MOOC providers.
\r\n\tSome studies should be linked to the late-stage tumorigenesis promoting metastasis in cancer. In addition, deregulated cellular processes such as cell proliferation, apoptosis, and differentiation as related to different tumor types should be investigated in this book. Besides tumorigenesis, spontaneous tumor regression and its potential formation mechanisms should be reviewed or researched. In addition, the role of the deregulated immunity in tumorigenesis should be explored. The drug targets and treatment alternatives in various cancer types should be described or investigated in some studies. The studies relating to the laboratory tests used as diagnostic and prognostic in cancer patients should also be presented. Consequently, this book may include but is not limited to these topics.
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Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"878",title:"Phytochemicals",subtitle:"A Global Perspective of Their Role in Nutrition and Health",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ec77671f63975ef2d16192897deb6835",slug:"phytochemicals-a-global-perspective-of-their-role-in-nutrition-and-health",bookSignature:"Venketeshwer Rao",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/878.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"82663",title:"Dr.",name:"Venketeshwer",surname:"Rao",slug:"venketeshwer-rao",fullName:"Venketeshwer Rao"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"4816",title:"Face Recognition",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"146063b5359146b7718ea86bad47c8eb",slug:"face_recognition",bookSignature:"Kresimir Delac and Mislav Grgic",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/4816.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"528",title:"Dr.",name:"Kresimir",surname:"Delac",slug:"kresimir-delac",fullName:"Kresimir Delac"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"52803",title:"Massive Open Online Courses (MOOC) and Its Possibilities as Instrument of Formal, Nonformal, Informal and Lifelong Learning",doi:"10.5772/65930",slug:"massive-open-online-courses-mooc-and-its-possibilities-as-instrument-of-formal-nonformal-informal-an",body:'\nIn formal education, such as the development of technology and communication systems, there was no significant transformation in knowledge transfer. Development of technology in information and communication technologies (ICT) did not change the way of knowledge transfer. Lecturers still transfer their knowledge by tutoring students face to face. Significant improvements have been made in the implementation of ICT, but more in a way as educational tools. Even all E-learning systems are based on screen adaptation of lectures and web or mobile communication.
\nSuch educational access enables significant improvement in speed and quantity of data exchange, but in educational approach nothing is changed especially in formal learning.
\nIn the last 10 years, the environment (mankind) has become aware that it must be changed over, including the education system itself. Also other forms of education, formal and informal, become more important. There is also the need for lifelong learning (lifelong education).
Education is a process of transferring knowledge from one generation to the next. Earlier, the knowledge passed down from generation to generation very often on an individual basis. Development of technology and society indicated the need for specialized knowledge, but it was no longer possible to organize as individual education in the more developed areas, such as school. First elementary schools were developed than secondary and finally higher education.
\nEducation, in which the aim is to acquire knowledge and to certify for a system of schools that usually control the state apparatus, is called formal education.
\nNonformal education also includes a conscious vision of education, but outside the formal education system. So it is adapted to the needs of the target group. Participants who attend this education are from different age groups, with different prior knowledge and different experiences. Learners are expected to be active participants in the education process.
\nInformal education is in fact the broadest form of education that people gain essentially based on the information in their environment. This process of education includes all the knowledge, skills, and logic that a single entity may acquire through daily communication with the environment, either with other people, media presentation, everyday experience in dealing, etc. This form of education is a good example of lifelong learning.
Education systems may be different over the conventional school system, through various specialized courses in different training system. All systems are designed to convey some knowledge from one person to another or among various persons.
\nDevelopment of information and communication technologies significantly influences on the development of various models of knowledge transfer but is still dominated by the classical method of teaching. ICT has primarily enabled virtualization and adaptation of classes and found improved understanding of the participants through its application. Also, web development and communication systems have accelerated, modernized, and facilitated the transfer of information, but also drastically increased availability of information in the development of educational models [10].
\nOne of the models of knowledge transfer and improving the education, primarily in nonformal systems of education, is massive open online courses (MOOC) phenomenon.
\nThe occurrence of MOOC (massive open online courses—massive courses on the net with an open access) may indicate the future direction of the education system.
\nMany thought that MOOC courses will overcome all other learning systems. But is it so?
Massive open online courses (MOOC) belong to the section of distance learning (DL). They evolved from the classic DL environment under the influence of the movement for free using learning resources (open educational resources movement – OER). Moreover, MOOC in an organization is the basic element of knowledge transfer and communication, and it is transferred by using a DL-platform like Moodle, Blackboard, Iversity, Edmodo, etc [4, 13].
\nMOOC’s basic idea is that an online course does not have a limited number of participants and has full free and unlimited participation via the web. MOOC means that in addition to the completely free use of all the traditional forms of teaching the course, other methods are also used, such as interactive blogs, sites, and all forms of communication via the web and mobile telephony. The purpose of this platform is in fact to work with the masses, and the transfer and dissemination of knowledge to large groups of people who want to gain knowledge in a certain field. It also ensures that all informal knowledge dealing with a particular topic is provided along with the development of formal knowledge. This approach is based on the fact that some kind of "peer to peer" network communication is held, except where the moderators’ (trainers’) course can communicate with each other and thus transmit knowledge and information about a particular area.
\nHistorically, the first MOOC was activated in 2008 by G. Siemens and S. Downes and named it "connectivism and Connective Knowledge"—better known under the name CCK08 [5]. The two trainers held classes for 25 students in Manitoba University and opened an online course, which was attended by 2200 participants. The theme of the course, which from its name can be concluded, was to connect people and their general and specialized knowledge through their collaboration on the web. The exchange of information took place via blogs and through organized discussions on Moodle and Second Life platform. The very flow of information on the web could be traced via RSS (Rich Site Summary) queries.
\nAfter the appearance of the first MOOCs, rapid development of courses followed that had common characteristic in the beginning and were free, which caused a lot of interest in this kind of platform of DL (Figure 1).
MOOC definition.
Nonprofit MOOCs, based on the free exchange of knowledge and active participation of all stakeholders in the development of knowledge in certain areas, are also known as cMOOC (where c before the word refers to the term MOOC connectivism or merger or cooperation). Their main characteristics are that the exchange rate can be initiated by any person, and there is no one moderator or speaker but all active participants in the exchange of information in certain areas and thus increase and deepen their knowledge [9, 11]. It should be noted that there are an unlimited number of players in the MOOC (when in each course the number of participants was greater than 100,000) and also all forms of literature and materials in the course are free to use. It can be concluded that due to the availability of material on the web and the huge number of very complex information to filter all the data, a large number of participants take advantage of such a platform. Also, here you can come to the conclusion that the group of MOOC participants in a single moment can focus their interests to some other field and “give birth” to another MOOC and MOOC is a topic that builds on this knowledge. Also, because of the free mutual communication of students within, the MOOC recognizes users with the same interests, similar problems, and even after that the MOOC continues to communicate with each other and thus continues to work on the development of knowledge in a MOOC and can start a new MOOC [2, 9].
Since 2012, the first MOOC course that was not free appeared. In now days we can see that the providers of courses are universities and prestigious companies instead of nonprofit groups and individuals. The characteristics of these MOOCs are different from classical cMOOC platform. First of all, these MOOCs are based on the classic platforms and methods of knowledge transfer in DL. Usually there is one or a group of moderators. Managers and trainers in this case have far greater control over the realization of MOOC and execution of tasks within it. Participants have a relatively small part in the creation of materials for the further development of knowledge. The number of students is unlimited, but the access to the material of the course is limited to only those who have registered as participants. If the student wants a certificate of completion of the course, he must pay for it and it is often not a small sum. This MOOC is also called xMOOC. A large number of prestigious universities have developed this platform for their courses [3, 12, 16, 18]. Partly this was done due to the expansion of knowledge and partly to create interest in potential students for these universities. Also in this case, a MOOC meet and communication with people from different backgrounds and with different interpretations of the problem may lead to the transfer and development of knowledge in a wide variety of environment.
\nThis course does not belong to the formal aspect of education, regardless of what they have been usually created for by different educational institutions or firms with access to specialized training, and as such can be classified as a nonformal form of education. Even if the majority of students do not qualify for a certificate, participant’s level of knowledge definitely grows at the end of completing the course.
\nThe positive direction of development of such informal courses, first of all, is to inform and educate people in the ways of exercising their rights. Also, some of the countries aim in this way to improve the qualification of the working population, for example, in India, where there are a large number of people who are computer illiterate. In India, the courses are organized by the state and sponsored by strong companies in order to improve this condition [17].
The year 2012 can be regarded as the most significant for the development of MOOC platforms. During this year, a group of powerful financiers, in cooperation with known universities, has placed several well-known platforms for MOOC: before all, that refers to a platform Coursera by qualified institutions such as the University of Maryland, Wharton School, University of Virginia, Stanford University, University of Houston System, University of Tokyo, and University of Edinburgh [18], and then to the platform Udacity, which has been created by Georgia Institute of Technology, San Jose State University, Google, Salesforce.com, Facebook, Cloudera, NVidia, Autodesk, and Cadence, and edX platform backed by MIT, Harvard University, UC Berkeley, Kyoto University, Australian National University, University of Queensland, IIT Bombay, Dartmouth College, and Universidad Autonoma de Madrid [16]. These three platforms are the best known and most developed, because large financial institutions are financing them. These platforms organize a large number of courses in different fields. Let us just say that Coursera MOOC organizes more than 1000 courses in cooperation with about 120 partners.
\nMOOCs organized by these platforms are attended by more than 14 million participants.
\nEven though these platforms are financed by major financiers, it should be noted that the platform edX is not profitable and it has maintained the principle of free access to all the materials and all the participants.
\nOne of the most famous nonprofit financial donors to these organizations is Bill Gates.
\nThere are other MOOC platforms, but they do not have such a large number of courses and participants [15]. Although, there are platforms developed in local conditions aimed at increasing competence and general literacy of their population.
\nThe principle of freedom of access to MOOC in each case leads to a multinational and multicultural development of communication and knowledge transfer, so that this kind of platform has a benefit to all participants, and perhaps especially to those whose communities’ topics related by MOOCs are not developed enough. Fact is also that the individual courses are listened by thousands of listeners from dozens of countries.
\nData show that about 45% of the participants follow the courses in nonmaternal language, which supports the claim on the internationalization of this type of education.
\nMonitored data show that about 45% of the participants follow the courses in non-maternal language, which supports the claim on the internationalization of this type of education [14].
\nDepending on the wishes and needs, each student can easily find a platform and MOOC that he can attend.
\nTable 1presents the providers of courses and institutions that participate in them, including profitability rate and the year when the provider was established.
\nProvider | \nCourse type | \nOrganizations | \nCountry | \nYear of establishment | \n
---|---|---|---|---|
XuetangX | \nNonprofitable | \nTsinghua University | \nChina | \n2014 | \n
WizIQ | \nCommercial | \nIIT Delhi, Des Moines Area Community College | \nIndia/USA | \n2007 | \n
Université Numérique France Université Numérique | \nNonprofitable | \nInstitut Mines-Télécom, Conservatoire National des Arts et Métiers, École normale supérieure de Cachan, University of Paris-Sud | \nFrance | \n2013 | \n
Udemy | \nCommercial | \nProfessors from Universidad de Chile, University of Chicago Law School, George Washington University, and other institutions. | \nUSA | \n2010 | \n
Udacity | \nCommercial | \nGeorgia Institute of Technology, San Jose State University, Google, Salesforce.com, Facebook, Cloudera, Nvidia, Autodesk, Cadence | \nUSA | \n2012 | \n
Stanford Online | \nNonprofitable | \nStanford University | \nUSA | \n2006 | \n
Peer to Peer University | \nNonprofitable | \nnije navedeno | \nUSA | \n2009 | \n
OpenLearning | \nCommercial | \nUniversity of New South Wales, Taylor\'s University, University of Canberra | \nAustralia | \n2012 | \n
openHPI | \n\n | launched in September 2012 by the Hasso Plattner Institute at the University of Potsdam, Germany | \nGermany | \n2012 | \n
Open2Study | \nCommercial | \nJames Cook University, Griffith University, University of Wollongong, Flinders University, RMIT University, Central Institute of Technology, Sydney Institute, University of Western Sydney, Polytechnic West, Macquarie Graduate School of Management, Swinburne University of Technology, University of Newcastle, Jordan University of Science and Technology, University of Tasmania, International College of Management, Sydney, e3Learning, Enterprise Architects, Massey University, Macquarie University, Gowrie Victoria, South China University of Technology, TAFE SA, Curtin University | \nAustralia | \n2013 | \n
One month | \nCommercial | \nSchool of Visual Arts | \nUSA | \n2013 | \n
NPTEL | \nNonprofitable | \nIndian Institutes of Technology, Indian Institute of Science | \nIndia | \n2006 | \n
NovoEd | \nCommercial | \nStanford University, Wharton, Princeton, Darden, Comcast, Carnegie Foundation, Universidad Católica de Chile | \nUSA | \n2013 | \n
MOOEC | \nNonprofitable | \nUniversity of Queensland, Griffith University, Queensland University of Technology | \nAustralia | \n2013 | \n
Master University | \nCommercial | \nLaunched in January 2015 by the Miramondo Network s.r.l. | \nItaly | \n2015 | \n
Khan Academy | \nNonprofitable | \nnije navedeno | \nUSA | \n2006 | \n
University | \nCommercial | \nUniversidad Autonoma de Madrid, University of Florence, University of Hamburg | \nEU | \n2013 | \n
FutureLearn | \nCommercial | \nUniversity of Birmingham, University of Edinburgh, University of Reading, Open University, Monash University, Trinity College Dublin, Warwick University, University of Bath, University of Southampton | \nUK | \n2012 | \n
Eliademy based on the Open Source MoodleVirtual learning environment. | \nCommercial | \nAalto University Executive Education The site is localized to more than 19 languages (including Latin), designed for mobile use. | \nFinland | \n2012 | \n
edX | \nNonprofitable | \nMIT, Harvard University, UC Berkeley, Kyoto University, Australian National University, University of Queensland, IIT Bombay, IIM Bangalore, Dartmouth College, Universidad Autonoma de Madrid | \nUSA | \n2012 | \n
Coursera | \nCommercial | \nUniversity of Maryland, Wharton School, University of Virginia, Stanford University, University of Houston System, University of Tokyo, University of Edinburgh | \nUSA | \n2012 | \n
Canvas Network | \nCommercial | \nSanta Clara University, University of Utah, Université Lille 1 | \nUSA | \n2008 | \n
Academic Earth | \nNonprofitable | \nUC Berkeley, UCLA, University of Michigan, Oxford University | \nUSA | \n2009 | \n
MOOC providers.
Who are in fact the participants of such courses, what is their motivation, how do they attend a course, how many of them give up, and how many of them complete a course? These are the key questions that have to be answered; also is the MOOC platform the future of the education or is it just one of the experiments, transient phase in the creation of future platforms for DL?
\nTo be a participant of this course someone, first of all, must be computer literate at some level. Because except work on the computer, participant must be fully aware of the Internet, as well as some of the IT tools which are used during the MOOC, primarily in communication.
\nThis means that participants of such courses are usually high school students and graduates. Also, if it is a specialized theme, a large number of participants may be masters and doctoral students, as well as PhDs in certain fields.
\nIn addition to computer literacy, there is a need for knowledge of the languages of the developed world, as MOOC by definition does not develop as a local platform. Organizers usually choose the most common language and it is usually English. Normally, if it is a locally developed MOOC platform it is organized using the local language.
As can be seen from Figure 2, a good portion of students are choosing the course where they expect the exchange rate to be more interesting than courses that they have already seen.
Motivation for participating MOOC.
Second, course participants elected the reasons to improve their knowledge in the current and previous education. Their desire is to upgrade their skills. They are based on the level at which the course is held and depending on the information obtained they do not have a priority to complete the course [3, 8].
\nPart of the participants considered that the MOOC will create benefit in their professional work. These students have the imperative of completing the course and acquiring certificates for better positioning in the professional environment.
\nA number of users choose the course according to the organizers; they expect to learn more from lecturers from prestigious institutions in the field of education [14].
\nWhile some of the participants got enrolled out of curiosity, they implicate that they want to gain as much information as possible from the course. These attendants are usually people who normally browse the web and often do not finish the course. In some moment, they satisfy their needs for specific information and after that they leave the course.
\nIn fact, there is not an accurate cross-section of states when a certain part of the student stops to listen and attend a course. This is reflected primarily in the fact that a score of 6–10% of participants who have completed a course is considered very good, even excellent results.
\nAttention must be on the fact that so far the largest number of participants in these courses is from America (49%), followed by Europe (31%), then in South America, Asia, and Africa (Figure 3).
Percentage of participants by continent.
This data indicates that people from developed areas often choose additional education primarily to better their basic education, and develop their knowledge of technology. In this case, MOOC is an excellent tool for nonformal and informal education, primarily because it is free.
\nAs far as gender is concerned, more females participate in these courses than males.
\nMost participants of MOOCs had previous experience with DL systems. This indicates that DL systems have a positive impact on the development of the desire for further education through the web.
First of all, it is because a large number of participants in MOOC acquire at least basic information about their topic of interest from these courses. Also, students who have previous experience in these fields meet their needs for additional information. Participants do not need to have any kind of certificate or diploma of previously acquired knowledge [2], [3].
\nHowever, the biggest shift is that the students are the future students to the DL systems, and get used to the way of working of their future colleges and universities.
\nThe large number of participants, for whom these are not core areas, acquires knowledge that does not have to be certified. They get knowledge that can further increase their level of skills and functionality of the primary areas. In essence, this mix of different skills in various fields is the basic contribution to the development of general knowledge.
\nOne of the advantages of MOOC is that it can be organized by anyone who wishes to exchange and upgrade knowledge in specific areas. The important thing is how fast organizer can gather students and inform them when the course begins [4].
\nIt is also important that MOOC can be arranged regardless of the time zone and physical limitations. There are no limits with the MOOC. You can and it is desirable to use all the social networking and communication tools that are the most developed in the region where you target the largest number of participants [6].
\nContextual content can be shared by all participants of the course.
\nIt is good that knowledge is gained in a less formal setting, so that all the participants can be much less limited in the communication.
\nCoincidentally, participants can reach new findings thanks to the exchange of unknown information in order to solve given problems.
\nIt is equally important that in this way a participant of MOOC increases his skills in lifelong learning and increase his opportunities for greater absorption of knowledge.
\nOne of the biggest advantages of MOOC is that its activities do not have to stop after the completion of the course. Since the MOOC is based essentially on the "peer to peer" network, a number of participants continue to be in a relationship and create its own network for the exchange of knowledge in the field where MOOC was organized.
As we have repeatedly said, MOOC can be organized by any individual or group of people in order to share and develop their knowledge of the environment [4, 6, 7].
\nHowever, we should be very careful with the choice, first of all, course topics. It is possible that the course, especially cMOOC went in another direction, because the original theme loses significance.
\nVery important, if not crucial, thing in defining and organizing the course is the choice of tools—software applications, which will be used by the course participants. Organizer should aspire to, as a base platform for the exchange of data, use the most commonly used applications in an environment where the course is held. It is also preferred that the course is supported by multiple communications platforms. We think that the course should not be maintained only through the web, but also through mobile network, such as android or any other supported operating system and software.
\nIf possible, we can use as a platform DL systems that are used in our environment.
VSSS Belgrade Polytechnic (BP) has been trying in recent years to establish and accredit DL system. In one part, it was very successful, but it also had significant problems in implementation.
\nThe first attempt of implementing DL was the use of the Moodle platform. Several subject teachers dared to put their teaching duties through this platform and to monitor the results of implementation. At the beginning, students showed interest in this form of learning and achieved results very similar to those that have received classical education. However, the absence of "moderators" and the real practice presented a problem with this form of education. The platform has proved to be an excellent means for information exchange, lectures, conducting quizzes, and record the assumed material and activity of students.
\nTo further develop the technology and software, as well as monitor information from the environment (informal education), we came up with the idea to create a platform for teaching in the form of a MOOC.
\nIt is designed in the following approach:
\nCommunication takes place via e-mails and hangouts application on Google service. BP uses Google Education system for some time.
Exchange of written and video materials is carried out through Google Drive. Also, for the organization of teaching and exchange of materials, Google Classroom is used.
Video tutorials and online consultations are done via software BigBlueButton. Lectures are performed repeatedly in small groups and can be downloaded and saved via Google Drive.
For testing we use MOODLE or QuizFaber software.
All students have the opportunity to sign up to follow the course subject. In the future BP will also enable that all interested parties outside BP can follow the course if they want to. All materials are and will be available to students, and they can exchange opinions on students’ blog. If they have uncertainties they can schedule an online consultation with the lecturer or assistant.
\nThe basic scheme of communication is illustrated in Figure 4.
Basic scheme of communication on course.
Problems that occur are primarily of technical and financial nature. Better applications are relatively expensive and the biggest problem is the upload of video streaming, because the speed of the ADSL connection is relatively small and often vary, so there is plenty of downtime. Because of this, the groups are often very small, only five students, which is not adequate for the number of people interested in the lessons of course.
Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, University of Belgrade, accredited the course for International Welding Engineers (IWE) according to the program and rules of the International Institute of Welding (IIW) and according to the document IIW Guideline IAB-252r3-16 [1]. A candidate completing the IWE training under this program is expected to acquire advanced knowledge and critical understanding of welding technology application, which demonstrate the following: technology mastery and required innovation, being able to solve high-level complex and unpredictable problems, the ability to manage high-level complex technical and professional activities or projects related to welding applications, and taking responsibility for decision making in unpredictable work or study context [19].
\nThe course consists of 448 hours, of which 388 hours refers to theoretical training and 60 hours is intended for practical training. The modular course content is given in Table 2, in the following structure.
\nModules of theoretical education and fundamental practical skills | \nNumber of hours | \n
---|---|
1. Welding processes and equipment | \n95 | \n
2. Materials and their behavior during welding | \n115 | \n
3. Construction and design | \n62 | \n
4. Fabrication, applications engineering | \n116 | \n
Sub-total | \n388 | \n
Fundamental practical skills | \n60 | \n
Total | \n448 | \n
Structure of IWE course content.
Total number of hours is divided into three parts: Part 1, Part 2, and Part 3. Part 1 includes main topics and basis of “welding processes and equipment” (46 hours), “materials and weld ability” (33 hours), and the computation of forces and tensions and the presentation of weld (14 hours). Fundamental knowledge of those sections is the basis for the attendance of Parts 2 and 3 of the course. Part 2 is practice and laboratory, while Part 3 refers to welding processes, behavior of metals subjected to welding, design of welded joints, fabrication, and applied engineering.
\nParticipants must have a primary degree in an engineering discipline or its equivalent recognized by the national government and assessed by the ANB. Therefore, it is expected that participants have at least a Bachelor degree at university level with a minimum study of 3 years.
\nThe Standard Route of this course is given in Figure 5, and this is the route recommended by IAB (International Authorization Board) as offering the fastest, most comprehensive manner in which the syllabus may be covered. The Standard Route also allows a limited amount of prior learning (Part 1 of each qualification course) to be taken into account, for example during university or college courses.
Standard route for IWE [1].
The course is very demanding, expensive, and time-consuming. Bearing in mind that the majority of participants are employed full-time, one of the main problems, in addition to the price, is absenteeism.
\nSince 2001, there is possibility to take the Part 1 of the IWE as a distance learning course. Students have the chance to choose their individual time to learn. For companies, the use of a training program for the evenings or at the weekend means less loss of working hours and saves cost. Further, there are no travel expenses, cost for journeys, or stays overnight as well as other expenses. An important advantage is that in case the participants already have certain knowledge concerning the single lesson they may be learned in shorter time or even can be skipped.
\nBearing all this in mind, we came up with the idea to create a MOOC platform for attending the Part 1 of the IWE, which would be free. Namely, the IIW rules allow the so-called alternative route of the course. According to that route, students have direct access to Part 2 and that is primarily intended for those students who during their formal education at masters studies passed the corresponding exams.
\nIn Serbia welding subjects exit only at the Faculty of Mechanical Engineering in Belgrade, this option is limited to a very small number of participants. Furthermore, it was observed that students from other faculties have difficulties in certain areas of the course, mostly covered with Part 1, because they do not have enough background knowledge, and additional mentoring is necessary. We believe that MOOC platform would be ideal for such work. Schematic representation of an alternative route for IWE course with implemented MOOC platform is shown in Figure 6. Students who have successfully passed the intermediate examination (Part 1) of the course are allowed to attend Part 2 and Part 3 of the course.
Alternative route with MOOC for Part 1.
The main advantages of MOOC course for Part 1 are:
\nShortening the duration of a standard course.
More participants for attending standard course.
Raising the level of prior knowledge of participants.
Individual tutorials with the students.
Massification of the course.
The program can even be used without specific PC knowledge. It does not take long preceding times to become familiar with the subject. Hardware/software system requirements are:
\nWindows NT/95/98/2000/ME/XP/Vista/Windows 7.
Screen resolution 1024× 768 pixel.
10 bit depth of color.
CD-ROM Drive.
Part 1 consists of 93 teaching hours, divided into 23 lessons. For each lesson is given a number of hours, which indicates the depth to which a topic is dealt with. This will be reflected in the scope and depth of the examination. Each lesson is supported by text, sound, images, video films, and interactive animations. By using the media mentioned the contents are given close to practice with the effect that the motivation to learn remains high.
\nParticipants will receive a detailed schedule of lectures with dates. Since continuously learning is very important in this type of course, due to the large volume of material, it is planned that the lessons will not be placed all at once, but according to a specified schedule.
\nLectures for a total of 24 teaching hours will be posted on Monday and the candidates will be able to download them. On Friday, candidates get homework and knowledge test and have deadline until Sunday to do and return it. Online consultation via Skype will be on Wednesdays, Thursdays, and Saturdays from 18 to 20 hours, since it is assumed that the majority of participants are employed. On next Monday, the previous lessons are removed from the site and the following are uploaded. If a candidate did not do his homework, he will not have access to new lessons and thus there is no possibility of further follow-up classes. Thus, it is envisaged that, within 4 weeks, all the lessons planned by the program will be realized. After the completion of the last homework, in the fifth week, the online exercise is planned, candidates get a general catalog of questions to help them to prepare for the examination with daily consultations.
\nWe believe that, after all, the candidates will be ready for the intermediate examination, which will be held at the Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, and that also will be for free, since it is a condition for the main course. After passing the exam, candidates are included in the standard route of the course, or to follow Part 2 and Part 3. According to the rules of the guideline, the complete IWE/IWT course has to be finished within 3 years.
Diesel engines the world over are the major power source in the automobile transport industry and nonroad powered engines. However, because of the issue of pollution associated with diesel exhaust, particularly particulate matter (PM) and nitrogen oxide (NOX), there has been increasingly stringent regulation to control the manufacture and use of diesel engines. This has led to extensive research on improving diesel engines and fuel [1, 2]. The use of alternative fuels tops the list of measures to control diesel exhaust emissions as recommended by researcher [3]. Besides the use of alternative fuel to control and reduce emissions, other control strategies such as exhaust gas recirculation (EGR), diesel particulate filters (DPF), selective catalytic reduction (SCR), and catalytic converter combinations have been recommended but not as stand-alone technologies [4, 5].
\nThe transport industry and nonroad diesel engines are major contributors to global gross domestic product. Nevertheless, their use affects human health and degrades the environment. The transport industry is responsible for one third of all environmental emissions of volatile organic compounds (VOCs), including two thirds of carbon monoxide (CO) emissions [6]. Carbon dioxide (CO2) is a primary cause of global warming with 34 billion tons per year or 22% of all the global emissions per year [7], with a projected increase in 3% annually since 2011. This is projected to rise to 41 billion tons of CO2 emissions by the year 2020 [8, 9]. Diesel engines release emissions, which lead to poor air quality, acid rain, smog, haze, and climate change. These factors increase the global disease burden due to respiratory system diseases and cancer [10].
\nThe soluble organic fraction (SOF) and volatile organic fraction (VOF) are mainly due to exhaust dilution and the cooling process from fuel or evaporating lubricating oil, due to the process of oxidation. The control of VOC emissions is with high-pressure injection system catalytic converters and positive crankcase ventilation systems. The PM emissions of VOCs arising from evaporating lubrication oil and incomplete combustion have a combined emission rate of 0.06–2.2 g/bkWh for light diesel (LD) engines compared to heavy diesel (HD) engines at 0.5–1.5 g/bkWh [11, 12]. The condensation of oxidized and pyrolyzed products of fuel molecules is the leading cause for the formation of PM emissions composed of the nucleation and accumulation modes [13]. In emerging economies, air pollution is the leading cause of thousands of premature deaths estimated at 2.4 million annually by 2009 estimates [14]. Besides the usual toxics emitted by stationary and nonroad engines, diesel engines emit toxics such as formaldehyde, acrolein, acetaldehyde, and methanol. Exposure to these toxic emissions causes eye, skin, and mucous membrane irritation, besides affecting the nervous system. Therefore, the need for environmental protection has played a role in bringing together relevant stakeholders and government agencies. These agencies include the WHO, the Organization of Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), the Inter-Governmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), the European Environmental Agency (EEA), and the International Energy Agency (IEA). For example, the USA government through the EPA has established the Reciprocating Internal Combustion Engine (RICE) rules, which cover stationary and nonroad engine emission regulations [15]. These rules are out of the scope of this chapter, but future work will discuss them in line with other European Union rules [16] and other global adopted emission regulations.
\nIn order to meet modern requirements, diesel engines are designed with complex contrary goals to operate optimally in stationary and mobile operations. This requires high torque, low emissions, and high efficiency engines. For this reason, auxiliary diesel engine components such as turbochargers, EGR, and high-pressure injection systems are utilized today. These auxiliary parts are grouped into engine operating subsystems such as air, combustion, injection, and mechanical units to meet these operating demands. Since fuel is a major determinant in engine combustion and emission characteristics, the use of alternative fuel is being encouraged as a strategy to reduce emissions. The combustion of alternative fuel is different from the combustion of diesel, which is a fossil fuel, but they too cause emission problems as has been reported in a number of studies [17, 18]. To mitigate these problems, researchers have come up with combustion control strategies such as:
reactivity charge compression ignition (RCCI) [23]; and
variant strategies to deal with emissions [24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30].
Modern day passenger vehicles and stationary engines are now evaluated using driving cycles such as the New European Driving Test Cycle (NEDC) and the Federal Test Procedure (FTP) mostly as bench operated chassis dynamometer tests [31]. However, it should be remembered that at engine start conditions, after-treatment techniques report poor performance as most of them operate with catalysts that are light-off temperature dependent. At ambient temperature, most catalysts cannot attain the light-off temperature when engines are started and operated. Since the year 2000 when EURO III was implemented, the NEDC procedure has been modified to eliminate the 40 s warm up before emission sampling can take place [32]. The new development initiative for diesel exhaust emission has already been established in the United States and Japan. The last decade has seen the European Union implementing similar standards and procedures, with the rest of the world expected to also implement changes as globalization and interdependency grows. A number of requirement have been implemented in the United States to nominally reduce 85–90% of NOX, while for the Euro VI (2014), an additional reduction 65–70% of NOX to match the US standards has been accepted as shown in Figures 1 and 2 [33].
\nRequirement to reduce about 55–60% of NOX emissions for Euro V (2009) diesel to match the US Bin 8 maximum allowable emission in 45 US states [33].
Variation of NOx emission with the regulatory limit for 45 US states [33].
The combustion of diesel fuel depends on several factors that affect engine geometry, fuel properties, compression temperatures (especially of the combustion mixture), injection strategy applied, and the existing condition of the ambient temperatures as reported by the authors of Refs. [34, 35]. High cetane number additives together with the development of high volatility fuels [36, 37] have boosted diesel engine performance. The oxygenated additives in biodiesel blend components improve the combustion process, especially the octane rating. Additionally, oxygenated additives enhance and increase the cetane number. In other words, the oxygen in the additives supports the combustion of the fuel while at the same time reducing inert material such as NOX formation in CI engines. These changes deal with the complexities of cold start, which impede engine starting at lower or subzero engine temperatures. Warm engines have a starting time delay of 1–2 s at ambient temperature conditions, compared to a low ambient temperature start-up time of 10 s [38, 39].
\nStringent diesel exhaust emission regulatory policies have been in operation in the United States and Japan since 2005. The European Union has also responded with additional emission regulatory standards called the EURO VI since 2014. Apart from these regulatory controls, there are market and political pressures on automobile manufacturers to continue to improve on efficiency while reducing emissions. These factors have been the driving force behind the significant technological progress in engine research and the transport industry in the past two decades.
\nThe European Union commission on emissions in 2014 stipulated that the nominal NOX emission limit must be 0.20 g/kWh−1 and the PM emission level must be 0.010 g/kWh−1. This matched the US 2010 emission regulation, which put the emission limits at 0.26 g/kWh−1 for NOX and 0.013 g/kWh−1 for PM emissions. The Japanese emissions regulation of 2009 stipulates 0.7 g/kWh−1 for NOX emissions and 0.010 g/kWh−1 for PM emissions. However, it must be mentioned here that each of these countries propose a different transient testing cycle.
\nThe European Union commission on pollution and emission has adopted a new world harmonized transient cycle (WHTC) that uses higher load and speed than the Japanese and American standards. Additionally, the European commission on emissions has set standards related to number-based PM standards with heavier in-use compliance measures as illustrated in Figure 3, by 2012. These measures are aimed at improving fuel economy and durability and lowering the cost of manufacturing and maintenance. The development in this segment is muted, mixed with conservatism and pragmatism. For example, the development in HD since 2004 has seen the US regulations matched and addressed through advanced EGR and intake charge boosting measures. However, later development starting from 2005 in Japan and 2007 in the United States has seen additional technologies added to cater for increased regulation. These two markets introduced diesel particulate filters (DPFs) to match the change in policy and regulation in the European Union with implementation of EURO V-VI emission regulations. This policy shift and regulation change has witnessed conventional engine technology adding the selective catalytic reduction (SCR) system in the fight against emission. Since 2009 and 2010, respectively, Japan and the United States have added significant incremental advances in emission compliant technologies, especially technologies that target low load emissions in HD engines. Researchers working on the traditional diesel combustion hardware and strategies are directing more effort to reduce LD engine category emissions with the future looking bright.
\nProgress toward meeting the European Union voluntary CO2 limits of the European Automobile Manufacturers Association (ACEA), Japan Automobile Manufacturers Association (JAMA), and Korea Automobile Manufacturers Association (KAMA) (courtesy of Daimler Chrysler) [40].
Modern diesel engine development is driven by regulatory, market, and fuel efficiency demand. In addition, developments in spark ignition (SI) gasoline engines, electric vehicles, and new concepts in hybrid vehicles have had tremendous competitive pressure on diesel engine development, especially in the LD category. Diesel engine manufacturers are responding with the introduction of advanced fuel injection technology, exhaust gas recirculation (EGR) techniques, two-stage turbocharging, variable valve actuation, closed loop combustion control, and advanced model-based controls. Development in advanced diesel engines has now achieved a specific output of 70 kW−1 and a brake mean effective pressure (BMEP) of 24 bars [41], hence meeting EURO VI emission standards [42, 43] as shown in Figure 4.
\nVariation of flame equivalence ratio, temperature, and injection strategies and principles of advanced combustion (courtesy of Sandia National Laboratory) [44, 45].
The world is now aware of the environmental and human health costs of pollution from diesel engines, which form the bulk of commercial and personal public transport systems. Table 1 shows that there is an increase in the regulatory measures on toxic gas emissions. These regulations oblige vehicle manufacturers and transport industry service providers to be motivated to work harder to meet the appropriate standards and regulations. Among the techniques that have been employed to cut down on emissions are EGR, LNT, DOC, DPF, and SCR [46, 47]. However, there is no single method that meets emission standards by the regulatory bodies on vehicular emission.
\nSTD type | \nCO g/kWh | \nHC g/kWh | \nNOX g/kWh | \nPM g/kWh | \n
---|---|---|---|---|
Euro I | \n4.5 | \n1.1 | \n8.0 | \n0.61 | \n
Euro II | \n4 | \n1.1 | \n7.0 | \n0.15 | \n
Euro III | \n2.1 | \n0.66 | \n5.0 | \n0.13 | \n
Euro IV | \n1.5 | \n0.46 | \n3.5 | \n0.02 | \n
Euro V | \n1.5 | \n0.46 | \n2.0 | \n0.02 | \n
Euro VI | \n1.5 | \n0.13 | \n0.4 | \n0.01 | \n
EURO standards for heavy-duty vehicles according to Delphi 2016–2017 as per Ref. [48]
This is one of the most useful and successful techniques in the control of and fight against diesel exhaust emissions. EGR allows the recirculation of part of the diesel exhaust into the combustion chamber, to reburn together with the fresh intake charge [49] as shown in Figure 5.
\nEGR system nomenclature and control design for the EGR valve [4].
This technology has been able to reduce NOX emissions, but it causes an increase in UHC and CO emissions as compression temperatures decrease. It also affects engine thermal efficiency as shown in Figure 6. This technique has two methods for quantification of EGR flow rate, although there is no single method that is universally accepted. The two methods are the mass method and the gas concentration method [5]. These two methods are demonstrated in Figure 5 and expressed in Eqs. (1) and (2):
\nVariation of engine thermal efficiency and NOX with the influence of EGR dilution [50].
where the \n
This system is also known as NOX storage reduction (NSR) and NOX absorber catalyst (NAC). It has three main components, namely, the oxidation catalyst with platinum (Pt), the NOX storage with barium (Ba), and the reduction catalyst with rhodium (Rh). The platinum catalyst is preferred as it reduces NOX emissions at very low temperatures while offering a stable reaction in the presence of sulfur and H2O [51, 52]. Figure 7 shows the LNT three-stage catalytic process.
\nThe low NOX trap (LNT) with three of its operating modes [53].
This is one of the most recent technology developments introduced for the control of diesel exhaust emissions. This system was originally introduced to cater for HD engines [53], but Audi and Volkswagen have also adopted it for their passenger vehicle and LD segments. The SCR system works by utilizing ammonia as a reductant in order to minimize NOX emissions in the diesel exhaust by releasing N2 and H2O. This system therefore undergoes two processes during the working cycle, namely, hydrolysis and thermolysis as in Eqs. (3) and (4) for hydrolysis and thermolysis, respectively [54, 55].
\nIn addition to the two processes of hydrolysis and thermolysis, SCR undergoes other chemical reactions to complete its normal cycle, thus reducing the emissions of NOX further as in Eqs. (5)–(7). Figure 8 shows a schematic diagram of an SCR system showing the oxidation catalyst, wall flow particulate filter, and the flow through the SCR catalyst. Figure 8 also includes key components of a urea solution tank, a spray module, a static mixer, temperature, and NOX sensor, courtesy of Robert Bosch GmbH [46].
\nSchematic diagram of the SCR NOX control system as used in a standard production vehicle [46].
The DPF filter requires care to avoid excessive saturation and build-up of backpressure, both of which are harmful for engine operation and durability and increase fuel consumption and engine stress levels leading to premature failure of the filter and engine. DPF systems have been in operation in diesel exhaust emission control since the year 2000, primarily for removing PM emissions through physical filtration. DPFs are like a honeycomb with silicone carbide or cordierite written chemically as\n
Schematic of the working mechanism of a diesel particulate filter (DPF) [6].
The DOC is manufactured with the sole purpose of reducing CO and UHC emissions through oxidation of the hydrocarbons that are absorbed into the carbon particles. The DOC consists of a metal or a ceramic structure with an oxide mixture also called the wash coat that contains aluminum oxide (Al2O3), cerium oxide (CeO2), zirconium oxide (ZrO2), and an active metal catalyst of either platinum, palladium, or rhodium [54], as shown in Figure 10. For HD and LD vehicles in Europe, the United States, and Japan, the DOC is the after-treatment emission control systems of choice. The DOC with a platinum metal catalyst is the most popular among manufacturers and consumers. However, the DOC has the disadvantage of reacting with sulfur oxide and sulfur trioxide producing sulfates and sulfuric acid, which shortens the service life of the emission control system besides the additional effects on the natural environment and human health.
\nSchematic diagram of a DOC and its operation in reducing emissions of CO and UHC through the process of oxidation [6].
Six factors affect and influence the choice of a DOC filter:
conversion factor;
temperature stability;
light-off temperature;
tolerance to poisoning;
cost of manufacturing the filter; and
parametrical factors, including the density of the DOC filter measured in channels per square inch, the cross-sectional area, the channel wall thickness, and the length of the channels using the external dimensions [57, 58].
This experiment is making a case for blending of WPPO whose n-alkenes are lower by 25% in auto-ignition, compared to diesel fuel whose n-alkenes are good for auto-ignition. The aromatics, which affect PM emissions, are very low in WPPO blends. According to Refs. [59, 60], WPPO consists of iso-alkanes, n-alkanes, and olefins in the region of 27, 25, and 9%, respectively, with over 30% content being undefined due to complicated and complex chemical bond structures. However, aromatic cyclo-alkanes (naphthalene) and aromatics poor in auto-ignition were also found to be 40% by volume [61]. Blending was preferred to improve the low pour point to improve the cold starting characteristics of WPPO. Second, blending with ethanol was introduced to improve the fuel spray characteristics; ethanol is soluble and miscible in WPPO blends. Third, blending contributed to the reduction of the viscosity of WPPO biodiesel, thus further improving spray characteristics.
\nThe experiment used a naturally aspirated four-cylinder diesel engine power generator, water cooled, direct injection, Iveco engine, in the Mechanical Engineering Department Laboratory, University of Kwazulu-Natal in Durban, South Africa. Using a defined flow rate of particles, PM emissions were detected by photoelectric measurement. Both the mass flow of the PM particles and the fuel were calculated as the sum of inlet air and fuel mass flow rate, and the result expressed in gram per kWh. To help in the analysis of the engine, pressure sensors and crankshaft position sensors and encoders were used. The aim of these sensors was to provide the in-cylinder pressure in relation to the crankshaft position variation.
\nThe engine was coupled to a mechanical dynamometer with engine idling positions divided into two engine speed modes. The two speed modes were set at 500 and 1000 rpm as Mode 1, and Mode 2 as 1500 rpm and full load at 2000 rpm. The details of the engine and specifications and equipment are described in Tables 2 and 3. Figure 11 shows a schematic of the engine test setup.
\nParameters | \nPosition value | \n
---|---|
Ignition type | \n4 (Stroke)DICI | \n
Number of cylinders | \n4 in-line | \n
Cooling medium | \nWater | \n
Manufacturer | \nIveco | \n
Revolutions per minute | \n2000 | \n
Brake power | \n43.40 kW @ 2000 | \n
Cylinder bore | \n104 mm | \n
Piston stroke | \n115 mm | \n
Compression ratio | \n17:1 | \n
Connecting-rod length | \n234 | \n
Engine capacity | \n2500 cc | \n
Dynamometer make | \n234 | \n
Injection timing | \n12֯ bTDC | \n
Maximum torque | \n206.9 Nm @ 1500 | \n
Injection pressure | \n250–272 Bar | \n
Experimental engine specifications.
Property | \nEquipment | \nStandard | \n
---|---|---|
Kinematic viscosity | \nSVM 4000 (Anton Paar, UK) | \nASTM D445 | \n
Flash point | \nNPM 550 (Norma lab, France) | \nASTM D93 | \n
Oxidation stability | \n900 Rancimat (Metrohm, Switzerland) | \nASTM D14112 | \n
CP/PP | \nNTE 500 (Norma lab, France) | \nASTM D2500 | \n
Carbon residue | \nNMC 440 (Norma lab, France) | \nASTM D4530 | \n
Total sulfur | \n5000 MULTI-EA (AJ Germany) | \nASTM D5433 | \n
Calorific value | \nC 2500 basic calorimeter (IKA, UK) | \nASTM D240 | \n
Density | \nSVM 3500 (Anton Paar, UK) | \nASTM D1298 | \n
PM | \nAVL smoke meter | \n— | \n
Gaseous emissions | \nGas analyzer (MEXA 7000) Germany | \n— | \n
List of equipment used in the experiment.
Schematics of the test engine set up rig: (1) cylinder pressure sensor; (2) EGR control valve; (3) EGR cooler; (4) injection control unit; (5) exhaust gas exit; (6) air box; (7) signal amplifier; (8) gas analyzer; (9) air flow meter; (10) data acquisition system; (11) crank position sensor; (12) dynamometer; (13) engine; (14) cooling water exit from the dynamometer to the cooling tower; (15) cooling water exit from the engine to the cooling tower; and (16) dynamometer drive coupling.
WPPO by pyrolysis was obtained from a commercial plant whose production chart is shown in Figure 12. Ethanol, conventional diesel, and EHN were purchased from local outlets and blended using a homogenizer for 5 min at 3000 rpm. The properties of all samples were measured in the Chemical Engineering Laboratory of the University of Kwazulu-Natal in Durban, South Africa. Table 3 shows some important physicochemical properties of the fuels before blending. Table 4 shows physicochemical properties of fuels and their determined fuel properties after blending. Figure 13 is a photograph of the sample distillates of WPPO obtained from pyrolysis. Table 5 is showing properties of blended ratio mixtures of diesel, ethanol, WPPO with EHN.
\nPyrolysis plant flow chart and its nomenclature: (1) pyrolysis reactor; (2) carbon black discharge; (3) carbon black deep processing; (4) exhaust smoke discharge; (5) gas separator; (6) smoke scrubber to take out color and odor; (7) condenser; (8) chimney; (9) oil tank; (10) synchronized gas purification; (11) synchronized gas-recycling system; (12) extra gas burning; (13) heating furnace during operation; and (14) loading of material.
Properties | \nUnit | \nCD | \nWPPO | \nEthanol | \n
---|---|---|---|---|
Density @ 20°C | \nkg/m3\n | \n845 | \n825 | \n792 | \n
Visc.@ 40°C | \ncSt | \n3.04 | \n2.538 | \n1.05 | \n
Cetane number | \n— | \n55 | \n— | \n8.5 | \n
Flash point | \n°C | \n50 | \n43 | \n16 | \n
Fire point | \n°C | \n56 | \n45 | \n53 | \n
Carbon residue | \n% | \n22 | \n0.015 | \n— | \n
Sulfur content | \n% | \n<0.028 | \n0.248 | \n— | \n
Gross calories | \nkJ/kg | \n46500 | \n43340 | \n29700 | \n
Cetane index | \n– | \n46 | \n65 | \n— | \n
Properties of diesel, WPPO, and ethanol before blending and addition of EHN.
The distillate samples from the waste plastic pyrolysis oil samples.
Property | \nUnit | \nCD | \n90/5/5 | \n80/10/10 | \n70/15/15 | \n60/20/20 | \n50/25/25 | \nSTANDARD | \n
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Density | \nKg/m3\n | \n845 | \n838.5 | \n834 | \n830 | \n825 | \n823 | \nASTM D1298 | \n
Viscosity @ 40 | \ncST | \n3.452 | \n2.38 | \n2.37 | \n2.365 | \n2.340 | \n2.325 | \nASTM D445 | \n
Cetane number | \n- | \n45 | \n59 | \n62 | \n64 | \n65 | \n69 | \nASTM D4737 | \n
GCV | \nkJ/kg | \n44840 | \n41245 | \n39985 | \n38700 | \n36800 | \n34500 | \nASTM D4868 | \n
Sulfur content | \n% | \n<0.0124 | \n0.0248 | \n0.0249 | \n0.0251 | \n0.0253 | \n0.0257 | \nASTM D4294 | \n
Oxygen | \n% | \n12.35 | \n13.80 | \n14.75 | \n15.15 | \n16.25 | \n17.35 | \nASTM D5622 | \n
Carbon residue | \n% | \n74.85 | \n75.35 | \n76.40 | \n77.55 | \n78.25 | \n79.65 | \nASTM D 7662 | \n
Flash point | \n⁰C | \n56.5 | \n38.5 | \n37.55 | \n37.35 | \n37.15 | \n36.85 | \nASTM D93 | \n
Hydrogen | \n% | \n12.38 | \n7.5 | \n7.55 | \n7.65 | \n7.75 | \n7.95 | \nASTM D7171 | \n
Properties of blended ratio mixtures of diesel, ethanol, WPPO with EHN.
\nFigure 14 is a variation in brake-specific fuel consumption (BSFC) with engine speed. The BSFC compared to the engine speed in Figure 14 shows that as the speed increased, there is an equal increase of fuel consumed by the test engine. The values obtained at full engine speed (2000 rpm) for the blends of 90/WPPO5/E5, 80/WPPO10/E10, 70/WPPO15/E15, 60/WPPO20/E20, 50/WPPO25/E25, and CD were 0.04 kg/kWh, 0.041 g/kWh, 0.042 kg/kWh, 0.043 kg/kWh, and 0.035 kg/kWh, respectively.
\nBSFC versus engine speed.
At high engine speeds, the conversion of heat energy to mechanical energy increases with the increase in combustion temperature, leading to increased BSFC for the biodiesel; this increase is proportional to the difference in their heating values, which is identical to the findings of Ref. [62]. These blends of WPPO compare well to CD fuel and other biodiesel blends with comparative differences in the heating values.
\nHowever, from the graph, it is evident that as the blend ratio increases, there is a decrease in the BSFC across all the test fuels. Nevertheless, the values for all WPPO blends were slightly higher than the CD test fuel. The closeness of the values and the packed graph reveals a close resemblance and identical BSFC characteristics of WPPO, ethanol, and EHN compared to CD fuel. For example, at 500 rpm engine speed, the blend of 80/WPPO10/E10 had a value of 0.043 g/kWh compared to full engine speed (2000 rpm) with 0.041 kg/kWh, which is higher than CD test fuel with 0.04 kg/kWh at 1000-rpm engine speed and 0.035 kg/kWh at full engine speed (2000 rpm).
\nThe brake thermal efficiency (BTE) variations with engine speed are shown in Figure 15. The graphs show that as the speed increased, there was an increase in the BTE across all the test fuel blends of WPPO and CD up to 1500 rpm. At 1000 rpm engine speed, the values for blends 90/WPPO5/E5, 80/WPPO10/E10, 70/WPPO15/E15, 60/WPPO20/E20, 50/WPPO25/E25, and CD were 22, 21, 20, 18, 16.5, and 22.5%, respectively. As the blend ratio and engine speed increased, there was a decrease in the BTE within the WPPO blends but an increase in BTE across the blends. For example, at 500 rpm engine speed, 90/WPPO5/E5, 80/WPPO10/E10, 70/WPPO15/E15, 60/WPPO20/E20, and 50/WPPO25/E25 had values of 14, 13, 12.5, 11, and 9.5% compared to at 1000 rpm with values of 22, 21, 20, 18, and 16.5%, respectively.
\nBrake thermal efficiency versus engine speed.
The highest BTE value was 24% by blend 90/WPPO5/E5 at 1500-rpm engine speed compared to any other blend of WPPO, ethanol, and/or EHN. This could be due to the density, which is closer to CD, and the effect of blending, which improved this blend’s physico-chemical properties. Figure 15 shows values of 24.8, 23, 21, and 19%, respectively, for blends 80/WPPO10/E10, 70/WPPO15/E15, 60/WPPO20/E20, and 50/WPPO25/E25. Blend 50/WPPO25/E25 reported the lowest values compared to the other blends. At 500 rpm engine speed, the BTE value was 9.5% compared with full engine speed (2000 rpm) at 19%.
\nAs the engine speed increased above 1500 rpm, the BTE suddenly dropped as the engine approached full engine speed (2000 rpm), as seen in Figure 15. There are a number of factors explaining the above results. For example, at this speed, there is a sudden drop of the air fuel ratio as the mixture becomes richer. This leads to incomplete combustion and heat release energy as more carbon molecules escape the combustion process. These increase the dissociation heat losses by the engine, hence a fall in BTE. Additionally, decreased BTE with biodiesel blends could be due to their low calorific value, higher viscosity, high volatility, and poor spray characteristics. These findings are consistent with other studies by the authors of Refs. [63, 64, 65].
\nUnburnt hydrocarbon (UHC) concentrations largely indicate the quality of the combustion in an internal combustion engine. UHC concentrations are formed from vaporized unburnt hydrocarbon fuel and partially burnt fuel by-products exiting the combustion chamber diesel exhaust system. UHC concentrations are inherently independent of the air fuel ratio of any working engine [6]. In compression ignition (CI) engines, UHC concentrations are due to insufficient temperature, especially around the cylinder walls or in pockets. UHC concentrations are also formed through system malfunction, especially in input data failure in modern fuel injection systems. The higher hydrocarbon concentrations may be due to hydrogen radicals in the diesel-ethanol-WPPO-EHN blends. Principally, these concentrations are prevalent during light loads, when the combustion mixture is lean. This period is marked by a lower fuel ratio making the lean fuel-air mixture the primary source of the light load concentrations because of the lack of completion of the combustion during normal engine operating cycles. Hydrocarbon concentrations are not limited to vehicle exhaust systems but can occur in the entire vehicle fuel system from vapors during dispensing and distribution of fuel, which accounts for 15–20%, with the crankcase providing 20–30%. However, diesel exhaust remains the main culprit in engine emissions accounting for 50–60% of all the UHC concentration [66, 67].
\n\nFigure 16 shows the variation of UHC emission with engine speed in the stationary diesel power generator using blends of biodiesel. As the engine speed was increased, the UHC concentration increased too. However, the increase was more significant as the engine speed was in intermediate speeds of 1500 rpm moving to or approaching full engine speed (2000 rpm). For example, at 1000 rpm, the values of blends 90/WPPO5/E5, 80/WPPO10/E10, 70/WPPO15/E15, 60/WPPO20/E20, and 50/WPPO25/E25 were 22, 21, 20, 18, and 15 ppm, respectively, compared to full engine speed (2000 rpm) with 35, 34, 32, 29, and 26 ppm. This leads to the conclusion that at high engine speeds, the values of UHC concentration is significantly high for all the blends of WPPO, ethanol, and EHN, although still comparatively low compared to CD fuel.
\nUnburnt hydrocarbons versus engine speed.
The UHC concentration from the blends 90/WPPO5/E5 and 80/WPPO10/E10 had higher values although from the graph plot in Figure 16, the values are still low compared to the values of CD test fuel. However, the general trend reported by the graph in Figure 16 shows that as the blend ratio increased, there was a significant reduction in the UHC concentration, observed across all the test fuels irrespective of the engine speed condition, for all the blends tested compared to CD fuel. The reduction in UHC concentration is attributed to the high oxygen content and cetane number of the blends. The high oxygen content supports combustion, while the high cetane number reduces ignition delay. This is identical to other studies by other researchers [68, 69, 70, 71, 72].
\nThe high fraction of ethanol in blends 70/WPPO15/E15, 60/WPPO20/E20, and 50/WPPO25/E25 contributed to the increase in the concentration of UHC, which is identical to the findings of Refs. [73, 74] who observed it in SI engine cylinder walls, crevices, and quenched cylinder walls, especially when richer air-alcohol mixtures were introduced. This type of UHC depends on the following factors: engine adjustments, engine design, and the type of fuel used in an engine. However, the engine-operating environment can sometimes contribute to the type of UHC concentration produced. This is observed especially when the temperature range is 400–600°C in the combustion chamber. At this temperature range, the hydrocarbons continue to experience reaction in the diesel exhaust pipe, thus lowering or increasing the concentration of the UHC in the exiting exhaust gas [75, 76].
\nCO concentrations are a direct result of incomplete combustion, which results from hydrocarbons due to the failure of oxidation in the combustion process in diesel engines. This is true especially where the excess air factor λ meets the conditions λ < 1 for SI engines. Carbon monoxide is a colorless, tasteless, and odorless toxic gas, which is primarily a product of incomplete combustion of carbon containing fuels [6]. The United States is the single largest producer of carbon monoxide from anthropogenic sources as shown in Figure 17 [77]. Carbon oxidation mechanisms are mostly determined by the equivalence ratio. Carbon monoxide concentrations mainly form in the areas of heavy traffic, parking garages, and under buildings, overheads, and overhangs. CO health effects include headaches and dizziness, but extreme exposure can lead to death.
\nCarbon monoxide (CO) concentrations by anthropogenic and biogenic sources in the United States [77].
\nFigure 18 is the variation of CO with engine speed in a stationary diesel power generator. The graph reveals that as the engine speed and the blend ratio increased 90/WPPO5/E5, 80/WPPO10/E10, 70/WPPO15/E15, 60/WPPO20/E20, and 50/WPPO25/E25, the CO concentration decreased up to 1500 rpm of engine speed. Thereafter, the blends reported a continuous increase as the engine speed was approaching full engine speed (2000 rpm). At 500-rpm engine speed, the blends of 90/WPPO5/E5, 80/WPPO10/E10, 70/WPPO15/E15, 60/WPPO20/E20, and 50/WPPO25/E25 reported values of 0.055, 0.0565, 0.06, 0.0615, and 0.0625%.
\nCarbon monoxide versus engine speed.
However, as the speed is increased to 1500 rpm, the values were 0.035, 0.0375, 0.0445, and 0.0475%, respectively. At full engine speed (2000 rpm), all the test fuels showed increased CO concentration with blends 90/WPPO5/E5 and 80/WPPO10/E10 reporting the lowest concentration among the test blends across all the engine speed conditions. At 1000 rpm, the blends reported values of 0.0445 and 0.0475% compared to full engine speed (2000 rpm) with 0.0425 and 0.0465%, respectively. The increased CO concentration, although lower than diesel fuel, can be attributed to partial combustion [78] as the speed increased and the presence of ethanol, which shortened ignition delay, thus increasing CO concentration.
\nAs the engine speed and the blend ratio increased, there was an increase in the CO emission across all the engine speeds and within the blends and CD test fuel. At 1000 rpm engine speed, the values of the blends and CD were 0.045, 0.0475, 0.0515, 0.0535, 0.0565, and 0.05% for 90/WPPO5/E5, 80/WPPO10/E10, 70/WPPO15/E15, 60/WPPO20/E20, 50/WPPO25/E25, and CD, respectively. The above values obtained from Figure 18 suggest that there was a reduction in CO concentration across all test fuels irrespective of blend ratio and type of fuel except at high engine speeds exceeding 1500 rpm to full engine speed (2000 rpm). After this point, there was a steady increase in the concentration of CO.
\nCO concentration is a direct result of poor oxidation of the hydrocarbon fuels in the combustion chamber but is determined by the local fuel/air equivalence ratio. The above scenario is due to the air/fuel ratio becoming richer as the speed increased, leading to insufficient mixing of oxygen and fuel molecules. Compared to CD, all the biodiesels tested showed decreased CO concentration due to the high oxygen content in the test biodiesels and the addition of EHN, which greatly increased the cetane number (CN). This is identical to the studies by the authors of Refs. [79, 80]. The initial concentrations were greater at the starting engine speed of 500 rpm due to low temperature and emission instability processes at lower engine speeds, which are identical to the studies of Ref. [81]. However, as the engine speed increased from 1500 rpm toward full engine speed (2000 rpm), there was an observed increase in CO concentration, despite the oxygen content of the biodiesel and increased CN of the blends of WPPO, ethanol, and EHN. This disagreement in experimental results is due to differences in CN for the different biodiesel test fuel blends used. The increment in CN as the blend ratio increased led to increases in fuel quantity burnt during diffusive combustion, hence increasing CO concentration as the quality of combustion decreased.
\nPM is agglomerates of small particle phase compounds resulting from the combustion of partially burned lubrication oil, the ash content from the fuel, sulfates from the engine cylinder wall, lubrication oil, and water from condensation and the combustion process [82]. These emitted compounds comprise elemental carbon (EC), organic carbon (OC) trace, and unknown compounds. Both EC and OC contribute to the toxicity of PM, regional haze, and climate change; therefore, PM concentration negatively affects the environment and human health [83]. The Global Burden of Disease Index reports that these types of emission are now responsible for 3.2 million deaths due to PM2.5 ambient pollution [84]. Besides this, PM concentration causes deposit formation in the combustion chamber, fouling of emission control systems such as EGR and DPF and increased engine wear and premature failure.
\nPM concentration is primarily controlled by factors such as fuel quality (sulfur and ash content in fuel), engine lubrication oil quality, fuel consumption per combustion cycle of the engine, exhaust cooling rate, and the combustion process or strategy applied [85]. A number of PM characterization research works have been conducted categorizing PM concentration as 41% carbon, 7% unburned fuel, 25% unburned oil, 14% sulfates, water, 13% ash, and other concentrations [83]. However, an earlier study conducted by Agrawal et al. [86] reported that particulate concentration contains \n
PM concentration is divided into three main components: SOF, soot, and inorganic fraction (IF), 50% of which is released as soot in the diesel exhaust pipe. SOF emissions are made up of condensed hydrocarbons embedded within the soot emissions in the form of very fine particles. The size distribution of PM concentration has three peaks: the nucleation peak, which includes all volatile hydrocarbons (Dp<~30 nm), the accumulation mode (~30 nm< Dp\n<~500 nm), and the coarse mode (~500 nm<Dp\n<~10 μm) [88]. These emissions are more pronounced during starting and engine idling when engine temperatures are reportedly very low [89].
\nStudies on OC/EC in PM samples show that their ratio is elevated in biodiesel combustion as the biodiesel blend ratio increases. This is mainly due to the high oxygen content in biodiesel and plays a major role in the generation of soot particles and final oxidation. For example, in a study by Chuepeng et al. [90], the authors reported that the OC fraction for B30 was greater than ULSD regardless of the engine speed and operating conditions. In another study by Williams et al. [91], a similar pattern was established for OC and EC as B100 > B20 > Diesel. This is identical to the studies of Ref. [90], which suggested an increased OC content with increased biodiesel fraction in a blend.
\nCheung et al. [92] used soy methyl esters in an LD engine and found that the EC fraction was lower than during diesel operation. Nevertheless, the OC fraction in the PM concentration sample became identical for both LD and HD engines with the New European Driving Cycle (NEDC). However, a study by Song et al. [10] differs with this finding. Using cottonseed biodiesel, the authors reported decreased OC and EC driving conditions. This was mainly due to engine operating conditions, test methods, and test fuel chemical properties [83]. However, these studies have been inconsistent and inconclusive in the literature surveyed. For example, this is revealed in the studies of Refs. [90, 92, 93, 94, 95, 96].
\nDPF filters have now become part of virtually all diesel vehicles in the leading industrialized countries in the world (Europe, the United States, and Japan). DPF filters have had a high market penetration in Japanese and American LD and HD trucks since 2007. For smaller vehicle applications, subsequent developments have incorporated the diesel oxidation catalyst (DOC) function into the filter as reported by the authors of Refs. [10, 97]. It should be noted that for PM emission control in medium engines, the methods and approaches used are similar to the LD engines. However, in the US market, auxiliary fuel injectors and burners are incorporated into the diesel exhaust to regenerate DPFs. This method has concerns over oil dilution in the crankcase and requires a separation with the engine management system demands, so it has become more complex in the manner of its development and use [98, 99].
\nAdvances in the science of materials have greatly increased and therefore influenced the development in filter materials for LD and HD engines. LD vehicles have seen silicon carbide types of filters becoming standard installation, although the alternative use of aluminum titanate is gradually replacing it [97]. However, aided by better engine controls, the industry has now moved to cordierite filters [101, 102]. Figure 19 shows new hybrid developments in DPF filtering technology, which reduces 95% of NOX that comes from the DPF filter.
\nA new NO2 remediation system reduces 95% of the NO2 emissions from catalyzed filter systems (courtesy of Technical University Dresden and Johnson Matthey) [100].
As shown in Figure 20, speed affects particle emission of blends. Nevertheless, differences in engine operating conditions, particulate formation, in-cylinder combustion processes, and engine type give mixed results and conclusions in PM emission studies. In Figure 20, it is evident that as speed increases, combustion time (residence time) is reduced, which reduces the reoxidation and combustion of the constituents of the process. This aptly explains the reason behind increased PM particle size and concentration as the speed tends toward full engine speed (2000 rpm), as typified in the graph in Figure 20. For example, PM concentration at 500 rpm is 0.15, 0.11, 0.094, 0.086, 0.063, and 0.051 kg/kWh, respectively, for CD, 90/WPPO5/E5, 80/WPPO10/E10, 70/WPPO15/E15, 60/WPPO20/E20, and 50/WPPO25/E25.
\nPM emission for different blends of WPPO biodiesel fuel from 500 rpm to full engine speed (2000 rpm).
However, as the speed increases from 500 to 1500 rpm, which is an intermediate speed, the PM emission increases and almost doubles to 0.29, 0.25, 0.235, 0.213, 0.183, and 0.57 g/kWh. These are for CD, 90/WPPO5/E5, 80/WPPO10/E10, 70/WPPO15/E15, 60/WPPO20/E20, and 50/WPPO25/E25, respectively. These findings are identical to the studies of Refs. [103, 104]. In other words, these blends, when combusting, produce low heat loss to the wall resulting in increased soot oxidation, which is also reported conclusively in a study by Di Iorio et al. [105] and is identical to the findings of this work in Figure 20.
\nSince PM concentrations are influenced by engine operating conditions at 1500–2000 rpm, PM concentration decreases with increased blend fraction. The reduction is more with higher blend ratios 70/WPPO15/E15, 60/WPPO20/E20, and 50/WPPO25/E25 at 2000 rpm. However, there is a reversed reduction in CD fuel compared to the blends of WPPO as shown in Figure 20. This is due to diffusive combustion as the blend ratio increases (tends to B100) and the oxygen content of the blends increases. These findings are identical to the findings of a study by Di Iorio et al. [105].
\nCO2 is one of the gases responsible for maintaining the earth’s optimal ecosystem balance. It enriches plants through the photosynthesis process and provides other benefits for the environment. However, CO2 has become a topical global issue in recent decades due to its increase from levels of 0.04% in the atmosphere. The increase in CO2 causes an increase in global temperatures due to the effect of blanketing. There are generally two sources of CO2 formation: human activities and naturally occurring sources such as the ocean-atmosphere exchange, plant and animal respiration, soil respiration, decomposition of waste and elements, and volcanic eruptions. The majority of the human sources are due to the burning of hydrocarbon fuels in transport and power generation, land activities such as mining and agriculture, and industrial processes and manufacturing. The main gas produced from human activity is greenhouse gas associated with activities such as combustion of fossil fuels, namely, coal, natural gas, and oil for commercial and transportation services [106].
\n\nFigure 21 shows the variation of CO2 with engine speed. The graph shows that as the blend ratio and engine speed increased, CO2 concentration increased, but compared to CD, their emission levels were still lower and almost identical. At 500 rpm engine speed, the values of CD and the blends of 90/WPPO5/E5, 80/WPPO10/E10, 70/WPPO15/E15, 60/WPPO20/E20, and 50/WPPO25/E25 were 3.58, 3.35, 2.95, 2.6, 2.55, and 2.25%, respectively.
\nCO2 versus engine speed.
\nFigure 21 also shows that as the speed increased, there was a significant increase in the CO2 concentration across all test fuels, although with lower values as the blend ratio increased. For example, CD fuel had values of 2, 3.85, 5.95, and 8.95% for engine speeds of 500, 1000, 1500, and 2000 rpm compared to blend 80/WPPO10/E10 with 1.8, 2.95, 4.85, and 8.55% for similar speeds. The blend with the lowest value of CO2 emission was 50/WPPO25/E25 with values of 1.62, 2.25, 3.65, and 7.35%, respectively, for engine speeds of 500, 1000, 1500, and 2000 rpm, respectively. The increased carbon concentration in biodiesel blends is due to the reduction in the quantity of carbon relative to the increased oxygen ratio. However, the lower CO2 concentration levels in comparison to CD fuel are due to factors explained under BTE and the equal energy balance generated by the addition of alcohol.
\nNOX concentration and its oxidized product NO2 are the primary preserve of the diesel engine, constituting 85–95% of the total emission of a diesel engine. There are two fundamental differences between the two gases: whereas NOX is odorless and colorless, NO2 is reddish with a pungent smell [107]. It should be mentioned here that NO2 is five times more toxic than NOX gas and is a health hazard to the human respiratory system. It irritates the respiratory system and lowers the resistance to diseases such as the common cold and influenza [9, 108].
\nSCR is one of the leading NOX emission control techniques for both LD and HD vehicles. This system entered the market in Japan and Europe for the HD category in 2005 compared to the US market in 2010. In the Japanese market and in Europe, zeolite and vanadium-based catalysts are utilized, respectively. The zeolite SCR catalyst combination performs better and has higher temperature tolerance levels. There is ongoing research to improve low temperature performance for more accurate NO2 and NOX concentration predictions [110, 111, 112].
\nThe low NOX trap (LNT) is a cheaper option for engines that are 2000–2500 cc [113, 114]. This type of emission control technique works better with mixed-mode engines to reduce low-load NOX that is a persistent problem in SCR systems. This allows the LNT to focus on high temperature NOX that is entering at temperatures over 300°C, thus eliminating between 60 and 70% of the platinum group metals (PGMs) [115]. This makes the LNT technology cheaper and economically appealing to the LD engine classification of 5000–6000 cc capacity [116, 117]. However, for medium- and heavy-duty vehicles, high temperature solutions have been developed to address the challenge of high load requirements of the US NTE regulatory condition as reported by the authors of Refs. [101, 118].
\nThe LNT technique suffers due to contamination from sulfur, which shortens and affects its service life and durability. Earlier versions of LNT lost 50% filtration capacity, while the current generation of LNTs loses only 25% [119, 120]. Desulfication can be accomplished by passing a rich hot steam of diesel fuel at 700°C for 10 min at service intervals of 5000–10,000 km. Figure 22 shows a new concept of combining the SCR emission control system with the LNT emission control system.
\nThe concept of employing a NOX absorber with a double SCR layer configuration [109].
NOX concentration is now known to be temperature dependent due to their equilibrium concentration presence in the combustion chamber. NOX when mixed in high temperature adiabatically in the temperature range of 2000–3000 k forms NOX concentration, which is then exited through the diesel exhaust system [121]. The NOX concentration has four basic mechanisms of formation within the combustion chamber of a diesel engine: the Zeldovich mechanism also called the thermal NOX route, the prompt mechanism, the fuel mechanism, and the NNH mechanism [122]. The variation of engine speed with NOX concentration is shown in Figure 23. The graph shows that as the engine speed was increased, there was an increase in the NOX concentration irrespective of fuel, blend ratio, or additive. However, the value of NOX concentration from the blends 90/WPPO5/E5, 80/WPPO10/E10, and 70/WPPO15/E15 reported lower values than CD fuel. For example, at 1000 rpm, the value of the blends was 385, 396, and 415 ppm, compared to CD fuel at 425 ppm.
\nOxides of nitrogen versus engine speed.
Blends 60/WPPO20/E20 and 50/WPPO25/E25 had the highest NOX concentration compared to the other blends of 90/WPPO5/E5, 80/WPPO10/E10, and 70/WPPO15/E15 across all the engine speed conditions tested. At 500 rpm engine speed, the two blends had values of 205 and 200 ppm, respectively. At full engine speed (2000 rpm), NOX concentration values increased to 925 and 885 ppm compared to blend 90/WPPO5/E5 at 197 ppm and 792 ppm at full engine speed (2000 rpm). The graph in Figure 23 shows that as the blend ratio increased, there was a direct increase in the concentration of NOX across all the blended test fuels. However, blend 90/WPPO5/E5 reported the lowest values of NOX concentration compared to all the other blends. The formation of NOX in biodiesel combustion depends on the combustion temperatures and combustion zone oxygen concentration. With high blend ratios of 70/WPPO15/E15, 60/WPPO20/E20, and 50/WPPO25/E25, the combustion process is shortened, thus leading to failure to provide enough cooling effect to decrease peak combustion temperatures leading to increased NOX.
\nThese findings seem to show that there is a correlation between the alcohol content in the fuel and peak flame temperatures, content of nitrogen, and oxygen availability [123]. Increased NOX concentration is attributed to the presence of nitrogen from the cetane number improver ENH and other contaminants from the WPPO composition. Additionally, it could be due to the generation of radicals of hydrocarbon through molecular unsaturation being identical to the findings of Refs. [124, 125]. However, the NOX levels are still low, attributed to high CNs of the tested biodiesels in Table 3 and increased oxygen content due to the blend ratios. These findings are identical to the findings of Ref. [126].
\n\n
This study thus makes a strong case for alternative fuels to replace petroleum-based fossil fuels like diesel commonly used as the primary propulsion fuel in transport and power generation. This work looks at the concept of waste to energy and waste resource utilization in an era when environmental concerns and awareness are at the pick of development agenda across the globe.
Lower blend ratios 90/WPPO5/E5 and 80/WPPO10/E10 exhibit identical brake-specific fuel consumption (BSFC) of conventional diesel test fuel compared to the other blends. These blends show the lowest BSFC values compared to the others.
The brake thermal efficiency of blend 90/WPPO5/E5 (90% conventional diesel, waste plastic pyrolysis oil 5%, an ethanol 5% by volume) showed values, which were very close to the values of conventional diesel fuel values. This was attributed to close density values and the gross calorific values of waste plastic pyrolysis oil (WPPO) blends, which showed marginal differences. This case was apparent especially at lower blend ratios of all the mixtures and blends tested.
There was a reduction in unburnt hydrocarbon (UHC) concentration with the use of WPPO blends, ethanol, and 2-ethyl hexyl nitrate (EHN), with a notable reduction in oxides of nitrogen concentration especially for the blend 90/WPPO5/E (90% conventional diesel, waste plastic pyrolysis oil 5%, and ethanol 5% by volume). This was a clear indication that this blend performed well when compared with petroleum conventional diesel.
Although there was indicated increase in the concentration of CO, CO2 NOX and UHC, for all the blends of WPPO, ethanol and EHN. There was a clear indication that the emission levels were notably lower than the emission levels of conventional petroleum diesel, based on the ASTM measurements used in this study. However, when comparisons for overall values of concentration are compared to concentration standards, the WPPO blend performed well.
The blends of WPPO, ethanol, and EHN have identical temperature characteristics to those of the conventional diesel test fuel especially as the engine speeds hit 75% heading to full engine speed. This was attributed to the presence of ethanol responsible for decreased ignition delay. The presence of high oxygen enrichment was a factor of decreased CO concentration for the tested biodiesels compared with conventional diesel fuel, although there was an increase in CO concentration as fuel CN and blend ratio increased. This is due to deterioration of the combustion characteristics, as the cetane numbers (CNs) and the alcohol blend ratio increase. Nevertheless, this work proposes further study and further investigation on biodiesels with extremely high CN to meet the need for fuel improvers and additives.
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