Ecuadorian coffee growers association by Provinces.
\r\n\tThe protection of biodiversity is a major target of the European Union Marine Strategy Framework Directive, requiring an assessment of the status of biodiversity on the level of species, habitats, and ecosystems including genetic diversity and the role of biodiversity in food web structure and functioning. The restoration of marine ecosystems can support the productivity and reliability of goods and services that the ocean provides to humankind, to maintain ecosystem integrity and stability. Some of the goods produced by the marine ecosystem services are fish harvests, wild plant and animal resources, water, some of the services provided recreation, tourism, breeding and nursery habitats, water transport, carbon sequestration, erosion control, and habitat provision.
",isbn:"978-1-83968-460-9",printIsbn:"978-1-83968-459-3",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83968-544-6",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"727e7eb3d4ba529ec5eb4f150e078523",bookSignature:"Dr. Ana M.M. Marta Gonçalves",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10845.jpg",keywords:"Non-indigenous Species, Dynamics, Ecosystem Maturation, Ecological Succession, Water Quality, Recovery, Biodiversity, Environmental Status, Ecosystem Services, Goods Production, Carbohydrates, Carrageenan",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"April 14th 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"June 22nd 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"August 21st 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"November 9th 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"January 8th 2023",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"12 days",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!1,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Dr. Ana Marta Gonçalves (h-index 19) holds a Ph.D. in Biology, from the University of Coimbra, Portugal, in collaboration with Ghent University, in 2011. 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These diverse abilities possessed by adipose tissue directly results from its heterogeneous composition which allows for the integration and propagation of signals that influence whole-body homeostasis. To be effective in reacting to alterations within the organism, the adipose tissue must be dynamic and remodel itself in order to preserve the health of the organism. While remodeling allows for the maintenance of homeostasis, this mechanism may become compromised in certain metabolic diseases, such as cancer cachexia and obesity. Here, the influence of adipose heterogeneity on tissue remodeling in the context of cancer cachexia and obesity will be further discussed.
\nAdipose tissue, or fat tissue, is classified in morphofunctional term into two distinct groups; (1) white adipose tissue (WAT), composed predominantly of unilocular adipocytes, with low mitochondrial density and low oxidative capacity, and (2) brown adipose tissue (BAT), predominantly composed of multilocular adipocytes, high mitochondrial density and oxidative capacity for the uptake and oxidation of fatty acids and glucose related to the maintenance and regulation of body temperature [1]. Other differences between the two types of adipose tissues are the depot localization, profile of secreted molecules, cell population, vascularization and also innervation [2, 3, 4]. While both of these adipose tissue groups contribute a significant role in maintaining systemic homeostasis, WAT is the primary site of metabolic dysregulation in many metabolic diseases [5, 6].
\nWAT is divided into two large depots, subcutaneous adipose tissue (scWAT) and visceral adipose tissue (vWAT). scWAT is present in the innermost layers of the skin (hypodermis), while vWAT is located in the internal organs [7]. In addition, it is well described, both in experimental and clinical research, that adipose tissue is a heterogeneous tissue, that presents different gene and protein expression profiles, as well as cellular composition depending on the location of the tissue [8, 9]. scWAT represents approximately 80% of the total fat mass in healthy individuals, while vWAT accounts for between 10 and 20% of the total body fat of lean men, and between 5 and 10% of total fat in women [10]. vWAT has been shown to be more metabolically responsive, and its accumulation has a higher correlation with obesity-related mortality [11].
\nThe morphological composition of adipose tissue plays an important role in the homeostatic maintenance and tissue development. Adipose tissue is a special type of connective tissue composed of different cell types composed of approximately 50–70% adipocytes and 30–50% of stromal vascular fraction (SVF) cells, where the mesenchymal precursor cells, pre-adipocytes, fibroblasts, leukocytes, blood vessels, lymph nodes and nerves are present (\nFigure 1\n) [12, 13, 14]. Numerous studies have shown the cellular heterogeneity of adipose tissue is a critical component in the tissue’s ability to act as a hub of metabolic equilibrium [8, 15, 16]. Discovering and understanding the role of each cell present in adipose tissue leads to a greater chance in the development of possible therapeutics targeting metabolic disorders, which places a greater emphasis on studies of adipose cellularity.
\nAdipose tissue cellularity. The vast majority of the adipose tissue mass is composed of adipocytes (approximately 60%). There are many other cell types present in the adipose tissue. This specific portion of non-adipocytes is called the stromal vascular fraction (SVF) that is approximately 30% of the total cells in the tissue. In this portion are present mesenchymal precursor cells, pre-adipocytes, macrophages, others immune cells and endothelial cells.
This endocrine role of adipose tissue is best characterized by leptin [17, 18]. In 1994, with the discovery of leptin, the perception of WAT evolved from simply an energy storage compartment, mechanical protector and thermal insulation, but also an endocrine organ due the identification of a multitude of adipocyte-secreted factors that can act on distal tissues to regulate systemic functions, such as immunological and inflammatory responses, regulation of appetite, vascular events, control of reproductive functions, and insulin sensitivity [17, 19]. Total deficiency or insensitivity to leptin causes hyperphagia, morbid obesity, diabetes, a variety of neuroendocrine abnormalities, and autonomic and immunologic dysfunction [20].
\nStudies show that adipose tissue-derived hormones, fatty acids, lipids and signaling molecules, act by exerting endocrine, autocrine and paracrine effects. These factors are part of the large family of proteins and small molecules released by adipose tissue, which collectively are called adipokines [17, 21]. This tremendous diversity of signaling molecules enables the adipose tissue to engage in a wide array of signaling modalities that allows for systemic regulation of an organism’s physiology (\nFigure 2\n). In instances of whole-body metabolic dysregulation, such as cancer cachexia and obesity, alterations to adipose tissue composition may have drastic effects on adipokine production. These effects are of critical importance in understanding the manifestation of metabolic syndromes. One example of such a dysregulation in adipokine profile is the release of pro- and anti- inflammatory adipokines during pathophysiological processes. This adipokine dysregulation contributes significantly to the disruption of adipose tissue homeostasis in these diseases. Excessive secretion of potentially harmful adipokines (e.g., PAI-1, TNF-α and IL6) and hyposecretion of potentially beneficial adipokines, (e.g., adiponectin), may play an important role in the major mechanisms involved in during metabolic diseases. Thus, understanding the mechanism of various metabolic diseases calls for a deep understanding of the relationship between adipose tissue cellular composition and function.
\nAdipose tissue as endocrine organ. Endocrine factors released by white fat may signal to distant issues, including the brain, muscle, liver, heart and pancreas that regulate glucose and fatty acid metabolism in peripheral tissues, energy homeostasis, inflammatory response, and blood pressure, among others. Imbalanced secretion of some of these adipokines is associated with metabolic disorders. These factors released by white adipose tissue may target itself in an autocrine and paracrine manner, and also activate distant tissues in an endocrine manner (e.g., brown adipose tissue). Abbreviations see appendices and nomenclature section.
Adipose tissue can respond rapidly and dynamically depending on the situation involved, thus fulfilling its major role in preserving whole-body energy homeostasis [22, 23]. Adipose tissue remodeling is a continuous process that is involved in some metabolic syndromes, such as reduction of vascular remodeling [24], overproduction of extracellular matrix [25], altered immune cell populations, and inflammatory responses are classic tissue response to such metabolic imbalances [26]. However, not all remodeling of adipose tissue is necessarily associated with pathological changes. A classic example is a concept of “metabolically healthy obesity” [27, 28], suggesting that some individuals may preserve systemic insulin sensitivity based on the “healthy” expansion of adipose tissue, avoiding the pathological consequences associated with obesity. Among the various consequences that can arise from adipose tissue remodeling is a state of local inflammation. This inflammatory state has been implicated in the progression of systemic dysregulation of metabolism in instances of “metabolically unhealthy obesity” [29]. Thus, comprehending the role of inflammation in the remodeling process of the adipose tissue is essential in understanding the main pathological alterations of this tissue.
\nThe adipose tissue plays host to a variety of immune cell populations that are intimately involved in the remodeling state of the tissue. Adipose tissue resident cells can secrete several proinflammatory cytokines that can orchestrate the inflammatory state of the tissue by influencing these immune cell populations within the tissue itself [21]. These inflammatory mediators have several metabolic and endocrine functions (immunity, metabolism, energy balance, among others), which is intimal related to the inflammatory process and immune system response [30, 31].
\nInflammation in adipose tissue rose to prominence in the mid-1990s, shortly after obesity was recognized as an inflammatory disease in a study conducted with rats, which demonstrated greater expression of the gene encoding the pro-inflammatory cytokine TNF-α in adipose tissue, as well as a reduction in insulin sensitivity after exposure to a weight-gain diet [32]. In recent decades, data from human studies and transgenic animal models have strongly suggested correlative but also causative associations between the activation of proinflammatory pathways and insulin resistance [33, 34]. Particularly, chronic inflammation in adipose tissue appears to play an important role in the development of insulin resistance related to obesity and others metabolic diseases [33, 35]. The following potential mechanisms of adipose tissue inflammation and how this state is involved during the pathological process of cancer-associated cachexia and obesity are discussed.
\nCancer cachexia syndrome is characterized by systemic inflammation, body weight loss, adipose tissue remodeling, and skeletal muscle wasting that cannot be fully reversed by conventional nutritional support and leads to progressive functional impairment [36]. Interesting, that adipose tissue of cachectic cancer patients is a possible relevant systemic source of inflammatory molecules during the development of the disease [37]. Moreover, it is now well described in both experimental and clinical research that these changes are dependent on the location of adipose tissue (e.g., visceral versus subcutaneous), which is involved in differential depot response to the disease [8, 38]. WAT also secretes and responds to pro-inflammatory mediators, as it also expresses several receptors for these secreted cytokines, chemokines, complement and growth factors [39]. These mediators act locally in an autocrine and/or paracrine manner, as well as distally in an endocrine fashion that can regulate appetite, modulate energy expenditure and affect a range of physiological processes, including insulin sensitivity and inflammatory responses [40].
\nSome interesting studies proposed that an imbalance between catabolic and anabolic processes in WAT is associated with the progression of cachexia. The proinflammatory cytokines interleukin 1-beta (IL-1β), interferon gamma (IFN-γ), interleukin 6 (IL-6) and tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α) appear responsible for the activation of WAT catabolism in experimental models [37, 41, 42, 43, 44]. Additionally, studies have demonstrated a predominance of an inflammatory profile in the terminal phase of the cachexia syndrome, notably within vWAT [45]. The presence of an important macrophage infiltration in this depot in rats with cancer cachexia was verified, which has been shown to contribute to the secretion of inflammatory factors [45]. More recently, in the same model of cancer cachexia, Batista et al. [41] showed an increase of macrophages around the adipocytes that were are polarized to a proinflammatory state in the vWAT simultaneously with the activation of the inflammasome pathway in this specific depot [43]. This event was immediately preceded by an increase in neutrophil density within the depot, which usually occurs in the intermediate phases of the syndrome. Therefore, depending on the inflammatory phase, distinct cell types can be observed. In fact, in several inflammatory processes, chronic inflammation is characterized by the presence of mononuclear cells that is usually preceded by tissue infiltration of neutrophils, which are cells that characterize acute inflammation [46].
\nIn addition to animal models of cachexia, a study has recently demonstrated the presence of an exacerbated inflammatory profile in the WAT of humans with cancer cachexia [38]. In particular, an increase in CD68 positive cells, indicative of macrophages, and the clustering of the classic “crown-like structure” around the adipocyte were described. This morphological characteristic, although well-detailed in an obesity model, was described for the first time in cachexia. In the same study, an increase in CD3, a lymphocyte marker, and total collagen-positive cells in the WAT of these patients with cachexia was also detected. Taken together, the data indicate the presence of morphological alterations that suggest WAT remodeling in the presence of cachexia in humans [38].
\nHowever, despite the relevance of local inflammation, notably in WAT, the mechanisms that result in this process still require further detailing. Another important aspect is the characterization and understanding of the inflammatory process in this condition and its possible relation with the metabolic disorders, in order to answer if this process is secondary or the “trigger” for the development of the syndrome. Understanding the basic mechanisms of cancer cachexia that orchestrate WAT remodeling is relevant for the development of new pharmacological and nutritional therapies for anti-cachectic purposes. In this context, further demonstrating an intimate correlation between inflammation and the prognosis of cancer-associated cachexia, it was demonstrated that a genetic and pharmacological (atorvastatin) model of Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) inhibition, one of the primary inflammatory mediators, was able to attenuate classic symptoms of cachexia in an animal model [47]. This suggests that an important inflammatory pathway may be considered a promising target for therapeutic actions. It also further elucidates the mechanism by which cancer cachexia is manifested [47].
\nThe incidence of overweight and obesity has increased substantially in the last decades worldwide is considered a worldwide epidemic, reducing the quality of life due to an increase in the physical and metabolic disability of individuals [48]. This occurs, at least partially, because of the obesity-induced insulin resistance and the fact that adipose tissue is not only an energy reservoir but also a secretory endocrine organ of cytokines, hormones, and proteins that affect the functionality of cells and tissues all over the body [49].
\nRecent studies have established association between obesity and systemic chronic low-grade inflammation [30, 50]. This association is characterized by, among other things, higher levels of circulating proinflammatory cytokines and fatty acids that can contribute to the development of the metabolic dysfunctions involved in the pathogenesis of its comorbidities [51].
\nIt is well known that during this inflammation state in the adipose tissue, the tissue starts an intense remodeling in the adipose cell types present in the tissue. A major type of cell that plays an important role in the adipose tissue is the macrophages. Adipose tissue macrophage can be characterized in two different classes based on the expression of particular markers [52]. M1 macrophages or classically activated macrophages are characterized by
A proposed model was defined as “phenotypic switching” that means an enhanced adipose tissue macrophage infiltration aggravates the environment of obesity-related inflammation [54]. This model emphasized that obesity starts to induced a polarization in these macrophage cells present in the tissue, that now the ratio M1/M2 macrophage are dysregulated and the M1 macrophage population are predominate in the adipose tissue [54]. Interesting that some studies showed that M1 macrophage population demonstrates a positive correlation with insulin resistance and an increase in proinflammatory responses [55]. Therefore, these studies suggest a sophisticated balance in relation to the diversity of macrophages population is necessary to sustain the adipose tissue homeostasis.
\nIn addition to this deregulation in macrophages infiltration, other major changes also appear in the inflamed adipose tissue during obesity. Modifications in the composition of the extracellular matrix, decreased in the vascularization and alterations in the composition of immune cells in tissue are classic features of this adipose tissue remodeling [24, 26, 56] (\nFigure 3\n).
\nFeatures in adipose tissue inflammation. Healthy adipose tissue displays high insulin sensitivity and is characterized by an anti-inflammatory state marked by elevated levels of adipocyte progenitor cells and M2 macrophages, sufficient vasculature to support tissue expansion and adipocyte hyperplasia. In an obese state, the adipose tissue contains hypertrophic adipocytes and a state of chronic inflammation exists within the tissue. A large increase in the populations of M1 proinflammatory macrophages, along with several other inflammatory leukocytes, begins to infiltrate the inflamed tissue. In addition, it is possible to observe a reduction in the vascularization of this unhealthy fat, resulting in a hypoxic state. Chronic inflammation results in the development of fibrotic structures in the form of increased extracellular components, such as collagen. Such events contribute to the development of insulin resistance.
In summary, certain metabolic disease states, such as cancer cachexia and obesity, may alter the heterogeneous composition of adipose tissue, resulting in a remodeled tissue that is unable to properly respond to the systemic needs of the organism. We know that the adipose heterogeneity cells present in the tissue are the extremely importance in to regulate the homeostasis, and in the time that adipose tissue is affected to some metabolic syndrome this cross talk is deregulated and the homeostasis is compromised. After the adipose tissue is committed by a metabolic syndrome, the tissue starts to react in several ways. Several studies using cachexia and obesity experimental models have consistently indicated that a classic response to this imbalance, showed an intense adipose tissue remodeling in which the tissue begins to present numerous alterations in the morphology and also genetic alterations where its function ends up being extremely compromised. Finally, a deeper understanding of the initial stimulus and also who are the main types of cells involved in adipose tissue remodeling is essential for understanding the basic mechanisms in which adipose tissue performs. Once we have managed to obtain the answers to these important issues, we will be able to advance and have the chance to achieve some possible therapeutic target to these severe metabolic diseases.
\nThe authors gratefully acknowledge the commitment and support by American Diabetes Association (ADA)—Grant #1-19-PMF-035.
\nThe authors declare no conflicts of interest.
brown adipose tissue
\nbrain-derived neurotrophic factor
\nextracellular matrix
\ngrowth differentiation factor 15
\ninsulin-like growth factor 1
\ninterleukin 6
\ninterleukin 1β
\ninterleukin 10
\ninterleukin 33
\nneuronal growth regulator 1
\nnerve growth factor
\nneuregulin 4
\nplasminogen activator inhibitor-1
\nsubcutaneous adipose tissue
\nstromal vascular fraction
\ntransforming growth factor β
\nToll-like receptor 4
\ntumor necrosis factor α
\nuncoupling protein 1
\nvisceral adipose tissue
\nvascular endothelial growth factor
\nwhite adipose tissue
\nCoffee is one of the most popular and consumed beverages in the world. High coffee consumption can have a substantial effect on health [1]. It is among the most traded agricultural commodities. In 2020, it is estimated that 10,520,820 tons of coffee were produced [2] and almost the same amount was consumed [3]. In Latin America, its production is an integral component of the livelihoods of millions coffee farmers, associates, and workers including their families [4].
Coffee has been cultivated in Ecuador since the eighteenth century. It is one of the ten most important crops, being grown entirely in rural areas. In total, the coffee area exceeds 30 thousand hectares planted [5]. Due to the geographical characteristics of Ecuador, it is one of the few countries in the world that cultivate the two commercial varieties:
One of the advantages of coffee cultivation is its adaptability to different ecosystems, in which it produces important environmental benefits. In Ecuador, coffee trees are managed as agroforestry systems. According to each region and its climatic conditions, coffee is grown together with forest species, mainly fruit trees, which provide temporary shade to the crop, and timber species that provide permanent shade [7]. This landscape arrangement contributes to the maintenance of appropriate habitat for various species of flora and fauna, the capture of carbon in the soil, and the water balance of ecosystems [8].
Despite the environmental advantages offered by this crop, the productive sector is affected not only by the consequences of the pandemic and the deterioration of the global economy but also by the change in climatic conditions that promote the migration and spread of pathogenic organisms such as the coffee leaf rust [9] and the coffee cherry borer which is very difficult to eradicate [10]. They are not the only plagues that affect coffee cultivation, but they are the ones that have caused the greatest economic losses in coffee production around the world [11].
The combination of strategies such as the use of chemical fungicides, quarantines, cultural practices, biocontrol agents, and the selection of resistant varieties have helped to reduce pests and diseases. However, climate change is threatening the survival of
Within this context, it is evident that Ecuador has optimal geographic and environmental conditions to produce quality coffee and overcome the new challenges of climate change. However, its production is lower compared with neighboring productive countries like Peru, Colombia, and Brazil. This fact is associated with other problems that are limiting the development of this productive sector. In this review, social, technical, and scientific aspects are analyzed in the whole production chain to understand the opportunities, needs of coffee growers, and the limitations in the production process. The importance of this research lies in unifying the information of the different regions and coffee productive associations that are scattered throughout the national territory and rescue the needs of small farmers often not considered.
The next sections will describe the production of coffee in rural areas, its challenges and opportunities, the development policies, the social and economic importance, and a description of the production process from planting to waste management. The tables and graphs collect important information about coffee growers-associations, crops distribution, cultivated varieties, and their characteristics. The photographs included in this chapter show images of a typical coffee farm in the Ecuadorian Andes.
In Ecuador, coffee farming is an activity that has been passed down from generation to generation. It is carried out entirely in rural areas, which are characterized by having very productive soils but a high rate of poverty, low percentage of basic education, absence of basic services, and bad connecting roads.
The first records of coffee export in Ecuador date back to 1980 in the province of Portoviejo Manabí [15]. Subsequently, thanks to the opening of world trade and the adaptability of this plant in the different Ecuadorian ecosystems, coffee is currently grown in 23 of the 24 provinces, becoming one of the 10 most important crops from an economic point of view [16]. Despite its importance, coffee production has been marked by ups and downs [17] and has substantially failed in improving the living conditions of rural farmers [18].
The crisis in the coffee sector covers many social and technological aspects and shows the little success of development policies. For example, the current Ecuadorian policy, in its 2015–2025 proposal, promote Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). Literally, it suggests sustainable rural territorial development through the empowerment of the seven territorial planning areas that cover the entire country [19]. Even though, this policy has not been able to stop internal migration. According to projections by the National Institute of Statistics and Censuses (INEC), until 2010, only 35% of the population lived in rural areas with an annual decrease of 1.3% [20]. These data explain the aging of farmers because of young migration in search of better opportunities.
In the same way, the legal framework and the Constitution of Ecuador (2008) consider small farmers as priority groups for development. According to data from the FAO, more than 64% of the Ecuadorian agricultural production is in the hands of small producers categorized as Rural Farming Families (RFFs), on whom internal consumption depends. The RFFs represents 84.5% of the Agricultural Production Units (APU) [20]. These data highlight the importance of the rural sector in food production and the urgent need to change strategies to boost sustainable agriculture development. Unfortunately, not all NGOs development programs meet the needs of the population because they often replicate models used elsewhere resulting in a lack of cooperation between farmers.
In another context, Ecuador is considered a megadiverse country [21] and must find a balance between development and biodiversity conservation. With this goal, the Ministry of the Environment in 2011 proposed to increase protected areas by reducing the rate of deforestation, remedying environmental liabilities, reducing the use of pesticides, and addressing climate change through sustainable policies. To achieve part of this objective, the "Socio-Forest Program" and the "National Forestation and Reforestation Program" were created [22, 23]. However, there were many contradictions in the application of these measures. As an example, in the Amazon province of Orellana, palm crops (
For cocoa (
In conclusion, the policies of economic reactivation and conservation of rural areas must be reconsidered and oriented to grant a good quality of life for farmers. It is the only way to ensure sustainable development.
Coffee cultivation covers about 14% of the agricultural area of the country [29]. It is known as the unit crop due to its extension throughout the territory and the inclusion of all indigenous communities such as Quichua in the Andean region, Tsáchila in the Coastal region, and Shuar in the Amazon region.
Coffee production has a growing world demand and generates rural and urban employment because field activities include those necessary for the commercialization, transport, and industrialization processes. Also, it generates foreign income due to exportation. Export earnings are estimated to be between 60 and 80 billion dollars per year [30]. This income indicates the economic importance of the coffee sector in Ecuador. However, farmers are not the main beneficiaries of the coffee industry. Most of the income remains with the intermediaries who sell coffee on the international market [30]. An indicator of this reality is the high poverty rates in rural areas, which exceed 42% [20].
To survive, small farmers had to diversify their cropland. A small part is used to grow short-cycle food for sale and self-consumption. They also raise animals to obtain more economic income [29]. The difficult economic situation explains the migration of the younger population to the cities in search of better economic opportunities. This migration has caused the aging of farmers. It is estimated that the average age of coffee farmers is 50 years [20, 29, 31]. This means that over time their work capacity will decrease and there will be no new generations that continue with the activity.
To rescue coffee cultivation, small producers created the “benefits” that are legal associations that ensure fair trade. Unfortunately, 95% of coffee producers do not belong to any association [29]. One explanation for this fact is that most of the farms are in places of difficult access and do not have good communication channels. Phone signals do not work, and they live in isolation. Improving access to roads and basic services should be the government\'s priority to improve productivity. Table 1 shows the main coffee growers\' associations in Ecuador.
Coffee growers Associations | Province of action |
---|---|
Asociación Nacional Ecuatoriana de café (ANECAFÉ) | All provinces |
Federación Regional de Asociaciones de Pequeños Cafetaleros Ecológicos del Sur (FAPECAFE) | Loja, El Oro y Samora Chinchipe |
Asociación Agroartesanal de Caficultores “Río Íntag” (AACRI) | Imbabura y Pichincha |
Asociacion De Productores Y Comercializadores De Cafe Organico Bosque Nublado Golondrinas. | Carchi |
Empresa de Comercialización Asociativa de Manabí (COREMANABA) Corporación Ecuatoriana de Cafetaleros (CORECAF) Federación de Asociaciones Artesanales de Producción Cafetalera Ecológica de Manabí (FECAFEM). | Portoviejo, Guayas |
Asociación Aroma amazónico | Sucumbios y Orellana |
Asociación Aroma amazónico | Sucumbios y Orellana |
Ecuadorian coffee growers association by Provinces.
Another important issue is the fact that farmers produce coffee, but they don’t have the culture of coffee, understanding that they are not coffee drinkers. This is a fundamental difference from other neighboring countries such as Colombia where a true culture of coffee has been achieved and promoted through tourist activities that generates additional income for coffee growers. This data was observed after visiting several rural farms in the Andean region.
Creating a culture of coffee around this drink could influence the quality of the final product. The National Ecuadorian Coffee Association (ANECAFE) organizes different tasting events for this purpose.
The quality of coffee depends on its organoleptic characteristics, which in turn depend on many other factors, including the genetics of the plant, the environmental conditions, the agricultural practices, the degree of cherry ripeness, and the post-harvest processing and the storage and transport conditions. Each step in coffee production is then of fundamental importance for obtaining the golden bean [32].
Due to the different ecosystem characteristics, Ecuador is one of the few countries in the world that can cultivate the two commercial species of coffee,
Distribution of
Region | Environmental conditions for coffee cultivation |
---|---|
Andean | 18–23°C 1500–2900 masl |
Coast | 25–30°C 40–600 masl |
Amazon | 23° <500 masl |
Galapagos | 25°C 180–450 masl |
Environmental conditions of coffee plantations by region.
Of the two species,
The most cultivated varieties of
Variety | Characteristics |
---|---|
Bourbon | It is originated from the Typica variety. It is known for its excellent cup quality. It has a 30% higher productivity than the typical variety. It reaches heights of 3 m, being susceptible to winds. Its maturation is early and there is a risk of fruit falling due to rain |
Typica | Originally from Ethiopia, it began the history of coffee cultivation in America. It is characterized by being high (4 m). It has low productivity and is susceptible to rust. However, its cup is highly valued. It grows between 1300 and 1800 masl |
Caturra | Arose from a mutation of bourbon. It is a low height (1.8 m). Its fruits can be red and yellow. They are characterized by early maturation. They tolerate drought, wind, and sun exposure better |
Geisha | Originally from Ethiopia. The most important characteristic is its excellent cup and for that reason, it still occupies a place in production, however, it has low productivity and resistance to rust |
Catucaí | It comes from an artificial cross between the Mundo Novo and Caturra varieties carried out in Brazil. They reach heights of 2.25 m and have high productivity (7.9 tons/hectare). The maturation of its fruit is late, being beneficial for areas where maturation coincides with the rainy season |
Timor | The Timor Hybrid is originated from a spontaneous cross between the Typica variety of |
Castillo | It is originated from Colombia. It was developed by the National Coffee Research Center (Cenicafe). It is a pest-resistant plant characterized by being precocious and highly productive |
Sidra | Discovered in Ecuador as a result of a cross between the Typica and Bourbon varieties. It is known for its aroma of flowers and fruits |
Sarchimor | The Sarchimores are plants of low size, green or bronze bud, vigor, and high production, well adapted to low and medium altitude areas, and good cup quality |
Most common
Most coffee growers in Ecuador prefer the quality of the final product due to the higher economic income obtained with an excellent coffee rating. The National Ecuadorian Coffee Association (ANECAFE), for example, awards the best producers with the “golden cup”. The golden cup is a contest in which international experts evaluated different coffee quality parameters like aroma, sweetness, body, color, and others. In 2021, the Sidra and Geisha varieties, grown in the Andean provinces of Pichincha and Loja, were the most appreciated by the expert\'s panel, achieving quality scores higher than 90 points [42]. This nomination allows farmers to sell coffee at prices 10–100 times higher.
On the other hand, robusta coffee grows in warmer places on the coast and in the Amazon region. It is more productive, resistant to high temperatures and pests, and contributes mainly to the local market. It is appreciated in special mixes and soluble coffee production [43]. Maincrop differences between
Arabica | Robusta | |
---|---|---|
Time from flower to ripe cherry | 9 months | 10–11 months |
Yield (kg beans/ha) | 1500–2000 | 2300–4000 |
Optimum temperature (yearly average) | 15–24°C | 24–30°C |
Optimal rainfall | 1500–2000 mm | 2000–3000 mm |
Optimal altitude | 1000–2000 masl | 0–700 masl |
Caffeine content of beans | 0.8–1.4% | 1.7–4% |
Maincrop differences between
In terms of genetics, there is significant variability of bean chemical composition and organoleptic characteristics between arabica and robusta and within variety levels [41]. Therefore, genetic gains for quality can be achieved by hybridization strategies and the use of new genomic tools that offers the opportunity to accurately decipher the genomic control of quality components.
Coffee is grown under agroforestry polyculture systems that, on the one hand, allow the conservation of biodiversity and, on the other hand, provide multiple advantages to coffee plantations. The trees provide shade, helping to maintain a suitable temperature. They also form a barrier that prevents damage from strong winds and rain and counteracts the spread of pathogens. In addition, they prevent soil erosion, forming ecosystem corridors that allow maintaining a considerable biodiversity of flora, fauna, and beneficial microorganisms [44].
The most common trees found in Ecuadorian coffee plantations are a mix of fruit trees (
Coffee trees under agroforestry system. Intag-Ecuador. (Source: Sania Ortega).
Because of all positive factors, the agroforestry system is more sustainable. However, it is important that farmers adapt this system to their specific conditions to avoid competition between species for nutrients and water. This competition could decrease production. The tree density recommended by the sustainable agriculture network (SAN) is 40%. Higher densities subtract sunlight from coffee, producing opposite effects [46]. The choice of shade trees is also important. Trees with deep and widely branched roots are generally preferred. Leguminous trees are also relevant for their ability to fix nitrogen. In Ecuador, the leguminous Guaba tree (
Coffee trees tolerate a wide range of soils if they are deep, porous, well-drained, and well balanced for their texture. Coffee is not very demanding in soil fertility, and it can be cultivated in fertile as well as in poor soils even in acidic soils. Ecuadorian volcanic soils are particularly well suited for coffee [48]. Nonetheless, the production of green coffee leads to the depletion of nutrients. This depletion needs to be compensated by appropriate fertilization to keep a constant and high production. Proper nutrition is important for vigorous plants. Parameters such as the age of the coffee trees, the planting density, and the degree of intensification must be considered [46]. It is advisable to take soil samples before applying fertilizers. Foliar fertilization is often used to compensate deficiencies in micronutrients like zinc, boron, iron, and manganese [49].
Ecuadorian rural farms do not have nearby laboratories to monitor the nutrient content in the soil. So, fertilization and fumigation are based on farmers\' intuition and experience. Unfortunately, this is a problem that could seriously affect the quality of the soils as well as coffee production. Another problem is the lack of records of the treatments applied.
Although correct fertilization can supply any nutrient deficiency, to guarantee sustainability it is important to preserve the soil microbiota. Microorganisms play a very important role in soil fertility and crop production because of their ability to promote plant growth, enhance biotic and abiotic stress resistance, and facilitate and improve the absorption of nutrients by the root [50].
Plant growth-promoting microorganisms, and arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) have been used in coffee trees to improve productivity and reduce the application of chemical fertilizers [50, 51]. In a study carried out in Mexico, for example, it was shown that the inoculation of coffee seedlings with
A critical task for coffee growers around the world is the control of pathogens and diseases. The biotrophic fungus
On the other hand, coffee berry borer (
With this overview, obtaining quality coffee is not an easy task and requires extensive technical and scientific knowledge. The error of the programs carried out by the Ministry of Agriculture was to generalize production and not consider the unique characteristics of each ecosystem. Successful models in other countries are not always adapted to the reality of each region. In conclusion, there are research lines that must be established to select varieties with superior characteristics, understand the ecological relationship of coffee in each ecosystem and isolate native microorganisms useful to improve plant growth and pest. It is also important to register the treatments and practices carried out by the farmers and learn from their experiences.
The cup of coffee has a process behind it that varies according to the region, the variety of coffee planted, and the use of the different post-harvest treatments. All these factors give each coffee a unique flavor.
Coffee trees, depending on the specific variety, take between 3 and 4 years to bear the first fruits. Generally, coffee cherry ripening is faster in lower and warmer areas. Nonetheless, slow ripening is more advisable to achieve better organoleptic characteristics [64]. To guarantee coffee quality, it is important to harvest only ripe fruits. The coffee tree declines its productivity after 20 years [65]. Therefore, it is important to renew coffee plantations.
The process of harvesting coffee beans can be carried out by different methods, among which are manual or mechanical. In Ecuador, a manual process is the most used. Workers collect the coffee berry, avoiding collecting green ones and discarding the grains that are dry or damaged. All coffee fruits are collected in plastic handcrafted containers and transported to the classification area. Harvesting depends on the labor and skill acquired to select the best fruits. In general, it is hard work since the collectors must walk long distances on slopes where a big part of coffee plantations are located.
After fruits collection, the flotation technique is used for the selection of the beans. It consists in covering the cherries with water. Contaminants such as stones, garbage, and floats are discarded. Subsequently, a second review of the fruits is carried out, spreading them on African beds or similar structures to discard those that are not cherry-colored. All discarded fruits (pasilla) are considered inferior in quality and therefore have a lower price in the market.
Post-harvest treatments are part of the coffee production process, the latter can be classified into three different types of processing: wet or washed, dry or natural, and semi-dry or honey. The country\'s coffee growers carry out empirical experiments to determine which treatment provides the best quality results. In general, dry processes are applied in the Robusta variety, and wet ones in Arabica [66, 67]. The different steps of each process are summarized in Figure 3.
Coffee processing technologies.
All treatments share the harvest and flotation stage. The natural or dry process is considered the simplest and most traditional at the national level since it consists of the direct drying of the fruits and the subsequent removal of the dry pericarp by manual or mechanical action [68]. On the other hand, the semi-dry process has a previous stage of mechanical pulping to remove the pericarp before drying [67]. Finally, the wet process requires a fermentation step which needs robust control. The quality of the coffee obtained from the wet process is generally higher compared to the other processes [68].
Natural processing is considered the oldest and most traditional technology. It is relatively simple and inexpensive. Previously selected cherries went through a drying process, to finally be shelled and pulped. The drying process prevents the growth of microorganisms. It is done under the sun or through air dryers that allow reaching a humidity of 10–12%, which is considered a standard measure for the coffee to retain its volatile compounds until roasting [67, 68].
In Ecuador, the Robusta coffee is dried directly under the sunlight. The advantage of this process is the cost. However, there are several disadvantages such as the time of the process which depends on the weather conditions, and the constant control required to prevent damage due to dust, rain, or storms. This process ends with the extraction of the pericarp and the dry pulp to obtain only the green coffee beans that will be later stored. This can be done manually through a mortar or threshing machine, or through mechanical hullers.
The wet process is the treatment with the best results in terms of coffee quality [69]. The main difference with the dry process is the pulped step. The pulping is carried out mechanically and consists of the removal of the exocarp and part of the mesocarp of the coffee cherry. Figures 4 and 5, show a classical pulped machine used by smallholders. The pulp is squeezed through a rotating disc or drum. This process must be carried out in a way that does not damage the bean which could lead to microbial attack or contamination. The part of the remaining mesocarp is the mucilage, which will be important in the subsequent fermentation process [67, 70].
Pulped Machine in Piedra Grande San Jerónimo’s Farm, Lita-Imbabura (source: Sabastian Obando).
Pulped process of a family agroforestry system. Intag-Ecuador. (source: Sania Ortega).
Mucilage fermentation is the important turning point for wet production due to the quality indicators that it provides such as aroma and flavor [70, 71]. The fermentation process is important to degrade the mucilage resulting from the previous process, containing a large amount of pectin, starch, and cellulose; being an ideal substrate for yeasts and bacteria [71]. In Ecuador, a metagenomic study on the fermentation processes of coffee was developed confirming the presence of enterobacteria, lactic acid bacteria, and yeasts as the majority of microorganisms’ groups [72]. Microorganism isolation and evaluation of fermentation ability must be the next step to improve flavor quality.
Microorganisms are the secret of fermentation. Its metabolic routes produce secondary metabolites and volatile compounds associated with aromas and flavors [73].
Studies have been carried out to isolate different microorganisms and evaluate their ability to produce volatile compounds and how they affect coffee quality [74, 75]. Alcohols are abundant volatile metabolites that fulfill various functions such as providing fruity aromas and flavors, contributing to physical characteristics
The washing process must be carried out immediately after the fermentation process is completed to avoid an overfermentation and production of propionic and butyric acid that are related to onion flavors and aromas. Washing is done with drinking or irrigation water seeking to remove all the mucilage resulting from the fermentation process before drying. The drying and shelling are carried out under the same conditions as the dry or natural process [67, 68]. Figure 6 is a classical air-drying installation.
Sun-drying coffee beans. (Source Sebastian Obando).
The semi-dry process is a combination of the two previous processes. The bean with the layer of mucilage is left to dry directly in the sun, as in both processes. This step allows the layer of mucilage to impregnate the bean giving it a color and texture equal to honey. It is a process that requires less control. The fermentation process is considered to occur in the drying stage. Microbial inoculants have been also studied in this process [77, 78].
This process is the most recommended in Ecuador since it allows to obtain high quality and produces less wastewater. Some types of coffee processed with the wet and honey method have been awarded with the golden cup [42]
After coffee bean processing, bean coffee could be roasted or stored. Storage conditions must be controlled to prevent fungal growth and mycotoxin production [79].
Like cultivation, coffee processing requires extensive knowledge and special attention since it directly influences the quality of the final product. Each producer maintains in reserve the details of the processing, especially in the fermentation stage. However, cooperation between producers is a key factor in marketing. Coffee Associations often fail to meet the demand of international markets due to differences in quality obtained between partners.
As in cultivation, coffee producers experiment by varying production methods or parameters during the process. Although the experimentation carried out is a positive aspect, it is necessary to standardize the production to guarantee the same quality in all harvests. Research is also an essential component of development.
Each process generates a different type and volume of waste such as water, pulp, and parchment (Figure 1). It is estimated that ¾ of the volume of the total beans harvested are residues [80]. Since in Ecuador the cultivation of coffee is a family and rural activity, the use of sophisticated technologies for the valorization of residues is not applicable. The most suitable technologies are related to reuse in agriculture, animal feed, and energy production [81].
A large part of the farmers processes their own coffee on the farm, so the waste is managed internally. A common practice is to spread the residues directly on the fields and let them naturally degrade. However, the application of not completely degraded residues produces adverse effects, including phytotoxicity [82]. On the other hand, this practice facilitates the spread of pests from infected and discarded fruits, and bad odors, among others. In addition, this bad practice produces contamination of water sources. Most of the farms are located on hills and when it rains the water carries pollutants to the lower areas that end up polluting rivers.
Other coffee growers take the harvested beans to the collection centers to be processed afterward. These collection centers usually have a place for composting. Compost obtained is then sold as an amendment to use in coffee or other minor crops. Data on the quality of this amendment is not available. Generally, composting process is carried out under partial or not controlled conditions. Something important to highlight is that each farm must be concerned about its sustainability to be competitive. Organic certifications are always more important to gain and guarantee a marketplace. On the other hand, chemical fertilizers are expensive. Therefore, taking advantage of nutrient-rich waste is the most viable option for self-sustainability.
Coffee by-products are characterized by a high concentration of nutrients and other compounds such as polyphenols and caffeine that in high concentrations could be phytotoxic [80]. For this reason, it is important to a stabilization treatment before its use in agriculture. Composting remains the best and cheapest way to achieve this aim. However, it must be a controlled process to guarantee phytotoxic reduction and pathogens elimination.
Because composting is a microbial degradation process. The selection of specific degrading microorganisms could be a good option to improve compost quality and reduce composting time. Compost can also be used as a strategy to introduce PGPR and biocontrol agents. A similar experience was achieved by the Italian olive industry which residues are very similar in composition to those of coffee [83].
Generally, coffee growers mix coffee by-products with other agricultural residues from minor crops and manure from raising pigs, chickens, guinea pigs, and cows. These processes are not technical and therefore the results obtained may be variable or not satisfactory. For this reason, boosting the correct management of composting technology would require appropriate training for groups. This should include appropriate training on quality control of the final product to guarantee the reduction of phytotoxicity, the elimination of pathogens, and the stabilization of the compost. Good results of compost application in rural areas were obtained in Vietnam [84].
Another re-utilization process is to use by-products as animal feed. The presence of tannins and caffeine diminishes the acceptability and palatability of husk by animals. So, the degradation of caffeine by microorganisms, especially bacteria, needs further studies.
In conclusion, composting is the most applicable technology to coffee waste management because it only requires a space that farms generally have and common work tools to remove de compost. It also helps to return to the soil part of the nutrients extracted by agriculture. Other technologies are too expensive and require big quantities to recover the investment. As in cultivation and processing, waste disposal should also be linked to research programs that over time can provide alternative solutions contributing to rural and sustainable development.
Coffee is a strategic crop; it has a growing world market and therefore great economic potential. It also has environmental benefits that distinguish it from other expansive crops such as palm and banana.
On the other hand, Ecuador has optimal geographical and climatic conditions for growing coffee but has a lower production (3–5 quintals/ha) compared to other producing countries in the region such as Brazil and Colombia (35–40 quintals/ha) [20]. These competitive disadvantages prevent Ecuador from covering the market demand, which has affected the coffee trade [17]. The low productivity can be explained by many factors such as poverty in rural areas, lack of trained workers, inadequate management of pests and diseases, the presence of aged coffee plantations, insufficient infrastructure technology for post-harvest processes, and the lack of effective marketing channels [15]. To overcome these deficiencies, it is essential to improve the quality of life of farmers by guaranteeing access to basic services and education. Farmer’s income must be protected with adequate economic policies. This will allow new generations to see agriculture as a profitable livelihood and assure sustainability.
Scientific research is also important to overcome problems like pest control and productivity. Reactivation programs must include the active participation of research centers and not just incentives and subsidies.
The sustainable development of coffee farming in rural areas does not necessarily require large investments, but it does require cooperation between farmers and research centers to guarantee knowledge transfer. The variability of coffee quality between farmers fails to meet market demand. Coffee producers tend to compete rather work as a team and help others to achieve quality, so cooperation is a point of force.
Under current conditions, Ecuador is not competitive in terms of volume due to a lack of technology and workforce, however, it can be very competitive in terms of quality thanks to the variability of ecosystems that give coffee special characteristics.
The results of the coffee-cocoa reactivation program established by the Ministry of Agriculture of Ecuador in the years 2012–2021 are expected to show appreciable improvements in productivity. Furthermore, this program is expected to allow the renovation of coffee plantations, the technical training of farmers, and the implementation of modern infrastructure.
Making changes in public policies to comply with territorial development programs that are based on sustainable development objectives is needed. Public policy in the “Socio Bosque” Program, for example, should be strengthened to generate incentives for farmers who have or opt for agroecological plantations and have organic certifications. In this way, the program would ensure the maintenance of primary forests while increasing economic income for coffee-growing families. In this way, conservation would be guaranteed along with the improvement of life quality.
We want to thank the associations of organic coffee producers Bosque Nublado Golondrinas and Río Intag for opening the doors of their farms and sharing with us their day-by-day efforts in this wonderful activity.
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This chapter discusses different traditional and novel treatment modalities to combat different types of cancer.",book:{id:"6313",slug:"neoplasm",title:"Neoplasm",fullTitle:"Neoplasm"},signatures:"Zaigham Abbas and Sakina Rehman",authors:[{id:"214546",title:"Dr.",name:"Zaigham",middleName:null,surname:"Abbas",slug:"zaigham-abbas",fullName:"Zaigham Abbas"}]},{id:"64307",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.81773",title:"The Role of Long Noncoding RNAs in Gene Expression Regulation",slug:"the-role-of-long-noncoding-rnas-in-gene-expression-regulation",totalDownloads:2024,totalCrossrefCites:14,totalDimensionsCites:30,abstract:"Accumulating evidence highlights that noncoding RNAs, especially the long noncoding RNAs (lncRNAs), are critical regulators of gene expression in development, differentiation, and human diseases, such as cancers and heart diseases. The regulatory mechanisms of lncRNAs have been categorized into four major archetypes: signals, decoys, scaffolds, and guides. Increasing evidence points that lncRNAs are able to regulate almost every cellular process by their binding to proteins, mRNAs, miRNA, and/or DNAs. In this review, we present the recent research advances about the regulatory mechanisms of lncRNA in gene expression at various levels, including pretranscription, transcription regulation, and posttranscription regulation. We also introduce the interaction between lncRNA and DNA, RNA and protein, and the bioinformatics applications on lncRNA research.",book:{id:"8322",slug:"gene-expression-profiling-in-cancer",title:"Gene Expression Profiling in Cancer",fullTitle:"Gene Expression Profiling in Cancer"},signatures:"Zhijin Li, Weiling Zhao, Maode Wang and Xiaobo Zhou",authors:null},{id:"64178",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.81517",title:"Zebrafish (Danio rerio) as a Model Organism",slug:"zebrafish-em-danio-rerio-em-as-a-model-organism",totalDownloads:2766,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:24,abstract:"Animals as model organisms, the silent sentinels, stand watch over the environmental health of the world. These are non-human animal species which can be used to understand specific biological processes and to obtain informations which can provide an insight into working of other organisms. Among the model organisms, the zebrafish (Danio rerio) is one of the best leading models to study developmental biology, cancer, toxicology, drug discovery, and molecular genetics. In addition, the zebrafish is increasingly used as a genetic model organism for aquaculture species and in toxicogenomics and also to generate zebrafish disease models for application in human biomedicines. This tiny fish is a versatile model organism for many fields of research because of its easy maintenance, breeding, and transparent body during early development.",book:{id:"7054",slug:"current-trends-in-cancer-management",title:"Current Trends in Cancer Management",fullTitle:"Current Trends in Cancer Management"},signatures:"Farmanur Rahman Khan and Saleh Sulaiman Alhewairini",authors:[{id:"221847",title:"Dr.",name:"Saleh",middleName:null,surname:"Alhewairini",slug:"saleh-alhewairini",fullName:"Saleh Alhewairini"},{id:"258210",title:"Dr.",name:"Farmanur Rahman",middleName:null,surname:"Khan",slug:"farmanur-rahman-khan",fullName:"Farmanur Rahman Khan"}]},{id:"61662",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.78271",title:"The Human Epidermal Growth Factor Receptor 2 (HER2) as a Prognostic and Predictive Biomarker: Molecular Insights into HER2 Activation and Diagnostic Implications",slug:"the-human-epidermal-growth-factor-receptor-2-her2-as-a-prognostic-and-predictive-biomarker-molecular",totalDownloads:1701,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:10,abstract:"The human epidermal growth factor receptor 2 (HER2) is a transmembrane tyrosine kinase receptor protein. HER2 gene amplification and receptor overexpression, which occur in 15–20% of breast cancer patients, are important markers for poor prognosis. Moreover, HER2-positive status is considered a predictive marker of response to HER2 inhibitors including trastuzumab and lapatinib. Therefore, reliable HER2 determination is essential to determine the eligibility of breast cancer patients to targeted anti-HER2 therapies. In this chapter, we aim to illustrate important aspects of the HER2 receptor as well as the molecular consequences of its aberrant constitutive activation in breast cancer. In addition, we will present the methods that can be used for the evaluation of HER2 status at different levels (protein, RNA, and DNA level) in clinical practice.",book:{id:"6813",slug:"cancer-prognosis",title:"Cancer Prognosis",fullTitle:"Cancer Prognosis"},signatures:"Daniela Furrer, Claudie Paquet, Simon Jacob and Caroline Diorio",authors:null},{id:"67964",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.87963",title:"Protein Tyrosine Phosphatases in Tumor Progression and Metastasis: Promoter or Protection?",slug:"protein-tyrosine-phosphatases-in-tumor-progression-and-metastasis-promoter-or-protection-",totalDownloads:920,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:5,abstract:"Reversible phosphorylation of proteins, executed by kinases and phosphatases, is the major posttranslational protein modification in eukaryotic cells, causing them to become activated or deactivated. This intracellular event represents a critical regulatory mechanism of several signaling pathways and can be related to a broad number of diseases, including cancer. Few decades ago, protein tyrosine phosphatases (PTPs) were considered as tumor suppressors. However, nowadays, accumulating evidence demonstrates that a misregulation of PTP activities plays a crucial and decisive role in cancer progression and metastasis. In this chapter, we will focus on the molecular aspects that support the crucial role of PTPs in cancer and in turn make them promising for prediction, monitoring, and rational appropriate therapy selection of individual patients.",book:{id:"8002",slug:"tumor-progression-and-metastasis",title:"Tumor Progression and Metastasis",fullTitle:"Tumor Progression and Metastasis"},signatures:"Carmen V. Ferreira-Halder, Stefano Piatto Clerici, Alessandra V. Sousa Faria, Patrícia Fernandes de Souza Oliveira, Helon Guimarães Cordeiro and Erica Akagi",authors:[{id:"61709",title:"Prof.",name:"Carmen",middleName:null,surname:"Ferreira",slug:"carmen-ferreira",fullName:"Carmen Ferreira"},{id:"307647",title:"MSc.",name:"Stefano",middleName:null,surname:"Piatto Clerici",slug:"stefano-piatto-clerici",fullName:"Stefano Piatto Clerici"},{id:"307648",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Alessandra",middleName:"V. S.",surname:"Faria",slug:"alessandra-faria",fullName:"Alessandra Faria"},{id:"307649",title:"MSc.",name:"Patrícia",middleName:null,surname:"Oliveira",slug:"patricia-oliveira",fullName:"Patrícia Oliveira"},{id:"307650",title:"MSc.",name:"Helon",middleName:null,surname:"Cordeiro",slug:"helon-cordeiro",fullName:"Helon Cordeiro"},{id:"307651",title:"Dr.",name:"Erica",middleName:null,surname:"Akagi",slug:"erica-akagi",fullName:"Erica Akagi"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"60895",title:"An Overview of Cancer Treatment Modalities",slug:"an-overview-of-cancer-treatment-modalities",totalDownloads:3024,totalCrossrefCites:28,totalDimensionsCites:55,abstract:"Cancer is a global issue majorly affecting developing countries. According to a survey, 63% of deaths due to cancer are reported from developing countries. There are different conventional treatment modalities that are available to treat and manage cancer. However, new cancer treatment options are being explored continuously as over 60% of all current experimental trials worldwide are focusing on tumor cure. The success of treatment depends upon the type of cancer, locality of tumor, and its stage of progression. Surgery, radiation-based surgical knives, chemotherapy, and radiotherapy are some of the traditional and most widely used treatment options. Some of the modern modalities include hormone-based therapy, anti-angiogenic modalities, stem cell therapies, and dendritic cell-based immunotherapy. This chapter discusses different traditional and novel treatment modalities to combat different types of cancer.",book:{id:"6313",slug:"neoplasm",title:"Neoplasm",fullTitle:"Neoplasm"},signatures:"Zaigham Abbas and Sakina Rehman",authors:[{id:"214546",title:"Dr.",name:"Zaigham",middleName:null,surname:"Abbas",slug:"zaigham-abbas",fullName:"Zaigham Abbas"}]},{id:"64178",title:"Zebrafish (Danio rerio) as a Model Organism",slug:"zebrafish-em-danio-rerio-em-as-a-model-organism",totalDownloads:2757,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:24,abstract:"Animals as model organisms, the silent sentinels, stand watch over the environmental health of the world. These are non-human animal species which can be used to understand specific biological processes and to obtain informations which can provide an insight into working of other organisms. Among the model organisms, the zebrafish (Danio rerio) is one of the best leading models to study developmental biology, cancer, toxicology, drug discovery, and molecular genetics. In addition, the zebrafish is increasingly used as a genetic model organism for aquaculture species and in toxicogenomics and also to generate zebrafish disease models for application in human biomedicines. This tiny fish is a versatile model organism for many fields of research because of its easy maintenance, breeding, and transparent body during early development.",book:{id:"7054",slug:"current-trends-in-cancer-management",title:"Current Trends in Cancer Management",fullTitle:"Current Trends in Cancer Management"},signatures:"Farmanur Rahman Khan and Saleh Sulaiman Alhewairini",authors:[{id:"221847",title:"Dr.",name:"Saleh",middleName:null,surname:"Alhewairini",slug:"saleh-alhewairini",fullName:"Saleh Alhewairini"},{id:"258210",title:"Dr.",name:"Farmanur Rahman",middleName:null,surname:"Khan",slug:"farmanur-rahman-khan",fullName:"Farmanur Rahman Khan"}]},{id:"70898",title:"MicroRNA: A Signature for Cancer Diagnostics",slug:"microrna-a-signature-for-cancer-diagnostics",totalDownloads:956,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Various tools and techniques are being used for the diagnosis of cancer, but not a sole technique provides powerful result at the very early stages of cancer. This provides the need for type of tools which could detect cancer at early stages so that survival rate could be augmented. There are various diagnostic ways to identify cancer, but in each case, there are always circumstances to compromise on the sensitivity. In this framework, a new and more advanced approach of diagnosis for cancer is microRNA (miRNA). miRNAs are conserved regions among humans and animals, and their synthesis takes place in the nucleus and cytoplasm. There are several types of microRNAs that could be upregulated and downregulated in various cancers. A cancer cell could be identified by measurement of the expression pattern of miRNA. By examining the expression level for different types of cancers, miRNA can be used as biomarker for early detection of cancer in human beings.",book:{id:"9172",slug:"current-cancer-treatment",title:"Current Cancer Treatment",fullTitle:"Current Cancer Treatment"},signatures:"Ayesha Siddiqua, Sumaira Kousar, Amer Jamil, Riaz Tabassum, Tariq Mehmood and Nusrat Shafiq",authors:null},{id:"63685",title:"A Molecular Link between the Circadian Clock, DNA Damage Responses, and Oncogene Activation",slug:"a-molecular-link-between-the-circadian-clock-dna-damage-responses-and-oncogene-activation",totalDownloads:1391,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"Circadian clocks enhance the efficiency and survival of living things by organizing their behavior and body functions. There has been a long history of research seeking a link between circadian clock and tumorigenesis. Studies of animal models and human tumor samples have revealed that the dysregulation of circadian clocks is an important endogenous factor causing mammalian cancer development. The core circadian clock regulators have been implicated in the control of both the cell cycle and DNA damage responses (DDR). Conversely, several intracellular signaling cascades that play important roles in regulation of the cell cycle and the DDR also contribute to circadian clock regulation. This review describes selected regulatory aspects of circadian clocks, providing evidence of a molecular link of the circadian clocks with cellular DDR.",book:{id:"7281",slug:"oncogenes-and-carcinogenesis",title:"Oncogenes and Carcinogenesis",fullTitle:"Oncogenes and Carcinogenesis"},signatures:"Yoshimi Okamoto-Uchida, Junko Izawa and Jun Hirayama",authors:[{id:"246364",title:"Prof.",name:"Jun",middleName:null,surname:"Hirayama",slug:"jun-hirayama",fullName:"Jun Hirayama"}]},{id:"67447",title:"Molecular Pathogenesis of Oral Squamous Cell Carcinoma",slug:"molecular-pathogenesis-of-oral-squamous-cell-carcinoma",totalDownloads:3772,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"Oral carcinogenesis is a molecular and histological multistage process featuring genetic and phenotypic molecular markers which involves enhanced function of several protooncogenes, oncogenes and/or the deactivation of tumor suppressor genes, resulting in the over activity of growth factors and its cell surface receptors, which could enhance messenger signaling intracellularly, and/or leads to the increased production of transcription factors. Alone oncogenes are not responsible for carcinogenesis, genes having tumor suppressor activity, leads to a phenotypic change in cell which is responsible for increased cell proliferation, loss of cellular cohesion, and the ability to infiltrate local tissue and spread to distant sites. Understanding the molecular interplay of both onco and tumor genes will allow more accurate diagnosis and assessment of prognosis, which might lead the way for novel approaches to treatment.",book:{id:"8211",slug:"squamous-cell-carcinoma-hallmark-and-treatment-modalities",title:"Squamous Cell Carcinoma",fullTitle:"Squamous Cell Carcinoma - Hallmark and Treatment Modalities"},signatures:"Anshi Jain",authors:[{id:"280692",title:"Dr.",name:"Anshi",middleName:null,surname:"Jain",slug:"anshi-jain",fullName:"Anshi Jain"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"60",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:89,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:104,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:32,numberOfPublishedChapters:318,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:141,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:113,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:106,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:5,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:15,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",issn:"2632-0983",scope:"Biochemistry, the study of chemical transformations occurring within living organisms, impacts all areas of life sciences, from molecular crystallography and genetics to ecology, medicine, and population biology. Biochemistry examines macromolecules - proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and lipids – and their building blocks, structures, functions, and interactions. Much of biochemistry is devoted to enzymes, proteins that catalyze chemical reactions, enzyme structures, mechanisms of action and their roles within cells. Biochemistry also studies small signaling molecules, coenzymes, inhibitors, vitamins, and hormones, which play roles in life processes. Biochemical experimentation, besides coopting classical chemistry methods, e.g., chromatography, adopted new techniques, e.g., X-ray diffraction, electron microscopy, NMR, radioisotopes, and developed sophisticated microbial genetic tools, e.g., auxotroph mutants and their revertants, fermentation, etc. More recently, biochemistry embraced the ‘big data’ omics systems. Initial biochemical studies have been exclusively analytic: dissecting, purifying, and examining individual components of a biological system; in the apt words of Efraim Racker (1913 –1991), “Don’t waste clean thinking on dirty enzymes.” Today, however, biochemistry is becoming more agglomerative and comprehensive, setting out to integrate and describe entirely particular biological systems. The ‘big data’ metabolomics can define the complement of small molecules, e.g., in a soil or biofilm sample; proteomics can distinguish all the comprising proteins, e.g., serum; metagenomics can identify all the genes in a complex environment, e.g., the bovine rumen. This Biochemistry Series will address the current research on biomolecules and the emerging trends with great promise.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/11.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"June 29th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:32,editor:{id:"31610",title:"Dr.",name:"Miroslav",middleName:null,surname:"Blumenberg",slug:"miroslav-blumenberg",fullName:"Miroslav Blumenberg",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/31610/images/system/31610.jpg",biography:"Miroslav Blumenberg, Ph.D., was born in Subotica and received his BSc in Belgrade, Yugoslavia. He completed his Ph.D. at MIT in Organic Chemistry; he followed up his Ph.D. with two postdoctoral study periods at Stanford University. Since 1983, he has been a faculty member of the RO Perelman Department of Dermatology, NYU School of Medicine, where he is codirector of a training grant in cutaneous biology. Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. He has published more than 100 peer-reviewed research articles and graduated numerous Ph.D. and postdoctoral students.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"New York University Langone Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:4,paginationItems:[{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/14.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"165627",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosa María",middleName:null,surname:"Martínez-Espinosa",slug:"rosa-maria-martinez-espinosa",fullName:"Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/165627/images/system/165627.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa has been a Spanish Full Professor since 2020 (Biochemistry and Molecular Biology) and is currently Vice-President of International Relations and Cooperation development and leader of the research group 'Applied Biochemistry” (University of Alicante, Spain). Other positions she has held at the university include Vice-Dean of Master Programs, Vice-Dean of the Degree in Biology and Vice-Dean for Mobility and Enterprise and Engagement at the Faculty of Science (University of Alicante). She received her Bachelor in Biology in 1998 (University of Alicante) and her PhD in 2003 (Biochemistry, University of Alicante). She undertook post-doctoral research at the University of East Anglia (Norwich, U.K. 2004-2005; 2007-2008).\nHer multidisciplinary research focuses on investigating archaea and their potential applications in biotechnology. She has an H-index of 21. She has authored one patent and has published more than 70 indexed papers and around 60 book chapters.\nShe has contributed to more than 150 national and international meetings during the last 15 years. Her research interests include archaea metabolism, enzymes purification and characterization, gene regulation, carotenoids and bioplastics production, antioxidant\ncompounds, waste water treatments, and brines bioremediation.\nRosa María’s other roles include editorial board member for several journals related\nto biochemistry, reviewer for more than 60 journals (biochemistry, molecular biology, biotechnology, chemistry and microbiology) and president of several organizing committees in international meetings related to the N-cycle or respiratory processes.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"441442",title:"Dr.",name:"Şükrü",middleName:null,surname:"Beydemir",slug:"sukru-beydemir",fullName:"Şükrü Beydemir",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003GsUoIQAV/Profile_Picture_1634557147521",biography:"Dr. Şükrü Beydemir obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 1995 from Yüzüncü Yıl University, MSc in Biochemistry in 1998, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2002 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He performed post-doctoral studies at Max-Planck Institute, Germany, and University of Florence, Italy in addition to making several scientific visits abroad. He currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Anadolu University, Turkey. Dr. Beydemir has published over a hundred scientific papers spanning protein biochemistry, enzymology and medicinal chemistry, reviews, book chapters and presented several conferences to scientists worldwide. He has received numerous publication awards from various international scientific councils. He serves in the Editorial Board of several international journals. Dr. Beydemir is also Rector of Bilecik Şeyh Edebali University, Turkey.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Anadolu University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorTwo:{id:"13652",title:"Prof.",name:"Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Ekinci",slug:"deniz-ekinci",fullName:"Deniz Ekinci",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYLT1QAO/Profile_Picture_1634557223079",biography:"Dr. Deniz Ekinci obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 2004, MSc in Biochemistry in 2006, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2009 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He studied at Stetson University, USA, in 2007-2008 and at the Max Planck Institute of Molecular Cell Biology and Genetics, Germany, in 2009-2010. Dr. Ekinci currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Agriculture and is the Head of the Enzyme and Microbial Biotechnology Division, Ondokuz Mayıs University, Turkey. He is a member of the Turkish Biochemical Society, American Chemical Society, and German Genetics society. Dr. Ekinci published around ninety scientific papers, reviews and book chapters, and presented several conferences to scientists. He has received numerous publication awards from several scientific councils. Dr. Ekinci serves as the Editor in Chief of four international books and is involved in the Editorial Board of several international journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ondokuz Mayıs University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorThree:null},{id:"17",title:"Metabolism",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/17.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"138626",title:"Dr.",name:"Yannis",middleName:null,surname:"Karamanos",slug:"yannis-karamanos",fullName:"Yannis Karamanos",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002g6Jv2QAE/Profile_Picture_1629356660984",biography:"Yannis Karamanos, born in Greece in 1953, completed his pre-graduate studies at the Université Pierre et Marie Curie, Paris, then his Masters and Doctoral degree at the Université de Lille (1983). He was associate professor at the University of Limoges (1987) before becoming full professor of biochemistry at the Université d’Artois (1996). He worked on the structure-function relationships of glycoconjugates and his main project was the investigations on the biological roles of the de-N-glycosylation enzymes (Endo-N-acetyl-β-D-glucosaminidase and peptide-N4-(N-acetyl-β-glucosaminyl) asparagine amidase). From 2002 he contributes to the understanding of the Blood-brain barrier functioning using proteomics approaches. He has published more than 70 papers. His teaching areas are energy metabolism and regulation, integration and organ specialization and metabolic adaptation.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Artois University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"France"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"18",title:"Proteomics",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/18.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"200689",title:"Prof.",name:"Paolo",middleName:null,surname:"Iadarola",slug:"paolo-iadarola",fullName:"Paolo Iadarola",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSCl8QAG/Profile_Picture_1623568118342",biography:"Paolo Iadarola graduated with a degree in Chemistry from the University of Pavia (Italy) in July 1972. He then worked as an Assistant Professor at the Faculty of Science of the same University until 1984. In 1985, Prof. Iadarola became Associate Professor at the Department of Biology and Biotechnologies of the University of Pavia and retired in October 2017. Since then, he has been working as an Adjunct Professor in the same Department at the University of Pavia. His research activity during the first years was primarily focused on the purification and structural characterization of enzymes from animal and plant sources. During this period, Prof. Iadarola familiarized himself with the conventional techniques used in column chromatography, spectrophotometry, manual Edman degradation, and electrophoresis). Since 1995, he has been working on: i) the determination in biological fluids (serum, urine, bronchoalveolar lavage, sputum) of proteolytic activities involved in the degradation processes of connective tissue matrix, and ii) on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. In this context, he has developed and validated new methodologies (e.g., Capillary Electrophoresis coupled to Laser-Induced Fluorescence, CE-LIF) whose application enabled him to determine both the amounts of biochemical markers (Desmosines) in urine/serum of patients affected by Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (Human Neutrophil Elastase, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in sputa of these patients. More recently, Prof. Iadarola was involved in developing techniques such as two-dimensional electrophoresis coupled to liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry (2DE-LC/MS) for the proteomic analysis of biological fluids aimed at the identification of potential biomarkers of different lung diseases. He is the author of about 150 publications (According to Scopus: H-Index: 23; Total citations: 1568- According to WOS: H-Index: 20; Total Citations: 1296) of peer-reviewed international journals. 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He also obtained an MSc in Molecular and Genetic Medicine, and a Ph.D. in Clinical Immunology and Human Genetics from the University of Sheffield, UK. He also completed a short-term fellowship in Pediatric Clinical Immunology and Bone Marrow Transplantation at Newcastle General Hospital, England. Dr. Rezaei is a Full Professor of Immunology and Vice Dean of International Affairs and Research, at the School of Medicine, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, and the co-founder and head of the Research Center for Immunodeficiencies. He is also the founding president of the Universal Scientific Education and Research Network (USERN). Dr. Rezaei has directed more than 100 research projects and has designed and participated in several international collaborative projects. He is an editor, editorial assistant, or editorial board member of more than forty international journals. He has edited more than 50 international books, presented more than 500 lectures/posters in congresses/meetings, and published more than 1,100 scientific papers in international journals.",institutionString:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",institution:{name:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"180733",title:"Dr.",name:"Jean",middleName:null,surname:"Engohang-Ndong",slug:"jean-engohang-ndong",fullName:"Jean Engohang-Ndong",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180733/images/system/180733.png",biography:"Dr. Jean Engohang-Ndong was born and raised in Gabon. After obtaining his Associate Degree of Science at the University of Science and Technology of Masuku, Gabon, he continued his education in France where he obtained his BS, MS, and Ph.D. in Medical Microbiology. He worked as a post-doctoral fellow at the Public Health Research Institute (PHRI), Newark, NJ for four years before accepting a three-year faculty position at Brigham Young University-Hawaii. Dr. Engohang-Ndong is a tenured faculty member with the academic rank of Full Professor at Kent State University, Ohio, where he teaches a wide range of biological science courses and pursues his research in medical and environmental microbiology. Recently, he expanded his research interest to epidemiology and biostatistics of chronic diseases in Gabon.",institutionString:"Kent State University",institution:{name:"Kent State University",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"188773",title:"Prof.",name:"Emmanuel",middleName:null,surname:"Drouet",slug:"emmanuel-drouet",fullName:"Emmanuel Drouet",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/188773/images/system/188773.png",biography:"Emmanuel Drouet, PharmD, is a Professor of Virology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, the University Grenoble-Alpes, France. As a head scientist at the Institute of Structural Biology in Grenoble, Dr. Drouet’s research investigates persisting viruses in humans (RNA and DNA viruses) and the balance with our host immune system. He focuses on these viruses’ effects on humans (both their impact on pathology and their symbiotic relationships in humans). He has an excellent track record in the herpesvirus field, and his group is engaged in clinical research in the field of Epstein-Barr virus diseases. He is the editor of the online Encyclopedia of Environment and he coordinates the Universal Health Coverage education program for the BioHealth Computing Schools of the European Institute of Science.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Grenoble Alpes University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",biography:"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (especially arboviral diseases). He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},{id:"332819",title:"Dr.",name:"Chukwudi Michael",middleName:"Michael",surname:"Egbuche",slug:"chukwudi-michael-egbuche",fullName:"Chukwudi Michael Egbuche",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/332819/images/14624_n.jpg",biography:"I an Dr. Chukwudi Michael Egbuche. I am a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Parasitology and Entomology, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nnamdi Azikiwe University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"284232",title:"Mr.",name:"Nikunj",middleName:"U",surname:"Tandel",slug:"nikunj-tandel",fullName:"Nikunj Tandel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/284232/images/8275_n.jpg",biography:'Mr. Nikunj Tandel has completed his Master\'s degree in Biotechnology from VIT University, India in the year of 2012. He is having 8 years of research experience especially in the field of malaria epidemiology, immunology, and nanoparticle-based drug delivery system against the infectious diseases, autoimmune disorders and cancer. He has worked for the NIH funded-International Center of Excellence in Malaria Research project "Center for the study of complex malaria in India (CSCMi)" in collaboration with New York University. The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. Received the CSIR-SRF (Senior Research Fellow) award-2018, FIMSA (Federation of Immunological Societies of Asia-Oceania) Travel Bursary award to attend the IUIS-IIS-FIMSA Immunology course-2019',institutionString:"Nirma University",institution:{name:"Nirma University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334383",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Simone",middleName:"Ulrich",surname:"Ulrich Picoli",slug:"simone-ulrich-picoli",fullName:"Simone Ulrich Picoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334383/images/15919_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from Universidade Luterana do Brasil (1999), Master in Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology from Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (2002), Specialization in Clinical Microbiology from Universidade de São Paulo, USP (2007) and PhD in Sciences in Gastroenterology and Hepatology (2012). She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:null},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). He was also awarded 'Outstanding Clinician in General Medicine” by Venus International Foundation for his extensive research expertise and services, perform over and above the standard expected in the advancement of healthcare, patient safety and quality of care.",institutionString:"Interfaith Medical Center",institution:{name:"Interfaith Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"93517",title:"Dr.",name:"Clement",middleName:"Adebajo",surname:"Meseko",slug:"clement-meseko",fullName:"Clement Meseko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/93517/images/system/93517.jpg",biography:"Dr. Clement Meseko obtained DVM and PhD degree in Veterinary Medicine and Virology respectively. He has worked for over 20 years in both private and public sectors including the academia, contributing to knowledge and control of infectious disease. Through the application of epidemiological skill, classical and molecular virological skills, he investigates viruses of economic and public health importance for the mitigation of the negative impact on people, animal and the environment in the context of Onehealth. \r\nDr. Meseko’s field experience on animal and zoonotic diseases and pathogen dynamics at the human-animal interface over the years shaped his carrier in research and scientific inquiries. He has been part of the investigation of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza incursions in sub Saharan Africa and monitors swine Influenza (Pandemic influenza Virus) agro-ecology and potential for interspecies transmission. He has authored and reviewed a number of journal articles and book chapters.",institutionString:"National Veterinary Research Institute",institution:{name:"National Veterinary Research Institute",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"94928",title:"Dr.",name:"Takuo",middleName:null,surname:"Mizukami",slug:"takuo-mizukami",fullName:"Takuo Mizukami",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94928/images/6402_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Institute of Infectious Diseases",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"233433",title:"Dr.",name:"Yulia",middleName:null,surname:"Desheva",slug:"yulia-desheva",fullName:"Yulia Desheva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/233433/images/system/233433.png",biography:"Dr. Yulia Desheva is a leading researcher at the Institute of Experimental Medicine, St. Petersburg, Russia. She is a professor in the Stomatology Faculty, St. Petersburg State University. She has expertise in the development and evaluation of a wide range of live mucosal vaccines against influenza and bacterial complications. Her research interests include immunity against influenza and COVID-19 and the development of immunization schemes for high-risk individuals.",institutionString:'Federal State Budgetary Scientific Institution "Institute of Experimental Medicine"',institution:null},{id:"238958",title:"Mr.",name:"Atamjit",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"atamjit-singh",fullName:"Atamjit Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/238958/images/6575_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"333753",title:"Dr.",name:"Rais",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"rais-ahmed",fullName:"Rais Ahmed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333753/images/20168_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"252058",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"Sulca",slug:"juan-sulca",fullName:"Juan Sulca",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252058/images/12834_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"191392",title:"Dr.",name:"Marimuthu",middleName:null,surname:"Govindarajan",slug:"marimuthu-govindarajan",fullName:"Marimuthu Govindarajan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/191392/images/5828_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. M. Govindarajan completed his BSc degree in Zoology at Government Arts College (Autonomous), Kumbakonam, and MSc, MPhil, and PhD degrees at Annamalai University, Annamalai Nagar, Tamil Nadu, India. He is serving as an assistant professor at the Department of Zoology, Annamalai University. His research interests include isolation, identification, and characterization of biologically active molecules from plants and microbes. He has identified more than 20 pure compounds with high mosquitocidal activity and also conducted high-quality research on photochemistry and nanosynthesis. He has published more than 150 studies in journals with impact factor and 2 books in Lambert Academic Publishing, Germany. 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