Criteria for Definitive Examination Eligibility.
\\n\\n
IntechOpen was founded by scientists, for scientists, in order to make book publishing accessible around the globe. Over the last two decades, this has driven Open Access (OA) book publishing whilst levelling the playing field for global academics. Through our innovative publishing model and the support of the research community, we have now published over 5,700 Open Access books and are visited online by over three million academics every month. These researchers are increasingly working in broad technology-based subjects, driving multidisciplinary academic endeavours into human health, environment, and technology.
\\n\\nBy listening to our community, and in order to serve these rapidly growing areas which lie at the core of IntechOpen's expertise, we are launching a portfolio of Open Science journals:
\\n\\nAll three journals will publish under an Open Access model and embrace Open Science policies to help support the changing needs of academics in these fast-moving research areas. There will be direct links to preprint servers and data repositories, allowing full reproducibility and rapid dissemination of published papers to help accelerate the pace of research. Each journal has renowned Editors in Chief who will work alongside a global Editorial Board, delivering robust single-blind peer review. Supported by our internal editorial teams, this will ensure our authors will receive a quick, user-friendly, and personalised publishing experience.
\\n\\n"By launching our journals portfolio we are introducing new, dedicated homes for interdisciplinary technology-focused researchers to publish their work, whilst embracing Open Science and creating a unique global home for academics to disseminate their work. We are taking a leap toward Open Science continuing and expanding our fundamental commitment to openly sharing scientific research across the world, making it available for the benefit of all." Dr. Sara Uhac, IntechOpen CEO
\\n\\n"Our aim is to promote and create better science for a better world by increasing access to information and the latest scientific developments to all scientists, innovators, entrepreneurs and students and give them the opportunity to learn, observe and contribute to knowledge creation. Open Science promotes a swifter path from research to innovation to produce new products and services." Alex Lazinica, IntechOpen founder
\\n\\nIn conclusion, Natalia Reinic Babic, Head of Journal Publishing and Open Science at IntechOpen adds:
\\n\\n“On behalf of the journal team I’d like to thank all our Editors in Chief, Editorial Boards, internal supporting teams, and our scientific community for their continuous support in making this portfolio a reality - we couldn’t have done it without you! With your support in place, we are confident these journals will become as impactful and successful as our book publishing program and bring us closer to a more open (science) future.”
\\n\\nWe invite you to visit the journals homepage and learn more about the journal’s Editorial Boards, scope and vision as all three journals are now open for submissions.
\\n\\nFeel free to share this news on social media and help us mark this memorable moment!
\\n\\n\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"",originalUrl:"/media/original/237"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
After years of being acknowledged as the world's leading publisher of Open Access books, today, we are proud to announce we’ve successfully launched a portfolio of Open Science journals covering rapidly expanding areas of interdisciplinary research.
\n\n\n\nIntechOpen was founded by scientists, for scientists, in order to make book publishing accessible around the globe. Over the last two decades, this has driven Open Access (OA) book publishing whilst levelling the playing field for global academics. Through our innovative publishing model and the support of the research community, we have now published over 5,700 Open Access books and are visited online by over three million academics every month. These researchers are increasingly working in broad technology-based subjects, driving multidisciplinary academic endeavours into human health, environment, and technology.
\n\nBy listening to our community, and in order to serve these rapidly growing areas which lie at the core of IntechOpen's expertise, we are launching a portfolio of Open Science journals:
\n\nAll three journals will publish under an Open Access model and embrace Open Science policies to help support the changing needs of academics in these fast-moving research areas. There will be direct links to preprint servers and data repositories, allowing full reproducibility and rapid dissemination of published papers to help accelerate the pace of research. Each journal has renowned Editors in Chief who will work alongside a global Editorial Board, delivering robust single-blind peer review. Supported by our internal editorial teams, this will ensure our authors will receive a quick, user-friendly, and personalised publishing experience.
\n\n"By launching our journals portfolio we are introducing new, dedicated homes for interdisciplinary technology-focused researchers to publish their work, whilst embracing Open Science and creating a unique global home for academics to disseminate their work. We are taking a leap toward Open Science continuing and expanding our fundamental commitment to openly sharing scientific research across the world, making it available for the benefit of all." Dr. Sara Uhac, IntechOpen CEO
\n\n"Our aim is to promote and create better science for a better world by increasing access to information and the latest scientific developments to all scientists, innovators, entrepreneurs and students and give them the opportunity to learn, observe and contribute to knowledge creation. Open Science promotes a swifter path from research to innovation to produce new products and services." Alex Lazinica, IntechOpen founder
\n\nIn conclusion, Natalia Reinic Babic, Head of Journal Publishing and Open Science at IntechOpen adds:
\n\n“On behalf of the journal team I’d like to thank all our Editors in Chief, Editorial Boards, internal supporting teams, and our scientific community for their continuous support in making this portfolio a reality - we couldn’t have done it without you! With your support in place, we are confident these journals will become as impactful and successful as our book publishing program and bring us closer to a more open (science) future.”
\n\nWe invite you to visit the journals homepage and learn more about the journal’s Editorial Boards, scope and vision as all three journals are now open for submissions.
\n\nFeel free to share this news on social media and help us mark this memorable moment!
\n\n\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-supports-asapbio-s-new-initiative-publish-your-reviews-20220729",title:"IntechOpen Supports ASAPbio’s New Initiative Publish Your Reviews"},{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"10116",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Nano- and Microencapsulation - Techniques and Applications",title:"Nano- and Microencapsulation",subtitle:"Techniques and Applications",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Nano- or micro-encapsulation is used in many different fields and industries, including pharmaceuticals, cosmetics, food, and agrochemicals. It offers advantages for various applications, especially drug delivery. Nano-encapsulation can help extend and control the release of drugs as well as increase drug bioavailability and efficacy. It improves the precision of targeted drug delivery and allows for fabricating nano-encapsulated drugs for diagnostic and theranaostic applications. This book covers recent advances in fabricating nano-/micro-capsules using natural carriers for therapeutic and diagnostic drug delivery applications as well as rheology and formulations of micro-emulsions for diverse applications. This book is essential for scientists and researchers with diverse backgrounds in chemistry, engineering, material sciences, pharmaceuticals, and drug delivery.",isbn:"978-1-83968-349-7",printIsbn:"978-1-83968-348-0",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83968-350-3",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.88590",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"nano-and-microencapsulation-techniques-and-applications",numberOfPages:290,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"8d92c5999718734b36a0cc3a6af7c7f6",bookSignature:"Nedal Abu-Thabit",publishedDate:"January 27th 2021",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10116.jpg",numberOfDownloads:5783,numberOfWosCitations:8,numberOfCrossrefCitations:17,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:1,numberOfDimensionsCitations:31,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:1,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:56,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"November 20th 2019",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"March 18th 2020",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"May 17th 2020",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"August 5th 2020",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"October 4th 2020",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"308436",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Nedal",middleName:null,surname:"Abu-Thabit",slug:"nedal-abu-thabit",fullName:"Nedal Abu-Thabit",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/308436/images/system/308436.png",biography:"Dr. Nedal Abu-Thabit holds a Ph.D. in Chemistry with a specialization in polymer chemistry from King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals (KFUPM). Currently, Dr. Nedal is an associate professor in the Chemical & Process Engineering Technology department at Jubail Industrial College. During the period 2013–2018, Dr. Nedal held the position of program director for the Polymer Engineering Technology major. Dr. Nedal has published more than forty research articles and reviews in refereed journals, fifteen book chapters, four books, and two patents. His research interests are related to polymer synthesis, preparation of nanocomposites, nanomaterials, and electrically conducting polymers for water sterilization and sensing applications, and isolation of biopolymers from renewable and sustainable resources. Dr. Nedal has contributed many articles to educational polymer chemistry.",institutionString:"Jubail Industrial College",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Jubail Industrial College",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"205",title:"Biophysics",slug:"nanotechnology-and-nanomaterials-biophysics"}],chapters:[{id:"74611",title:"Natural Polymers in Micro- and Nanoencapsulation for Therapeutic and Diagnostic Applications: Part I: Lipids and Fabrication Techniques",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.94856",slug:"natural-polymers-in-micro-and-nanoencapsulation-for-therapeutic-and-diagnostic-applications-part-i-l",totalDownloads:739,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:12,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Encapsulation, specifically microencapsulation is an old technology with increasing applications in pharmaceutical, agrochemical, environmental, food, and cosmetic spaces. In the past two decades, the advancements in the field of nanotechnology opened the door for applying the encapsulation technology at the nanoscale level. Nanoencapsulation is highly utilized in designing effective drug delivery systems (DDSs) due to the fact that delivery of the encapsulated therapeutic/diagnostic agents to various sites in the human body depends on the size of the nanoparticles. Compared to microencapsulation, nanoencapsulation has superior performance which can improve bioavailability, increase drug solubility, delay or control drug release and enhance active/passive targeting of bioactive agents to the sites of action. Encapsulation, either micro- or nanoencapsulation is employed for the conventional pharmaceuticals, biopharmaceuticals, biologics, or bioactive drugs from natural sources as well as for diagnostics such as biomarkers. The outcome of any encapsulation process depends on the technique employed and the encapsulating material. This chapter discusses in details (1) various physical, mechanical, thermal, chemical, and physicochemical encapsulation techniques, (2) types and classifications of natural polymers (polysaccharides, proteins, and lipids) as safer, biocompatible and biodegradable encapsulating materials, and (3) the recent advances in using lipids for therapeutic and diagnostic applications. Polysaccharides and proteins are covered in the second part of this chapter.",signatures:"Ndidi C. Ngwuluka, Nedal Y. Abu-Thabit, Onyinye J. Uwaezuoke, Joan O. Erebor, Margaret O. Ilomuanya, Riham R. Mohamed, Soliman M.A. Soliman, Mahmoud H. Abu Elella and Noura A.A. Ebrahim",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/74611",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/74611",authors:[{id:"308436",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Nedal",surname:"Abu-Thabit",slug:"nedal-abu-thabit",fullName:"Nedal Abu-Thabit"},{id:"139982",title:"Dr.",name:"Ndidi C.",surname:"Ngwuluka",slug:"ndidi-c.-ngwuluka",fullName:"Ndidi C. Ngwuluka"},{id:"283155",title:"Dr.",name:"Soliman M.A.",surname:"Soliman",slug:"soliman-m.a.-soliman",fullName:"Soliman M.A. Soliman"},{id:"322996",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Onyinye",surname:"Uwaezuoke",slug:"onyinye-uwaezuoke",fullName:"Onyinye Uwaezuoke"},{id:"322997",title:"Dr.",name:"Noura",surname:"A.A. Ebrahim",slug:"noura-a.a.-ebrahim",fullName:"Noura A.A. Ebrahim"},{id:"322998",title:"Dr.",name:"Mahmoud",surname:"Abu Elella",slug:"mahmoud-abu-elella",fullName:"Mahmoud Abu Elella"},{id:"323003",title:"Dr.",name:"Riham",surname:"Mohamed",slug:"riham-mohamed",fullName:"Riham Mohamed"},{id:"323004",title:"Dr.",name:"Joan",surname:"Erebor",slug:"joan-erebor",fullName:"Joan Erebor"},{id:"323005",title:"Dr.",name:"Margaret O.",surname:"Ilomuanya",slug:"margaret-o.-ilomuanya",fullName:"Margaret O. Ilomuanya"}],corrections:null},{id:"74680",title:"Natural Polymers in Micro- and Nanoencapsulation for Therapeutic and Diagnostic Applications: Part II - Polysaccharides and Proteins",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.95402",slug:"natural-polymers-in-micro-and-nanoencapsulation-for-therapeutic-and-diagnostic-applications-part-ii-",totalDownloads:393,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:5,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Encapsulation remains a fundamental and consistent approach of fabrication of drug and diagnostic delivery systems in the health space and natural polymers such as polysaccharides and proteins continue to play significant roles. Micro- or nanoencapsulation is employed for the conventional pharmaceuticals, biopharmaceuticals, or biologics, bioactives from natural sources and diagnostics such as biomarkers. The outcome of any encapsulation depends on the technique employed and the encapsulating material. The encapsulating materials employed influence the physical and chemical attributes of the fabricated micro- and nanocapsules. The encapsulating materials could be natural or synthetic, however, natural polymers are preferred because they are human and environmentally friendly. Polysaccharides and proteins are abundant in nature, biogenic, biocompatible, biodegradable and possess biological functions making them materials of choice for encapsulation of drugs and diagnostics. This chapter reviews the recent and advanced applications of polysaccharides and proteins as nanocarrier materials for micro- and nanoencapsulation of therapeutics and diagnostics.",signatures:"Ndidi C. Ngwuluka, Nedal Y. Abu-Thabit, Onyinye J. Uwaezuoke, Joan O. Erebor, Margaret O. Ilomuanya, Riham R. Mohamed, Soliman M.A. Soliman, Mahmoud H. Abu Elella and Noura A.A. Ebrahim",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/74680",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/74680",authors:[{id:"308436",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Nedal",surname:"Abu-Thabit",slug:"nedal-abu-thabit",fullName:"Nedal Abu-Thabit"}],corrections:null},{id:"72990",title:"Nanoprecipitation: Applications for Entrapping Active Molecules of Interest in Pharmaceutics",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.93338",slug:"nanoprecipitation-applications-for-entrapping-active-molecules-of-interest-in-pharmaceutics",totalDownloads:908,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:5,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Nanoprecipitation technique, also named solvent injection, spontaneous emulsification, solvent displacement, solvent diffusion, interfacial deposition, mixing-induced nanoprecipitation, or flash nanoprecipitation, is recognized as a useful and versatile strategy for trapping active molecules on the submicron and nanoscale levels. Thus, these particles could be intended among others, for developing innovative pharmaceutical products bearing advantages as controlled drug release, target therapeutic performance, or improved stability and organoleptic properties. On this basis, this chapter offers readers a comprehensive revision of the state of the art in research on carriers to be used for pharmaceutical applications and developed by the nanoprecipitation method. In this sense, the starting materials, the particle characteristics, and the in vitro and in vivo performances of the most representative of these carriers, i.e., polymer, lipid, and hybrid particles have been analyzed in a comparative way searching for a general view of the obtained behaviors.",signatures:"Oscar Iván Martínez-Muñoz, Luis Fernando Ospina-Giraldo and Claudia Elizabeth Mora-Huertas",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/72990",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/72990",authors:[{id:"320030",title:"Prof.",name:"Claudia Elizabeth",surname:"Mora Huertas",slug:"claudia-elizabeth-mora-huertas",fullName:"Claudia Elizabeth Mora Huertas"},{id:"326041",title:"Prof.",name:"Luis Fernando",surname:"Ospina Giraldo",slug:"luis-fernando-ospina-giraldo",fullName:"Luis Fernando Ospina Giraldo"},{id:"326042",title:"Mr.",name:"Oscar Iván",surname:"Martínez Muñoz",slug:"oscar-ivan-martinez-munoz",fullName:"Oscar Iván Martínez Muñoz"}],corrections:null},{id:"72983",title:"Nano/Microparticles Encapsulation Via Covalent Drug Conjugation",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.93364",slug:"nano-microparticles-encapsulation-via-covalent-drug-conjugation",totalDownloads:541,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Advancement in chemistry holds a great promise in improving drug encapsulation that leads to superior drug delivery efficiency and the therapeutic efficacy of nano/micro-delivery systems. Drugs are being designed to specifically access the infection sites via covalent conjugation to nano/micro-delivery systems. This chapter focuses on techniques for achieving covalent encapsulation of drugs in nano/micro-delivery systems, how conjugation is applied to selectively influence pharmacokinetic profile, intracellular, and extracellular uptake, specific targeting to disease sites, binding to specific receptors, and controlled/sustained release. In addition, the effect of conjugation on drug efficacy and biosafety of the micro/nanoparticulate drug delivery systems are discussed.",signatures:"Victoria Fasiku, Edith K. Amuhaya, Kingo M. Rajab and Calvin A. Omolo",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/72983",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/72983",authors:[{id:"319522",title:"Dr.",name:"Calvin",surname:"Andeve",slug:"calvin-andeve",fullName:"Calvin Andeve"},{id:"319532",title:"Dr.",name:"Edith",surname:"Amuhaya",slug:"edith-amuhaya",fullName:"Edith Amuhaya"},{id:"323891",title:"Ms.",name:"Victoria",surname:"Fasiku",slug:"victoria-fasiku",fullName:"Victoria Fasiku"},{id:"323892",title:"Mr.",name:"Kingo",surname:"Rajab",slug:"kingo-rajab",fullName:"Kingo Rajab"}],corrections:null},{id:"71923",title:"Microencapsulation for Clinical Applications and Transplantation by Using Different Alginates",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.92134",slug:"microencapsulation-for-clinical-applications-and-transplantation-by-using-different-alginates",totalDownloads:606,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Microencapsulation has been the most frequently used technique for several different disciplines such as cell-based therapies and/or transplantation. Technology is based on the idea of combining and coating a material or isolating from an external source. Microencapsulation may be performed with different materials and, among natural biocompatible materials, alginate-based microencapsulation technique is the most appropriate material for microencapsulation. The structural components of alginate materials are the derivatives of alginic acid, which is found in brown algae as an intercellular gel matrix. This alginate is preferred for clinical applications due to its safety in human studies. Therefore, the choice and the combined system need to be carefully optimized to achieve biocompatible application through cell microencapsulation especially for long term. Specifications of alginate such as primary source, isolation process, viscosity, and purity contribute to improve its biocompatibility. Clinically, cell microencapsulation is the major contribution to the field of transplantation by its technique and additionally provides local immune isolation. This chapter discusses the potential benefits of clinically suitable alginates and their applications. This promising technology may highlight its considerable potential for patients that require transplantation and/or replacement therapy in the future.",signatures:"Beyza Goncu and Emrah Yucesan",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/71923",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/71923",authors:[{id:"316669",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Emrah",surname:"Yucesan",slug:"emrah-yucesan",fullName:"Emrah Yucesan"},{id:"316670",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Beyza",surname:"Goncu",slug:"beyza-goncu",fullName:"Beyza Goncu"}],corrections:null},{id:"69884",title:"Coconut Phospholipid Species: Isolation, Characterization and Application as Drug Delivery System",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.88176",slug:"coconut-phospholipid-species-isolation-characterization-and-application-as-drug-delivery-system",totalDownloads:678,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"The purpose of this study was to isolate the ethanolamine species of coconut phospholipid and to investigate their potency as drug delivery system by using it to encapsulate vitamin C. The study consisted of two stages: the first stage was isolation and characterization of coconut phosphatidylethanolamine species; and the second stage was utilization of coconut phosphatidylethanolamine liposomes to encapsulate vitamin C. A dark brown gel of coconut phosphatidylethanolamine species (CocoPEs) was isolated from dried coconut meat (9.3×10−3%, w/w). At least 15 species were found in coconut phosphatidylethanolamine. The fatty acyl chains of the species were capric, linoleic, oleic, stearic and arachidic acyl chains. At least four different phases were identified on CocoPEs i.e. planar-shape gel phase, rippling phase, liquid crystal phase and hexagonal phase. The temperature (Tp) was at 25.29°C for changing from planar-shaped gel to rippling phase, 32.62°C (Tm) for major transition from gel to liquid crystal, and 65.53°C (Th) from liquid crystal to hexagonal phase. All of CocoPEs liposomes encapsulation efficiency with cholesterol concentration up to 30% were above 80%. CocoPEs showed great potency as encapsulation material. It had high encapsulation efficiency and addition of cholesterol to the liposome membrane only slightly reduced the efficiency.",signatures:"Dwi Hudiyanti, Nur Kamila, Febriani Kusuma Wardani and Khairul Anam",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/69884",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/69884",authors:[{id:"197465",title:"Dr.",name:"Dwi",surname:"Hudiyanti",slug:"dwi-hudiyanti",fullName:"Dwi Hudiyanti"},{id:"304061",title:"B.Sc.",name:"Nur",surname:"Kamila",slug:"nur-kamila",fullName:"Nur Kamila"},{id:"304062",title:"B.Sc.",name:"Febriani Kusuma",surname:"Wardani",slug:"febriani-kusuma-wardani",fullName:"Febriani Kusuma Wardani"},{id:"304063",title:"Dr.",name:"Khairul",surname:"Anam",slug:"khairul-anam",fullName:"Khairul Anam"}],corrections:null},{id:"72900",title:"Rheology of Structured Oil Emulsion",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.92770",slug:"rheology-of-structured-oil-emulsion",totalDownloads:417,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"This study is devoted to the rheology of oil emulsions, accompanied by both the formation and destruction of the structure. The presence of particles of a dispersed phase in an oil emulsion, including asphaltenes and resins, determines the formation of coagulation structures as a result of interaction and collision of particles. In this regard, to study the formation of coagulation structures, analytical solutions to the mass transfer equations are proposed, based on which the coalescence and fragmentation frequencies of the droplets are determined. Models and analytical solutions of the equation for the thinning of an interfacial film between droplets with their coalescence in the volume of an oil emulsion are proposed taking into account the Marangoni effect and the effect of asphaltene content. The thickness of the adsorbed layer on the droplet surface was estimated. Many empirical and semiempirical formulas have been proposed for determining the dependence of viscosity on the content of water and asphalt-resinous substances in oil. Based on the solution of the Fokker-Planck equation, the evolution of the distribution function of droplets in time and size in an oil emulsion is studied.",signatures:"Gudret Isfandiyar Kelbaliyev, Dilgam Babir Tagiyev and Manaf Rizvan Manafov",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/72900",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/72900",authors:[{id:"318966",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Manaf",surname:"Manafov",slug:"manaf-manafov",fullName:"Manaf Manafov"},{id:"319230",title:"Prof.",name:"Dilgam",surname:"Taghiyev",slug:"dilgam-taghiyev",fullName:"Dilgam Taghiyev"},{id:"319231",title:"Prof.",name:"Gudret",surname:"Kelbaliev",slug:"gudret-kelbaliev",fullName:"Gudret Kelbaliev"}],corrections:null},{id:"71938",title:"Aggregation of Partially Hydrophilic Silica Nanoparticles in Porous Media: Quantitative and Qualitative Analysis",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.92101",slug:"aggregation-of-partially-hydrophilic-silica-nanoparticles-in-porous-media-quantitative-and-qualitati",totalDownloads:614,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"In this experimental work, the adsorption of partially hydrophilic silica nanoparticles, SiO2 has been investigated to determine the degree of silica nanoparticle aggregation in the porous media. An integrated quantitative and qualitative method was used by flowing silica nanoparticles into Buff Berea cores and glass micromodel. Water wet Buff Berea cores were flooded with 5 pore volumes of 0.05% silica nanoparticles solution followed by 10 pore volumes of brine post flush subjected to 30 and 60°C. The pressure drops increased rapidly at the initial stage of silica nanoparticles injection indicated the adsorption had taken place. Pressure drops reached the maximum value of ~3.1 psi and between 26.6–82.6 psi at 30 and 60°C respectively. Pressure drops gradually declined and stabilized in between ~0.4 and ~0.7 psi after couple of pore volumes of brine post flush, suggesting complete reversible and irreversible adsorption. Micromodel test provide qualitative information where the straining or log-jamming observed in the form of gelled-like suspension when silica nanoparticles in contact with brine. The adsorption is considered reversible when the suspension decreased after post flooded with brine. Silica nanoparticles used in this experimental work shows minimal aggregation that can be beneficial as improved oil recovery agent.",signatures:"Siti Rohaida Mohd Shafian, Ismail M. Saaid, Norzafirah Razali, Ahmad Fadhil Jahari and Sonny Irawan",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/71938",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/71938",authors:[{id:"228103",title:"Dr.",name:"Ismail",surname:"Mohd Saaid",slug:"ismail-mohd-saaid",fullName:"Ismail Mohd Saaid"},{id:"317869",title:"Dr.",name:"Sonny",surname:"Irawan",slug:"sonny-irawan",fullName:"Sonny Irawan"},{id:"317906",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Siti Rohaida",surname:"Mohd Shafian",slug:"siti-rohaida-mohd-shafian",fullName:"Siti Rohaida Mohd Shafian"},{id:"318473",title:"MSc.",name:"Norzafirah",surname:"Razali",slug:"norzafirah-razali",fullName:"Norzafirah Razali"},{id:"318474",title:"BSc.",name:"Ahmad Fadhil",surname:"Jahari",slug:"ahmad-fadhil-jahari",fullName:"Ahmad Fadhil Jahari"}],corrections:null},{id:"71786",title:"Microemulsion Formulation of Botanical Oils as an Efficient Tool to Provide Sustainable Agricultural Pest Management",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.91788",slug:"microemulsion-formulation-of-botanical-oils-as-an-efficient-tool-to-provide-sustainable-agricultural",totalDownloads:887,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Microemulsion formulation is among the most suitable carrier for the delivery of bioactive and, therefore, has excellent potential for industrial applications. The microemulsion system is thermodynamically and kinetically stable. Due to the smaller droplet size of the microemulsion system, the bioactive covers a larger surface of the target pest. Botanicals and essential oils, in particular, are green options to control various soil and seed-borne pathogens. Each oil contains several bioactive constituents that practically avoid microbe-resistance against it. Nevertheless, to improve the handling and shelf-life of botanicals, microemulsion formulation is the best option available. The current chapter provides the insight of a microemulsion system and explores the possibility of botanical oil-based biopesticides for a sustainable agro-ecosystem. 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\r\n\tDue to their unique physicochemical features, metal nanoparticles are frequently used in various biomedical applications. The new and unique properties of gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) including, biocompatibility, low cytotoxicity, and optical properties, make them valuable for applications in biomedical fields, including biosensing, bioimaging, cancer therapy of cancer, and drug delivery. Radiation and photothermal therapy using AuNPs have developed a new platform for primary cancer diagnosis and treatment. Chemical functional groups and biological molecules, such as drug molecules, can be immobilised on gold surfaces owing to AuNPs' large surface area. Therefore, AuNPs are an applicable carrier for targeted drug delivery because of their surface functionalization.
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Churchill, Maja Dutour Sikirić, Božana Čolović and Helga Füredi Milhofer",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8812.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"219335",title:"Dr.",name:"David",surname:"Churchill",slug:"david-churchill",fullName:"David Churchill"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6851",title:"New Uses of Micro and Nanomaterials",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"49e0ab8961c52c159da40dd3ec039be0",slug:"new-uses-of-micro-and-nanomaterials",bookSignature:"Marcelo Rubén Pagnola, Jairo Useche Vivero and Andres Guillermo Marrugo",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6851.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"112233",title:"Dr.Ing.",name:"Marcelo Rubén",surname:"Pagnola",slug:"marcelo-ruben-pagnola",fullName:"Marcelo Rubén Pagnola"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"44178",title:"Screening for Narrow Angles in the Japanese Population Using Scanning Peripheral Anterior Chamber Depth Analyzer",doi:"10.5772/54556",slug:"screening-for-narrow-angles-in-the-japanese-population-using-scanning-peripheral-anterior-chamber-de",body:'Primary chronic angle-closure glaucoma (PACG) is a leading cause of blindness, and has particularly high prevalence rate in East Asia [1–3]. The Handan Eye Study [4] reported that the standardized prevalence of PACG is 0.5%, and two thirds of those with PACG were blind in at least one eye. Many cases of PACG are asymptomatic and often present with severe visual field loss at the first visit. The severe visual impairment from PACG is related to the insidious development of the disease. [5]
Primary angle closure suspect (PACS) is characterized by narrow or occludable angles without raised intraocular pressure (IOP) or glaucomatous optic neuropathy. Primary angle closure (PAC) is the eyes with narrow angles and the appositional closure, peripheral anterior synechiae (PAS) and/or raised IOP but without glaucomatous optic neuropathy. PACG is defined as the case of PAC with glaucomatous optic neuropathy. It has been estimated that 22% of the eyes with PACS progress to PAC and 28.5% progress from PAC to PACG over 5–10 years [6]. Prophylactic laser iridotomy (LI) is the first-line treatment for narrow angles, and may stop the progression of the angle closure process and prevent development of PACG. However, LI is less effective in controlling IOP if optic nerve damage with PAS has already occurred [7].
Assessment of angle width is essential for the diagnosis and managing angle closure [8–10]. Currently, the golden standard for angle assessment has been indirect visualization by gonioscopy. However, it is limited by its dependency on subjective interpretation and difficulties in manipulation techniques. Ultrasound biomicroscopy (UBM) generates high-resolution images of the angle, which can be used in quantitative analysis, and it adds useful information regarding causal mechanisms of angle closure. However, this method also requires trained and experienced technicians and is time consuming. Both gonioscopy and UBM require contact with the globe, and as a result, they can be unpleasant for the patient and can induce artifacts.
New devices for evaluating the anterior ocular segment in a more objective and quantitative manner have been introduced. Anterior-segment optical coherence tomography (AS-OCT) is a noninvasive technique allowing the measurement of the anterior ocular structures. A new generation of OCT, swept-source OCT (SS-OCT), has been recently introduced for the measurement of the anterior ocular segment. The SS-OCT is over tenfold faster than the time-domain OCT and gives a three-dimensional (3D) observation of the anterior ocular segment. The SS-OCT employs 1,310 nmin the nearinfrared light source and its scan rate is 30,000 A scan/s.
The scanning peripheral anterior chamber depth analyzer (SPAC) is a non-invasive device that objectively and quantitatively assesses the anterior ocular segment by employing the Scheimpflug camera principle. The SPAC measures the peripheral ACD and converts the measurements into numerical and categorical grades by comparison with a normative database. The SPAC has been proposed as a clinician-independent screening tool for angle closure.
In the study reported here, we review the advantages and limitations of newer anterior chamber imaging technologies, namely ultrasound biomicroscopy (UBM), anterior segment optical coherence tomography (AS-OCT), and scanning peripheral anterior chamber depth analyzer (SPAC). Additionally, the present study assessed the effectiveness and possibility of the SPAC in the glaucoma screening.
UBM, which originally was used in ophthalmology to image the posterior segment (B-scan ultrasonography), is an objective alternative for anterior chamber angle assessment. Although ultrasound and UBM are based on the same principle, the frequencies are different. Objective and reproducible measurements of the anterior chamber structures can be obtained with cross-sectional imaging by UBM. Electric signals are converted by a radiofrequency signal generator coupled to a piezoelectric transducer into 50 MHz frequency ultrasonic sound waves, which are transmitted to the eye via saline solution that is held in a cup reservoir [11]. The examination may be performed through a viscous material such as sodium hyaloronate. UBM generates high-resolution images of the angle, which can be used in quantitative analysis, and it adds useful information regarding mechanisms of angle closure [11]. Although angle dimensions measured by UBM correlated significantly with gonioscopy in general [12], gonioscopic assessment sometimes resulted in an overestimation of the angle width in eyes with occludable angles [13]. Gonioscopy is the gold standard examination, because it allows direct viewing of the angle. Nevertheless, it may induce changes in the apposition of the iris depending on the technique and the lens.
The UBM measurement requires trained and experienced technicians and is time consuming. In addition, UBM require contact with the globe, and as a result, UBM can induce artifacts by inadvertent compression of the globe. Consequently, UBM is not suitable for glaucoma screening examination.
AS-OCT is a non-contact imaging device allowing the visualization and measurement of the anterior ocular structures [11]. The Visante AS-OCT (Carl Zeiss Meditec Inc., Dublin, CA, USA) and the slit-lamp OCT (SL-OCT) (Heildelberg Engineering, Heildelberg, Germany) are the commercially available AS-OCT devices [11]. Compared with the OCT, the SL-OCT has a lower axial and transverse resolution of <25 µm and 20–100 µm, respectively. A major difference between the two devices is their scan speed, which is 2000 A-scans per s for Visante OCT, and 200 A-scans per s for SL-OCT. With a line scan of 256 and 215 A-scans, each image frame takes 0.13 and 1.08s for Visante OCT and SL-OCT, respectively [11]. Furthermore, the SL-OCT requires manual rotation of the scanning beam.
The advantages of the AS-OCT devices are non-contact, easy operation and a rapid image acquisition. The incorporation of automated analysis software allows for rapid estimation of the various anterior segment parameters, including corneal thickness, anterior chamber depth, etc.
Precise location of the scleral spur is a pre-requisite for reliable measurement of the angle. Limited by a relatively low-image resolution, the scleral spur may not always be visible even with the anterior segment OCT. Currently available software analysis programs require the manual localization of the scleral spur, which can at times be difficult, especially in closed angles or where there is a smooth transition from cornea to sclera [14]. Sakata et al. found that the sclera spur could not be detected in approximately 30% of the quadrants, this problem being worse in the superior and inferior quadrants [14].
It has been reported that AS-OCT is highly sensitive in detecting angle closure when compared with gonioscopy. Using gonioscopy as a reference standard results in AS-OCT having a sensitivity of 98.0% [15]. Several explanations have been suggested for the disparate findings between gonioscopy and AS-OCT [11]. The structures of the angle cannot be directly viewed by other techniques than gonioscopy (and may be SS-OCT in future), and therefore, cannot be identified. However, inadvertent pressure on the globe during gonioscopy may alter the configuration of the angle, leading to artificial widening of the angle. Another reason could be a difference in the definition angle closure. On gonioscopy, angle closure was defined as the apposition between the iris and the posterior trabecular meshwork, whereas on the AS-OCT, it was defined as any contact between the iris and the angle structures anterior to the sclera spur in 2-dimensional cross sections obtained by AS-OCT.
When this device is applied to the prospective observational case series, sensitivity and specificity are calculated as 98% (92.2%–99.6%) and 55.4% (45.2%–65.2%) [15]. The low specificity found with AS-OCT may limit the usefulness of these devices in screening for narrow angle.
A new generation of OCT [CASIA, Tomey, Nagoya, Japan], based on swept-source technology (SS-OCT) methods, has been recently developed for the assessment of the anterior ocular segment [16]. The SS-OCT is a variation of the Fourier-domain OCT, over tenfold faster than the time-domain OCT, and gives a three-dimensional (3D) image of the anterior ocular segment. Instead of using a spectrometer as in spectral-domain OCT, swept-source OCT uses a monochromatic tunable fast scanning laser source and a photodetector to detect wavelength-resolved interference signal [17]. The iris profiles and the angle configurations can be visualized three dimensionally and evaluated for 360° [16]. There might be apposition of the peripheral iris to the cornea that would be identified as a closed angle. SS-OCT imaging of the anterior segment could be useful to improve detection of angle closure, while the high cost of these devices may be a limiting factor for their use in screening examination.
The scanning peripheral anterior chamber depth analyzer (SPAC) is a non-invasive device that objectively and quantitatively assesses the anterior ocular segment by employing the Scheimpflug camera principle [18]. The light from the slit lamp is in the visible spectrum and is projected from the temporal side at an angle of 60° from the optical axis. A camera records cross sectional slit images from the anterior cornea to the anterior iris, and does not rotate as Pentacam-Scheimpflug. The SPAC measures the peripheral ACD and converts the measurements into numerical and categorical grades by comparison with a normative database. SPAC quantitatively measures ACD in a noncontact fashion from the optical axis to the limbus in approximately 0.66 second and takes 21 consecutive slit-lamp images at 0.4 mm intervals. SPAC measurements ranged from 1 to 12, with 1 representing the shallowest anterior chamber. SPAC is equipped with an autofocusing system and a program for the detection of eyes with narrow angle, and usually completes measurement within 15 seconds for a pair of eyes by pressing the start button. The SPAC also reports 3 categorical grades for risk of angle closure: S (for “suspect angle closure”
It has been previously reported that the results of peripheral anterior chamber measurement by SPAC were well correlated with those by the van Herick technique as well as Shaffer’s grading system and the ultrasound biomicroscope [19].
Pentacam-Scheimpflug (rotating scheimpflug imaging) uses the Scheimpflug principle in order to obtain images of the anterior segment [10]. It has a rotating Scheimpflug camera that takes up to 50 slit images of the anterior segment in less than 2 seconds [20]. Software is then used to construct a three‐dimensional image. It calculates data for corneal topography (anterior and posterior corneal surface) and thickness, anterior chamber depth (ACD), lens opacification and lens thickness. It also provides data on corneal wavefront of the anterior and posterior corneal surface using Zernike polynomials. Compared with SPAC, Pentacam is highly expensive.
The SPAC automatically calculates central anterior chamber depths (ACD, red line) along the visual axis. SD5.6 (yellow line) means peripheral anterior chamber depth at 5.6 mm apart from the anterior pole of the lens. b. Printout of the results of SPAC measurement. The radius of curvature, the corneal thickness, and the anterior chamber depth are displayed. The SPAC anterior chamber depth value (corneal epithelium to anterior lens) was calculated by summing the corneal thickness and true anterior chamber depth measurements.
The ideal community-based screening test should be clinician-independent, quick, and noninvasive, and have high sensitivity and specificity. SPAC has an advanatage of detecting eyes at risk of ACG by non-physicians in public health screening [20]. When using gonioscopy as the gold standard [8,10], the performance of SPAC combined grade (P or S and/or ≤ grade 5) gave a sensitivity and specificity of 93.0% and 70.8%, respectively [19]. With sequential testing using both SPAC and van Herick, the specificity and sensitivity improves to 94.4% and 87.0%, respectively [21, 22]. Therefore, the SPAC examination in conjunction with the van Herick method is considered as a choice of the first-line screening tests for angle closure following precise examination by OCT, UBM, or gonioscopy (Fig. 4). Kashiwagi et al. [23] proposed the protocol of detecting angle closure glaucoma using SPAC in public health examination. Their protocol consisted of 2 phases: primary screening using SPAC measurements of ACD by nonphysicians and definitive examination by glaucoma specialists (Fig. 4), and was revealed useful for detecting eyes at risk of angle closure glaucoma [22].
Flow chart for the detection and diagnosis of the narrow anterior chamber.
To investigate the frequency of eyes with a shallow anterior chamber at risk, the SPAC was used in subjects visiting a health screening center. In addition, the influences of age and sex on the distribution of central and peripheral ACD were also examined. Indeed, a productive approach would be to target high-risk groups, such as the elderly, far- sighted, and in particular, women.
Cross-sectional, observational, community-based study.
This was a cross-sectional study in an institutional setting [24]. Subjects older than 30 years were recruited at an annual community health checkup project held in the city of Akita (with a population of 325,537), the capital of Akita Prefecture, Japan. A total of 1,173 subjects participated in the comprehensive examinations from September 10, 2007 to October 26, 2007. Of these, 710 individuals underwent glaucoma screening. All of the participants were ethnically Japanese.
This study was performed after the approval by the Ethical Committee of Akita Prefecture Health Care Foundation. All study procedures adhered to the principles outlined in the Declaration of Helsinki for research involving human subjects, and all participants gave written informed consent for this research prior to their participation.
Exclusion criteria were (1) eyes with previous ocular surgery, trauma, or significant ocular disease; (2) eyes with any inborn aberrations, which might affect the morphology of the optic disc (eg, superior segmental optic disc hypoplasia).
The initial non-contact ocular examination was conducted by trained non-ophthalmologists and included measurement of refraction and keratometry (Topcon KR-8100PA, Tokyo, Japan), IOP by noncontact pneumotonometry (Topcon CT-90A, Tokyo, Japan), angle width (Scanning Peripheral Anterior Chamber Analyzer, Takagi Seiko, Nagano, Japan), non-mydriatic optic disc photography by stereoscopic fundus camera (30o angle, 3-DX/NM, Nidek, Gamagori, Japan), and confocal laser scanning tomography (Heidelberg Retina Tomograph II, software version 3.0, Heidelberg Instruments, Heidelberg, Germany). IOP was measured three times, and the mean value was adopted.
When at least 1 finding suggested the presence of glaucoma, the subjects were recruited for definitive examination (Table 1). A definitive examination was performed when a subject was suspected to have glaucoma based upon the findings of the initial non-contact ocular examination. The definitive examination consisted of the following procedures: slit-lamp biomicroscopy, Goldmann applanation tonometry, gonioscopy, and optic nerve head evaluation using a Goldmann three-mirror lens (Haag-Streit International, Koeniz, Switzerland) and a visual field test with the Humphrey Field Analyzer II 24-2 SITA Standard Program (Carl Zeiss Meditec Inc, Dublin, CA, USA). Diagnosis of glaucoma was made based on optic disc appearance, including cup-to-disc ratio, rim width, nerve fiber layer defect, the visual field test, and the clinical records that were obtained through screening and definitive examinations. When present or suspected, glaucoma was categorized based upon the criteria of previous population studies (Table 2). In the definitive diagnosis, anomalous discs, including tilted discs, were carefully excluded. The final diagnosis of glaucoma was determined by 4 glaucoma specialists.
1) Intraocular pressure of 21mm Hg or higher in either eye | \n\t\t|
2) Presence of abnormalities in the stereoscopic fundus photographs, including one or more of the following glaucomatous changes: | \n\t\t|
\n\t\t\t | 1. Vertical cup/disc ratio of the optic nerve head was more than or equal to 0.6 | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t | 2. Rim width at the superior portion (11-1 h), or inferior portion (5-7 h) was less than or equal to 0.2 of disc diameter ratio was | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t | 3. Difference in the vertical cup/disc more than or equal to 0.2 between both eyes | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t | 4. Nerve fiber layer defect or splinter disc hemorrhage was found | \n\t\t
3) Failure to take stereoscopic fundus photographs | \n\t\t
Criteria for Definitive Examination Eligibility.
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t
The vertical cup-to-disc ratio of the optic nerve head is 0.7 or more, or the rim width at the superior portion (11-1 h) or the inferior portion (5-7 h) is 0.1 or less of the disc diameter, or the difference of the vertical cup-to-disc ratio is 0.2 or more between both eyes, or a nerve fiber layer defect is found, and the hemifield based visual field abnormality is compatible with optic disc appearance or nerve fiber layer defect. | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t
When the visual field test is not reliable or available, the cup-to-disc ratio of the optic nerve head is 0.9 or more, or the rim width at the superior portion (11-1 h) or the inferior portion (5-7 h) is 0.05 or less of the disc diameter, or the difference of the vertical cup-to-disc ratio is 0.3 or more between both eyes | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t
When the cup-to-disc ratio of the optic nerve head is 0.7 or more portion (5-7 h) is 0.1 or less but more than 0.05 of the disc diameter but less than 0.9, or the rim width at the superior portion (11-1h) or the inferior, or the difference of the vertical cup-to-disc ratio is 0.2 or more but less than 0.3 between both eyes, or the nerve fiber layer defect is found, and the visual field test is not reliable or available or does not show hemi-field based compatible defect, the eye is diagnosed with suspected glaucoma | \n\t\t
Criteria for Glaucoma Diagnosis.
The vertical cup-to-disc ratio of the optic nerve head is 0.7 or more, or the rim width at the superior portion (11-1 h) or the inferior portion (5-7 h) is 0.1 or less of the disc diameter, or the difference of the vertical cup-to-disc ratio is 0.2 or more between both eyes, or a nerve fiber layer defect is found, and the hemifield based visual field abnormality is compatible with optic disc appearance or nerve fiber layer defect.
When the visual field test is not reliable or available, the cup-to-disc ratio of the optic nerve head is 0.9 or more, or the rim width at the superior portion (11-1 h) or the inferior portion (5-7 h) is 0.05 or less of the disc diameter, or the difference of the vertical cup-to-disc ratio is 0.3 or more between both eyes
When the cup-to-disc ratio of the optic nerve head is 0.7 or more portion (5-7 h) is 0.1 or less but more than 0.05 of the disc diameter but less than 0.9, or the rim width at the superior portion (11-1h) or the inferior, or the difference of the vertical cup-to-disc ratio is 0.2 or more but less than 0.3 between both eyes, or the nerve fiber layer defect is found, and the visual field test is not reliable or available or does not show hemi-field based compatible defect, the eye is diagnosed with suspected glaucoma
All subjects underwent examination with SPAC. Paramedical staff correctively measured the ACD of 658 subjects (703 eyes of 354 men, 607 eyes of 304 women). SPAC examines the region from the optical axis to the temporal limbus in approximately 0.66 s, taking 21 consecutive slitlamp images at 0.4-mm intervals. The camera-captured cross-sectional slit-lamp images are immediately subjected to analysis, and the radius of curvature, the corneal thickness, and ACD values are displayed. The SPAC yields numeric and categorical grades that are calculated by comparison with the ACD values derived from a sample of Japanese subjects [18]. In our study, the range of ACD values of the patients was divided into 12 groups, each representing an equal increment in the ACD. Group 12 consisted of eyes with the deepest mean ACD values, whereas eyes with the shallowest mean ACD values were allocated to group 1.
Based on the data provided by SPAC, the following parameters were determined: distribution of ACD from the central and the peripheral region, distribution of the grades of ACD, and frequency of suspected (S) or possible (P) angle-closure eyes. The high risk of angle closure group includes eyes judged as S or P, or grade ≤5 by SPAC. These eyes were eligible for the definitive examination, The SPAC automatically calculates central ACD along the visual axis. Peripheral ACD means anterior chamber depth at 5.6 mm apart from the anterior pole of the lens (Fig. 3).
Of 1420 eyes of the 710 participants of the glaucoma screening study, reliable SPAC results were analyzed in 1310 eyes of 658 participants (Table 3). 104 eyes of fifty two participants were omitted from the study. The main reason for exclusion were that SPAC measurements could not be completed at the screening sites for various reasons, such as subjects\' ocular or physical problems. 100 eyes were unable to fixate the fixation lamp due to poor visual acuity, and 2 subjects (4 eyes) were unable to keep their faces on the chin rest during measurement. Between the included and excluded subjects, the male/female ratio was not statistically different (P = 0.44, χ2 test).
\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t21 (42, 3.2%) | \n\t\t\t105 (209, 16.0%) | \n\t\t\t126 (252, 19.2%) | \n\t\t\t73 (143, 10.9%) | \n\t\t\t29 (57, 2.2%) | \n\t\t\t354 (703, 53.7%) | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t20 (40, 3.1%) | \n\t\t\t98 (196, 15.0%) | \n\t\t\t114 (228, 17.4%) | \n\t\t\t57 (114, 8.7%) | \n\t\t\t15 (29, 2.2%) | \n\t\t\t304 (607, 46.3%) | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t41 (82, 6.3%) | \n\t\t\t203 (495, 37.8%) | \n\t\t\t240 (480, 36.6%) | \n\t\t\t130 (257, 19.6%) | \n\t\t\t44 (86, 6.6%) | \n\t\t\t658 (1310, 100%) | \n\t\t
Number of patients and eyes and the percentage of eyes (in parenthesis) examined by SPAC in each age group.
Descriptive statistical analysis for the determination of mean±standard deviation (SD) for continuous values was performed with SPBS software (Nankodo Publisher, Statistical Package for the Biosciences version 9.51, Tokyo, Japan). Data from both eyes of each individual were used, as it was more efficient and informative than data for single eyes. Comparisons of the different SPAC parameters between males and females or among each age group were analyzed with paired and unpaired t tests. Pearson correlation coefficients were calculated to assess the strength of the correlations between SPAC parameters and potential confounders. For all analyses, P<0.05 was considered statistically significant.
A glaucoma specialist judged that 26 eyes of 19 subjects required the definitive examination, and all 19 subjects were enrolled in the definitive examination. The definitive examination revealed that 1 subject had PACG (0.08%), 1 subject had PAC (0.08%), and 1 had ciliary cyst (0.08%). None of all these eyes showed IOP elevation of more than 21mm Hg. Laser iridotomy was performed on PACG and PAC subjects. None of these subjects presented with subjective symptoms that are thought to demonstrate a strong association with angle closure.
Association of gender and age with SPAC parameters are summarized in Table 4.
In male subjects of 30 to 60 years of ages, the central and the peripheral anterior chamber depths were gradually decreased with ages. There were significant differences in these depths among 30, 40, and 50 age groups (p<0.0001). However, there was no significant difference in depths between 60 years and 70 years age group (Fig. 5). In female subjects, the ACD tended to be shallower in women than in men in each generation. The central and the peripheral anterior chamber depths were gradually decreased with ages. There were significant differences among each age group (p<0.0001) (Fig. 5). Correlation of anterior chamber depth and aging was statistically analyzed using linear regression equation (y = ax + b). Both central and peripheral ACD were significantly correlated with aging (p<0.0001) (Fig. 6). Regression equations were shown in Fig. 6.
\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t11.2 (1.7) | \n\t\t\t10.3 (1.0) | \n\t\t\t9.6 (0.9) | \n\t\t\t9.0 (0.9) | \n\t\t\t9.3 (0.9) | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t3.6 (0.3) | \n\t\t\t3.4 (0.2) | \n\t\t\t3.3 (0.3) | \n\t\t\t3.2 (0.3) | \n\t\t\t3.3 (0.3) | \n\t\t|
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t1.6 (0.2) | \n\t\t\t1.3 (0.2) | \n\t\t\t1.1 (0.1) | \n\t\t\t1.0 (0.1) | \n\t\t\t1.2 (0.1) | \n\t\t|
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t10.4 (1.2) | \n\t\t\t9.7 (1.0) | \n\t\t\t8.8 (0.9) | \n\t\t\t8.5 (0.9) | \n\t\t\t7.5 (0.8) | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t3.5 (0.4) | \n\t\t\t3.3 (0.3) | \n\t\t\t3.2 (0.3) | \n\t\t\t3.1 (0.3) | \n\t\t\t2.9 (0.3) | \n\t\t|
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t1.4 (0.1) | \n\t\t\t1.1 (0.1) | \n\t\t\t1.0 (0.1) | \n\t\t\t0.9 (0.08) | \n\t\t\t0.9 (0.1) | \n\t\t
Average and standard deviation (parenthesis) of central and peripheral anterior chamber depth in male and female in each age group.
Average of central and peripheral anterior chamber depth at each age group. The central ACD (a) and the peripheral ACD (b) were measured at each age group in male (blue bars) and female (red bars). The y-axis represented anterior chamber depth (ACD) as millimeters. The decrease with age in each ACD was shown quantitatively in both men and women.
Correlation of the aging and the anterior chamber depth (a: central ACD, b: peripheral ACD) in all subjects. Although the distribution was wide, the central and peripheral ACD decreased with aging. There was a significant negative correlation between ACD and aging by lineal regression analysis.
The high risk of angle closure group includes eyes judged as S or P, or grade ≤5 by SPAC. The prevalence of the high risk eyes was 1.7% and 2.3% among men and women, respectively. In particular, the prevalence of the high risk eyes was especially high in women 60 years age (6.1%) and 70 years age (6.9%). These data suggest that women older than 60 years may be vulnerable to possible angle closure. Women older than 60 years were at greater risk than male (p<0.0021) or female of younger age (p<0.0001) (Table 5). However, these eyes at risk did not show abnormalities in IOP or optic disc.
\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t0/42 (0%) | \n\t\t\t0/209 (0.51%) | \n\t\t\t6/252 (2.4%) | \n\t\t\t5/143 (3.5%) | \n\t\t\t1/57 (1.8%) | \n\t\t\t12/703 (1.7%) | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t0/40 (0%) | \n\t\t\t1/196 (0.05%) | \n\t\t\t4/228 (1.7%) | \n\t\t\t7/114 (6.1%) | \n\t\t\t2/29 (6.9%) | \n\t\t\t14/607 (2.3%) | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t0/82 (0%) | \n\t\t\t1/405 (0.24%) | \n\t\t\t10/480 (2.1%) | \n\t\t\t12/257 (4.7%) | \n\t\t\t3/86 (3.5%) | \n\t\t\t26/1310 (2.0%) | \n\t\t
Number and frequencies (percentage) of eyes at risk in each age group.
The present study qualitatively demonstrates the decrease with age in the peripheral and the central ACD in both men and women in the Japanese subjects attending the health community checkup. Eyes at risk for angle closure were more frequent in women 60 years of age or older. Compared with other populations in Japan, the similar results were reported using SPAC [25] (Table 6). Kamo et al. [25] also reported that the frequency of eyes at risk for angle closure increased in women 50 years of age or older, and it is corresponding to our present results.
It has been reported that the prognosis of eyes with PACG especially acute angle closure is poor compared with that of eyes with PAC undergoing suitable treatment [6, 7]. Therefore, detecting eyes at risk of PACG or PAC is very important. The van Herick technique was employed for primary screening in previous epidemiologic studies of ACG eyes [21]. It has been reported that the results of peripheral ACD measurement by SPAC were well correlated with those by the van Herick technique as well as Shaffer’s grading system and the ultrasound biomicroscope [22]. As the sequential testing using both SPAC and van Herick demonstrates high specificity and sensitivity [23], we considered that the SPAC examination in conjunction with the van Herick method is considered as a choice of the first-line screening tests for angle closure following precise examination by OCT, UBM, or gonioscopy. Further, almost all of the previous studies were conducted under the guidance of an ophthalmologist, and there are few reports of angle closure screening conducted as part of a public health examination that does not involve an ophthalmologist. Primary screening using SPAC measurements of ACD by nonphysicians seems to have possibility to induce cost-effective angle closure screening.
It seems that screening for PACG at least with SPAC and van Herick method should be performed in all the patients over 50 every 6 months and in those with shallow (peripheral) anterior chamber or high IOP, the angle should be further evaluated. LI should be performed in all PAC and PACG patients and those who do not respond to LI should undergo cataract surgery.
\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t0.24 | \n\t\t\t2.1 | \n\t\t\t4.7 | \n\t\t\t3.5 | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t0 | \n\t\t\t2.7 | \n\t\t\t4.1 | \n\t\t\t2.8 | \n\t\t
Comparison of frequencies of eyes at risk (judged as S or P by SPAC) between Akita (the present result) and Yamanashi in Japan.
The whole earth’s climate systems are changing in the atmosphere, the oceans, ice floes and on the land. Some of the changes such as increases in temperature, rise in carbon dioxide, drought and floods are already in motion now, while others like continued sea level rise are already irreversible for centuries to millennia ahead. The impact of climate change makes lives of both humans, animals, and plants unbearable. The main drivers of climate change are attributed on human activities in the following economic sectors, transport (road, air, rail, and sea), energy industries (electricity, heat, power) and agriculture [1]. Agriculture alone contributes to almost 32% of all greenhouse gases that contribute to climate change. Human population is increasing in the world and assuring an increase in demand for food, shelter, water, and clothing.
Africa is one of the world’s most vulnerable regions due to the fragility of its economies. It is now evident that global warming in the 21st century will be more intense in Africa compared to the rest of the world [1, 2], Global warming and increased climate variability will severely affect crop and livestock production systems in Africa. Some of the harsh realities of climate change has been felt in Southern Africa in recent years but the worst scenarios of Storm Desmond (January 23, 2019, in central Mozambique), Cyclone Idai (March 14, 2019, in central Mozambique, Zimbabwe, Malawi and northern Madagascar) (Cyclone Idai: Wikipedia) and cyclone Kenneth (April 25, 2019). A total of 100,000 homes were destroyed and more than 1000 people were killed during the cyclones and storm. Figure 1. shows the areas that were affected by cyclone Idai in southern Africa while Figure 2. shows some of the damage done in Mozambique.
Areas in southern Africa which were affected by cyclone Idai in march 2019, destroying infrastructure and crops as well as killing people and animals (source: Cyclone Idai: Wikipedia).
Flooded villages and destroyed crop lands in Mozambique in 2019 (source: Cyclone Idai: Wikipedia).
Villages, towns, infrastructure, cropped land were destroyed, and livestock died during the cyclone events. One in every five years, agricultural and ecological drought often affects most countries in southern Africa, sometimes leading to 100% crop failure depending on timing, intensity, and severity. Definition of drought varies with for different water users. Meteorological, Hydrological and Agricultural drought is a prolonged period with shortage of precipitation/below average precipitation, surface water or soil moisture. Climate change effects develop slow over time and their impact underestimated—negative impact on vegetation, animals, and people. Livestock and wild animals also suffer from crop and veld failure. The natural production of water (water cycle) is intensified by climate change and brings intense rainfall and associated flooding and intense drought in some regions. The rainfall patterns and distribution are affected. Significant economic (loss of employment, decreased agricultural and industrial production) and social disasters, such as famine, forced migration, and conflict over few remaining resources, health related- lack of water, poor nutrition and famine are some of the negative effects of drought.
Climate change causes warming up of the earth resulting in severe heat waves in some regions. Hotter days by 6 to 15°C are expected in some countries while other will suffer colder days. All the changes in temperature and environment give rise to new pests and diseases for both humans and animals. Serious crop and animal yield losses to emerging pests and diseases will lead to starving populations.
Climate change affects prediction of the future and is an indication that the past is over. It is still difficult to assess the extent and nature of such changes in the future.
Agriculture in its various forms anchors the core component of human life. Vital is crop and livestock production to the agricultural sector. Worldwide, agriculture is the largest economic sector and in Africa as well as Asia employs between 70 and 90% of the total labour force as well as supplying up to 50% of household food requirements and household incomes [3].
Livestock production contributes between 30 and 50% of agricultural gross domestic production, mainly from the production of beef cattle, dairy cattle, goats, sheep, and chickens [4]. Africa has about 250 million Tropical Livestock Unit (TLU) equivalents [3] that support 70% of the rural livelihoods and provide income to over 200 million people. Livestock production is increasing throughout Africa, due to rising human population, urbanisation, and demand for meat. Total human population in the world is expected to reach 8.6 billion by 2035 and 9.8 billion by 2050 [5]. In addition to provision of food security and income, livestock provide draught power, transport, and manure in mixed crop-livestock systems. Also, livestock is socially and culturally important for payment of dowry, celebrations, and gifts to family members, and as a means of savings [6].
The livestock sector is widely constrained by a lack of regulation, which leads to negative externalities such as land degradation, water pollution, loss of biodiversity and emission of greenhouse gases (GHGs). Greenhouse gasses are the major causes of climate change, and the consensus is that climate change and global warming are real due to increased GHG emissions into the atmosphere.
Livestock production depends on natural resources, which in much of Africa, primarily means pasture and water [7, 8]. The transition towards drier and hotter regimes with climate change is expected to have several adverse impacts on the quantity and quality of animal feeds. Grazing areas will be affected by changes in herbage growth brought about by changes in atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations and temperature [9]. In terms of field crops, climate change has affected yield in several places. Some crop yields have increased in some places and decreased in others. Yield of some crops such sorghum has increased by 0.7% in sub-Saharan Africa and 0.9% in Asia due to favourable environments created by climate change [10]. In other instances, yield of some world staples such as rice and wheat are reducing on average by 0.3 and 0.9% respectively. In some studies, climate change was reducing food calories by 1% for the top 10 global crops. The food calory reduction is happening throughout the world, both in rich industrialised countries and poor countries.
Heat stress is defined as the rise in air temperature above a threshold level for a significant amount of time to cause damage to normal growth and development [11]. Heat stress limit plant growth and productivity even in the presence of adequate soil moisture. Just like drought, heat stress can happen at any stage of crop growth and its negative effect varies with the onset, intensity, and duration during plant growth. Field crops which give flowers, pollen, tassels, silking, grain filling, storage root formation and bulking are most susceptible to heat stress at reproductive stages due to flower drop. Yield losses can reach 100 percent depending on intensity and duration of the heat. In addition, an increase in air temperature results in raised soil temperatures which can be higher than air temperature when soil moisture is limited. Root development is severely affected in both field crops and forage/pastures for animals.
The vulnerability of livestock to heat stress varies according to species, genetic potential, life stage and nutritional status. The projected warmer temperatures expected in sub-Saharan Africa are likely to cause heat stress in beef cattle raised under extensive production systems. Heat stress in extensive beef cattle production systems will likely reduce foraging time, feed intake, growth performance and carcass quality. Reproductive performance will also be compromised, for example, conception rates will decrease, calving intervals will increase, and spermatogenesis and semen quality will be impaired. Heat-induced reduction in feed intake will result in a decline in milk yields in dairy cattle [12].
The effect of heat stress is not likely to be as adverse in small ruminants, due to the small body weight, well developed water retention in the kidney and lower metabolic rates of smaller ruminant species. Goats are more likely to cope with, and adapt to, the increasingly hot and dry conditions expected in the region compared to sheep and cattle, because of their low feed and water requirements, ability to exploit low quality forage and disease resistance. Goats can survive harsher climates than cattle and require less space [12].
Climate change will amplify existing stress on water availability in agricultural systems of semi-arid environments [13]. Rising temperatures may increase irrigation water requirements of major crops [14] and drive-up water demand by livestock [9, 15]. For example, the increased reliance on groundwater in the future in Botswana for the cattle sector could lead to problems associated with the sustainability of water resources in the country [16]. Global warming and accompanying hydrological changes are also likely to affect soils in complex ways, including soil fertility and propensity for erosion [14]. Additionally, much prime agricultural land located in the coastal plains of Southern Africa might be lost to rising sea-levels [17]. Most of staple foods consumed in sub-Saharan Africa are grown under rain fed conditions largely by small scale farmers who have limited capacities to effect supplementary irrigation in cases of drought. Southern Africa and West Africa have a one rainfall season in a year and suffer drought episodes.
Several studies have shown that the impact of climate change on the transmission and geographical distribution of animal diseases will vary according to the ecosystem, the type of land use, disease-specific transmission dynamics, susceptibility of the populations at risk and sensitivity of the pathogen to temperature and humidity [3, 18]. Climate change is expected to alter transmission rates between hosts by affecting the survival of the pathogens or parasites or the intermediate vectors, but also by other, indirect, forces that may be hard to predict with accuracy. For example, a series of droughts in East Africa between 1993 and 1997 resulted in pastoral communities moving their cattle to graze in areas normally reserved for wildlife. This resulted in cattle infected with a mild lineage of rinderpest transmitting disease both to other cattle and to susceptible wildlife such as buffalo and impala, causing severe disease, and devastating certain populations [19].
Climate change is also expected to affect the abundance or distribution of hosts or the predators of vectors and influence patterns of disease in ways that cannot be predicted from the direct effects of climate change alone [20]. Climate change-related disturbances of ecological relationships, driven perhaps by agricultural changes, overgrazing, deforestation, construction of dams and loss of biodiversity, could give rise to new mixtures of different species/strains, thereby exposing hosts to novel pathogens and vectors and causing the emergence of new diseases [21].
Higher temperatures may influence some pathogens and parasites through accelerated development on their life cycle outside their hosts. Pathogens and parasites that are sensitive to moist or dry conditions may be affected by changes to precipitation, soil moisture and the frequency of floods [20]. Changing wind patterns could affect the spread of certain pathogens and vectors, particularly the infective spores of anthrax and blackleg, the wind-borne dermatophilosis [22].
Climate change may bring about substantial shifts in diseases distribution, and outbreaks of severe diseases could occur in previously unexposed animal and plant populations. While livestock often have evolved genetic resistance to diseases to which they are commonly exposed, they may be highly susceptible to ‘new diseases’ [3]. For example, mammalian cell immunity level may be suppressed following a sharp exposure of light of ultraviolet B nature because of expected ozone layer depletion [23]. Ultraviolet B depletes specific lymphocyte cells and animals become susceptible to some pathogens such as viruses; rickettsia (such as
Changes in moisture and temperature regimes may impose limits on the distribution and the abundance of vectors. Often, low temperatures limit vector distribution because of high winter mortality and a relatively slow rate of population recovery during warmer seasons [20]. This is different with high temperatures as, limiting occurs when there is excessive moisture loss. Therefore, cooler, and high-altitude regions which were previously too cold for certain vectors may begin to allow them to flourish with climate change. Warmer regions could become even warmer and yet remain permissive for vectors if there is also increased precipitation or humidity. For example, biting midges and mosquito-borne diseases outbreaks have been linked to the occurrence of ENSO [25, 26, 27].
Climate change, in conjunction with other forms of land use fosters the emergence of new diseases as it changes the structure of the ecosystems in relation to species composition and diversity in favour of livestock pathogens and vectors [28]. Similarly, the preponderance of diseases due to climate change occurs through tendencies of animals to migrate in masses, overgraze and congest around pastures, during times of droughts, a common phenomenon during this climate change era [3]. High rains on the other hand positively correlate with disease outbreaks in both livestock and crops. In field crops, diversity will be lost, and pathogens will rely on a few crop species, leading to increases in diseases such as leaf spots, root rots, blights, and cankers. In livestock production, apart from increases in internal and external parasites, diseases like dermatophytosis, anthrax and foot rot will rapidly occur and spread. This way, areas with limited disease occurrences may end up experiencing high crop and livestock disease occurrences. Changing international trade patterns, local animal and crop transportation, farm size and human migrations are all factors that may be driven in part by climate change, and which may impact negatively on disease transmission.
For long, there have been widely publicised calls to mitigate and adapt to climate change issues and efforts are evident worldwide, however, this may be at the expense of natural ways of adaption and fears are that there could be the possibility of the emergency of new unforeseen challenges on the environment [3]. Adaptation typically refers to longer-term changes in behaviour and practices which are more likely to reduce underlying vulnerability to climate change [29]. Commonly documented livestock adaptation strategies include diversifying livestock activities, diversifying livestock types, supplementing livestock feed, and developing niche markets to preserve indigenous breeds.
Indigenous livestock breeds have an adaptive to their native localities advantage than the exotic ones. Characteristics such of drought resistance, disease tolerance are crucial for sustainability of livestock in the face of climate change and indigenous breeds are inherently superior in this regard. In Africa, there are higher levels of inbreeding of local breeds and these animals are often found in small-scale and pastoralist farming setups. Apart from having an adaptive advantage, knowledge of the ways of survival of such breeds ensures an effective way of maintaining the natural environments in which they dwell in with limited chances of negatively affecting them. The success of pasture and rangeland conservation lies in part on the availability of livestock breeds that can effectively utilise the environment [30].
Diversification of animal species provides a means through which a broad range of plant species may be utilised. As climate change influences temporal and spatial variations in the vegetation nature with respect to species diversity, quantity and quality of the biomass and having a diversified herd of animals may help to close this gap. Places rich in shrubs for example may be better suited for goats while those with grasses may be well suited for cattle and diversification in this scenario offers complete utilisation of the available vegetation [31].
The integration of livestock farming with crop production, where some of the crops grown at the farm serve as livestock feed has been a common practice across the globe. This however in most cases depends is a function of matching the correct livestock type with the feed available, the ability of the animal in question to survive on crop residues or disease resistance.
Poultry production has since been one of the enterprises engaged by many farmers in collaboration with crop production in many countries, [32]. Poultry can effectively utilise crop-based feeds such as soya beans and maize with high production success rates. Many indigenous chicken breeds can even survive under free range production systems with little or no feed supplementation. Similarly, locally adapted breeds have high disease resistance rates corresponding to a limited need for prophylactic and therapeutic disease management. Poultry are particularly especially in Africa a means of controlling the effects of climate change as they require minimal production space and can thrive on household waste.
The maintenance of local adapted breeds plays a pivotal role to produce breeds adapted to the changes in climate in future. These advantages are however now being eroded by the rising need by breeders to produce breeds with high performing traits, especially characteristics of economic importance. About 11 and 2% of mammalian and avian breeds, respectively have been reported to be extinct in recent years with a further 210 cattle breeds and 179 sheep breeds classified under the critically endangered species [33]. Maintaining local breeds requires a multi-pronged approach, starting with respect for the rights of local custodians of these breeds and support for their production systems.
The quest of maintaining local breeds is inevitable in the face of climate change however for these breeds to be competitive, niche markets through improving production; processing and value addition of their products is an area of prime focus. Such markets are already in existence although there is still much to be done to smoothen the intervention. Performing SWOT analysis is an important strategy for driving the evolution towards identification of promising niche markets. The most important domain of the process is to organise local people who have the breeds of interest and ensuring that they are directly involved in the process.
Apart from agronomic measures such as water harvesting, irrigation, mulching and growing of well adapted crops and varieties, plant breeding offers more sustainable and widespread answers to a changing climate. Plant breeding goals should meet the changing climate. Major goals should include the following:
Plant breeding programs should include postharvest durability in their product profiles. Huge losses of between 40 and 70% of cereals and legumes harvested in the world are lost to grain pests mainly weevils and moths. In fruit and vegetable sector, 25–50% of the produce is lost at postharvest stage, while 20–40% of cassava is lost to post physiological deterioration and sweetpotato to moulds. The control or management of postharvest losses is the easiest way to double food availability in Africa. With increased temperatures due to climate change, anticipated losses could be higher than mentioned.
Heat stress during reproductive, grain filling, storage root formation and root bulking leads to severe yield losses in field crops. Heat stress has damaging effects irrespective availability of other factors required for normal plant growth. Breeding for heat tolerance in field crops is one of the strategies of coping with high temperatures induced by climate change. Climate model predictions and simulations pointed to an increase between 1.8 and 4 degrees Celsius in temperature in the 21st century with high increases in southern Africa and Southeast Asia [2].
Climate change alters the precipitation amount, patterns, and distribution. The occurrence of drought and its severity has already been felt in some regions of the world and is expected to significantly rise soon. Food and nutrition security is threatened by frequent droughts in Southern Africa. The release of cultivars with improved tolerance to drought will reduce the impact of drought on many nations in southern Africa whose economies are already struggling from COVID-19 pandemic and political disturbances. Many methods and techniques are available for breeding programs to utilise in the development of drought tolerant cultivars. Genomic selection tools and emergence of different bodies ready to capacitate breeding programs in modernization and operational excellence would help in the identification of drought tolerant genotypes for respective. Water use efficiency is one mechanism for drought tolerance which should be explored in breeding programs.
The earth is receiving lesser rainfall than before and experiencing more evaporation making it impossible to dilute salts in the soil. In addition, sea encroachment is recorded due to rising seas and is depositing a lot of salt in agricultural land. Breeding for salt tolerance should be considered high priority in nations receiving less precipitation due to climate change.
Soils are continuously depleted and there is higher need for crops with high efficiency in the use of nitrogen and phosphorus. Legume crops with high capacity of nitrogen fixation bred and released for commercialization should be compatible with free living N fixing bacteria, Rhizobia. This helps restore nitrogen in the soils which could benefit staple cereal crops in subsequent crop rotations.
Climate change brings in new pest and diseases in a similar manner to livestock. Plant breeding need to continuously match the evolving pests and diseases that would reduce crop productivity and produce quality.
Communities as well as nations are likely going to fight for water resources, pastures, and other few comfortable places to live due to diminishing natural resources particular rainfall and water. There is an on-going tension between Egypt and Ethiopia over water resources from Nile River. Conflict resolution skills and techniques should be endowed in leaders at all levels and should be taken seriously. Focussed niche breeding especially for targeted production environments should be encouraged in both animal and crop breeding programs. Global campaigns to reduce emissions of greenhouse gases should be led by governments and multilateral companies. Innovative ways of food and feed conservation should be developed and adapted to reduce post-harvest losses.
Climate change is a reality and solutions to reduce its effect on humans, animal and the environment should be put in place and be adapted by all nations. In summary, Africa’s agricultural sector and human population will suffer the effects of climate change in a multitude of ways:
frequent droughts caused by reduced precipitation and shifts in growing seasons particularly in Southern Africa.
occasional floods caused by too much rainfall with short periods of time. This is witnessed more in Southern Africa most affected countries being Madagascar, Mozambique, Zimbabwe, and Malawi.
rise in temperatures and becoming uncomfortable for life for both humans and animals. Crop and animal growth will be affected severely reducing productivity and production.
forced migrations by both animals and humans. This will exert a lot of pressure on habitable environments and economies.
emergence of new diseases and pests to both humans and animals which might be difficult to cure.
the cost of food and feed will increase due to decreased productivity and production in certain environments.
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\n\nThe first step in obtaining funds for your Open Access publication begins with your institution or library. IntechOpen’s publishing standards align with most institutional funding programs. Our advice is to petition your institution for help in financing your Open Access publication.
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Moreover, the chapter will be focused on methods of extraction or production of biomaterial suitable for scaffolds.",book:{id:"7926",slug:"biomaterial-supported-tissue-reconstruction-or-regeneration",title:"Biomaterial-supported Tissue Reconstruction or Regeneration",fullTitle:"Biomaterial-supported Tissue Reconstruction or Regeneration"},signatures:"Anna Dolcimascolo, Giovanna Calabrese, Sabrina Conoci and Rosalba Parenti",authors:[{id:"272544",title:"Prof.",name:"Rosalba",middleName:null,surname:"Parenti",slug:"rosalba-parenti",fullName:"Rosalba Parenti"},{id:"273282",title:"Dr.",name:"Anna",middleName:null,surname:"Dolcimascolo",slug:"anna-dolcimascolo",fullName:"Anna Dolcimascolo"},{id:"273283",title:"Dr.",name:"Giovanna",middleName:null,surname:"Calabrese",slug:"giovanna-calabrese",fullName:"Giovanna Calabrese"},{id:"283275",title:"Dr.",name:"Sabrina",middleName:null,surname:"Conoci",slug:"sabrina-conoci",fullName:"Sabrina Conoci"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"19018",title:"Skeletal Regeneration by Mesenchymal Stem Cells: What Else?",slug:"skeletal-regeneration-by-mesenchymal-stem-cells-what-else-",totalDownloads:4006,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:5,abstract:null,book:{id:"314",slug:"regenerative-medicine-and-tissue-engineering-cells-and-biomaterials",title:"Regenerative Medicine and Tissue Engineering",fullTitle:"Regenerative Medicine and Tissue Engineering - Cells and Biomaterials"},signatures:"José A. Andrades, Silvia Claros, Pedro Jiménez-Palomo, José Ma López‐Puertas, Plácido Zamora‐Navas, Enrique Guerado, Manuel Monleón, María C. Araque and José Becerra",authors:[{id:"40914",title:"Prof.",name:"Jose A.",middleName:null,surname:"Andrades",slug:"jose-a.-andrades",fullName:"Jose A. Andrades"},{id:"45493",title:"Dr.",name:"Silvia",middleName:null,surname:"Claros",slug:"silvia-claros",fullName:"Silvia Claros"},{id:"45501",title:"Dr.",name:"Jose M.",middleName:null,surname:"Lopez-Puertas",slug:"jose-m.-lopez-puertas",fullName:"Jose M. 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Araque"}]},{id:"61159",title:"Introductory Chapter: Concepts of Tissue Regeneration",slug:"introductory-chapter-concepts-of-tissue-regeneration",totalDownloads:1962,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:null,book:{id:"6475",slug:"tissue-regeneration",title:"Tissue Regeneration",fullTitle:"Tissue Regeneration"},signatures:"Hussein Abdelhay El-Sayed Kaoud",authors:[{id:"265070",title:"Dr.",name:"Hussein Abdelhay",middleName:null,surname:"Essayed Kaoud",slug:"hussein-abdelhay-essayed-kaoud",fullName:"Hussein Abdelhay Essayed Kaoud"}]},{id:"60312",title:"The Role of Extracellular Matrix in Tissue Regeneration",slug:"the-role-of-extracellular-matrix-in-tissue-regeneration",totalDownloads:3963,totalCrossrefCites:13,totalDimensionsCites:46,abstract:"Extracellular matrix (ECM) is an extensive molecule network composed of three major components: protein, glycosaminoglycan, and glycoconjugate. ECM components, as well as cell adhesion receptors, interact with each other forming a complex network into which cells reside in all tissues and organs. Cell surface receptors transduce signals into cells from ECM, which regulate diverse cellular functions, such as survival, growth, proliferation, migration, differentiation, and some vital role in maintaining cells homeostasis. This chapter emphasizes the complex of ECM structure to provide a better understanding of its dynamic structural and functional characterization and multipotency. In this chapter the implications of ECM in tissue remodeling are mainly discuss on the neuronal regeneration and wound healing mechanism in the presence of human umbilical mesenchymal conditioned medium (HU-MSCM).",book:{id:"6475",slug:"tissue-regeneration",title:"Tissue Regeneration",fullTitle:"Tissue Regeneration"},signatures:"Dwi Liliek Kusindarta and Hevi Wihadmadyatami",authors:null},{id:"61602",title:"The Role of Vascular Smooth Muscle Cells in the Physiology and Pathophysiology of Blood Vessels",slug:"the-role-of-vascular-smooth-muscle-cells-in-the-physiology-and-pathophysiology-of-blood-vessels",totalDownloads:2858,totalCrossrefCites:17,totalDimensionsCites:31,abstract:"Vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMCs) play important roles not only in the physiological functions of the blood vessels, such as vasoconstriction, vasodilatation and extracellular matrix production, but also in the pathogenesis of vascular diseases, particularly atherosclerosis and hypertension. VSMCs are mostly of mesodermal origin, although some are of neuroectodermal origin, for example, VSMCs present in the aorta and in blood vessels arising from the aortic arch. VSMCs of neuroectodermal origin are implicated in defects of cardiovascular morphogenesis, such as bicuspid aortic valve, coarctation of the aorta, patent ductus arteriosus and tetralogy of Fallot. The origin, location in the vascular tree, gender, species, strain and age influence the phenotype of VSMCs and their propensity to migration and growth. In a healthy adult organism, VSMCs have a quiescent and differentiated contractile phenotype characterized by early markers (e.g., SM α-actin, SM22-α), intermediate markers (h-caldesmon, calponin) and late markers (SM myosins, smoothelin) of VSMC differentiation. However, after blood vessel injury, surgery or explantation in vitro, VSMCs undergo a phenotypic modulation to synthetic phenotype, which endows them with high activity in migration, growth and proteosynthesis. These features can lead to stenosis or to obliteration of the vascular lumen and impaired blood supply to various tissues and organs.",book:{id:"6609",slug:"muscle-cell-and-tissue-current-status-of-research-field",title:"Muscle Cell and Tissue",fullTitle:"Muscle Cell and Tissue - Current Status of Research Field"},signatures:"Lucie Bacakova, Martina Travnickova, Elena Filova, Roman Matějka,\nJana Stepanovska, Jana Musilkova, Jana Zarubova and Martin\nMolitor",authors:[{id:"179175",title:"Dr.",name:"Lucie",middleName:null,surname:"Bacakova",slug:"lucie-bacakova",fullName:"Lucie Bacakova"},{id:"188646",title:"Dr.",name:"Jana",middleName:null,surname:"Musilkova",slug:"jana-musilkova",fullName:"Jana Musilkova"},{id:"246890",title:"Dr.",name:"Martina",middleName:null,surname:"Travnickova",slug:"martina-travnickova",fullName:"Martina Travnickova"},{id:"246891",title:"Dr.",name:"Elena",middleName:null,surname:"Filova",slug:"elena-filova",fullName:"Elena Filova"},{id:"246892",title:"MSc.",name:"Roman",middleName:null,surname:"Matejka",slug:"roman-matejka",fullName:"Roman Matejka"},{id:"246895",title:"MSc.",name:"Jana",middleName:null,surname:"Stepanovska",slug:"jana-stepanovska",fullName:"Jana Stepanovska"},{id:"246896",title:"Dr.",name:"Jana",middleName:null,surname:"Zarubova",slug:"jana-zarubova",fullName:"Jana Zarubova"},{id:"246898",title:"Dr.",name:"Martin",middleName:null,surname:"Molitor",slug:"martin-molitor",fullName:"Martin Molitor"}]},{id:"55891",title:"Introductory Chapter: The State of Xenotransplantation",slug:"introductory-chapter-the-state-of-xenotransplantation",totalDownloads:1508,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:null,book:{id:"5952",slug:"xenotransplantation-new-insights",title:"Xenotransplantation",fullTitle:"Xenotransplantation - 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