\r\n\tgas sensors.
",isbn:"978-1-80356-963-5",printIsbn:"978-1-80356-962-8",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80356-964-2",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"8eeb7ab232fa8d5c723b61e0da251857",bookSignature:"Dr. Soumen Dhara and Dr. Gorachand Dutta",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11513.jpg",keywords:"Fabrication Technologies, Applications, Characterizations, Case Studies, Various Gas Sensors, Improvement of Lifestyle, Societal Benefit, Bio-Sensors, Bioreceptor Molecules, Integration, Packaging, Lab-on-Chip",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"April 8th 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"June 17th 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"August 16th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"November 4th 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"January 3rd 2023",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"11 days",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!1,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"A pioneering researcher in nanowire heterostructures and laser spectroscopy, recipient of JSPS (Govt. of Japan) and NPDF (Govt. of India) fellowships, and member of MRS(USA), MRS(India), IPA(India).",coeditorOneBiosketch:"Assistant Professor with the School of Medical Science and Technology, Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur with research interests that include the design and characterization of portable biosensors, biodevices, and sensor interfaces for miniaturized systems and biomedical applications for point-of-care testing.",coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"196334",title:"Dr.",name:"Soumen",middleName:null,surname:"Dhara",slug:"soumen-dhara",fullName:"Soumen Dhara",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/196334/images/system/196334.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Dhara received his Ph. D in Physics in 2012 from Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati, India. Presently, he is associated with the Faculty of Science, Sri Sri University, India as an Assistant Professor in Physics. Prior to joining the current\naffiliation, he was a postdoctoral fellow at different renowned institutions, Kobe University Japan, S. N. Bose National Centre for Basic Sciences, India and Cardiff University, United Kingdom. He was awarded prestigious JSPS postdoctoral fellowship based on his research contribution on semiconducting nanowires. He has published more than 32 research articles including 1 review article in high profile international journals and 3 book chapters to his credit. His research trust areas of interests are semiconductor nanostructures, optoelectronics, solid state lighting and light sensors, spectroscopy of nanomaterials, thin-film transistors (TFTs) etc.",institutionString:"Sri Sri University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Sri Sri University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}}],coeditorOne:{id:"442408",title:"Dr.",name:"Gorachand",middleName:null,surname:"Dutta",slug:"gorachand-dutta",fullName:"Gorachand Dutta",profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:"Dr. Gorachand Dutta, PhD is an Assistant Professor with the School of MedicalScience and Technology, Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur. His research interests include the design and characterization of portable\r\nbiosensors, biodevices and sensor interfaces for miniaturized systems and biomedical applications for point-of-care testing. He received his Ph.D in Biosensor and Electrochemistry from Pusan National University, South Korea,\r\nwhere he developed different class of electrochemical sensors and studied the electrochemical properties of gold, platinum, and palladium based metal electrodes. He completed his Post-doctoral fellowships in the Department of\r\nMechanical Engineering, Michigan State University, USA and Department of Electronic and Electrical Engineering at University of Bath, UK. He has expertise on label-free multichannel electrochemical biosensors, electronically\r\naddressable biosensor arrays, aptamer- and DNA-based sensors and surface bio-functionalization.",institutionString:"Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}},coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"11",title:"Engineering",slug:"engineering"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"429341",firstName:"Paula",lastName:"Gavran",middleName:null,title:"Ms.",imageUrl:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",email:"paula@intechopen.com",biography:null}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"10198",title:"Response Surface Methodology in Engineering Science",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"1942bec30d40572f519327ca7a6d7aae",slug:"response-surface-methodology-in-engineering-science",bookSignature:"Palanikumar Kayaroganam",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10198.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"321730",title:"Prof.",name:"Palanikumar",surname:"Kayaroganam",slug:"palanikumar-kayaroganam",fullName:"Palanikumar Kayaroganam"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophile",surname:"Theophanides",slug:"theophile-theophanides",fullName:"Theophile Theophanides"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"371",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",subtitle:"Mechanisms and Adaptations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"588466f487e307619849d72389178a74",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-mechanisms-and-adaptations",bookSignature:"Arun Shanker and B. 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The environmental impact of the fossil fuel use urges the need for the search of alternative energy resources. Many different renewable energy technologies were developed recently aiming for efficient solutions of clean energy supply; however, a price competitiveness is a biggest drawback. Solar energy is considered as a key solution for environmental challenge, because of its carbon neutral nature and high abundance. The conversion of solar energy to electricity is fulfilled by solar cells based on the photovoltaic effect.
\nDye‐sensitized solar cells (DSCs) have gained widespread attention because of the ease of fabrication, low production costs and tuneable optical properties, such as colour and transparency [1]. The most attractive properties of DSCs are their low cost and simple manufacturing processes together with their advantageous attributes such as lightweight, low toxicity and good performance in diverse light conditions [2].
\nZnO attracted attention as an alternative photoelectrode material for DSCs due to multiple advantages, that is, excellent optoelectronic properties, low cost, easy synthesis, non‐toxicity and others. Moreover, ZnO has the diversity of one‐dimensional (1D) structures, which suggest attractive approach for photoelectrode scaffolding.
\nZnO nanowire (NW) application as DSC photoelectrode shows multiple advantages, such as higher electron mobility and increased optical way because of refraction; moreover, additional functionalities such as flexible DSCs with the help of ZnO NW photoelectrode can also be obtained. The efficiency of ZnO nanowire DSCs is rapidly increasing in recent years; therefore, the interest in ZnO NW application for DSC is rapidly growing. In order to reach higher efficiency of ZnO NW DSCs, further surface modifications with an additional protective layer of TiO2 or inert materials such as Al2O3 are used. Other possibilities lie in tailoring the morphology of NWs, or employing hybrid structures of ZnO nanowires with other materials.
\nThe application of ZnO NW for DSCs is an interesting topic for nanowire community and also to researchers from diverse scientific fields, since much effort was put in this topic, numerous approaches were tried and a definite improvement was reached. Still, there is a need to direct the effort in understanding more deeply the ZnO NW interaction with other materials, processes of light and charge transfer and master the synthesis methods in order to achieve the optimal structure for application in DSCs.
\nThis chapter will provide a comprehensive review of the state‐of‐the‐art research activities focused on the synthesis and application of ZnO nanowires for dye‐sensitized solar cells. The first section briefly overviews fundamentals of the DSC and introduces ZnO NW synthesis, divided into vapour and solution phase methods, demonstrating approaches to obtain different ZnO NW morphology. Next, the methods for ZnO NW surface modification are discussed, which include ZnO core‐shell structures with semiconductive layers or protective layers and their benefit for charge and light transport in DSCs. In the last part, we will review ZnO NW hybrid structures with other materials, such as nanoparticles, quantum dots or carbon nanomaterials. The chapter will then conclude with the perspectives and the outlook on the future developments in the ZnO nanowire application for DSCs.
The concept of a dye‐sensitized solar cell was introduced in 1991, by O’Regan and Grätzel [3]. A schematic diagram showing the operation of a typical DSC is shown in Figure 1.
Schematic overview of the typical dye‐sensitized solar cell (DSC).
Typical DSCs are composed of a transparent conducting oxide (such as fluorine‐doped tin oxide, FTO) on glass, a nanoparticle photoelectrode covered in a monolayer of sensitizing dye, a hole‐conducting electrolyte and a platinum‐coated, FTO‐coated glass back‐contact.
\nNanoparticles of TiO2 (anatase) are mostly used as photoelectrode, although alternative wide‐band‐gap oxides such as ZnO and SnO2 have also been investigated. A monolayer of the sensitizer is attached to the surface of the nanoparticle photoelectrode. Under illumination, sensitizer photo‐excitation results in the injection of an electron into the conduction band of the oxide. The dye is regenerated by electron donation from the electrolyte, mostly from a redox system (iodide/triiodide couple) in an organic solvent. The regeneration of the sensitizer by iodide intercepts the recapture of the conduction band electron by the oxidized dye. The iodide is regenerated, in turn, by the reduction of triiodide at the counter‐electrode, and the circuit is completed via electron migration through the external load. The voltage, which is obtained under illumination, corresponds to the difference between the Fermi level of the electron in the solid and the redox potential of the electrolyte. Overall, there are no permanent chemical transformations involved in the generation of electric power from light.
\nThe photoelectrode serves as a support for sensitizer loading and at the same time transport media of photo‐excited electrons from sensitizer to the external circuit. Hence, to ensure high dye loading, a large surface area is necessary. Moreover, a fast charge‐transport rate is required to ensure high electron collection efficiency. These two properties are the defining characteristics of an ideal photoelectrode [4].
\nInsight into the factors limiting DSC performance is gained by comparing theoretical cell efficiencies with those of current state‐of‐the‐art cells. The power conversion efficiency (PCE) of a solar cell is given as
\nwhere
The dynamic scale of the processes involved in light to electricity conversion (Figure 2) shows that the initial events of electron injection and dye regeneration leading to photoinduced charge separation occur on a femto‐ to nanosecond or microsecond time scale [6], while the electron transport across the photoelectrode takes place within milliseconds or even seconds [7]. However, for the efficient functioning of the DSC, the diffusion length of the electron should be greater than the thickness of the photoelectrode. Electron diffusion length
Dynamics competition of the processes involved in the conversion of light to electric power by typical DSCs [
Disordered network of TiO2 nanoparticles with numerous grain boundaries weakens electron mobility and results in slow transport and recombination of photo‐excited electrons [8]. This greatly hinders the overall PCE of such devices. The mentioned problems associated with the standard architecture of the photoelectrode oblige a search for more effective nanostructured photoelectrode materials and morphologies [9–11].
The relatively low transport resistance of transparent high‐mobility materials, such as ZnO compared to that of anatase TiO2 nanoparticles, is one of the major advantages for the application in charge injection and collection for DSCs [12–15]. ZnO, which has an energy bandgap similar to that of the ordinarily used TiO2 but possesses higher electron mobility, is an alternative photoelectrode material for DSCs [16]. Another advantage of ZnO is the diversity of 1D structures. Structurally, ZnO has several fast‐growth directions; therefore, various morphologies can be easily obtained.
\nZnO nanowires were widely considered as an alternative photoelectrode material (Figure 3), since they address many of the mentioned problems; however, up to date the highest power conversion efficiency of ZnO‐based DSC reported [18] is still lower than TiO2‐based DSC. The main reason may be that best DSC dyes are designed for TiO2 photoelectrode, and since ZnO is less stable especially in acid, therefore there is still no efficient dye available for ZnO anode [19, 20]. It was found that electron injection from traditional Ru‐based dye to ZnO is much slower than to TiO2 [21]. However, much research is conducted in order to find modifications for ZnO photoelectrodes and further increase the overall PCE of the DSCs.
ZnO nanowire‐based DSC: (a) a schematic of the cell; (b) SEM image of a nanowire array. Scale bar, 5 µm [
ZnO has a low chemical stability in acidic environment. After the DSC assemble, ZnO photoelectrode degrades through the carboxylic groups of the acidic dye attached to it, and thus leads to the formation of Zn2+‐dye agglomerates.
\nOn the other hand, the time of dye loading is crucial for the performance of an all‐ZnO‐based DSC, because longer dye‐loading time leads to the formation of more Zn2+‐dye agglomerates and shorter immersion time is insufficient for dye adsorption. For this reason, other than traditional Ru‐based dyes could be used, such as porphyrin and indoline dyes [22]. Indoline dyes have been found to be a comparatively good match with ZnO because of its lower acidity and the lack of complexing agent. The CR147 dye‐sensitized ZnO film is almost free from Zn2+/dye agglomerations. A ZnO DSC with CR147 dye has high PCE of 6.89%, 40% higher than the cell with traditional N719 dye [23]. A metal‐free organic dye D149 allows to use lower‐sensitizing times, moreover a PCE of 5.14% was reported [24]. A mix of several specially engineered dyes could also be advantageous. Compared to only D149‐sensitized cell, the YD2‐o‐C8‐TBA and D149 co‐sensitized ZnO DSSC with a wavelength ranging from 475–700 nm exhibited improved photon‐to‐current conversion efficiencies with cell PCE of 5.6% [25]. Vegetable tannin and their Fe complexes could be used for their low cost and can be obtained from renewable sources, but the efficiencies are up to 0.99% [26].
\nOther stability problems are associated with a liquid electrolyte used, which tends to leak in time. Device instability and the need for good device packaging have become major problems for commercial application of DSCs. This problem is common to most DSCs; liquid electrolyte could be substituted with quasi‐solid‐state electrolytes [27]. Metal oxide nanoparticle gelators are applied [28], ZnO nanoparticles gel [29] shows PCE of 4.17%, and the optimized DSC shows a stability of 95% on the PCE value for 150 days. The hole transport is presumably done by Grotthuss‐type ion exchange mechanism.
As it was earlier stated, competition between the transport and the recombination of photo‐excited carriers is one of the main obstacles for developing higher conversion efficiency photoelectrode. To date, numerous morphologies of low‐dimensional ZnO nanostructures such as nanowires, nanobelts, nanotubes and nanoflakes have been synthesized and are expected to improve the electron diffusion length in the photoelectrode.
\nThis paragraph reviews the most important approaches of the ZnO NW synthesis with the aim of application in DSCs. In order to obtain an optimal structure for the photoelectrode of DSC, the growth of ZnO NWs should be carefully controlled. ZnO nanowires can be synthesized in a variety of methods; two main synthesis groups can be distinguished: vapour phase and solution phase synthesis.
\nwhere hexamethylenetetramine (HMTA) [40], NH4OH [41] or NaOH [42] may be used as the hydroxide source. High aspect ratio can be achieved by controlling the preferential growth with catalytic Au nanoparticles [43] or polymers such as polyethylenimine (PEI) [44], or polyethylene glycol (PEG) [45]. ZnO NW aspect ratio can be further improved by sequential growth [46].
\nComparing the vapour and liquid phase synthesis, it is important to note that the vapour phase growth of ZnO NWs uses higher temperatures; therefore for low‐melting substrates an efficient post synthesis, transferring and attachment methods should be developed, but nonetheless high crystallinity can be obtained without further annealing. On the contrary, most of the solution growth methods use low temperatures, therefore NWs can be directly grown on a variety of low‐melting materials and surfaces; however, the synthesis of high aspect ratio structures with high crystallinity is demanding.
\nApplying the mentioned methods, ZnO NWs could be synthesized in complex forms (Figure 4) such as nanoforest [47], tetrapods [49, 50], hierarchical nanowires [48], coral‐shaped nanostructures [51], nanocactus [24], flower‐like [52] and many others [53–55] by simply controlling the crystal grow direction.
Complex structures of ZnO nanowires: (a) nanoforest [
The advantage of fast electron transfer is often counterbalanced by faster electron recombination dynamics with the oxidized electrolyte via intrabandgap surface states which ultimately limits the PCE [15]. In order to slow down the recombination and to increase the photovoltage and photocurrent, the ZnO NW interfaces can be covered by a thin layer of various capping materials (Al2O3, TiO2, ZrO2, etc.). Alternatively, hole transfer can be modified by forming ZnO NW hybrid structures with conductive polymers, or various nanostructures such as quantum dots (QDs), nanocrystals (NCs) and carbon nanomaterials.
\nThe purpose of NW coating with an insulating or semiconducting oxide layer is to diminish the recombination by forming a potential barrier on NW surface, to physically separate electrons from ions and to increase the dye adsorption on the surface. Moreover, band edge can be shifted by using higher bandgap layer to increase the open‐circuit voltage. In addition to acting as an effective protection layer for the chemically unstable ZnO against the acidic dye solution, the complete coverage of the NWs with a dense layer can passivate surface traps [12]. ZnO NW core‐shell structures with different metal oxides can be obtained with atomic layer deposition (ALD) technique [56, 57]. The coverage of ZnO NWs with an insulating materials results in a low‐efficiency DSCs [58–60]; by contrast, ZnO NW core‐shell structures with semiconductors have several advantages, especially interesting is TiO2 shell.
\nThere are several motives why the ZnO‐TiO2 core‐shell structure is attractive. TiO2 is chemically more stable compared to ZnO in acidic dye solutions [61]. Thus, the presence of TiO2 shell prevents ZnO surface from being dissolved and the formation of Zn2+/dye agglomerates. The TiO2 shell can also increase the injected electrons and more dye absorption, which lead to a higher light‐harvesting efficiency. Moreover, the shell reduces recombination by forming a tunnelling barrier to confine the photoinjected electrons within the core, and by passivating the recombination centres on the core surface [62]. The charge transfer is significantly improved since ZnO has much higher electron mobility compared to TiO2. DFT ab initio study of ZnO‐TiO2 core‐shell structure [63] shows that TiO2 coating induces changes in surface states and shifts the conduction and valence band edges to higher energies; therefore, an increase in open‐circuit voltage and a decrease in short‐circuit current are expected.
\nTiO2 shell on ZnO NWs can be formed by dip coating in Ti precursors, such as tetrabutyl titanate (TBOT) [64, 65], titanium isopropoxide (TTIP) and titanium tetrachloride (TiCl4). ZnO NW coated with a thin shell layer of TiO2 (Figure 5) showed an increased PCE up to 6% [66]. A comparative study [67] showed that at the same conditions TBOT‐treated ZnO DSC showed the best performance with the highest PCE and short‐circuit current density of 4.92% and 12.49 mA/cm2, respectively.
ZnO‐TiO2 core‐shell formed by low‐temperature TiCl4 treatment [
In order to increase the surface area of the photoelectrode and without losing the charge‐transport properties, hierarchical structures could be used. A hierarchical structure of ZnO NWs could also increase the efficiency of DSCs by providing a high area for dye absorption and also effective light scattering. ZnO DSC efficiency can be doubled by decorating ZnO NW photoelectrodes with different nanoparticles of SnO2 [69], TiO2 [70, 71] or in situ‐synthesized ZnO nanoparticles [72]. Even though the large surface area of nanoparticles empowers a high dye‐loading capacity, yet the disordered network with numerous grain boundaries weakens electron mobility and results in slow transport and recombination of photo‐excited electrons [8]. The application of ZnO NW with semiconductive nanoparticles has advantages of both high surface area and fast charge transport. A complex structure of hierarchical NWs improves the PCE up to five times compared to the initial NW, the reported efficiencies for nanotrees 2.63% [73], coral‐shaped nanostructure gives 4.58% [51], nanocactus 5.14% [24] are encouraging.
\nZnO tetrapods used with SnO2 nanoparticles provided large roughness factors, good charge collection and tunable light‐scattering properties. High PCE of 6.31% was attributed to NH3 treatment, which was believed to create ZnO shell on SnO2 nanoparticles [74]. A hierarchical core‐shell ZnO NW with TiO2 nanosheets resulted in an outstanding performance with a solid‐state electrolyte, showing the conversion efficiencies of up to 7.46% [75].
\nThe prepared ZnO photoelectrode can be further treated to improve the conductance and porosity parameters. Hot‐press treatment of the ZnO photoelectrode was demonstrated to improve PCE of the DSC by 45% [76]. Another powerful technique, the room‐temperature chemical bath deposition, was used to increase the surface area of the ZnO photoelectrode, a PCE of 5.24% was obtained [77].
Hybrid polymer solar cells composed of metal oxide nanostructures and polymers have attracted great interest mostly due to the good physical and chemical stability. In such solar cells, p‐type donor polymers are combined with n‐type acceptor ZnO nanostructures [78] among other oxides. Nanowires are one of the most attractive forms for such solar cells because they provide a direct path for charge transport, high carrier motilities and a high electron affinity necessary for charge injection from the complementary organic donor material [79]. Mostly used conducting polymer poly(3‐hexylthiophene) (P3HT) composite with ZnO nanowire shows hybrid solar‐cell PCE in the range of 0.2–0.5% [80–82] and can be further increased to 2% by adding dye [83]. Such low‐power conversion efficiencies are associated with poor polymer infiltration and therefore low‐active interfacial area between polymer and ZnO NWs. An interfacial layer of carbon nanoparticles (CNPs) can be employed to enhance the charge‐transfer properties in hybrid ZnO NW solar cells. The energy‐level diagram of the solar cells is shown in Figure 6b. The LUMO level of the CNPs (-4.00 ± 0.02 eV) is perfectly aligned with both the LUMO level of P3HT (-3.2 eV) and the conduction band edge of TiO2 (-4.2 eV). This ensures both efficient exciton dissociation at the P3HT/CNP interface and efficient electron extraction. In such a device, ZnO‐TiO2 core‐shell works as electron collector and transporter, P3HT acts as electron donor, and the CNP layer acts as electron acceptor [84].
Hybrid solar cell with ZnO‐TiO2 core‐shell, carbon nanoparticles (CNP) and conductive polymer P3HT. (a) Device structure; (b) energy‐level diagram; (c) absorption spectra of the active films on ITO glass substrates; (d) J‐V characteristics (empty: dark; filled: illuminated) of the solar cells with and without CNP [
The other possibility is to use quantum dots (QDs) for hole transfer. The use of PbS quantum dots (QDs) is promising because of the tunable, size‐dependent bandgap from 0.7 to 1.3 eV [85]. Pairing ZnO with PbS QDs for photovoltaic applications shows high stability in ambient atmosphere. An advantage of using ZnO NWs instead of ZnO planar or nanoparticle layer is demonstrated [86]. Vertically oriented ZnO NW arrays are fully infiltrated with QDs, increasing considerably the light absorption and carrier collection. Ordered interface architecture of ZnO NW arrays can decouple absorption from collection, extending the effective depletion width throughout a thick QD film.
\nThe ZnO NW performance was tested in both earlier mentioned hole conductor configurations: conducting polymer P3HT and PbS QDs [82]. As it is shown in Figure 7b, band alignment is similar; however, the PCE of 4.2% and 0.5% for QDs and P3HT, respectively, was obtained. It is worth noting that graphene was used as the conductive electrode instead of the traditional ITO, which demonstrates the flexibility of application for various substrates.
Hybrid ZnO NW solar cells. (a) Schematic diagram of ZnO NWs (400 nm) infiltrated and covered with PbS QDs (300 nm) or P3HT (700 nm); (b) flat‐band energy‐level diagram of the solar cell [
ZnO NW solar‐cell absorption in the near‐infrared region can be enhanced by using plasmonic nanocrystals (NCs). Ag NC enhances ZnO NW solar‐cell (Figure 8) PCE from 4.5 to 6.0% [87].
PbS QD/ZnO NW solar cell with embedded Ag NCs. (a) Schematic; (b) J‐V characteristics without and with Ag NCs [
A plasmonic NC traps a photon on the basis of localized surface plasmon resonance, and generates a strong oscillating electric field (i.e. optical near field) that is localized in the vicinity of the NC. The optical near field excites a dye molecule or semiconductor more efficiently than incident far‐field light, and therefore photocurrents are enhanced.
Several conclusions could be made with the proposal for the future trends:\n
First of all, since one of the main parameters for high efficiency of DSC is surface area, more attention should be paid in order to obtain ZnO NW with a structure of high surface, at the same time a virtue of high crystallinity should not be lost. Several possible methods are worth of interest: the obvious trend would be to synthesize nanowires with lower diameter, but the other ways, such as adding NP to the photoelectrode and using NW as charge delivery highway, are also interesting.
Non‐catalytic growth methods are uncomplicated and much cheaper compared to catalytic ones. Hydrothermal methods have multiple advantages in application since they are low cost and versatile; however, it is problematic to obtain a high aspect ratio structures with good crystallinity. Nevertheless, these methods are unbeatable for high‐yield deposition. A variety of substrates can be used for hydrothermal ZnO NW growth because of the low temperatures used. By contrast, vapour phase growth of ZnO NWs uses higher temperatures, therefore for a low‐melting substrates an efficient post‐synthesis transferring and attachment methods should be developed; however, high crystallinity can be obtained without further annealing.
ZnO NW surface is decomposed in acidic environment of best‐to‐date dyes, therefore special dyes for ZnO should be developed or alternatively surface modification of ZnO is needed. Best‐to‐date results are obtained by covering the NW surface with TiO2 or other semiconductor layer. Alternatively forming a protective layer from dielectric materials such as Al2O3 lowers the conductance of photoelectrode, except for an extremely thin layer.
Hybrid structures of ZnO NWs are primarily interesting for their high physical and chemical stability, but can also boost other properties such as charge transfer or light absorption; however, more work should be done to understand the underlying mechanisms of ZnO NW interaction with hybrid materials.
The work has received funding from the European Union\'s Seventh Framework programme for research and innovation under the Marie Sklodowska‐Curie grant agreement No 609402 – 2020 researchers: Train to Move (T2M).
Unitary multiset grammars (UMG) and multimetagrammars (UMMG) are knowledge representation model, providing convergence of classical operations research and modern knowledge engineering. The main area of UMG/UMMG application is assessment and optimization of large-scale sociotechnical systems (STS). Syntax and semantics of multigrammars are described in the first part of this work, being separate chapter of this book. Section 2 of this chapter contains primary description of UMG/UMMG-improved algorithmics, providing generation of terminal multisets (TMS), reduced by unperspective branches cutoff at the maximal early steps of generation. Such branches do not lead to the TMS, satisfying all conditions, entering filter of UMG/UMMG. Section 3 is dedicated to UMG/UMMG application to some actual problems from the STS assessment area (estimation of producing STS capabilities and resources, necessary to such systems for various orders completion, as well as assessment of STS sustainability and vulnerability to various destructive impacts, such as natural disasters, technogenic catastrophes, mutual sanctions, etc.). In Section 4, optimization problems, related to STS, are considered (their profit maximization and works’ optimal distribution among non-antagonistic competing STS in the market economy). Conclusion contains list of directions of further development of multigrammatical approach.
\nLet us begin from
From the computational complexity point of view, definition (58) from the first part of this work may be without loss of generated TMS transformed to
\nwhere \n
As may be seen, sufficiently valuable part of multisets, generated by FUMG unitary rules (UR) application, may be eliminated after few generation steps, because all the following steps do not lead to TMS, satisfying FUMG filter boundary conditions, or have no opportunity for further optimization over terminal multisets, generated earlier, if concerning optimizing conditions. So essence of general approach, which is described further, is to apply filter to every new generated multiset (not only terminal) and to cut off those multisets, which are not perspective in the aforementioned sense. Thus we apply well known and widely used in operations research “branches and bounds” scheme to TMS generation. Of course, filter application to generated nonterminal multisets cannot be identical to filter application to terminal multisets; that is why some additional considerations are necessary.
\nLet us take the definition of TMS generation logic (57)–(61) from the first part of the work as a basis and construct rather simple and transparent procedure-function terminal multisets generation (
We shall use the following variables in the
Couples <
In
\n
/* initial values of optimized multiplicities settings */
\n
{\n
max :
};
\n
/*main part: generation function
/*function
/*
/* branch is perspective, so new multisets are generated */
\n
/* correction min/max values by new terminal multiset*/
\n \n
\n
Let us comment on the represented procedure-function
As seen, it contains prefix, which provides
Procedure
First section corresponds to that case, when
If
If in terminal multiobject \n
If mentioned multiplicity is greater than value
(There may be more sophisticated and efficient criteria for earlier recognition and cutting off unperspective generation branches [2, 3], but chapter volume limits make their description impossible). If one of the checked conditions is not satisfied, further generation from multiset
The third section of
Function
As seen, the described algorithm due to its simplicity may be implemented easily on every available software/hardware environment. Correctness of this algorithm is confirmed by the following statement [2, 3].
\n(Note
Let us describe now the main idea of
As shown in [2, 3], all multisets, generated by any UMMG, have form
\nwhere every \n
where \n
If filter
as well as optimizing conditions
\nthey induce
and
Domain of every variable \n
As seen from (3)–(9), set of terminal multisets, generated in the UMMG case, corresponds to set of solutions of multicriterial problem of discrete polynomial programming. There are well-known approaches to such problems’ consideration [4, 5], but their common feature is they provide search of any one of the solutions, not all multi-element solutions set, if it exists. Proposed UMMG TMS generation algorithmics [2, 3] is initially oriented to UMMG semantic precise implementation and combines mixed computation and interval analysis techniques [6, 7, 8, 9] with global optimization based on theory [10, 11, 12, 13]. Aforementioned algorithmics provides multidirectional reduction of redundant generation branches by procedure, similar to
As
VCM generation is based on unified representation of polynoms in (4) form as sets of multisets: \n
where \n
is represented by multiset
\nThis representation is sufficiently flexible, and it is the basis of implementation of mixed computation in the multisets case; the core of this implementation is polynoms multiplication and addition.
\nMore detailed description of algorithmics, providing efficient generation of sets of terminal multisets, defined by unitary multimetagrammars, needs separate survey.
\nImplementation issues, related with the proposed knowledge representation model, are described in [1, 14].
\nHowever, presented formal definitions of syntax, semantics, and algorithmics of UMG/UMMG are, in our opinion, sufficient for consideration of their pragmatics, that is, their application to various practical problems.
\nMultigrammatical paradigm and UMG/UMMG toolkit are sufficiently general and simple to formalize and solve a lot of practical problems from various areas of operations research and systems analysis. Techniques, shortly described in Section 2 of the first part of this work, is one of the many possible to apply. Some more examples from hierarchical sociotechnical systems assessment and design concerned reader may find in [2, 3], where one may find also description of multigrammatical emulation of well-known classical problems of optimization theory: shortest path, traveling salesman, maximal flow, maximal pair matching, optimal assignments problems, and transport problem as well as integer linear programming problem. (Note that in [2, 3], there is also analysis of interconnections between multigrammars’ family and known computational models, such as Petri nets, vectors addition, substitution systems, etc.).
\nLower in this section, we shall consider problems, associated with the producing (manufacturing) STS, being most complicated for modeling.
\nLet us introduce the following
We shall understand UR
\nas follows: object \n
In turn,
Unitary multigrammars provide most natural “top-down” way of formal description of technological base of arbitrary producing STS, as well as deep structure of manufactured objects of any level of structural complexity (obviously, these two entities are interconnected closely). “Additivity” of multigrammatical knowledge bases (KB), being consequence of their “granularity” (due to unitary rules and metarules as knowledge representation atoms), provides creating and updating KB in near real time. Since now we shall use notations “multigrammatical knowledge base” and “scheme of UMG/UMMG” as synonyms.
\nAs it is easy to see, all terminal objects may become nonterminal after joining to this set of new URs, detailing them down to undivided spare parts. If to follow technological interpretation, then every UR reflects assembling operation, implemented by corresponding segment of manufacturing facility: one such segment is assembling car of the listed components, another segment - body, etc.
\nTo take into account cost of any operation executed (obviously, it is “
(rational multiplicities’ appearance along with integer ones, considered higher, does not bring any principal transformations and difficulties into MG semantics and algorithmics [2, 3]). Both cost and time may be defined in “compound” units, that is, UR body may contain three multiobjects, \n
Considering time intervals description in unitary rules, we must take into account that, unlike cost, time is not fully additive resource, because producing devices may operate in parallel. That’s why time is additive resource only regarding separate device, and typical form of “local time” description is multiobject \n
If we have knowledge base, prepared as shown above, then it may be used to estimate resources amounts, necessary to complete any order by means of technological base, defined by
which means customer needs \n
Then, as it is easy to see, resources collection, necessary to complete this order, is terminal multiset \n
(unitary rule, having place in (19), is in angle brackets for unambiguity). If unitary multigrammar \n
that is, order is to assemble three cars. According to (17)–(19),
\nThat means order completion requires spare parts from external suppliers as well as money and time for assembling segments of manufacturing facility in amounts, being multiplicities of corresponding objects, having places in \n
If it is necessary to evaluate (estimate) total cost of order completion, then it is sufficient to join to the KB
As seen, new UMG provides generation of one-element set
\nwhere
If multiobjects \n
In practice every STS, which is capable to complete input orders and manufacture some output production, possesses usually not only technological base but also resource base (RB). For this reason,
Let
that is, collection of resources, belonging to the STS, is sufficient for order
is its resource base. As may be seen, this resource base is not sufficient for order
After recognition of system’s inability to complete order
What amount of resources must be acquired by the system to complete the order?
What part of order may be completed, given resources, owned by STS?
The answer to the first question is obvious: if \n
The answer to the second question concerned reader may find in [1], where the so-called reverse multigrammars are used for this problem solution.
\nOne more area of useful application of UMG/UMMG is
Let \n
That is, despite impact there is at least one way of order completion. Otherwise, if there is no one TMS \n
Another important issue to be discussed here is
POPE is formulated as follows [15]. Let there be \n
To produce one unit of
where \n
This problem may be represented by unitary multiset metagrammar \n
where \n
where \n
where \n
along with
where \n
As may be seen, set of POPE solutions is
\nwhere
\nmeans that maximal profit is
so there may be \n
under restrictions
\nThat means STS is producing two products, which prices are 2 and 3, respectively, and there is resource base, containing 10 units of the first resource and 18 units of the second. To produce one unit of the first product, STS needs 3 units of the first resource and 5 units of the second, while producing of one unit of the second product needs 2 units of the first resource and 3 units of the second resource.
\nAccording to (26)–(30), scheme
as well as two URs:
\nFilter
one optimizing condition
\nas well as two variables declarations:
\nwhere 10 is maximal amount of any product, which may be produced by STS.
\nAs seen,
\nwhich means STS would get maximal profit of 10 units, producing 2 units of both products and, spending for that purpose, 10 units of the first resource and 16 units of the second resource.▪
\nLet us note that classical matrix–vector POPE modeling is limiting set of the considered cases to the simplest two-level structures of the manufactured objects (“object-component”), represented by unitary rules like (27). In practice, all such objects have much more complicated, multilevel heterogeneous hierarchical structure, that is clearly illustrated by the previous Examples 1–3, concerning car manufacturing.
\nUMMG application provides natural representation of the POPE problem in the most general formulation. Namely, it is sufficient to join to set of URs, describing technological base of the STS, the only UMR like (26). Similarly, to represent resource base of the STS, filter of the created UMMG would contain boundary conditions like (28); it is important that absence of some resource
To cut off generated TMS with nonpositive multiplicities of object
All the said higher in this section is very close to the Leontief model and other “input–output” models of mathematic economy, developed on the matrix–vector algebra basis [16]. As may be seen, transfer to the UMG/UMMG basis makes such modeling much more flexible and closer to the reality. That is why we consider multigrammatical paradigm as very perspective for the development of various issues in the future digital economy [17, 18], first of all, planning and scheduling in the cyberphysical industry, integrated with deeply robotized logistics [19, 20]. However, application of the described here approach to the core areas of digital economy (Industry 4.0) needs separate publications.
\nConcerning implementation issues, it would be aptly to say that multisets processing is very promising area for application of non-conventional computing paradigms [21, 22].
\nNow let us spend some place of this section for
The main tool of the last is the so-called variative unitary multigrammars and multimetagrammars, which schemes include unitary rules (metarules) with the same head and different bodies. UMG/UMMG variativity provides representation of coexistence of various subjects able to complete one and the same order. We assume these subjects are non-antagonistic, that is, they all are ready to execute any part of the total work.
\nThere may be at least three possible approaches to multigrammatical modeling of competitions:
“The winner takes it all.”
Splitting order among various subjects.
“The winner coalition takes it all” (combination of two previous).
Let us consider the
Let
where
Let \n
where multiobject \n
These URs being joined with URs, detailing nonterminal object
which corresponds to the choice of the third manufacturer. If \n
because no one of the possible order executors is optimal by time and cost simultaneously.▪
\nAs it is well known from practice, approach, described higher, may be not rational from various points of view, especially, when capabilities of no one of the competitors (subjects \n
and unitary rules
\nas well as all URs, having place in the scheme, constructed higher by application of the first approach, excluding (34). Filter \n
which is directly induced by order \n
As seen, terminal multisets, generated by UMMG \n
where, according to (38)–(40),
\nand thus values \n
If order \n
which corresponds to splitting order
Let us underline once more that time is not additive resource in relation to parallel processes; it is additive only regarding one device (manufacturing unit). Consideration of multisets with time-containing multiobjects is separate direction of the multigrammatical approach and needs special tool, which is called temporal multiset grammars (TMG), announced in [1] . This branch concerns problems, addressed by the classical theory of scheduling [23, 24].
\nThe third possible case of competitions (“the winner coalition takes it all”) may be considered by the concerned reader on his (her) own.
\nPresented primary survey of multigrammatical knowledge representation along with brief consideration of its possible applications is, of course, only a background for future development, which most valuable directions may be:
MG/UMG/UMMG extension by features, necessary for “single-time-scale” modeling of manufacturing and logistical processes and their optimal control, that is critically needed for the developed digital economy (Industry 4.0)
Development of algorithmics for local correction of solutions (generated sets of TMS) while UMG/UMMG local correction in the sense [25], which is necessary for the aforementioned control in hard real-time and highly volatile environment
Further development of MG/UMG/UMMG improved algorithmics and its software/hardware implementation in high-parallel general-purpose computing environments
Development of specialized high-parallel computing environments, initially oriented to MG/UMG/UMMG algorithmics implementation
Development of quantum, neural and molecular algorithmics for MG/UMG/UMMG toolkit implementation in corresponding computer environments
MG/UMG/UMMG pragmatics expansion to new problem areas and convergence with other known knowledge/data engineering paradigms (first of all, multiagent systems [15, 26, 27])
Some of the listed directions are already developed by the author and his colleagues; some are waiting their time, being targeted to the creation of unified framework for the intellectual (knowledge-based) digital economy. This way is leading us to the Big Knowledge paradigm being generalization of the Big Data one, which is already everyday reality. The author will be glad, if this paper will be of any interest for some scholars working in the related areas.
\nThe author is grateful to Prof. Fred Roberts for useful discussions and support, and to Prof. Jeffrey Ullman, whose useful remarks on the primary version of this work contributed to its essential upgrade. A significant incentive for the development of the proposed approach was its positive assessment by Prof. Noam Chomsky, which early works on syntactic structures formed a conceptual background of the described mathematical toolkit.
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\n\n7.3 Entire Agreement: This Publication Agreement constitutes the entire agreement between the parties in relation to its subject matter. It replaces and extinguishes all prior agreements, draft agreements, arrangements, collateral warranties, collateral contracts, statements, assurances, representations and undertakings of any nature made by or on behalf of the parties, whether oral or written, in relation to that subject matter. Each party acknowledges that in entering into this Publication Agreement it has not relied upon any oral or written statements, collateral or other warranties, assurances, representations or undertakings which were made by or on behalf of the other party in relation to the subject matter of this Publication Agreement at any time before its signature (together "Pre-Contractual Statements"), other than those which are set out in this Publication Agreement. Each party hereby waives all rights and remedies which might otherwise be available to it in relation to such Pre-Contractual Statements. Nothing in this clause shall exclude or restrict the liability of either party arising out of its pre-contract fraudulent misrepresentation or fraudulent concealment.
\n\n7.4 Waiver: No failure or delay by a party to exercise any right or remedy provided under this Publication Agreement or by law shall constitute a waiver of that or any other right or remedy, nor shall it preclude or restrict the further exercise of that or any other right or remedy. No single or partial exercise of such right or remedy shall preclude or restrict the further exercise of that or any other right or remedy.
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\n\nLast updated: 2020-11-27
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Generally, the conversion of biomass and biofiber to biofuel involves several processes including biomass production, pretreatment, hydrolysis, and fermentation. Selecting the most efficient pretreatment is crucial to ensure the success of biofuel production since pretreatment has been reported to contribute substantial portion on the production cost. The main goal of the pretreatment is to enhance digestibility of the biomass and biofiber, and to increase sugar production prior to fermentation process. To date, several pretreatment methods have been introduced to pretreat biomass and biofiber including irradiation. This book chapter reviews and discusses different leading irradiation pretreatment technologies along with their mechanism involved during pretreatment of various tropical biomass and biofiber. 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The advantages of this technology are well known.",book:{id:"5196",slug:"radiation-effects-in-materials",title:"Radiation Effects in Materials",fullTitle:"Radiation Effects in Materials"},signatures:"Sheila Shahidi and Jakub Wiener",authors:[{id:"58854",title:"Dr.",name:null,middleName:null,surname:"Shahidi",slug:"shahidi",fullName:"Shahidi"},{id:"87913",title:"Prof.",name:"Jakub",middleName:null,surname:"Wiener",slug:"jakub-wiener",fullName:"Jakub Wiener"},{id:"176974",title:"Prof.",name:"Mahmood",middleName:null,surname:"Ghoranneviss",slug:"mahmood-ghoranneviss",fullName:"Mahmood Ghoranneviss"}]},{id:"50623",doi:"10.5772/63293",title:"Transient Anions in Radiobiology and Radiotherapy: From Gaseous Biomolecules to Condensed Organic and Biomolecular Solids",slug:"transient-anions-in-radiobiology-and-radiotherapy-from-gaseous-biomolecules-to-condensed-organic-and",totalDownloads:1648,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:9,abstract:"This chapter focuses on the fundamental processes that govern interactions of low‐energy (1–30 eV) electrons with biological systems. These interactions have been investigated in the gas phase and within complex arrangements in the condensed phase. They often lead to the formation of transient molecular anions (TMAs), and their decay by autoionization or dissociation accompanied by bond dissociation. The damage caused to biomolecules via TMAs is emphasized in all sections. Such damage, which depends on a large number of factors, including electron energy, molecular environment, and type of biomolecule, and its physical and chemical interactions with radiosensitizing agents are extensively discussed. A majority of recent findings resulting from experimental and theoretical endeavors are presented. They encompass broad research areas to elucidate important roles of TMAs in irradiated biological systems, from the molecular level to nanoscale cellular dimensions. Fundamental aspects of TMA formation are stressed in this chapter, but many practical applications in a variety of radiation‐related fields such as radiobiology and radiotherapy are addressed.",book:{id:"5196",slug:"radiation-effects-in-materials",title:"Radiation Effects in Materials",fullTitle:"Radiation Effects in Materials"},signatures:"Elahe Alizadeh, Sylwia Ptasińska and Léon Sanche",authors:[{id:"180646",title:"Dr.",name:"Elahe",middleName:null,surname:"Alizadeh",slug:"elahe-alizadeh",fullName:"Elahe Alizadeh"},{id:"181757",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylwia",middleName:null,surname:"Ptasinska",slug:"sylwia-ptasinska",fullName:"Sylwia Ptasinska"},{id:"181758",title:"Prof.",name:"Leon",middleName:null,surname:"Sanche",slug:"leon-sanche",fullName:"Leon Sanche"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"68785",title:"Basic Modes of Radioactive Decay",slug:"basic-modes-of-radioactive-decay",totalDownloads:1749,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"This basic modes of radioactive decay review “Gamma Rays” reviews some topics related to radiation, its classification and importance. 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Nevertheless, waste disposal has generated about 20–30% of total of solid volume in landfills besides prejudicing flora and fauna by uncontrolled disposal. The development of biodegradable polymers aims to solve this problem, considering that in 2012, bio-plastics market was evaluated in 1.4 million tons produced and in 2017 attained 6.2 million tons. Biodegradable polymers as poly(lactic acid) (PLA) and poly(butylene adipate-co-terephthalate) (PBAT) are thermoplastics which can be processed using the most conventional polymer processing methods. PLA is high in strength and modulus but brittle, while PBAT is flexible and tough. In order to reduce interfacial tension exhibited by PLA/PBAT blends, it was used as compatibilizing agent 5 phr of PLA previously gamma-radiated at 150 kGy. Ionizing radiation induces compatibilization by free radicals, improving the dispersion and adhesion of blend phases, without using chemical additives and at room temperature. As a reinforcement agent, calcium carbonate from avian eggshell waste was used, at 10 ph of micro particles, 125 μm. Admixtures were further processed in a single-screw extruder, using CO2 as physical blowing agent (PBA). Property investigations were performed by DSC, TGA, XRD, SEM, FTIR, and mechanical essays.",book:{id:"8352",slug:"use-of-gamma-radiation-techniques-in-peaceful-applications",title:"Use of Gamma Radiation Techniques in Peaceful Applications",fullTitle:"Use of Gamma Radiation Techniques in Peaceful Applications"},signatures:"Elizabeth C.L. Cardoso, Duclerc F. Parra, Sandra R. Scagliusi, Ricardo M. Sales, Fernando Caviquioli and Ademar B. 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He also obtained an MSc in Molecular and Genetic Medicine, and a Ph.D. in Clinical Immunology and Human Genetics from the University of Sheffield, UK. He also completed a short-term fellowship in Pediatric Clinical Immunology and Bone Marrow Transplantation at Newcastle General Hospital, England. Dr. Rezaei is a Full Professor of Immunology and Vice Dean of International Affairs and Research, at the School of Medicine, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, and the co-founder and head of the Research Center for Immunodeficiencies. He is also the founding president of the Universal Scientific Education and Research Network (USERN). Dr. Rezaei has directed more than 100 research projects and has designed and participated in several international collaborative projects. He is an editor, editorial assistant, or editorial board member of more than forty international journals. He has edited more than 50 international books, presented more than 500 lectures/posters in congresses/meetings, and published more than 1,100 scientific papers in international journals.",institutionString:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",institution:{name:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"180733",title:"Dr.",name:"Jean",middleName:null,surname:"Engohang-Ndong",slug:"jean-engohang-ndong",fullName:"Jean Engohang-Ndong",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180733/images/system/180733.png",biography:"Dr. Jean Engohang-Ndong was born and raised in Gabon. After obtaining his Associate Degree of Science at the University of Science and Technology of Masuku, Gabon, he continued his education in France where he obtained his BS, MS, and Ph.D. in Medical Microbiology. He worked as a post-doctoral fellow at the Public Health Research Institute (PHRI), Newark, NJ for four years before accepting a three-year faculty position at Brigham Young University-Hawaii. Dr. Engohang-Ndong is a tenured faculty member with the academic rank of Full Professor at Kent State University, Ohio, where he teaches a wide range of biological science courses and pursues his research in medical and environmental microbiology. Recently, he expanded his research interest to epidemiology and biostatistics of chronic diseases in Gabon.",institutionString:"Kent State University",institution:{name:"Kent State University",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"188773",title:"Prof.",name:"Emmanuel",middleName:null,surname:"Drouet",slug:"emmanuel-drouet",fullName:"Emmanuel Drouet",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/188773/images/system/188773.png",biography:"Emmanuel Drouet, PharmD, is a Professor of Virology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, the University Grenoble-Alpes, France. As a head scientist at the Institute of Structural Biology in Grenoble, Dr. Drouet’s research investigates persisting viruses in humans (RNA and DNA viruses) and the balance with our host immune system. He focuses on these viruses’ effects on humans (both their impact on pathology and their symbiotic relationships in humans). He has an excellent track record in the herpesvirus field, and his group is engaged in clinical research in the field of Epstein-Barr virus diseases. He is the editor of the online Encyclopedia of Environment and he coordinates the Universal Health Coverage education program for the BioHealth Computing Schools of the European Institute of Science.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Grenoble Alpes University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",biography:"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (especially arboviral diseases). He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},{id:"332819",title:"Dr.",name:"Chukwudi Michael",middleName:"Michael",surname:"Egbuche",slug:"chukwudi-michael-egbuche",fullName:"Chukwudi Michael Egbuche",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/332819/images/14624_n.jpg",biography:"I an Dr. Chukwudi Michael Egbuche. I am a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Parasitology and Entomology, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nnamdi Azikiwe University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"284232",title:"Mr.",name:"Nikunj",middleName:"U",surname:"Tandel",slug:"nikunj-tandel",fullName:"Nikunj Tandel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/284232/images/8275_n.jpg",biography:'Mr. Nikunj Tandel has completed his Master\'s degree in Biotechnology from VIT University, India in the year of 2012. He is having 8 years of research experience especially in the field of malaria epidemiology, immunology, and nanoparticle-based drug delivery system against the infectious diseases, autoimmune disorders and cancer. He has worked for the NIH funded-International Center of Excellence in Malaria Research project "Center for the study of complex malaria in India (CSCMi)" in collaboration with New York University. The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. Received the CSIR-SRF (Senior Research Fellow) award-2018, FIMSA (Federation of Immunological Societies of Asia-Oceania) Travel Bursary award to attend the IUIS-IIS-FIMSA Immunology course-2019',institutionString:"Nirma University",institution:{name:"Nirma University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334383",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Simone",middleName:"Ulrich",surname:"Ulrich Picoli",slug:"simone-ulrich-picoli",fullName:"Simone Ulrich Picoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334383/images/15919_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from Universidade Luterana do Brasil (1999), Master in Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology from Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (2002), Specialization in Clinical Microbiology from Universidade de São Paulo, USP (2007) and PhD in Sciences in Gastroenterology and Hepatology (2012). She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:null},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). He was also awarded 'Outstanding Clinician in General Medicine” by Venus International Foundation for his extensive research expertise and services, perform over and above the standard expected in the advancement of healthcare, patient safety and quality of care.",institutionString:"Interfaith Medical Center",institution:{name:"Interfaith Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"93517",title:"Dr.",name:"Clement",middleName:"Adebajo",surname:"Meseko",slug:"clement-meseko",fullName:"Clement Meseko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/93517/images/system/93517.jpg",biography:"Dr. Clement Meseko obtained DVM and PhD degree in Veterinary Medicine and Virology respectively. He has worked for over 20 years in both private and public sectors including the academia, contributing to knowledge and control of infectious disease. Through the application of epidemiological skill, classical and molecular virological skills, he investigates viruses of economic and public health importance for the mitigation of the negative impact on people, animal and the environment in the context of Onehealth. \r\nDr. Meseko’s field experience on animal and zoonotic diseases and pathogen dynamics at the human-animal interface over the years shaped his carrier in research and scientific inquiries. He has been part of the investigation of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza incursions in sub Saharan Africa and monitors swine Influenza (Pandemic influenza Virus) agro-ecology and potential for interspecies transmission. He has authored and reviewed a number of journal articles and book chapters.",institutionString:"National Veterinary Research Institute",institution:{name:"National Veterinary Research Institute",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"94928",title:"Dr.",name:"Takuo",middleName:null,surname:"Mizukami",slug:"takuo-mizukami",fullName:"Takuo Mizukami",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94928/images/6402_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Institute of Infectious Diseases",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"233433",title:"Dr.",name:"Yulia",middleName:null,surname:"Desheva",slug:"yulia-desheva",fullName:"Yulia Desheva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/233433/images/system/233433.png",biography:"Dr. Yulia Desheva is a leading researcher at the Institute of Experimental Medicine, St. Petersburg, Russia. She is a professor in the Stomatology Faculty, St. Petersburg State University. She has expertise in the development and evaluation of a wide range of live mucosal vaccines against influenza and bacterial complications. 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