the correlations between Vis or color features calculated from RGB image and NIR image (Figure 15) and NBLS severity indicate that using RGB image was more suitable for the assessment of NBLS than NIR image and that Excess Green minus Excess Red (EXGR) at the 15-m flight altitude was the best vegetation index to detect and quantify the different levels of NBLS severity (
RGB (A) and NIR (B) images at the 10-m flight altitude, and RGB (C) and NIR (D) images at the 15-m altitude (source: [
Disease detection, decision making, and control action are the three essential steps for effective management of crop diseases. UAV remote sensing itself cannot directly serve for control of plant disease. However, it provides an innovative tool for disease assessment. Effective disease assessment can ensure to make a correct decision that results in employing a proper control measure for control of a crop disease. Fungicide application is one of the most effective control measures for disease management. With the development of UAV technology, the use of UAV for aerial fungicide application has become a new means for control of diseases in rice and other crops in recent years [15].
Since the first UAV used for aerial insecticide applications to control insect pests in rice, soybean and wheat in Japan in 1990 [68], UAV-based aerial spraying technology has developed quickly in agricultural aviation applications, especially in the last five years [15]. UAV aerial application has several advantages over traditional aircraft aerial spraying and ground application. UAV sprayer can operate at low altitude and suspend in the air to achieve high-precision positioning with GPS [15], which can reduce pesticide draft potential and the amount of pesticides used [18]. Its downward airflow generated by rotors can help pesticide droplets penetrate dense canopies to improve application efficacy. UAV sprayer can operate on high crops and in areas with steep or mountainous terrains and can cover a large area whereas ground application is unable to do so. UAV aerial spraying is lower costs and more flexible in operation than typical aircraft aerial application. Because of these advantages, research and use of UAV aerial spraying technology have been increased quickly in recent years in many countries, especially China and Japan. In 2016, there were 4,262 UAV sprayers in operation and more than 476,000 hectares of field crops, including rice, treated with UAV aerial sprays in China [15]. In the 2020 statistics, there were approximately 170 types of pesticide application UAVs, and 55,000 UAVs flown; treated crop areas were more than 450 million hectares in China [16]. In Japan, use of UAV is widespread and more than 2,000 UAV applicators are in operation to spray approximately 40% of the rice acreage [17, 18].
Helicopter and quadcopter are among the most common UAVs applicators used to spray fungicides, insecticides, and herbicides in various field crops [69, 70]. Tank capacity and duration of flight are two key technical parameters of UAVs. Although they vary with UAV, most UAVs have the tank capacity of 16 to 20 litters and the duration of flight of less than 30 minutes at present [16]. Flight altitude usually ranges from 2 to 10 m depended on individual UAVs [69, 70]. Spraying swath width can range from 3 to 15 m, and work efficiency can be anywhere from 0.7 to 13 hectares per hour. Optimization of these operation parameters are important to improve spraying efficacy. Research has been conducted to determine flight altitude, flight speed, and spraying swath width that are more suitable for various UAVs. For example, using WPH642 helicopter to spray on rice, the best flight altitude was found to be 2 m and the best flight speed was 1.5 m per second whereas for P20 quad-rotor UAV, the best flight altitude was 2 m and the best flight speed was 3.7 m per second [69]. Selection of optimal operation parameters can achieve optimum spray droplet deposition into canopies to improve spraying efficacy. Flight speed, flight altitude, and nozzle flow rate are three factors in order of importance that affect droplet deposition distribution [69].
UAV sprayers have the advantages of low equipment costs, low fuel consumption, low spraying volumes, no pesticide contamination risks to operators, and high productivity compared to traditional big aircrafts and ground tractors [18]. With recent advances in UAV development and communication technology, research and use of UAVs for applications of fungicides and other pesticides have been significantly increased in field crops, including rice, in China, Japan, India and many other countries. However, it is expected that UAV aerial spraying cannot replace more conventional means such as aircraft aerial application. Among other disadvantages, UAV sprayers are small in tank capacity and cannot load large amount of pesticides for large farms, especially rice farms in the US with an average of 243 hectares per farm [33]. UAV applications have significantly short duration of flight and cannot cover large spray area a time. On the other hand, UAV sprayers can be used in situations where they can be advantageous. UAV spraying technology can be incorporated into current crop production systems for precision fungicide applications [56]. Precision applications can be more effective to control diseases that develop in cluster patterns like rice sheath blight. In the US, application of UAV remote sensing for crop disease detection and the use of UAV for pesticide application in rice and other field crops are still in its infancy. The US falls behind other countries, especially China, in research and use of UAV remote sensing in plant disease detection and management. Continued research and more monetary investment are needed in research and adopting this new technology to keep up with other countries like China and Japan, which is worthy as much as $10 billion US dollars a year in productivity [17].
Quick and accurate diagnosis and detection of rice diseases, especially sheath blight, are the first essential step for effective disease management to reduce production costs and maximize production returns. However, traditional disease detection methods based on visual symptoms are time-consuming and laborious, and its accuracy is highly dependent on the knowledge and experience of the inspector. UAV remote sensing provides an unprecedented spectral, spatial, and temporal resolution that can distinguish diseased tissue, plant and cropped area from healthy tissue, plant and cropped area based on the characteristics of disease symptoms. Sheath blight and NBLS have their own characteristics in symptoms and disease development pattern. Among the five remote sensors commonly used for assessing abiotic and biotic stresses of crops, RGB sensor, multispectral sensor, and hyperspectral sensor have been successfully used to detect sheath blight; multispectral sensor has been used to detect and quantify NBLS; and infrared thermal sensor can be used to detect the occurrence of rice blast. So far, there have been no reports on the use of fluorescence imaging for rice disease detection. Multi-rotors, helicopters, fixed wings, blimps, and flying wings are among the most UAVs used for crop phenotyping and disease detection. Selection of a suitable unmanned aerial system is important to acquire best imaging data that can be processed and modeled for the detection and quantification of crop diseases. Each UAV has its advantages and disadvantages in costs, flying ability, and payload capacity; each sensor has its own advantages and limitations in acquiring spectral information. In addition, UAV can also be used as an innovative aerial fungicide applicator for disease control. UAV sprayers can operate at low altitudes, fly with various speeds, and apply with low fungicide volumes, making it more suitable for situations where precision fungicide applications are needed for more economically and environmentally effective control of diseases such as rice sheath blight with cluster occurrence. The use of UAV for pesticide application has become a new disease control practice in rice and other crops in many countries, especially China and Japan.
However, applications of UAV technology on disease detection and fungicide application are still in the early stages of development. There remain many technical limitations and application challenges in the research and development of these technologies. Current UAV systems have limited battery capacity, tank capacity and payload. Sensors are usually expensive. There is lack of supporting technologies for UAV-based aerial spraying, such as optimization of nozzle-related canopy deposition, and the formulations of pesticide materials and adjuvants specific for UAV spraying. Although the UAV industry growth is very quickly in recent years, there is apparent lack of standard design of UAVs (rotor designs, types of engines, tank sizes, and nozzles types), which creates challenges for agrichemical manufacturers to develop recommended guidelines for product use. There needs the development and improvement of methods for big image data processing and disease detection model establishment. Early disease detection is critical for timely fungicide application for effective disease control. However, most UAV remote sensing methods reported in the literature are less effective for the detection of diseases at the early stages, such as rice sheath blight and NBLS described in this article. Current strict airspace regulations enforced for UAV operations in most countries, especially the US, limit the research and development of UAV-related technologies. Therefore, the progress on the adoption and commercialization of UAV technologies depends on collaborative research between agronomists and engineers, effective education and extension, partnerships between agricultural UAV manufactures and chemical manufacturers, and effective airspace regulations for UAVs. With improving performance of UAVs on flight duration and payload, reduced costs of sensors, and the development and improvement of methods for big image data processing and models for disease detection and monitoring, it is expected that UAV remote sensing will become an effective tool widely used for the detection of diseases in rice and other crops and that UAV spraying technology can become a new means for control of many crop diseases in situations where traditional aircraft aerial spraying and ground spraying are unavailable or infeasible. Along with research breakthroughs of digitalization and artificial intelligence for precision application across fertilizer, pest, and crop management needs, this innovative UAV technology will become a core tool in a farmer’s precision equipment mix in the future.
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',metaTitle:"Horizon 2020 Compliance",metaDescription:"General requirements for Open Access to Horizon 2020 research project outputs are found within Guidelines on Open Access to Scientific Publication and Research Data in Horizon 2020. The guidelines, in their simplest form, state that if you are a Horizon 2020 recipient, you must ensure open access to your scientific publications by enabling them to be downloaded, printed and read online. Additionally, said publications must be peer reviewed. ",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:null,contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"Publishing with IntechOpen means that your scientific publications already meet these basic requirements. It also means that through our utilization of open licensing, our publications are also able to be copied, shared, searched, linked, crawled, and mined for text and data, optimizing our authors' compliance as suggested by the European Commission.
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\n\nMetadata for all publications is also automatically deposited in IntechOpen's OAI repository, making them available through the Open Access Infrastructure for Research in Europe's (OpenAIRE) search interface further establishing our compliance.
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\n\nRead more about Open Access in Horizon 2020 here.
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Management of N and P pollution includes reduction of leaching from farms through crop selection, timely and precise application of fertilizer and building artificial wetlands, proper management of animal waste, reduction of fossil fuel N emission, mitigating N and P from urban sources and restoration of aquatic ecosystem. Mitigation measures need to focus on dual nutrient strategy for successful N and P reduction.",book:{id:"7547",slug:"monitoring-of-marine-pollution",title:"Monitoring of Marine Pollution",fullTitle:"Monitoring of Marine Pollution"},signatures:"Lucy Ngatia, Johnny M. 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Increasing concerns about pollution levels in the oceans and coastal regions have led to multiple approaches for measuring and mitigating marine pollution, in order to achieve sustainable marine water quality. Satellite remote sensing, covering large and remote areas, is considered useful for detecting and monitoring marine pollution. Recent developments in sensor technologies have transformed remote sensing into an effective means of monitoring marine areas. Different remote sensing platforms and sensors have their own capabilities for mapping and monitoring water pollution of different types, characteristics, and concentrations. This chapter will discuss and elaborate the merits and limitations of these remote sensing techniques for mapping oil pollutants, suspended solid concentrations, algal blooms, and floating plastic waste in marine waters.",book:{id:"7547",slug:"monitoring-of-marine-pollution",title:"Monitoring of Marine Pollution",fullTitle:"Monitoring of Marine Pollution"},signatures:"Sidrah Hafeez, Man Sing Wong, Sawaid Abbas, Coco Y. T. Kwok,\nJanet Nichol, Kwon Ho Lee, Danling Tang and Lilian Pun",authors:[{id:"225316",title:"Dr.",name:"Sawaid",middleName:null,surname:"Abbas",slug:"sawaid-abbas",fullName:"Sawaid Abbas"},{id:"259861",title:"Ms.",name:"Sidrah",middleName:null,surname:"Hafeez",slug:"sidrah-hafeez",fullName:"Sidrah Hafeez"},{id:"259890",title:"Prof.",name:"Man Sing",middleName:null,surname:"Wong",slug:"man-sing-wong",fullName:"Man Sing Wong"}]},{id:"35057",doi:"10.5772/33720",title:"Surface Water Quality Monitoring in Nigeria: Situational Analysis and Future Management Strategy",slug:"surface-water-quality-monitoring-in-nigeria-situational-analysis-and-future-management-strategy",totalDownloads:13275,totalCrossrefCites:14,totalDimensionsCites:27,abstract:null,book:{id:"1998",slug:"water-quality-monitoring-and-assessment",title:"Water Quality",fullTitle:"Water Quality Monitoring and Assessment"},signatures:"A.M. Taiwo, O.O. Olujimi, O. Bamgbose and T.A. 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Increasing concerns about pollution levels in the oceans and coastal regions have led to multiple approaches for measuring and mitigating marine pollution, in order to achieve sustainable marine water quality. Satellite remote sensing, covering large and remote areas, is considered useful for detecting and monitoring marine pollution. Recent developments in sensor technologies have transformed remote sensing into an effective means of monitoring marine areas. Different remote sensing platforms and sensors have their own capabilities for mapping and monitoring water pollution of different types, characteristics, and concentrations. This chapter will discuss and elaborate the merits and limitations of these remote sensing techniques for mapping oil pollutants, suspended solid concentrations, algal blooms, and floating plastic waste in marine waters.",book:{id:"7547",slug:"monitoring-of-marine-pollution",title:"Monitoring of Marine Pollution",fullTitle:"Monitoring of Marine Pollution"},signatures:"Sidrah Hafeez, Man Sing Wong, Sawaid Abbas, Coco Y. T. 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In this chapter, a broad overview of recent empirical statistical and machine learning techniques for modelling PM10 is presented. This includes the instrumentation used to measure particulate matter, data preprocessing, the selection of explanatory variables and modelling methods. Key features of some PM10 prediction models developed in the last 10 years are described, and current work modelling and predicting PM10 trends in New Zealand—a remote country of islands in the South Pacific Ocean—are examined. In conclusion, the issues and challenges faced when modelling PM10 are discussed and suggestions for future avenues of investigation, which could improve the precision of PM10 prediction and estimation models are presented.",book:{id:"5356",slug:"air-quality-measurement-and-modeling",title:"Air Quality",fullTitle:"Air Quality - Measurement and Modeling"},signatures:"Jacqueline Whalley and Sara Zandi",authors:[{id:"188593",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Jacqueline",middleName:null,surname:"Whalley",slug:"jacqueline-whalley",fullName:"Jacqueline Whalley"},{id:"188594",title:"Ms.",name:"Sara",middleName:null,surname:"Zandi",slug:"sara-zandi",fullName:"Sara Zandi"}]},{id:"72766",title:"Industrial Air Emission Pollution: Potential Sources and Sustainable Mitigation",slug:"industrial-air-emission-pollution-potential-sources-and-sustainable-mitigation",totalDownloads:984,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:7,abstract:"Air of cities especially in the developing parts of the world is turning into a serious environmental interest. The air pollution is because of a complex interaction of dispersion and emission of toxic pollutants from manufactories. Air pollution caused due to the introduction of dust particles, gases, and smoke into the atmosphere exceeds the air quality levels. Air pollutants are the precursor of photochemical smog and acid rain that causes the asthmatic problems leading into serious illness of lung cancer, depletes the stratospheric ozone, and contributes in global warming. In the present industrial economy era, air pollution is an unavoidable product that cannot be completely removed but stern actions can reduce it. Pollution can be reduced through collective as well as individual contributions. There are multiple sources of air pollution, which are industries, fossil fuels, agro waste, and vehicular emissions. Industrial processes upgradation, energy efficiency, agricultural waste burning control, and fuel conversion are important aspects to reducing pollutants which create the industrial air pollution. Mitigations are necessary to reduce the threat of air pollution using the various applicable technologies like CO2 sequestering, industrial energy efficiency, improving the combustion processes of the vehicular engines, and reducing the gas production from agriculture cultivations.",book:{id:"10178",slug:"environmental-emissions",title:"Environmental Emissions",fullTitle:"Environmental Emissions"},signatures:"Rabia Munsif, Muhammad Zubair, Ayesha Aziz and Muhammad Nadeem Zafar",authors:[{id:"251787",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Zubair",slug:"muhammad-zubair",fullName:"Muhammad Zubair"},{id:"318519",title:"Ms.",name:"Rabia",middleName:"Jathol",surname:"Munsif",slug:"rabia-munsif",fullName:"Rabia Munsif"},{id:"320637",title:"Ms.",name:"Ayesha",middleName:null,surname:"Aziz",slug:"ayesha-aziz",fullName:"Ayesha Aziz"},{id:"320675",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad Nadeem",middleName:null,surname:"Zafar",slug:"muhammad-nadeem-zafar",fullName:"Muhammad Nadeem Zafar"}]},{id:"48090",title:"Biological Contamination of Air in Indoor Spaces",slug:"biological-contamination-of-air-in-indoor-spaces",totalDownloads:2784,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:9,abstract:null,book:{id:"4572",slug:"current-air-quality-issues",title:"Current Air Quality Issues",fullTitle:"Current Air Quality Issues"},signatures:"Anca Maria Moldoveanu",authors:[{id:"25924",title:"Prof.",name:"Anca",middleName:"Maria",surname:"Moldoveanu",slug:"anca-moldoveanu",fullName:"Anca Moldoveanu"}]},{id:"64537",title:"Degradation Pathways of Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs) in the Environment",slug:"degradation-pathways-of-persistent-organic-pollutants-pops-in-the-environment",totalDownloads:2111,totalCrossrefCites:8,totalDimensionsCites:20,abstract:"Persistent organic pollutants (POPs) are resistant to most of the known environmental degradation processes. 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He also obtained an MSc in Molecular and Genetic Medicine, and a Ph.D. in Clinical Immunology and Human Genetics from the University of Sheffield, UK. He also completed a short-term fellowship in Pediatric Clinical Immunology and Bone Marrow Transplantation at Newcastle General Hospital, England. Dr. Rezaei is a Full Professor of Immunology and Vice Dean of International Affairs and Research, at the School of Medicine, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, and the co-founder and head of the Research Center for Immunodeficiencies. He is also the founding president of the Universal Scientific Education and Research Network (USERN). Dr. Rezaei has directed more than 100 research projects and has designed and participated in several international collaborative projects. He is an editor, editorial assistant, or editorial board member of more than forty international journals. He has edited more than 50 international books, presented more than 500 lectures/posters in congresses/meetings, and published more than 1,100 scientific papers in international journals.",institutionString:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",institution:{name:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"180733",title:"Dr.",name:"Jean",middleName:null,surname:"Engohang-Ndong",slug:"jean-engohang-ndong",fullName:"Jean Engohang-Ndong",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180733/images/system/180733.png",biography:"Dr. Jean Engohang-Ndong was born and raised in Gabon. After obtaining his Associate Degree of Science at the University of Science and Technology of Masuku, Gabon, he continued his education in France where he obtained his BS, MS, and Ph.D. in Medical Microbiology. He worked as a post-doctoral fellow at the Public Health Research Institute (PHRI), Newark, NJ for four years before accepting a three-year faculty position at Brigham Young University-Hawaii. Dr. Engohang-Ndong is a tenured faculty member with the academic rank of Full Professor at Kent State University, Ohio, where he teaches a wide range of biological science courses and pursues his research in medical and environmental microbiology. 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He has an excellent track record in the herpesvirus field, and his group is engaged in clinical research in the field of Epstein-Barr virus diseases. He is the editor of the online Encyclopedia of Environment and he coordinates the Universal Health Coverage education program for the BioHealth Computing Schools of the European Institute of Science.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Grenoble Alpes University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",biography:"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (especially arboviral diseases). He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},{id:"332819",title:"Dr.",name:"Chukwudi Michael",middleName:"Michael",surname:"Egbuche",slug:"chukwudi-michael-egbuche",fullName:"Chukwudi Michael Egbuche",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/332819/images/14624_n.jpg",biography:"I an Dr. Chukwudi Michael Egbuche. I am a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Parasitology and Entomology, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nnamdi Azikiwe University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"284232",title:"Mr.",name:"Nikunj",middleName:"U",surname:"Tandel",slug:"nikunj-tandel",fullName:"Nikunj Tandel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/284232/images/8275_n.jpg",biography:'Mr. Nikunj Tandel has completed his Master\'s degree in Biotechnology from VIT University, India in the year of 2012. He is having 8 years of research experience especially in the field of malaria epidemiology, immunology, and nanoparticle-based drug delivery system against the infectious diseases, autoimmune disorders and cancer. He has worked for the NIH funded-International Center of Excellence in Malaria Research project "Center for the study of complex malaria in India (CSCMi)" in collaboration with New York University. The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. Received the CSIR-SRF (Senior Research Fellow) award-2018, FIMSA (Federation of Immunological Societies of Asia-Oceania) Travel Bursary award to attend the IUIS-IIS-FIMSA Immunology course-2019',institutionString:"Nirma University",institution:{name:"Nirma University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334383",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Simone",middleName:"Ulrich",surname:"Ulrich Picoli",slug:"simone-ulrich-picoli",fullName:"Simone Ulrich Picoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334383/images/15919_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from Universidade Luterana do Brasil (1999), Master in Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology from Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (2002), Specialization in Clinical Microbiology from Universidade de São Paulo, USP (2007) and PhD in Sciences in Gastroenterology and Hepatology (2012). She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"333753",title:"Dr.",name:"Rais",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"rais-ahmed",fullName:"Rais Ahmed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333753/images/20168_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). He was also awarded 'Outstanding Clinician in General Medicine” by Venus International Foundation for his extensive research expertise and services, perform over and above the standard expected in the advancement of healthcare, patient safety and quality of care.",institutionString:"Interfaith Medical Center",institution:{name:"Interfaith Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"93517",title:"Dr.",name:"Clement",middleName:"Adebajo",surname:"Meseko",slug:"clement-meseko",fullName:"Clement Meseko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/93517/images/system/93517.jpg",biography:"Dr. Clement Meseko obtained DVM and PhD degree in Veterinary Medicine and Virology respectively. He has worked for over 20 years in both private and public sectors including the academia, contributing to knowledge and control of infectious disease. Through the application of epidemiological skill, classical and molecular virological skills, he investigates viruses of economic and public health importance for the mitigation of the negative impact on people, animal and the environment in the context of Onehealth. \r\nDr. Meseko’s field experience on animal and zoonotic diseases and pathogen dynamics at the human-animal interface over the years shaped his carrier in research and scientific inquiries. He has been part of the investigation of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza incursions in sub Saharan Africa and monitors swine Influenza (Pandemic influenza Virus) agro-ecology and potential for interspecies transmission. He has authored and reviewed a number of journal articles and book chapters.",institutionString:"National Veterinary Research Institute",institution:{name:"National Veterinary Research Institute",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"94928",title:"Dr.",name:"Takuo",middleName:null,surname:"Mizukami",slug:"takuo-mizukami",fullName:"Takuo Mizukami",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94928/images/6402_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Institute of Infectious Diseases",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"233433",title:"Dr.",name:"Yulia",middleName:null,surname:"Desheva",slug:"yulia-desheva",fullName:"Yulia Desheva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/233433/images/system/233433.png",biography:"Dr. Yulia Desheva is a leading researcher at the Institute of Experimental Medicine, St. Petersburg, Russia. She is a professor in the Stomatology Faculty, St. Petersburg State University. She has expertise in the development and evaluation of a wide range of live mucosal vaccines against influenza and bacterial complications. Her research interests include immunity against influenza and COVID-19 and the development of immunization schemes for high-risk individuals.",institutionString:'Federal State Budgetary Scientific Institution "Institute of Experimental Medicine"',institution:null},{id:"238958",title:"Mr.",name:"Atamjit",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"atamjit-singh",fullName:"Atamjit Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/238958/images/6575_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"252058",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"Sulca",slug:"juan-sulca",fullName:"Juan Sulca",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252058/images/12834_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"191392",title:"Dr.",name:"Marimuthu",middleName:null,surname:"Govindarajan",slug:"marimuthu-govindarajan",fullName:"Marimuthu Govindarajan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/191392/images/5828_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. M. Govindarajan completed his BSc degree in Zoology at Government Arts College (Autonomous), Kumbakonam, and MSc, MPhil, and PhD degrees at Annamalai University, Annamalai Nagar, Tamil Nadu, India. He is serving as an assistant professor at the Department of Zoology, Annamalai University. His research interests include isolation, identification, and characterization of biologically active molecules from plants and microbes. He has identified more than 20 pure compounds with high mosquitocidal activity and also conducted high-quality research on photochemistry and nanosynthesis. He has published more than 150 studies in journals with impact factor and 2 books in Lambert Academic Publishing, Germany. He serves as an editorial board member in various national and international scientific journals.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"274660",title:"Dr.",name:"Damodar",middleName:null,surname:"Paudel",slug:"damodar-paudel",fullName:"Damodar Paudel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/274660/images/8176_n.jpg",biography:"I am DrDamodar Paudel,currently working as consultant Physician in Nepal police Hospital.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"241562",title:"Dr.",name:"Melvin",middleName:null,surname:"Sanicas",slug:"melvin-sanicas",fullName:"Melvin Sanicas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241562/images/6699_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"322007",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria Elizbeth",middleName:null,surname:"Alvarez-Sánchez",slug:"maria-elizbeth-alvarez-sanchez",fullName:"Maria Elizbeth Alvarez-Sánchez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma de la Ciudad de México",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"337443",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"A. 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This group of bio-inspired metaheuristics solves multiple optimization problems by applying the metaphor of natural selection. It so far has solved problems such as resource allocation, routing, schedule planning, and engineering design. Moreover, in the field of machine learning, evolutionary computation has carved out a significant niche both in the generation of learning models and in the automatic design and optimization of hyperparameters in deep learning models. This collection aims to include quality volumes on various topics related to evolutionary algorithms and, alternatively, other metaheuristics of interest inspired by nature. For example, some of the issues of interest could be the following: Advances in evolutionary computation (Genetic algorithms, Genetic programming, Bio-inspired metaheuristics, Hybrid metaheuristics, Parallel ECs); Applications of evolutionary algorithms (Machine learning and Data Mining with EAs, Search-Based Software Engineering, Scheduling, and Planning Applications, Smart Transport Applications, Applications to Games, Image Analysis, Signal Processing and Pattern Recognition, Applications to Sustainability).",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/25.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!1,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11421,editor:{id:"136112",title:"Dr.",name:"Sebastian",middleName:null,surname:"Ventura Soto",slug:"sebastian-ventura-soto",fullName:"Sebastian Ventura Soto",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/136112/images/system/136112.png",biography:"Sebastian Ventura is a Spanish researcher, a full professor with the Department of Computer Science and Numerical Analysis, University of Córdoba. Dr Ventura also holds the positions of Affiliated Professor at Virginia Commonwealth University (Richmond, USA) and Distinguished Adjunct Professor at King Abdulaziz University (Jeddah, Saudi Arabia). Additionally, he is deputy director of the Andalusian Research Institute in Data Science and Computational Intelligence (DaSCI) and heads the Knowledge Discovery and Intelligent Systems Research Laboratory. He has published more than ten books and over 300 articles in journals and scientific conferences. Currently, his work has received over 18,000 citations according to Google Scholar, including more than 2200 citations in 2020. In the last five years, he has published more than 60 papers in international journals indexed in the JCR (around 70% of them belonging to first quartile journals) and he has edited some Springer books “Supervised Descriptive Pattern Mining” (2018), “Multiple Instance Learning - Foundations and Algorithms” (2016), and “Pattern Mining with Evolutionary Algorithms” (2016). He has also been involved in more than 20 research projects supported by the Spanish and Andalusian governments and the European Union. He currently belongs to the editorial board of PeerJ Computer Science, Information Fusion and Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence journals, being also associate editor of Applied Computational Intelligence and Soft Computing and IEEE Transactions on Cybernetics. Finally, he is editor-in-chief of Progress in Artificial Intelligence. He is a Senior Member of the IEEE Computer, the IEEE Computational Intelligence, and the IEEE Systems, Man, and Cybernetics Societies, and the Association of Computing Machinery (ACM). Finally, his main research interests include data science, computational intelligence, and their applications.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Córdoba",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,series:{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",issn:"2633-1403"},editorialBoard:[{id:"111683",title:"Prof.",name:"Elmer P.",middleName:"P.",surname:"Dadios",slug:"elmer-p.-dadios",fullName:"Elmer P. 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