Duffy blood group system phenotypes and prevalence. Reproduced with permission and modification.
\\n\\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\\n\\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"Highly Cited",originalUrl:"/media/original/117"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'IntechOpen is proud to announce that 191 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nThroughout the years, the list has named a total of 261 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\nReleased this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-supports-asapbio-s-new-initiative-publish-your-reviews-20220729",title:"IntechOpen Supports ASAPbio’s New Initiative Publish Your Reviews"},{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"3230",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Advanced Video Coding for Next-Generation Multimedia Services",title:"Advanced Video Coding for Next-Generation Multimedia Services",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"This book aims to bring together recent advances and applications of video coding. All chapters can be useful for researchers, engineers, graduate and postgraduate students, experts in this area, and hopefully also for people who are generally interested in video coding. The book includes nine carefully selected chapters. The chapters deal with advanced compression techniques for multimedia applications, concerning recent video coding standards, high efficiency video coding (HEVC), multiple description coding, region of interest (ROI) coding, shape compensation, error resilient algorithms for H.264/AVC, wavelet-based coding, facial video coding, and hardware implementations. This book provides several useful ideas for your own research and helps to bridge the gap between the basic video coding techniques and practical multimedia applications. We hope this book is enjoyable to read and will further contribute to video coding.",isbn:null,printIsbn:"978-953-51-0929-7",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-5723-6",doi:"10.5772/45846",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"advanced-video-coding-for-next-generation-multimedia-services",numberOfPages:212,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"a890bd46555d3cd1652bf69eb6b313df",bookSignature:"Yo-Sung Ho",publishedDate:"January 9th 2013",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3230.jpg",numberOfDownloads:19867,numberOfWosCitations:13,numberOfCrossrefCitations:9,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:1,numberOfDimensionsCitations:15,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:1,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:37,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"April 4th 2012",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"April 25th 2012",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"July 30th 2012",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"October 28th 2012",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"November 27th 2012",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"33840",title:"Prof.",name:"Yo-Sung",middleName:null,surname:"Ho",slug:"yo-sung-ho",fullName:"Yo-Sung Ho",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/33840/images/3422_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Yo-Sung Ho received the B.S. and M.S. degrees in electronic engineering from Seoul National University, Seoul, Korea, in 1981 and 1983, respectively, and the Ph.D. degree in electrical and computer engineering from the University of California, Santa Barbara, in 1990. He joined ETRI (Electronics and Telecommunications Research Institute), Daejon, Korea, in 1983. From 1990 to 1993, he was with North America Philips Laboratories, Briarcliff Manor, New York, where he was involved in the development of the Advanced Digital High-Definition Television (AD-HDTV) system. In 1993, he rejoined the technical staff of ETRI and was involved in the development of the Korean DBS Digital Television and High-Definition Television systems. Since 1995, he has been with Gwangju Institute of Science and Technology (GIST), where he is currently Professor of School of Information and Communications. Since August 2003, he has been the Director of Realistic Broadcasting Research Center at GIST in Korea. He has also been serving as an Associate Editor of IEEE Transactions on Circuits and Systems Video Technology (T-CSVT) and IEEE Transactions on Multimedia (T-MM). His research interests include Digital Image and Video Coding, Image Analysis and Image Restoration, Three-dimensional Image Modeling and Representation, Advanced Source Coding Techniques, Three-dimensional Television (3DTV) and Realistic Broadcasting Technologies.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Electronics and Telecommunications Research Institute",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Korea, South"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"544",title:"Image Processing",slug:"computer-and-information-science-computer-graphics-image-processing"}],chapters:[{id:"41763",title:"Differential Pixel Value Coding for HEVC Lossless Compression",doi:"10.5772/52878",slug:"differential-pixel-value-coding-for-hevc-lossless-compression",totalDownloads:3194,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:5,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Jung-Ah Choi and Yo-Sung Ho",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/41763",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/41763",authors:[{id:"33840",title:"Prof.",name:"Yo-Sung",surname:"Ho",slug:"yo-sung-ho",fullName:"Yo-Sung Ho"},{id:"26880",title:"Dr.",name:"Jung-Ah",surname:"Choi",slug:"jung-ah-choi",fullName:"Jung-Ah Choi"}],corrections:null},{id:"41764",title:"Multiple Descriptions Coinciding Lattice Vector Quantizer for H. 264/AVC and Motion JPEG2000",doi:"10.5772/54296",slug:"multiple-descriptions-coinciding-lattice-vector-quantizer-for-h-264-avc-and-motion-jpeg2000",totalDownloads:2204,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Ehsan Akhtarkavan and M. 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Metallothioneins, Saccharomyces cerevisiae, and Heavy Metals: A Biotechnology Triad?",doi:null,correctionPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/60025.pdf",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/60025",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/60025",totalDownloads:null,totalCrossrefCites:null,bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/60025",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/60025",chapter:{id:"56597",slug:"metallothioneins-saccharomyces-cerevisiae-and-heavy-metals-a-biotechnology-triad-",signatures:"Ileana Cornelia Farcasanu and Lavinia Liliana Ruta",dateSubmitted:"December 11th 2016",dateReviewed:"July 7th 2017",datePrePublished:null,datePublished:"December 13th 2017",book:{id:"6007",title:"Old Yeasts",subtitle:"New Questions",fullTitle:"Old Yeasts - New Questions",slug:"old-yeasts-new-questions",publishedDate:"December 13th 2017",bookSignature:"Candida Lucas and Celia Pais",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6007.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"95655",title:"Prof.",name:"Cândida",middleName:null,surname:"Lucas",slug:"candida-lucas",fullName:"Cândida Lucas"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"203734",title:"Dr.",name:"Ileana",middleName:"Cornelia",surname:"Farcasanu",fullName:"Ileana Farcasanu",slug:"ileana-farcasanu",email:"ileana.farcasanu@chimie.unibuc.ro",position:null,institution:{name:"University of Bucharest",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"203865",title:"Dr.",name:"Lavinia",middleName:null,surname:"Ruta",fullName:"Lavinia Ruta",slug:"lavinia-ruta",email:"lavinia.ruta@chimie.unibuc.ro",position:null,institution:{name:"University of Bucharest",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}}]}},chapter:{id:"56597",slug:"metallothioneins-saccharomyces-cerevisiae-and-heavy-metals-a-biotechnology-triad-",signatures:"Ileana Cornelia Farcasanu and Lavinia Liliana Ruta",dateSubmitted:"December 11th 2016",dateReviewed:"July 7th 2017",datePrePublished:null,datePublished:"December 13th 2017",book:{id:"6007",title:"Old Yeasts",subtitle:"New Questions",fullTitle:"Old Yeasts - 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The operators may be presented abstractly by their characteristics, such as bounded linear operators or closed operators and consideration may be given to nonlinear operators. The study, which depends heavily on the topology of function spaces, is a branch of functional analysis. If a collection of operators forms an algebra over a field, then it is an operator algebra. The description of operator algebras is part of operator theory. Single operator theory deals with the properties and classification of operators, considered one at a time. For example, the classification of normal operators in terms of their spectra falls into this category.
\r\n\r\n\tThe theory of operator algebras brings algebras of operators such as C*-algebras to the fore. Many operators that are studied are operators on Hilbert spaces of holomorphic functions, and the study of the operator is intimately linked to questions in function theory. For example, Beurling's theorem describes the invariant subspaces of the unilateral shift in terms of inner functions, which are bounded holomorphic functions on the unit disk with unimodular boundary values almost everywhere on the circle. Beurling interpreted the unilateral shift as multiplication by the independent variable on the Hardy space. The success in studying multiplication operators, and more generally Toeplitz operators (which are multiplication, followed by projection onto the Hardy space) has inspired the study of similar questions in other spaces, such as the Bergman space. Hence, operator theory has a connection with complex analysis. Additionally, this book will be intended to be an illustration of the use of operator theory when applied to solve specific problems in pure and applied mathematics, engineering, physics, or science in general.
\r\n\t
The Duffy blood group system, ISBT number 008/symbol (FY), was published for the first time in 1950 when anti-Fya was identified in a suspected hemolytic transfusion reaction in a 43-year-old patient with hemophilia who received 3 packed red blood cell (PRBC) units for treatment of spontaneous bleeding and who developed jaundice 1 day after transfusion [1, 2]. Approximately, 1 year later, anti-Fyb was discovered in a postpartum blood sample from a patient who gave birth to her third child [3].
\nChromosome 1 has both FY and RH gene loci. The FY locus is located on the long arm at position 1q22-q23 where it consists of two exons distributed over 1.5 kbp of gDNA, whereas RH resides on the short arm. The Duffy system is N-glycosylated multi-pass transmembrane glycoprotein (Figure 1) [4] also known as the atypical chemokine receptor 1 (ACKR1, CD234). The protein is composed of 336 amino acids. There are two possible Duffy mRNAs which are translated from the Duffy antigen gene, a less abundant α form (338 amino acids) and a major β form (336 amino acids) which differ by 2 amino acids in the N-terminus. Approximately 6000–13,000 copies of the Duffy protein are found on the surface of RBCs [5].
\nThe predicted seven-transmembrane domain structure of the Duffy protein. The amino acid change responsible for Fya/Fyb polymorphism, the mutation responsible for Fyx, and the glycosylation sites and the regions where Fy3 (and Fy6) map are indicated (reproduced with permission).
The Duffy blood group includes six known antigens that differ by amino acid sequence. The Duffy antigen prevalence varies between racial groups.
\nACKR1 (previously known as DARC) is a receptor for a variety of chemokines, including interleukin-8, monocyte chemotactic protein-1, and melanoma growth stimulatory activity. Also, this glycoprotein is a receptor for
There are six known antigens with four main phenotypes; Fy(a+b+), Fy(a−b+), Fy(a+b−), and Fy(a−b−) (Table 1) [5]. The most common antigens are, two polymorphic and antithetical, Fya (FY1) and Fyb (FY2) which differ by one amino acid at position 42 on the extracellular domain, with glycine resulting in Fya expression and aspartic acid resulting in Fyb expression [5, 7]. They are sensitive to destruction when RBCs are treated with proteolytic enzymes such as papain or ficin, whereas, there is no RBCs destruction with trypsin treatment [8].
\nRed cell phenotype | \nPrevalence (%) | \nAllele | \n|
---|---|---|---|
Caucasians | \nBlacks | \n||
Fy (a+b−) | \n17 | \n9 | \nFY*01/FY*01 or FY*A/FY*A | \n
Fy (a | \n34 | \n22 | \nFY*02/FY*02 or FY*B/FY*B | \n
Fy (a+b+) | \n49 | \n1 | \nFY*A/FY*B | \n
Fy (a | \nRare | \n68 | \nFY*/N.01–05, FY*/N.01–02\n‡\n\n | \n
Fy3\n | \n100 | \n32 | \n\n |
Fy5\n | \n99.9 | \n32 | \n\n |
Fy6\n | \n100 | \n32 | \n\n |
Duffy blood group system phenotypes and prevalence. Reproduced with permission and modification.
Nomenclature pending approval by the ISBT working party on terminology for red cell surface antigens.
Fya antigen has a prevalence of 66% in Caucasians, 10% in Blacks, and 99% in Asians. It has been identified on fetal RBCs as early as 6 weeks gestation and reaches adult levels in approximately 12 weeks after birth. Fyb has a prevalence of 83% in Caucasians, 23% in Blacks, and 18.5% in Asians. It is expressed on cord blood cells. Fy3 antigen is expressed in 100% of Caucasians, 32% of Blacks, and 99.9% of Asians. It is also expressed on cord cells and demonstrates increased expression after birth. Fy5 antigen is expressed on 32% of Blacks and 99.9% of Caucasians and Asians. It is not expressed on Rh null RBCs. Fy6 is expressed in 100% of most populations and 32% of Blacks. The Fy(a–b–) phenotype is the major phenotype in approximately 70% Blacks, but is very rarely found in other populations. This phenotype is characterized by the absence of the Fyb antigen on RBCs and its presence on non-erythroid cells. Duffy mRNA is not detected in the bone marrow of Fy(a–b–) individuals; however, it is detected in other tissues including the colon, lung, and spleen. This unique phenotype is caused by a single amino acid substitution at position 46 in the Duffy (Fyb) gene. This mutation impairs the promotor activity in erythroid cells by disrupting the binding site for GATA1 erythroid transcription factor. Furthermore, some individuals with this phenotype do not make anti-Fyb. This is believed to be due to a mutation in the, erythroid promoter, GATA-1 binding motif. Interestingly, the same Fy(a–b–) phenotype rarely found in Caucasians is characterized by absence of Duffy antigens expression in both erythroid and non-erythroid tissues due to possibly presence of mutations which prevent formation of Duffy protein. These individuals can form anti-Fy3. The have high prevalence antigens; Fy3, Fy5, and Fy6 are conformational epitopes as opposed to specific sequence epitopes with Fy5 hypothesized to be a combined conformational epitope of Duffy and Rh protein [9, 10, 11, 12].
\nAnti-Fya and -Fyb are clinically significant RBC alloantibodies which can cause immediate and delayed hemolytic transfusion reactions (HTRs) as well as hemolytic disease of the fetus and newborn (HDFN). They often result from previous exposure such as after transfusion or pregnancy. They are not usually naturally occurring. The Duffy antibodies are predominantly of the IgG subclass whereas the IgM form is rare.
\nThe mechanism of extravascular hemolysis (EH) in both HDFN and HTR is similar. In HDFN, the mother lacks a certain red cell antigen which the fetus is positive for, thus the mother is allo-immunized (i.e., made a new antibody) during the first pregnancy. If she gets exposed to the same antigen in subsequent pregnancy (ies), the fetus (es) is/are at risk of HDFN. Similarly, if a patient lacks a certain red cell antigen but receives red cell transfusion with a unit that has such antigen, the patient is at risk for allo-immunziation after the transfusion and HTR in subsequent transfusion (s). EH is typically induced by IgG red cell antibodies. EH consists of consumption of antibody and/or C3b-bound red cells by phagocytes in the reticuloendothelial system (RES) causing a delayed hemolytic transfusion reaction (DHTR). DHTRs can be clinically significant leading to morbidity and possibly mortality. To avoid DHTR, patients with known clinically significant antibodies, receive red cell units that lack antigen (s) to their the cognate antibody (ies). The Duffy antibodies are usually associated with a moderate DHTR and mild HDFN [13].
\nAnti-Fya is identified more than anti-Fy3, anti-Fy5, or anti-Fyb. Fya is 20 times more immunogenic than Fyb. Some of anti-Fya can bind and activate complements [14]. Anti-Fy3 is also clinically significant antibody which can cause mild HDFN and HTRs. Serologically, it can react with enzyme treated Fy(a+) or Fy(b+) RBCs, but fails to react with Fy(a−b−) RBCs [15]. Anti-Fy4 shows lack of consistent test results. It was found to be reactive with Fy(a−b−), some Fy(a+b−), some Fy(a−b+) RBCs but shows no reaction with Fy(a+b+) RBCs [16]. Anti-Fy5 reacts with enzyme treated Fy(a+) or Fy(b+) RBCs with no reaction with Fy(a−b−) RBCs or Rh null RBCS. It has been reported in sickle cell patients with delayed HTRs in the presence of other clinically significant alloantibodies [17]. A human anti-Fy6 has not been identified [18].
\nThe Duffy glycoprotein can bind to a variety of chemokines and is known commonly as the Duffy antigen receptor for chemokines (DARC) or more recently atypical chemokine receptor 1 (ACKR1). Chemokines are proteins secreted by immune cells as a mean to communicate signals to guide their interactions. The exact function of DARC is not fully clear. One postulated function is that DARC permits erythrocyte to act a chemokine scavenger to limit leukocyte activation. The importance of this function in inflammatory diseases is not well established [6, 19].
\nThe Duffy glycoprotein plays an important role in malaria transmission by acting as the erythroid receptor for
I want to thank the department of Pathology at the University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, United States.
\nThe author declares no conflict of interest.
Access to healthcare means having “the timely use of personal health services to achieve the best health outcomes. It consists of four components:
Coverage: facilitates entry into the healthcare system. Uninsured people are less likely to receive medical care and more likely to have poor health status.
Services: Having a usual source of care is associated with adults receiving recommended screening and prevention services.
Timeliness: ability to provide healthcare when the need is recognized.
Workforce: capable, qualified, culturally competent providers [1].
In 2001 Gulliford, et al. [2] provided a description of access to health services in which they said “Facilitating access is concerned with helping people to command appropriate healthcare resources in order to preserve or improve their health. There are at least four aspects, they said:
If services are available, in terms of an adequate supply of services, then a population may ‘have access’ to healthcare.
The extent to which a population ‘gains access’ to healthcare also depends on financial, organizational and social or cultural barriers that limit utilization. Thus, utilization is dependent on the affordability, physical accessibility and acceptability of services and not merely the adequacy of supply.
The services available must be relevant and effective if the population is to “gain access to satisfactory health outcomes”.
The availability of services, and barriers to utilization, have to be evaluated in the context of the differing perspectives, health needs and the material and cultural settings of diverse groups in society
The Institute of Medicine (IOM) defined access to healthcare “as having timely use of personal health services to achieve the best possible health outcome [3]. According to The Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality’s (AHRQ) [4] “access requires gaining entry into the health-care system, getting access to sites of care where patients can receive needed services, and finding providers who meet the needs of patients and with whom patients can develop a relationship based on mutual communication and trust”. The National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine [5] suggested that “People use healthcare services to diagnose, cure, or ameliorate disease or injury; to improve or maintain function; or to obtain information about their health status and prognosis”. Anderson and Newman [6] presented a framework (4th phase) of health-care utilization that includes predisposing factors, enabling factors, and magnitude of illness. The framework suggests that an individual’s access to and use of health services is considered to be a function of three characteristics:
Predisposing Factors: The socio-cultural characteristics of individuals that exist prior to their illness:
Social Structure: Education, occupation, ethnicity, social networks, social interactions, and culture
Health Beliefs: Attitudes, values, and knowledge that people have concerning and towards the healthcare system
Demographic: Age and Gender
Enabling Factors: The logistical aspects of obtaining care:
Personal/Family: The means and know how to access health services, income, health insurance, a regular source of care, travel, extent and quality of social relationships
Community: Available health personnel and facilities, and waiting time
Possible additions: Genetic factors and psychological characteristics
Need Factors: The most immediate cause of health service use, from functional and health problems that generate the need for healthcare services.
“Perceived” need will better help to understand care-seeking and adherence to a medical regimen,
“Evaluated” need will be more closely related to the kind and amount of treatment that will be provided after a patient has presented to a medical care provider.
People go, or more important they do not go to healthcare services for different reasons. Three overarching categories of reasons emerged based on the necessity, availability, and desirability of care-seeking [7]:
low perceived need to seek medical care;
traditional barriers to medical care, in which people may want to seek care but are limited in their ability to do so; and
unfavorable evaluations of seeking medical care, in which people may perceive care-seeking as necessary and an available option, but not desirable.
Some of these reasons relate to the human nature of the people while others relate to the health facilities themselves. People go to these services to seek methods of prevention, protection, diagnosis, treatment, palliative care, education, research and a multiple of other reasons. Healthcare services may be provided in different ways and locations including hospitals in tertiary services, clinical and other professional services, dental services, home healthcare services which are at the increase as more patients move from hospital care to home care, nursing care services at the hospital or at home], pharmaceutical and medication dispensing services in addition to other over the counter medicines.
eHealth is one of the enablers of “access to healthcare services” along with a number of other factors. Social determinants of health represent a collection of factors that interplay in their influence of the health of people and therefore their ability to access health services using digital health technologies. It has become imperative to design and deploy such technologies in the communities to reduce inequity and improve ability to access health services. eHealth has been described as the “… use of information and communications technologies (ICT) in support of health and health-related fields, including healthcare services, health surveillance, health literature, and health education, knowledge and research” [8]. eHealth includes the ICT-enabled components of health informatics, healthcare informatics, medical informatics, biomedical informatics, mobile health (mHealth), and telehealth and telemedicine, as well as the human and non-electronic components which are essential for these systems to function. Digital health has been extensively used to mean all concepts included in eHealth plus the use of digital devices to capture, monitor and report health data images, and vital signs: body temperature, pulse rate, respiration rate and blood pressure) from individuals and the relevant signs from the environment. The World Health Assembly (WHA) adopted a resolution in 2017 [9] and then a global digital health strategy in 2020. The description provided by the two documents of digital health extensively referred to eHealth as the core component in national eHealth planning, integration of eHealth in health systems, application development, monitoring and evaluation. In a review of definitions of eHealth in 2005, [10] the reviewers found that technology was viewed both as a tool to enable a process/function/service and as the embodiment of eHealth itself. They expressed pleasure to note that technology was portrayed as a means to expand, to assist, or to enhance human activities, rather than as a substitute for them.
A diversified range of areas in which eHealth can be used as many studies indicate [11, 12, 13]. Some of these are directed to service providers while others are directly linked to patients. In all cases the ultimate benefit goes to the citizen.
This range of areas may include:
Improving access and exchange of information and data;
Improve the quality of care;
Reduce costs of healthcare;
Support research by academic and other researchers;
Building evidence for possible policy setting;
Safeguard patient empowerment and safety;
Health worker training and supervision: Pre-service and in-service and both remote and in-person mixed media training; mobile supervision checklists and observation data collection forms;
Data collection and reporting: At the household, community, facility, district, and national level; longitudinal patient tracking (electronic health records), patient registries, disease surveillance, contact tracing, vital events tracking, civil registration;
Supply chain management: Cold chain management, commodity tracking, counterfeit detection and prevention, equipment maintenance;
Financial transactions: Health savings accounts, insurance payments, provider reimbursements, salaries, per diems, conditional cash transfers, performance-based incentives, electronic vouchers;
Health workforce management: Tracking of training, certification, deployment and retention, provider work planning and scheduling;
Clinical care: Point-of-care intelligent diagnostics, remote clinical care, remote monitoring of patient compliance and status, clinical decision support (guidelines, algorithms, checklists);
Real-time communications: Between managers and providers (e.g., treatment guideline updates, routine health reporting), providers and providers (e.g., referrals, consultations), and clients and providers (e.g., symptom notifications, post-referral follow-up);
Public health information and behavior change: Public health education messages, appointment and treatment reminders, health provider point-of-care job aids, health information hotlines.
In a review of definitions of digital health [14], the findings showed that digital health, as has been used in the literature, is more concerned about the provision of healthcare rather than the use of technology. The reviewers added that “Wellbeing of people, both at population and individual levels, have been more emphasized than the care of patients suffering from diseases. Also, the use of data and information for the care of patients was highlighted. A dominant concept in digital health appeared to be mobile health (mHealth), which is related to other concepts such as telehealth, eHealth, and artificial intelligence in healthcare”. Improving access to healthcare services: especially in rural and deprived areas with low (or no) availability of healthcare services, eHealth tools can enable remote consultations, therapies and rehabilitation [15].
eHealth and digital health will be used in this chapter interchangeably to mean the “use of information and communication technology in health”. They are considered true interdisciplinary sectors that bring knowledge and practices from the fields of computer and information sciences, telecommunications, social sciences, health sciences (medicine, public health, pharmaceutical, dentistry, health management], health services research, communication, law and engineering. Success of eHealth depends on the extent and ability to integrate and function as an interdisciplinary system. Elements and applications of digital health have become an integral part of health services and information delivery. One cannot imagine a health service without the use of one or more of a digital health device or an eHealth application. eHealth is contributing to achieving Universal Health Coverage (UHC) and the Sustainable Development Goals [16]. eHealth has shown to enable national health system that use ICT to ensure that the people are aware of the availability of and accessibility to health services, that people are happy (satisfied) with the services they receive and that a monitoring and evaluation system is in place [17, 18, 19, 20].
WHO (2013) [21] describes the goal of UHC as to ensure that all people obtain the health services they need- prevention, promotion, treatment, rehabilitation and palliation without risk of financial ruin or impoverishment, now and in the future. eHealth empowers patients and make services and providers more transparent and providers are become more efficient when they use eHealth technologies to manage or deliver healthcare services.
WHO (2016) [22] confirmed that “It has become increasingly clear that UHC cannot be achieved without the support of eHealth.” The results of the Global eHealth Survey conducted by WHO in 2015 in which a total of 125 countries participated provided some key findings based on the themes that were covered in the Survey. These included:
More than half of WHO Member States now have an eHealth strategy, and 90% of eHealth strategies reference the objectives of UHC or its key elements. It is becoming mainstream for countries to have policies for managing information.
A large number of countries reported at least one mHealth initiative (83%). Despite the rapid growth, however, very few Member States reported evaluations of government-sponsored mHealth programmes, thereby limiting knowledge of what works well and what mistakes to avoid.
By offering care at a distance, telehealth services enable greater equity in health coverage. The use of telehealth continues to grow, and teleradiology is the most widespread (77%). Other services, such as telepathology, remote patient monitoring, and tele-dermatology, are also in use in nearly half of countries.
eLearning, which encompasses a variety of interventions in terms of tools, content, learning objectives, pedagogical approaches, and setting of delivery, is used for medical students’ and doctors’ education in over 84% of countries. Implementation of eLearning is associated with a number of challenges. For example, there is a lack of robust and comprehensive health science eLearning evaluation standards, leading to haphazard evaluation and accreditation of eLearning programmes.
National electronic health record (HER) systems are now reported in 47% of countries.
In total, 78% of countries reported legislation protecting the privacy of personal information, and 54% reported legislation to protect the privacy of electronically held patient data.
Nearly 80% of countries reported that healthcare organizations use social media for the promotion of health messages.
17% of countries already report having a national policy or strategy regulating “big data” use in the health sector.
As healthcare itself is data and information intensive sector it simply means that for this sector to achieve its objectives, it has to collect, exchange and utilize high quality data. Health data has a number of characteristics including:
Critical patient data and information remains scattered across different departments and systems;
Data is not accessible and handily available in times of need. Too much data, little information;
Multiple service providers (public, private, army, charities, etc.) in the system do not have a system in place for smooth process management;
Very little or no exchange (sharing) of information on patients, diagnosis, treatments, etc.;
Privacy, confidentiality and ownership of personal health data are compromised;
The above has led to potential misuse, no use or underuse of health data. Digital health strategies have become integral parts of the overall public health and healthcare delivery system in many parts of the world as health and digital technology seamlessly integrate. Planning, monitoring and evaluation of digital health have become essential to the health systems strengthening process. These have become part of the health system’s resilience and learning. A country cannot afford to have a resilient health system that is responsive to current and future demands without using digital health technology to predict, protect, diagnose, educate and treat. Adopting digital health strategies carries the promise to improve the quality of health services, reduce costs, improve equity of access, and empower citizens in a person-centered healthcare system [23]. Evidence, to prove that all these are attainable at the same time, is still being built. Digital health technologies vary in form and utilization, but have a number of commonalties:
They are all made to help/assist healthcare professionals to better collect data, diagnose, educate and treat individuals;
They represent serious attempts to replace healthcare professionals in performing tasks that look tedious or dangerous, especially when a disease is difficult to diagnose or treat using traditional means;
They may work together to perform a task for the sake of both the healthcare provider and the patient. This simply means more than one technology functions with others to perform the same task of data collection, diagnosis or treatment.
Digital health has adopted a number of other “new” technologies that were not originally designed for the health sector. This has shown that this sector is in a real need for such technologies to enable safe, secure, affordable, timely and equitable access to health services.
The range of technological solutions that are used to enable access to healthcare services is endless. The attempt here is to provide details of the eHealth/digital health types of applications that are more used rather than the list of technologies themselves. These include:
Electronic health record (EHR) is a repository of information regarding the health status of an individual in computer processable form which is collected primarily to support the provision of integrated holistic healthcare to that individual but may also be used, subject to legislation and consent, for secondary purposes that benefit the health of the wider community [24].
The EHR has been one of the most persistent and yet changing technology in healthcare. It’s the cornerstone of any electronic health system which influences the rate of success of the digital health services in an institution or even a country. EHR systems come in different forms and sizes aiming at collecting, storing, sharing and utilization of health data by healthcare providers, the patient and other third-party players as the legal and ethical frameworks permit. The complexity of the record’s structure, compliance with both semantic and syntactic standards, the interface, open vs. commercial suppliers, language version and many other issues pose challenges to implementation of EHR systems to enable access to health services.
Healthcare institutions may avoid implementing of such systems due to a number of issues they face, which automatically limit access to healthcare services by people (patients and non-patients):
Inaccurate patient identification in a record makes it extremely difficult and impractical to offer health services. Absence of a unique number for each patient may cause not only delay in provision of health services but could cause medical errors;
Lack of standard terminology and standard data exchange format hamper the efficiency of data exchange due to lack of semantic interoperability. This will cause both delay in service provision, inability to report, cost and more important medical errors;
Healthcare professionals, patients and the community have expressed concerns about privacy, confidentiality and the quality and accuracy of electronically generated information. The better secure technology, blockchain for example, legal and ethical awareness may reduce anxiety;
Patients may not trust the EHR due to both hardware and software reasons. Interrupted electrical (power) supply, wrong algorithms, lack of training on the system, etc. are all reasons limiting access to healthcare services.
Despite all these challenges, benefits of an EHR system to collectively enable fast and reliable access to healthcare services have been documented. These can be:
Health information and data. Immediate access to key information. This would improve caregivers’ ability to make sound clinical decisions in a timely manner;
Result management. Ability of all providers participating in the care of the patient across multiple settings to quickly access new and past test results. This would increase patient safety and effectiveness of care;
Order management. Ability to enter and store orders for prescriptions, tests, and other services in a computer-based system. This should enhance legibility, reduce duplication, and improve the speed with which orders are executed;
Decision support. Using reminders, prompts, and alerts to improve compliance with best clinical practices, ensure regular screenings and other preventive practices, identify possible drug interactions, and facilitate diagnoses and treatments;
Electronic communication and connectivity. Efficient, secure, and readily accessible communication among providers and patients. This would improve continuity of care, increase timeliness of diagnoses and treatments, and reduce the frequency of adverse events.
Patient support. Tools that give patients access to their health records. This would provide interactive patient education and help them carry out home monitoring and self-testing, which can improve control of chronic conditions.
Administrative process. Computerized administrative tools such as scheduling systems. This would improve hospital and clinic efficiency and provide more timely service to patients;
Reporting. Electronic data storage that employs uniform data standards. This will enable healthcare organizations to respond more quickly to personal, federal, state, and private reporting requirements.
Telemedicine is not a new concept but the technology has been extensively used in the last two years due to the corona virus (COVID-19) pandemic. This is not the place to enlist the history of telemedicine as a technology and as a method to enable access to healthcare services remotely. The World Health Organization [2009] defines telemedicine as “the delivery of healthcare services, where distance is a critical factor, by all healthcare professionals using information and communication technologies for the exchange of valid information for diagnosis, treatment and prevention of disease and injuries, research and evaluation, and for the continuing education of healthcare providers, all in the interests of advancing the health of individuals and their communities” [25]. Telemedicine and telehealth are two concepts that are exchangeable despite the fact they differ as telemedicine focuses on provision of health services to an individual while telehealth focusses on provision and assessment of healthcare services to a population. In their systematic review, Monaghesh and Hajizadeh (2020) they indicated that “telehealth can become a basic need for the general population, healthcare providers, and patients with COVID-19, especially when people are in quarantine, enabling patients in real time through contact with healthcare provider for advice on their health problems” [26]. The promise and potential of telemedicine have been to provide timely, safe, and less expensive care, where the patient/individual does not need to be in the same place/room with the healthcare provider. This simply means that access to healthcare services does not have to move from where the patient is to get into the point of care. During COVID-19 social/physical distancing, has resulted in radical increase in the use of telemedicine services in all countries. This mode of service was provided to avoid contact between patients and healthcare providers who might have been diagnosed as positive COVID-19 and to ensure continuity of primary or secondary healthcare services and in some case tertiary care. Telemedicine services have been provided to ensure timely access to high quality information and care, including prevention and protection services, provision of public health support, provides a form of patient engagement with other patients, family members and healthcare providers, the more advanced form of support includes screening for diagnosis and disease discovery and supports eLearning for both care providers and recipients [27, 28, 29].
A number of concepts are being used to mean information accessed and delivered through the use of the Internet. Among these is the web, which has been defined as “a techno-social system that allows individuals to interact on technological networks, thus improving individual’s cognition, communication and cooperation” [30]. Other applications on the Internet include email services and social media platforms. Consumers of health information have found these applications in multilingual forms, easy to access and many of them have been found to be useful and relevant to their needs. The move from Web 1.0 to Web 4.0 has resulted in providing the end user with more power to control what is being posted and searched on the web using natural language processing. Consumer health, where web developers or owners directly reach out to people poses a challenge of quality of health information, timelessness and possible abuse by predators on the internet [31]. Eysenbach, and Diepgen, [32] provided a number of important issues emerging as a result of failure to control the quality of health information on the internet. They concluded:
The quality of information on the internet is extremely variable, limiting its use as a serious information source;
A possible solution may be self labelling of medical information by web authors in combination with a systematized critical appraisal of health-related information by users and third parties using a validated standard core vocabulary;
Labelling and filtering technologies such as PICS (platform for internet content selection) could supply professionals and consumers with labels to help them separate valuable health information from dubious information;
Doctors, medical societies, and associations could critically appraise internet information and act as decentralized “label services” to rate the value and trustworthiness of information by putting electronic evaluative and descriptive “tags” on it;
Indirect “cybermetric” indicators of quality determined by computer programs could complement human peer review.
The perceived value of information, the quality, usefulness, the level of trust and the language of the site are factors that influence the level of attraction to use a website to search for health information. The emerging quality management sites such as “Heath On the Net- HON” [33], that provides 8 principles (in 38 languages) to make a judgment of the web site is a good example of how health infuriation consumers may get guidance on quality of health information on the Internet. Meeting these principles will result in a certificate provided by HON to the website. It’s important, however, to make sure that searching the web for health information, especially for self-diagnosis is no alternative to consulting ad as specialized healthcare professional as “the immediate and widespread sharing of medical and other scientific information outside of expert circles before it has been thoroughly vetted (eg, preprints) can be dangerous, especially in a pandemic [34].
As early as 1997 [35], the use of health information on the internet has been a major issue for consideration as a way to get information that may lead to further use of healthcare facilities and qualified health workforce personnel, while for others, it has been used as the sole source of information resulting to what has been described by WHO (2020) [36] as the “infodemic” being too much information including false or misleading information in digital and physical environments during a disease outbreak. It causes confusion and risk-taking behaviors that can harm health. It also leads to mistrust in health authorities and undermines the public health response. An infodemic can intensify or lengthen outbreaks when people are unsure about what they need to do to protect their health and the health of people around them. With growing digitization – an expansion of social media and internet use – information can spread more rapidly. This can help to more quickly fill information voids but can also amplify harmful messages.” The use of social media has aggravated the situation due to availability and finding unvetted information.
There are different uses of health information on the web such as:
Education and awareness for both healthcare providers and citizens;
Self-diagnosis with all the disadvantages related to this;
Access to diagnostic result reporting for clinical staff;
Searching for healthcare sites location, profiles, personnel, services, etc.;
Searching for health and medical products and services;
Electronic ordering of laboratory services (pathology, radiology services);
Patient event history via special forms or email services;
Discharge letter production;
Attending an appointment on the internet;
Searching for health and medical information in books, journals and other information sources.
mHealth is a medical and public health practice supported by mobile devices, such as mobile phones, smart phones, the Internet, patient monitoring devices connected to mobile phones, personal digital assistants (PDAs), and other wireless devices. mHealth support includes patients, care-takers, pharmacists, or other healthcare providers making use of any digital technology in addition to the devices mentioned above specialized applications called APPs [37]. The top six areas of using mobile phones for health, according to the WHO global survey, include: toll-free emergency, health call centers, appointment reminders, community mobilization, information delivery, mobile telehealth and emergency management systems and mHealth applications [38]. Mobile APPs are software programs that run on smart phones and other mobile communication devices. They can also be accessories that are attached to a smartphone or other mobile communication devices, or a combination of accessories and software [39].
These APPs:
Help patients/users self-manage their disease or condition without providing specific treatment suggestions;
Provide patients with simple tools to organize and track their health information;
Provide easy access to information related to health conditions or treatments;
Help patients document, show or communicate potential medical conditions to healthcare providers;
Automate simple tasks for healthcare providers; or
Enable patients or providers to interact with Personal Health Records (PHR) or Electronic Health Record (EHR) systems.
A very wide range of mobile health APPs is available right now, which helps patients (and non-patients) to access healthcare services and information on their own convenience. There are infrastructural, cultural, legal and ethical challenges. In general, these APPs have been used in areas such as: sports and fitness activity tracking, diet and nutrition, weight loss coaching, pharmacy; sleep cycle analysis, stress reduction and relaxation, meditation, symptom checkers, access to personal health records, digital imaging, electronic chart review, laboratory results review, life scan for patients with diabetes, remote heart monitoring, ECG viewer, oxygen level remote check, telehealth services, prescription management, appointment reminders, International Classification of Diseases (ICD) reference guide, evaluation and management coding, specialized medical reference material, pregnancy and baby development, exercise and fitness, remote dictation, surgery scheduling and interoffice communication.
“Big data in health refers to large routinely or automatically collected datasets, which are electronically captured and stored. It is reusable in the sense of multipurpose data and comprises the fusion and connection of existing databases for the purpose of improving health and health system performance. It does not refer to data collected for a specific study” [40]. Leveraging big data to find patterns and predict diseases which helps both medical researchers and health leaders to better understand the disease distribution in a country or a community, which if properly used can contribute to building sustainable healthcare systems, collaborate to improve care and outcomes and eventually increase access to healthcare. It is to be noticed that the major bulk of medical data unstructured and is clinically relevant, that data resides in multiple places like individual electronic medical records (EMR), laboratory and imaging systems, physician notes, medical correspondence, claims, etc. [41]. Accompanied with big data concept is data analytics which is evolving into a promising field for providing insight from very large data sets and improving outcomes while reducing costs. The potential of big data to transform healthcare has been identified [42]. The study of data science and the emerging importance of data as a resource in health have influenced the way that healthcare is being studied and its cost-effectiveness, efficiency, disease prevalence and accessibility are predicted.
Among the major challenges to accessing healthcare services is lack of knowledge of their existence, lack of knowledge of the distance between the place of residence and the healthcare centre and unaffordability to transport to the centre. Brown [43] enumerated five potential benefits of integrating GIS in healthcare IT: identifying health trends, tracking the spread of infectious disease, utilizing personal technologies, incorporating social media and improving (health) services. Brown concluded that “GIS is a powerful tool that has been successfully implemented to help address a number of significant health issues ranging from disease management to improved services”. Geolocation technologies for health have made it easier to locate the nearest healthcare centre, provision of the full profile of the centre and the best method to reach it. Integration of geographic data elements (locations) and the thematic data in a database utilizes the best of the two worlds as it has become possible to locate the place where a specific type healthcare services exists. “GIS plays a critical role in determining where and when to intervene, improving the quality of care, increasing accessibility of service, finding more cost-effective delivery modes, and preserving patient confidentiality while satisfying the needs of the research community for data accessibility [44].
Blockchain in healthcare which has been described as “a distributed system which records and stores transaction records. “… a shared, immutable record of peer-to-peer transactions built from linked transaction blocks and stored in a digital ledger” [45]. It allows to securely transfer the ownership of units of value using public key encryption and proof of work methods [46]. Security and data privacy have been among the major reasons for not trusting a system by the patients. Not trusting a system is one limiting factor to access to healthcare system. Increasing security and trust would encourage more people to come forward to use healthcare systems. For patients, in particular, block chain allows payments through cryptocurrencies, which is becoming a trend in the money market. Patient safety is being monitored through drug traceability, especially tracing of counterfeit medicine. Patient data management as personal health data is growing at a very high rate and from multiple sources, many patients became more conscious that data about them needs to be more secure and less accessible by unauthorized parties.
The IoT is described as a network of physical devices that uses connectivity to enable the exchange of data [47, 48, 49]. The Internet of Medical Things (IoMT) has allowed patients to stay at home or anywhere and yet provide health data about themselves to specialized centers for monitoring purposes. This amalgamation of medical devices and applications that can connect to healthcare information technology systems using networking technologies meant that patients can still access healthcare services enabled by technology without them leaving their places. Wearable devices for health monitoring are technologies that can be worn on the human body. This type of devices has become a more common part of the tech world as companies have started to evolve more types of devices that are small enough to wear and that include powerful sensor technologies that can collect and deliver information about their surroundings. A wearable device is often used for tracking a wearer’s vital signs or health and fitness related data, location, etc. These may include continuous glucose monitoring devices, smart bandages, smart pills and remote patient monitoring, monitoring of patient’s movement, dietary system, etc. Adherence to medication helps patients to take medications on time and even inform medical professionals if the patient fails to adhere to medications. In addition to the many advantages to patients, wearables aid healthcare providers in many ways, by simply improving access to healthcare services while having real time health data collection and time saving. Home care and monitoring are provided to many of the aging patients, patients with chronic diseases and those that are for economic or logistic reasons they are advised to stay at home while access to health services is enabled by digital health tools. Hospital to Home Healthcare (H2H) has become the solution of choice and is an integral part of health service delivery system. These technologies have been used to:
Reduce unnecessary hospital visits and the burden on healthcare systems by connecting patients to their physicians;
Allowing the transfer of medical data over a secure network;
Empowering individuals to better control their healthy lifestyle, well-being and fitness;
Landers, et al. [50] suggested four pillars as the key characteristics of the home health agency of the future: patient and person centered, seamlessly connected and coordinated, high quality of care and technology enabled that allows patients to more easily connect with healthcare professionals and receive more intensive services in new settings.
The mobile device (smart phone or an internet connection) connected to a medical device at home and linked to health centre provides the opportunity to send signals related to vital signs of the patient. The functionality of these devices depends on the type/reason for which this device is provided. These may include measuring body temperature, blood pressure, glucose level in the blood, heart beat rate, respiration and air flow in real-time mode, for patients that need kidney dialysis machines.
Medical wearables with artificial intelligence and big data are providing an added value to healthcare with a focus on diagnosis, treatment, patient monitoring and prevention. Access to healthcare is enabled by wearables as these provide a number of advantages. Wearable devices applied to healthcare offer multiple advantages to healthcare professionals as well as the patients [51]:
Premature diagnosis. Wearable devices allow the early detection of symptoms thanks to more precise medical parameters;
Personalization. The doctor, with the help of a software can quickly create a program based on the needs of the patient;
Early diagnosis. Precise medical parameters in the wearable devices allow early detection of symptoms;
Remote patient monitoring. Healthcare professionals can monitor patients remotely and in real-time through the use of wearable devices;
Control and monitoring of the patient: the medical professionals can monitor the patient’s evolution in real time and, if necessary, make changes in the treatment remotely. In addition, patients can also control their health status by connecting the device whenever and wherever they want.
Adherence to medication. Wearable devices help patient to take medications on time and even inform medical professionals if the patient fails to adhere to medications;
Information registry. The data are stored in real-time, allowing a more exhaustive analysis of the information. This results in a more complete and precise report on the patient’s medical history, which can be shared with other medical specialists;
Optimum decision by the doctor. The doctor is able to compare and analyze data to make a sharper clinical decision to enhance the patient’s quality of life;
Saving healthcare cost. Remote healthcare via wearable devices mean saving time and mobility, as it removes the need for the patient to be continuously transferred to the medical center.
It is recognized that some patients require multiple technologies which resulted in the emerging of the technology that tends to streamline data collection, delivery and use. The Internet of Medical Things (IoMT) is an amalgamation of medical devices and applications that can connect to healthcare information technology systems using networking technologies.
According to a World Health Organization’s survey (2017) [52], there are still 400 million people who do not even get essential healthcare support and services. Although artificial intelligence (AI) can reduce this number, the only hurdle is its implementation is the need for huge financial support. Among the reasons for this state of affairs is that patients cannot access healthcare services due to a number of social determinants of health. AI provides an opportunity for many of those who cannot access health services to be reached out “virtually” through image recognition and interpretation, diagnostic assistance, generating reminders and alerts and therapy planning. AI brings a number of benefits to the healthcare system, including to patients. It provides fast and accurate diagnostics, it reduces human errors, it contributes to cost reduction as the patient can get doctor’s assistance without visiting hospitals/clinics which results in cost cutting. AI assistants provide online care and assist patients to add their data more frequently via online medical records, etc. and it supports the Virtual Presence of patients through telemedicine services which allow specialists to assist their patients who live in remote locations. Using a remote presence robot, doctors can engage with their staff and patients in hospitals or clinics and assist or clear their queries. More recently, WHO released its guidance on “Ethics and Governance of Artificial Intelligence in Health” [53]. The guidance provided the areas of application of AI in healthcare delivery as it has been used in:
Diagnosis and prediction-based diagnosis. AI is being considered to support diagnosis in several ways, including in radiology and medical imaging. Such applications, while more widely used than other AI applications, are still relatively novel, and AI is not yet used routinely in clinical decision-making.
Clinical care. Clinicians might use AI to integrate patient records during consultations, identify patients at risk and vulnerable groups, as an aid in difficult treatment decisions and to catch clinical errors.
Emerging trends in the use of AI in clinical care. The reports indicated that several important changes imposed by the use of AI in clinical care extend beyond the provider–patient relationship. Four trends described in the report are:
the evolving role of the patient in clinical care;
the shift from hospital to home-based care;
the use of AI to provide “clinical” care outside the formal health system; and
use of AI for resource allocation and prioritization.
The guidance also provided other areas in which AI has been contributing including health research and drug development, supporting health systems management and planning and in public health and public health surveillance that includes Health promotion, disease prevention and outbreak response.
Monitoring is the periodic and ongoing operation to ensure that the healthcare services are on track while evaluation is designed to measure the relevance, efficiency and effectiveness of healthcare services and their impact on the health of people. In both cases quality data is essential and require setting the baseline by which progress or lack of it can be measured. A data system, usually computer-based health information system, that routinely collects and reports information about the delivery and cost of health services and patient demographics and health status. The major purpose of monitoring and evaluation (M&E) is to measure progress aiming at learning and improving the services. Reeve, Humphreys and Wakerman [54, 55] in the Australian context indicated that Integral to improving rural and remote health outcomes is the provision of appropriate, accessible and effective healthcare services relevant to the needs of communities, which requires a mechanism to monitor and evaluate the impact of health services on improving health outcomes for communities.
M&E requires data collection, its storage and analysis which transforms it into information, knowledge and evidence that can be used for making evidence-based policies, decisions and actions. M&E is based on a set of indicators and measurable targets, which makes it necessary to use ICT tools to fulfill these requirements of data collection, its storage, trends analysis, comparison of achievements with targets, evidence creation and application.
Quality of health services is generally understood to mean that, at all levels of a health system, there is an inherent and explicit recognition of the value of efforts to improve the quality of health services provided – and such efforts are systematically promoted within an enabling environment that encourages engagement, dialog, openness and accountability [55].
Fundamental success factors for provision of quality health services [56] were widely considered to be prerequisites for quality health services include: essential infrastructure, health workers and health management information systems and data systems (e.g. availability of quality measures and data collection templates to generate data, computer hardware/software to analyze data and synthesize the findings into actionable information for further improvement).
A number of country studies have listed challenges and opportunities of using digital health solutions from legal, ethical, infrastructural, human and material resources, training, education, attitude, organizational, cultural and behavioral points of view [57, 58, 59, 60, 61, 62, 63, 64, 65, 66]. These challenges may include:
Infrastructure. Stable electric power supply, place to put computers, air conditioning, local area networks, and other logistics to host computers and their programmes;
Availability of ICT info-structure including computers, programmes, applications and internet that were designed with users in mind;
Connectivity (Internet, telephone lines, or else) represents a major constraint not only at the national level but could be at the local and even community and household level. The Internet penetration rate at global level is 59.5%. Major parts of Africa, for example, the major part of the continent needs access to the internet which creates a considerable obstacle in developing digital infrastructures. The very limited bandwidth in many communities makes it very difficult to download or even to properly access the Internet (web, email, social medial platforms, etc.);
Lack of financial incentives and priorities in countries where priority setting in the health field focusses on building hospitals, delivering drugs, caring of people during the pandemic and focusing of health workforce rather than investing in eHealth to serve the sector in a more cost-effective manner. It is believed in many countries that ICT in health is costly and investing in this area might not be the priority and a cost saving measures. The organizational financial, logistic and legislative support coupled with changes in the workflow of patient care may have a real impact of acceptance of technology as more investment in time and resources is being provided;
Difficulty in using the ICT for health to provide the necessary support of patients. System operators and patients alike have a sense that technology has potential to improve and is not really doing what it is supposed to do. If that technology is a little bit more user-friendly it could have a better chance of penetration and utilization in the healthcare setting;
Lack of well-trained workforce to manage eHealth programmes and projects. Human resources include not only the technicians who should be trained to operate ICT services but also policy-makers, managers and the public at large. Literacy rate that limit acceptance of digital tools to help in managing health resources hampers the progress in this area;
ICT professionals are, to a great degree, are disconnected from healthcare professionals. They both work in silos which limits the understanding and disagreement in the common objectives of helping people to get access to and having better healthcare services. Cultural barriers that exists between the ICT professionals, ICT investors, developers, and practicing physicians do exist and limit the potential to make full use of ICT resources for health. The lack of time from the healthcare staff point of view limits the ability to give feedback and utilize the technology;
The culture of monitoring, evaluation, creation and use of evidence are missing. The absence of these put a lot doubt in the minds of policy-makers, funders and even the community to accept ICT in health applications. In fact, a number of studies were developed which some of them call for development of M&E frameworks while others call for building and using evidence for eHealth;
Seamless integration of technology is health systems at the higher level and the implementation level where, for example the electronic health record or the mobile health application is not an integral part of health services provision. The absence of integration creates silos and a sense this technology is being for the “elite”, for “testing” purposes, to comply with a donor wish or even “to enable data collection about patients for use in research and other purposes;
Sustainability of eHealth solutions where people get used to a service and then it is stopped as a result of shortage of funding, lack of enthusiasm by managers and lack of leadership and shortage of human resources to manage the investment. Lack of interest by people due to distrust and not meeting their expectations;
Data integration supported by interoperability standards is constraints that has been recognized not only by operators but also by patients. The question is why do operators have to fill in the same data more than once in the same healthcare facility? Why do patients have to provide even demographic information in multiple settings? More vicious than this the inability to share data about the same symptom with different codes being assigned to the same disease?
Ethical and legal constraints that hamper access to health information including privacy, confidentiality, data ownership and digital divide. The context in which eHealth is being implemented by individuals, communities and countries provides a better understanding of these constraints. Ethics and legal frameworks differ from one culture to the other making the accepted practices in one society not accepted in another which makes it more difficult to generalize among cultures. In their scoping study, James et al. [67] found that “Of greatest challenge to eHealth systems are ethico-legal factors, particularly privacy and research ethics concerns, such as informed and broad consent, secondary uses of data and return of results”. The WHO guidance on ethics and governance of AI [68] addressed three parties: Healthcare providers (Ministry of Health and others, the manufactures of AI solutions and the Universal Declaration of Human Rights [69] provides an excellent framework for countries to use as ethical principles are laid down, which strongly promote the concept of “All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights.” Privacy, confidentiality and personal information are all protected. Digital divide is persisting not only at global level as countries do have access to ICT resources, while others do not enjoy the same privileges. The same divide exists at the community level and at the gender level. All these issues have a serious impact of access to healthcare. One would not expect an individual or a community to have access to health resources if this person or community is deprived from basic human rights and suffers from a digital divide.
Over 85 countries have developed their national eHealth plans, strategies or policies [70]. It is noted that some of the these are for ICT in general and health is part of that. The toolkit provides a road map for eHealth applications development and services to enable secure, relevant and cost-effective utilization of ICT in health. The national eHealth strategies aim to help the healthcare sector to improve the health outcomes using the ICT resources at the national level while considering fundamental elements in terms of regulatory, governance, standards, human capacity, financing and policy contexts and more important it aims at ensuring coordinated effort by the two sectors: Health and ICT in the country to produce seamless integration of ICT in health sector. This integration results from defining the common threads and links between national health strategies and national ICT strategies, where coordination, compatibility and interoperability of national, sub-national and local plans are considered and the provision of a platform for integration and joint work to develop shared solutions and systems. The national eHealth strategy seeks high level of transparency, accountability and return on investment to allow for meager resources in a country to be fully used as it supports the rationale and basis for investment in eHealth by the different stakeholders. In most cases the Ministries of Health have a lead role in the development with ministries of ICT and other stakeholders taking part. Other stakeholders may include:
The community (patients and no-patients)
Healthcare providers in the private sector, non-government organizations and other healthcare providers;
Ministry of Information and Communication;
Departments of civil registration and national statistics;
Legislative bodies and legal authorities;
Ministry of Planning/Finance;
Academic institutions and research centers;
The relevant civil society organizations.
While countries should focus on a range of structured activities that lead to the progressive development of a national eHealth strategy, WHO and the International Telecommunication Union developed the National eHealth strategy toolkit [71] as a tool to be used y countries that already have strategies in place or those that have embarked on development of new strategies. The way forward as provided by the Toolkit suggests:
identifying the key health and non-health sector stakeholders who will need to be involved in the development of a national eHealth vision and plan and its subsequent implementation, and engaging with them;
establishing governance mechanisms to provide improved visibility, coordination and
control of eHealth activities;
establishing the strategic context for eHealth. This provides the foundation for the eHealth vision and plan, and enables the government to assess and make informed decisions on whether to pursue opportunities that present themselves from the ICT industry and other stakeholders;
assessing the current eHealth environment in terms of the eHealth components that already exist as well as existing programmes or projects that will deliver eHealth capabilities.
eHealth and digital health have been in use for many years. COVID-19 pandemic has accelerated the use of information and communication technology. Enabling access to healthcare during the pandemic has provided an opportunity not only to test the capabilities of health information systems and their delivery mechanisms but also to test their cost-effectiveness, efficiency, acceptance by healthcare providers and patients, compliance with international standards, interoperability and the ethical and legal principles that they use.
New innovations will continue to emerge and the healthcare sector will continue to make full use of these and has its own innovative approaches. All these innovations aim to support the health system to be more resilient and more capable of meeting the demands of people for more cost-effective and secure solutions. The dependence on data for policy development, decision-making and actions in the health sector will be strengthened as more data is being translated into information and knowledge for action.
In our mission to support the dissemination of knowledge, we travel throughout the world to present our publications and support our Authors and Academic Editors. We attend international symposia, conferences, workshops and book fairs as well as business meetings with science, academic and publishing professionals. Take a look at the current events.
",metaTitle:"IntechOpen events",metaDescription:"In our mission to support the dissemination of knowledge, we travel worldwide to present our publications, authors and editors at international symposia, conferences, and workshops, as well as attend business meetings with science, academia and publishing professionals. We are always happy to host our scientists in our office to discuss further collaborations. Take a look at where we’ve been, who we’ve met and where we’re going.",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"/page/events",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"May 18, 2022 | 1:00 PM - 2:00 PM CEST
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19 - 23 October 2022, Frankfurt, Germany
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May 18, 2022 | 1:00 PM - 2:00 PM CEST
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19 - 23 October 2022, Frankfurt, Germany
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Guadalajara International Book Fair
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His studies in robotics lead him not only to a PhD degree but also inspired him to co-found and build the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems - world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"441",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Jaekyu",middleName:null,surname:"Park",slug:"jaekyu-park",fullName:"Jaekyu Park",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/441/images/1881_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"LG Corporation (South Korea)",country:{name:"Korea, South"}}},{id:"465",title:"Dr.",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Martens",slug:"christian-martens",fullName:"Christian Martens",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Rheinmetall (Germany)",country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"479",title:"Dr.",name:"Valentina",middleName:null,surname:"Colla",slug:"valentina-colla",fullName:"Valentina Colla",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/479/images/358_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sant'Anna School of Advanced Studies",country:{name:"Italy"}}},{id:"494",title:"PhD",name:"Loris",middleName:null,surname:"Nanni",slug:"loris-nanni",fullName:"Loris Nanni",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/494/images/system/494.jpg",biography:"Loris Nanni received his Master Degree cum laude on June-2002 from the University of Bologna, and the April 26th 2006 he received his Ph.D. in Computer Engineering at DEIS, University of Bologna. On September, 29th 2006 he has won a post PhD fellowship from the university of Bologna (from October 2006 to October 2008), at the competitive examination he was ranked first in the industrial engineering area. He extensively served as referee for several international journals. He is author/coauthor of more than 100 research papers. He has been involved in some projects supported by MURST and European Community. His research interests include pattern recognition, bioinformatics, and biometric systems (fingerprint classification and recognition, signature verification, face recognition).",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"496",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Leon",slug:"carlos-leon",fullName:"Carlos Leon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Seville",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"512",title:"Dr.",name:"Dayang",middleName:null,surname:"Jawawi",slug:"dayang-jawawi",fullName:"Dayang Jawawi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Technology Malaysia",country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"528",title:"Dr.",name:"Kresimir",middleName:null,surname:"Delac",slug:"kresimir-delac",fullName:"Kresimir Delac",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/528/images/system/528.jpg",biography:"K. Delac received his B.Sc.E.E. degree in 2003 and is currentlypursuing a Ph.D. degree at the University of Zagreb, Faculty of Electrical Engineering andComputing. His current research interests are digital image analysis, pattern recognition andbiometrics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Zagreb",country:{name:"Croatia"}}},{id:"557",title:"Dr.",name:"Andon",middleName:"Venelinov",surname:"Topalov",slug:"andon-topalov",fullName:"Andon Topalov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/557/images/1927_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Andon V. Topalov received the MSc degree in Control Engineering from the Faculty of Information Systems, Technologies, and Automation at Moscow State University of Civil Engineering (MGGU) in 1979. He then received his PhD degree in Control Engineering from the Department of Automation and Remote Control at Moscow State Mining University (MGSU), Moscow, in 1984. From 1985 to 1986, he was a Research Fellow in the Research Institute for Electronic Equipment, ZZU AD, Plovdiv, Bulgaria. In 1986, he joined the Department of Control Systems, Technical University of Sofia at the Plovdiv campus, where he is presently a Full Professor. He has held long-term visiting Professor/Scholar positions at various institutions in South Korea, Turkey, Mexico, Greece, Belgium, UK, and Germany. And he has coauthored one book and authored or coauthored more than 80 research papers in conference proceedings and journals. His current research interests are in the fields of intelligent control and robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Technical University of Sofia",country:{name:"Bulgaria"}}},{id:"585",title:"Prof.",name:"Munir",middleName:null,surname:"Merdan",slug:"munir-merdan",fullName:"Munir Merdan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/585/images/system/585.jpg",biography:"Munir Merdan received the M.Sc. degree in mechanical engineering from the Technical University of Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina, in 2001, and the Ph.D. degree in electrical engineering from the Vienna University of Technology, Vienna, Austria, in 2009.Since 2005, he has been at the Automation and Control Institute, Vienna University of Technology, where he is currently a Senior Researcher. His research interests include the application of agent technology for achieving agile control in the manufacturing environment.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"605",title:"Prof",name:"Dil",middleName:null,surname:"Hussain",slug:"dil-hussain",fullName:"Dil Hussain",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/605/images/system/605.jpg",biography:"Dr. Dil Muhammad Akbar Hussain is a professor of Electronics Engineering & Computer Science at the Department of Energy Technology, Aalborg University Denmark. Professor Akbar has a Master degree in Digital Electronics from Govt. College University, Lahore Pakistan and a P-hD degree in Control Engineering from the School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, University of Sussex United Kingdom. Aalborg University has Two Satellite Campuses, one in Copenhagen (Aalborg University Copenhagen) and the other in Esbjerg (Aalborg University Esbjerg).\n· He is a member of prestigious IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers), and IAENG (International Association of Engineers) organizations. \n· He is the chief Editor of the Journal of Software Engineering.\n· He is the member of the Editorial Board of International Journal of Computer Science and Software Technology (IJCSST) and International Journal of Computer Engineering and Information Technology. \n· He is also the Editor of Communication in Computer and Information Science CCIS-20 by Springer.\n· Reviewer For Many Conferences\nHe is the lead person in making collaboration agreements between Aalborg University and many universities of Pakistan, for which the MOU’s (Memorandum of Understanding) have been signed.\nProfessor Akbar is working in Academia since 1990, he started his career as a Lab demonstrator/TA at the University of Sussex. After finishing his P. hD degree in 1992, he served in the Industry as a Scientific Officer and continued his academic career as a visiting scholar for a number of educational institutions. In 1996 he joined National University of Science & Technology Pakistan (NUST) as an Associate Professor; NUST is one of the top few universities in Pakistan. In 1999 he joined an International Company Lineo Inc, Canada as Manager Compiler Group, where he headed the group for developing Compiler Tool Chain and Porting of Operating Systems for the BLACKfin processor. The processor development was a joint venture by Intel and Analog Devices. In 2002 Lineo Inc., was taken over by another company, so he joined Aalborg University Denmark as an Assistant Professor.\nProfessor Akbar has truly a multi-disciplined career and he continued his legacy and making progress in many areas of his interests both in teaching and research. 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Taiar",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7543.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"157376",title:"Prof.",name:"Mario",middleName:null,surname:"Bernardo-Filho",slug:"mario-bernardo-filho",fullName:"Mario Bernardo-Filho"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6772",title:"Occupational Therapy",subtitle:"Therapeutic and Creative Use of Activity",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0f6de90c02282919494d6254e473defe",slug:"occupational-therapy-therapeutic-and-creative-use-of-activity",bookSignature:"Meral Huri",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6772.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"171525",title:"Dr.",name:"Meral",middleName:null,surname:"Huri",slug:"meral-huri",fullName:"Meral Huri"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5711",title:"Occupational Therapy",subtitle:"Occupation Focused Holistic Practice in Rehabilitation",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"38180e287b6cb09b8002b7ab485de2c2",slug:"occupational-therapy-occupation-focused-holistic-practice-in-rehabilitation",bookSignature:"Meral Huri",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5711.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"171525",title:"Dr.",name:"Meral",middleName:null,surname:"Huri",slug:"meral-huri",fullName:"Meral Huri"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],booksByTopicTotal:3,seriesByTopicCollection:[],seriesByTopicTotal:0,mostCitedChapters:[{id:"55163",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.68799",title:"Virtual Reality and Occupational Therapy",slug:"virtual-reality-and-occupational-therapy",totalDownloads:2642,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:6,abstract:"Virtual reality is three dimensional, interactive and fun way in rehabilitation. Its first known use in rehabilitation published by Max North named as “Virtual Environments and Psychological Disorders” (1994). Virtual reality uses special programmed computers, visual devices and artificial environments for the clients’ rehabilitation. Throughout technological improvements, virtual reality devices changed from therapeutic gloves to augmented reality environments. Virtual reality was being used in different rehabilitation professions such as occupational therapy, physical therapy, psychology and so on. In spite of common virtual reality approach of different professions, each profession aims different outcomes in rehabilitation. Virtual reality in occupational therapy generally focuses on hand and upper extremity functioning, cognitive rehabilitation, mental disorders, etc. Positive effects of virtual reality were mentioned in different studies, which are higher motivation than non‐simulated environments, active participation of the participants, supporting motor learning, fun environment and risk‐free environment. Additionally, virtual reality was told to be used as assessment. This chapter will focus on usage of virtual reality in occupational therapy, history and recent developments, types of virtual reality technologic equipment, pros and cons, usage for pediatric, adult and geriatric people and recent research and articles.",book:{id:"5711",slug:"occupational-therapy-occupation-focused-holistic-practice-in-rehabilitation",title:"Occupational Therapy",fullTitle:"Occupational Therapy - Occupation Focused Holistic Practice in Rehabilitation"},signatures:"Orkun Tahir Aran, Sedef Şahin, Berkan Torpil, Tarık Demirok and\nHülya Kayıhan",authors:[{id:"172938",title:"Prof.",name:"Hulya",middleName:null,surname:"Kayihan",slug:"hulya-kayihan",fullName:"Hulya Kayihan"},{id:"183079",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sedef",middleName:null,surname:"Şahin",slug:"sedef-sahin",fullName:"Sedef Şahin"},{id:"196848",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Orkun Tahir",middleName:null,surname:"Aran",slug:"orkun-tahir-aran",fullName:"Orkun Tahir Aran"},{id:"197159",title:"Mr.",name:"Tarık",middleName:null,surname:"Demirok",slug:"tarik-demirok",fullName:"Tarık Demirok"},{id:"197312",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Berkan",middleName:null,surname:"Torpil",slug:"berkan-torpil",fullName:"Berkan Torpil"}]},{id:"61806",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.78312",title:"Executive Functions and Neurology in Children and Adolescents",slug:"executive-functions-and-neurology-in-children-and-adolescents",totalDownloads:1756,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:5,abstract:"This chapter discusses the theoretical and methodological issues of creating a developmental perspective on executive function (EF) in childhood and adolescence. Focusing on school periods, this section outlines the development of the basic components of EF—inhibition, working memory, and attention. Cognitive and neurophysiological evaluations show that despite the emergence of EF in the first few years of life, it continues to grow significantly in childhood and adolescence. The components vary slightly according to their developmental sequence. The chapter links findings to long-standing developmental issues (i.e. developmental sequences and processes) and suggests the necessary research to establish a developmental framework covering early childhood throughout adolescence.",book:{id:"6772",slug:"occupational-therapy-therapeutic-and-creative-use-of-activity",title:"Occupational Therapy",fullTitle:"Occupational Therapy - Therapeutic and Creative Use of Activity"},signatures:"Gokcen Akyurek",authors:[{id:"197265",title:"Dr.",name:"Gokcen",middleName:null,surname:"Akyurek",slug:"gokcen-akyurek",fullName:"Gokcen Akyurek"}]},{id:"56049",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.69101",title:"Measurement of Participation: The Role Checklist Version 3: Satisfaction and Performance",slug:"measurement-of-participation-the-role-checklist-version-3-satisfaction-and-performance",totalDownloads:2820,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:"Participation in society is an area of interest to both clinicians and population researchers. Measurement of participation is therefore important, yet differences in definition, in terms of both content and scope, have made general agreement on one instrument tool elusive. What is recognized is the need for a theoretically based tool that captures both the insider and the outsider perspective. The outsider perspective, inclusive of the generally held views of a society, supports the utility for aggregating population data, whereas the insider perspective provides the internally held views of an individual needed for client-centered treatment planning. The Role Checklist Version 3 modifies one of the most commonly used assessment tools in occupational therapy practice, has good preliminary psychometric properties, and is theoretically consistent with both the ICF and the Model of Human Occupation. The Model of Human Occupation is the most widely used theoretical model in occupational therapy. This chapter provides an overview of the theoretical development, empirical testing, and implications for use of this participation measure by occupational therapists along with implications for population researchers.",book:{id:"5711",slug:"occupational-therapy-occupation-focused-holistic-practice-in-rehabilitation",title:"Occupational Therapy",fullTitle:"Occupational Therapy - Occupation Focused Holistic Practice in Rehabilitation"},signatures:"Patricia J. Scott, Kelsey McKinney, Jeff Perron, Emily Ruff and Jessica\nSmiley",authors:[{id:"195495",title:"Dr.",name:"Patricia J",middleName:null,surname:"Scott",slug:"patricia-j-scott",fullName:"Patricia J Scott"},{id:"208801",title:"Dr.",name:"Kelsey G.",middleName:null,surname:"McKinney",slug:"kelsey-g.-mckinney",fullName:"Kelsey G. McKinney"},{id:"208802",title:"Mr.",name:"Jeffrey M.",middleName:null,surname:"Perron",slug:"jeffrey-m.-perron",fullName:"Jeffrey M. Perron"},{id:"208803",title:"Dr.",name:"Emily G.",middleName:null,surname:"Ruff",slug:"emily-g.-ruff",fullName:"Emily G. Ruff"},{id:"208804",title:"Dr.",name:"Jessica L.",middleName:null,surname:"Smiley",slug:"jessica-l.-smiley",fullName:"Jessica L. Smiley"}]},{id:"55024",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.68463",title:"Occupational Therapy in Oncology and Palliative Care",slug:"occupational-therapy-in-oncology-and-palliative-care",totalDownloads:2694,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:"Cancer is a chronic disease that may occur in both children and adults. Occupational therapy focuses on the activity limitations and participation problems in their life. Oncology rehabilitation involves in helping an individual with cancer to regain maximum physical, psychological, cognitive, social, and vocational functioning with the limits up to disease and its treatments in an interdisciplinary team concept. These treatment options are associated with the risk of some side effects, including fatigue, pain, cognitive problems, decrease in bone density and muscle endurance, weight loss, and stress- or anxiety-related psychosocial problems. Occupational therapy approaches are a holistic view in a client center and use training in activities of daily living, assistive technology, education of energy conservation techniques, and management of treatment-related problems, such as pain, fatigue, and nausea. In palliative and hospice care, occupational therapists support clients with cancer by minimizing the secondary symptoms related to cancer and its treatments. At the end of life, occupational therapy offers to identify the roles and activities that are meaningful and purposeful to the client with cancer and try to determine the barriers that limit their performance. Clients with cancer who have childhood cancer or adult cancer can face problems about body structure and functions, activity, and participation, which may limit their participation to their daily life.",book:{id:"5711",slug:"occupational-therapy-occupation-focused-holistic-practice-in-rehabilitation",title:"Occupational Therapy",fullTitle:"Occupational Therapy - Occupation Focused Holistic Practice in Rehabilitation"},signatures:"Sedef Şahin, Semin Akel and Meral Zarif",authors:[{id:"183079",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sedef",middleName:null,surname:"Şahin",slug:"sedef-sahin",fullName:"Sedef Şahin"},{id:"183078",title:"Dr.",name:"Burcu Semin",middleName:null,surname:"Akel",slug:"burcu-semin-akel",fullName:"Burcu Semin Akel"},{id:"198859",title:"Dr.",name:"Meral",middleName:null,surname:"Zarif",slug:"meral-zarif",fullName:"Meral Zarif"}]},{id:"70122",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.89360",title:"Parkinson’s Disease Rehabilitation: Effectiveness Approaches and New Perspectives",slug:"parkinson-s-disease-rehabilitation-effectiveness-approaches-and-new-perspectives",totalDownloads:2077,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"Parkinson’s disease has been considered one of the most important and common neurodegenerative diseases in the world. Its motor and nonmotor signs determine a huge functional loss, leading the individuals to lose their independence. Although the treatment requires a pharmacological approach, physical therapy has confirmed its importance in this process. Today, neurorehabilitation is indispensable to increase many of the cardinal signs of the disease. Using traditional or technological approaches, physical therapy has reached good results in improving motor and nonmotor functions, as well as the quality of life of Parkinsonians. However, it is important to develop and to fortify the physical therapy approach so that we can provide stronger evidence about our practice.",book:{id:"7543",slug:"physical-therapy-effectiveness",title:"Physical Therapy Effectiveness",fullTitle:"Physical Therapy Effectiveness"},signatures:"Luciana Auxiliadora de Paula Vasconcelos",authors:[{id:"98546",title:"Dr.",name:"Luciana Auxiliadora",middleName:null,surname:"De Paula Vasconcelos",slug:"luciana-auxiliadora-de-paula-vasconcelos",fullName:"Luciana Auxiliadora De Paula Vasconcelos"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"55080",title:"Life Skills in Occupational Therapy",slug:"life-skills-in-occupational-therapy",totalDownloads:6076,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"Occupational therapy is a health profession that uses the purposeful activities to achieve multiple and complex rehabilitation aims. The main goals of the occupational therapy are to support the reintegration of individuals in daily living skills as well as to increase their independence and autonomy. Interventions of occupational therapists have primarily focused on self-care, productivity, and leisure time activities. Since the life skills includes a wide range of abilities that enable a person to perform personal care and more complicated tasks such as traveling, shopping, community participation etc., occupational therapists provide life skills training programs to meet the needs of the clients. This chapter aims to contribute to the current understanding and practices of life skills from an occupational therapy perspective. The chapter starts with a brief discussion of the importance of life skills in occupational therapy. After this introduction, the first part takes a look at the definition of life skills and identifies core components of life skills. The second part describes assessment and interventions of life skills. The third one gives an overview about school life skills programs for children and adolescents. Finally, the last part explains some life skills programs in people with disadvantages.",book:{id:"5711",slug:"occupational-therapy-occupation-focused-holistic-practice-in-rehabilitation",title:"Occupational Therapy",fullTitle:"Occupational Therapy - Occupation Focused Holistic Practice in Rehabilitation"},signatures:"Hatice Abaoğlu, Özge Buket Cesim, Sinem Kars and Zeynep Çelik",authors:[{id:"197551",title:"Dr.",name:"Hatice",middleName:null,surname:"Abaoğlu",slug:"hatice-abaoglu",fullName:"Hatice Abaoğlu"},{id:"205199",title:"Dr.",name:"Sinem",middleName:null,surname:"Kars",slug:"sinem-kars",fullName:"Sinem Kars"},{id:"205200",title:"Dr.",name:"Zeynep",middleName:null,surname:"Celik",slug:"zeynep-celik",fullName:"Zeynep Celik"},{id:"205203",title:"Ms.",name:"Özge Buket",middleName:null,surname:"Cesim",slug:"ozge-buket-cesim",fullName:"Özge Buket Cesim"}]},{id:"62493",title:"Occupational Therapy in Forensic Settings",slug:"occupational-therapy-in-forensic-settings",totalDownloads:2543,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"It is necessary for a person to comply with the expectations of society and the rules of law to which these expectations are secured. Offenders turn back to the community after the penalty was executed by isolating from society and some occupations. An occupational imbalance is seen in the individuals, during this penalty period and afterward, because of limited occupational participation. As an occupational being, this affects their physical, mental and psychological well-being. Imprisonment is an important practice in criminal law to punish criminals. This may be necessary for the protection of society from criminals, but successful integration into a community after exiting the prison is the most important factor in preventing recidivism. Occupational therapy focuses on health and well-being by using meaningful and purposeful occupations. Occupation involves any activity that people perform or participate in, such as giving care to themselves or others, working, learning, playing games, and interacting with others. From this perspective, the role of occupational therapists in forensic settings is to determine the abilities of these individuals to congregate their deprived freedoms and use them to train them for an independent and autonomous life; to provide a professional orientation, career counseling, and self-esteem; to gain some habits for physical, spiritual and moral life and to reinforce.",book:{id:"6772",slug:"occupational-therapy-therapeutic-and-creative-use-of-activity",title:"Occupational Therapy",fullTitle:"Occupational Therapy - Therapeutic and Creative Use of Activity"},signatures:"Esma Ozkan, Sümeyye Belhan, Mahmut Yaran and Meral Zarif",authors:null},{id:"70122",title:"Parkinson’s Disease Rehabilitation: Effectiveness Approaches and New Perspectives",slug:"parkinson-s-disease-rehabilitation-effectiveness-approaches-and-new-perspectives",totalDownloads:2083,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"Parkinson’s disease has been considered one of the most important and common neurodegenerative diseases in the world. Its motor and nonmotor signs determine a huge functional loss, leading the individuals to lose their independence. Although the treatment requires a pharmacological approach, physical therapy has confirmed its importance in this process. Today, neurorehabilitation is indispensable to increase many of the cardinal signs of the disease. Using traditional or technological approaches, physical therapy has reached good results in improving motor and nonmotor functions, as well as the quality of life of Parkinsonians. However, it is important to develop and to fortify the physical therapy approach so that we can provide stronger evidence about our practice.",book:{id:"7543",slug:"physical-therapy-effectiveness",title:"Physical Therapy Effectiveness",fullTitle:"Physical Therapy Effectiveness"},signatures:"Luciana Auxiliadora de Paula Vasconcelos",authors:[{id:"98546",title:"Dr.",name:"Luciana Auxiliadora",middleName:null,surname:"De Paula Vasconcelos",slug:"luciana-auxiliadora-de-paula-vasconcelos",fullName:"Luciana Auxiliadora De Paula Vasconcelos"}]},{id:"62210",title:"Occupational Therapy’s Role in the Treatment of Children with Autism Spectrum Disorders",slug:"occupational-therapy-s-role-in-the-treatment-of-children-with-autism-spectrum-disorders",totalDownloads:2756,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Occupational therapists (OT) offer a wide range of therapies for individuals with ASD on the basis of specific deficits and difficulties. This chapter explores the role that OT plays, and the expertise, in relation to the interdisciplinary team. In addition, it discusses and presents empirical support for several therapeutic approaches commonly used by OTs working with individuals with ASD.",book:{id:"6772",slug:"occupational-therapy-therapeutic-and-creative-use-of-activity",title:"Occupational Therapy",fullTitle:"Occupational Therapy - Therapeutic and Creative Use of Activity"},signatures:"Bryan M. Gee, Amy Nwora and Theodore W. Peterson",authors:null},{id:"55049",title:"Community Participation in People with Disabilities",slug:"community-participation-in-people-with-disabilities",totalDownloads:2436,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"Despite the fact that participation is an important building and a valuable target, the conceptualization, identification and measurement methods vary widely. This chapter tried to gain an insider’s perspective from the obstacles that summarize what meaning participation means, how to characterize it, and what prevents and supports participation. Participation is seen as a right and a responsibility attributed to and attributed to both the person and the community. Participation does not take place in a vacuum; the environment dynamically influences participation. 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Radiotherapy and Nuclear Medicine Technology has always been my aspiration and my life. As years passed I accumulated a tremendous amount of skills and knowledge in Radiotherapy and Nuclear Medicine, Conventional Radiology, Radiation Protection, Bioinformatics Technology, PACS, Image processing, clinically and lecturing that will enable me to provide a valuable service to the community as a Researcher and Consultant in this field. My method of translating this into day to day in clinical practice is non-exhaustible and my habit of exchanging knowledge and expertise with others in those fields is the code and secret of success.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Majmaah University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"313277",title:"Dr.",name:"Bartłomiej",middleName:null,surname:"Płaczek",slug:"bartlomiej-placzek",fullName:"Bartłomiej Płaczek",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/313277/images/system/313277.jpg",biography:"Bartłomiej Płaczek, MSc (2002), Ph.D. (2005), Habilitation (2016), is a professor at the University of Silesia, Institute of Computer Science, Poland, and an expert from the National Centre for Research and Development. His research interests include sensor networks, smart sensors, intelligent systems, and image processing with applications in healthcare and medicine. He is the author or co-author of more than seventy papers in peer-reviewed journals and conferences as well as the co-author of several books. He serves as a reviewer for many scientific journals, international conferences, and research foundations. Since 2010, Dr. Placzek has been a reviewer of grants and projects (including EU projects) in the field of information technologies.",institutionString:"University of Silesia",institution:{name:"University of Silesia",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"35000",title:"Prof.",name:"Ulrich H.P",middleName:"H.P.",surname:"Fischer",slug:"ulrich-h.p-fischer",fullName:"Ulrich H.P Fischer",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/35000/images/3052_n.jpg",biography:"Academic and Professional Background\nUlrich H. P. has Diploma and PhD degrees in Physics from the Free University Berlin, Germany. He has been working on research positions in the Heinrich-Hertz-Institute in Germany. Several international research projects has been performed with European partners from France, Netherlands, Norway and the UK. He is currently Professor of Communications Systems at the Harz University of Applied Sciences, Germany.\n\nPublications and Publishing\nHe has edited one book, a special interest book about ‘Optoelectronic Packaging’ (VDE, Berlin, Germany), and has published over 100 papers and is owner of several international patents for WDM over POF key elements.\n\nKey Research and Consulting Interests\nUlrich’s research activity has always been related to Spectroscopy and Optical Communications Technology. Specific current interests include the validation of complex instruments, and the application of VR technology to the development and testing of measurement systems. He has been reviewer for several publications of the Optical Society of America\\'s including Photonics Technology Letters and Applied Optics.\n\nPersonal Interests\nThese include motor cycling in a very relaxed manner and performing martial arts.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Charité",country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"341622",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Eduardo",middleName:null,surname:"Rojas Alvarez",slug:"eduardo-rojas-alvarez",fullName:"Eduardo Rojas Alvarez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/341622/images/15892_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Cuenca",country:{name:"Ecuador"}}},{id:"215610",title:"Prof.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Sarfraz",slug:"muhammad-sarfraz",fullName:"Muhammad Sarfraz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/215610/images/system/215610.jpeg",biography:"Muhammad Sarfraz is a professor in the Department of Information Science, Kuwait University. His research interests include computer graphics, computer vision, image processing, machine learning, pattern recognition, soft computing, data science, intelligent systems, information technology, and information systems. Prof. Sarfraz has been a keynote/invited speaker on various platforms around the globe. He has advised various students for their MSc and Ph.D. theses. He has published more than 400 publications as books, journal articles, and conference papers. He is a member of various professional societies and a chair and member of the International Advisory Committees and Organizing Committees of various international conferences. Prof. Sarfraz is also an editor-in-chief and editor of various international journals.",institutionString:"Kuwait University",institution:{name:"Kuwait University",country:{name:"Kuwait"}}},{id:"32650",title:"Prof.",name:"Lukas",middleName:"Willem",surname:"Snyman",slug:"lukas-snyman",fullName:"Lukas Snyman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/32650/images/4136_n.jpg",biography:"Lukas Willem Snyman received his basic education at primary and high schools in South Africa, Eastern Cape. He enrolled at today's Nelson Metropolitan University and graduated from this university with a BSc in Physics and Mathematics, B.Sc Honors in Physics, MSc in Semiconductor Physics, and a Ph.D. in Semiconductor Physics in 1987. After his studies, he chose an academic career and devoted his energy to the teaching of physics to first, second, and third-year students. After positions as a lecturer at the University of Port Elizabeth, he accepted a position as Associate Professor at the University of Pretoria, South Africa.\r\n\r\nIn 1992, he motivates the concept of 'television and computer-based education” as means to reach large student numbers with only the best of teaching expertise and publishes an article on the concept in the SA Journal of Higher Education of 1993 (and later in 2003). The University of Pretoria subsequently approved a series of test projects on the concept with outreach to Mamelodi and Eerste Rust in 1993. In 1994, the University established a 'Unit for Telematic Education ' as a support section for multiple faculties at the University of Pretoria. In subsequent years, the concept of 'telematic education” subsequently becomes well established in academic circles in South Africa, grew in popularity, and is adopted by many universities and colleges throughout South Africa as a medium of enhancing education and training, as a method to reaching out to far out communities, and as a means to enhance study from the home environment.\r\n\r\nProfessor Snyman in subsequent years pursued research in semiconductor physics, semiconductor devices, microelectronics, and optoelectronics.\r\n\r\nIn 2000 he joined the TUT as a full professor. Here served for a period as head of the Department of Electronic Engineering. Here he makes contributions to solar energy development, microwave and optoelectronic device development, silicon photonics, as well as contributions to new mobile telecommunication systems and network planning in SA.\r\n\r\nCurrently, he teaches electronics and telecommunications at the TUT to audiences ranging from first-year students to Ph.D. level.\r\n\r\nFor his research in the field of 'Silicon Photonics” since 1990, he has published (as author and co-author) about thirty internationally reviewed articles in scientific journals, contributed to more than forty international conferences, about 25 South African provisional patents (as inventor and co-inventor), 8 PCT international patent applications until now. Of these, two USA patents applications, two European Patents, two Korean patents, and ten SA patents have been granted. A further 4 USA patents, 5 European patents, 3 Korean patents, 3 Chinese patents, and 3 Japanese patents are currently under consideration.\r\n\r\nRecently he has also published an extensive scholarly chapter in an internet open access book on 'Integrating Microphotonic Systems and MOEMS into standard Silicon CMOS Integrated circuitry”.\r\n\r\nFurthermore, Professor Snyman recently steered a new initiative at the TUT by introducing a 'Laboratory for Innovative Electronic Systems ' at the Department of Electrical Engineering. The model of this laboratory or center is to primarily combine outputs as achieved by high-level research with lower-level system development and entrepreneurship in a technical university environment. Students are allocated to projects at different levels with PhDs and Master students allocated to the generation of new knowledge and new technologies, while students at the diploma and Baccalaureus level are allocated to electronic systems development with a direct and a near application for application in industry or the commercial and public sectors in South Africa.\r\n\r\nProfessor Snyman received the WIRSAM Award of 1983 and the WIRSAM Award in 1985 in South Africa for best research papers by a young scientist at two international conferences on electron microscopy in South Africa. He subsequently received the SA Microelectronics Award for the best dissertation emanating from studies executed at a South African university in the field of Physics and Microelectronics in South Africa in 1987. In October of 2011, Professor Snyman received the prestigious Institutional Award for 'Innovator of the Year” for 2010 at the Tshwane University of Technology, South Africa. This award was based on the number of patents recognized and granted by local and international institutions as well as for his contributions concerning innovation at the TUT.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of South Africa",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"317279",title:"Mr.",name:"Ali",middleName:"Usama",surname:"Syed",slug:"ali-syed",fullName:"Ali Syed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/317279/images/16024_n.png",biography:"A creative, talented, and innovative young professional who is dedicated, well organized, and capable research fellow with two years of experience in graduate-level research, published in engineering journals and book, with related expertise in Bio-robotics, equally passionate about the aesthetics of the mechanical and electronic system, obtained expertise in the use of MS Office, MATLAB, SolidWorks, LabVIEW, Proteus, Fusion 360, having a grasp on python, C++ and assembly language, possess proven ability in acquiring research grants, previous appointments with social and educational societies with experience in administration, current affiliations with IEEE and Web of Science, a confident presenter at conferences and teacher in classrooms, able to explain complex information to audiences of all levels.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Air University",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"75526",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Zihni Onur",middleName:null,surname:"Uygun",slug:"zihni-onur-uygun",fullName:"Zihni Onur Uygun",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/75526/images/12_n.jpg",biography:"My undergraduate education and my Master of Science educations at Ege University and at Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University have given me a firm foundation in Biochemistry, Analytical Chemistry, Biosensors, Bioelectronics, Physical Chemistry and Medicine. After obtaining my degree as a MSc in analytical chemistry, I started working as a research assistant in Ege University Medical Faculty in 2014. In parallel, I enrolled to the MSc program at the Department of Medical Biochemistry at Ege University to gain deeper knowledge on medical and biochemical sciences as well as clinical chemistry in 2014. In my PhD I deeply researched on biosensors and bioelectronics and finished in 2020. Now I have eleven SCI-Expanded Index published papers, 6 international book chapters, referee assignments for different SCIE journals, one international patent pending, several international awards, projects and bursaries. In parallel to my research assistant position at Ege University Medical Faculty, Department of Medical Biochemistry, in April 2016, I also founded a Start-Up Company (Denosens Biotechnology LTD) by the support of The Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey. Currently, I am also working as a CEO in Denosens Biotechnology. The main purposes of the company, which carries out R&D as a research center, are to develop new generation biosensors and sensors for both point-of-care diagnostics; such as glucose, lactate, cholesterol and cancer biomarker detections. My specific experimental and instrumental skills are Biochemistry, Biosensor, Analytical Chemistry, Electrochemistry, Mobile phone based point-of-care diagnostic device, POCTs and Patient interface designs, HPLC, Tandem Mass Spectrometry, Spectrophotometry, ELISA.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ege University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"267434",title:"Dr.",name:"Rohit",middleName:null,surname:"Raja",slug:"rohit-raja",fullName:"Rohit Raja",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/267434/images/system/267434.jpg",biography:"Dr. Rohit Raja received Ph.D. in Computer Science and Engineering from Dr. CVRAMAN University in 2016. His main research interest includes Face recognition and Identification, Digital Image Processing, Signal Processing, and Networking. Presently he is working as Associate Professor in IT Department, Guru Ghasidas Vishwavidyalaya (A Central University), Bilaspur (CG), India. He has authored several Journal and Conference Papers. He has good Academics & Research experience in various areas of CSE and IT. He has filed and successfully published 27 Patents. He has received many time invitations to be a Guest at IEEE Conferences. He has published 100 research papers in various International/National Journals (including IEEE, Springer, etc.) and Proceedings of the reputed International/ National Conferences (including Springer and IEEE). He has been nominated to the board of editors/reviewers of many peer-reviewed and refereed Journals (including IEEE, Springer).",institutionString:"Guru Ghasidas Vishwavidyalaya",institution:{name:"Guru Ghasidas Vishwavidyalaya",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"246502",title:"Dr.",name:"Jaya T.",middleName:"T",surname:"Varkey",slug:"jaya-t.-varkey",fullName:"Jaya T. Varkey",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/246502/images/11160_n.jpg",biography:"Jaya T. Varkey, PhD, graduated with a degree in Chemistry from Cochin University of Science and Technology, Kerala, India. She obtained a PhD in Chemistry from the School of Chemical Sciences, Mahatma Gandhi University, Kerala, India, and completed a post-doctoral fellowship at the University of Minnesota, USA. She is a research guide at Mahatma Gandhi University and Associate Professor in Chemistry, St. Teresa’s College, Kochi, Kerala, India.\nDr. Varkey received a National Young Scientist award from the Indian Science Congress (1995), a UGC Research award (2016–2018), an Indian National Science Academy (INSA) Visiting Scientist award (2018–2019), and a Best Innovative Faculty award from the All India Association for Christian Higher Education (AIACHE) (2019). She Hashas received the Sr. Mary Cecil prize for best research paper three times. She was also awarded a start-up to develop a tea bag water filter. \nDr. Varkey has published two international books and twenty-seven international journal publications. She is an editorial board member for five international journals.",institutionString:"St. Teresa’s College",institution:null},{id:"250668",title:"Dr.",name:"Ali",middleName:null,surname:"Nabipour Chakoli",slug:"ali-nabipour-chakoli",fullName:"Ali Nabipour Chakoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/250668/images/system/250668.jpg",biography:"Academic Qualification:\r\n•\tPhD in Materials Physics and Chemistry, From: Sep. 2006, to: Sep. 2010, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Harbin Institute of Technology, Thesis: Structure and Shape Memory Effect of Functionalized MWCNTs/poly (L-lactide-co-ε-caprolactone) Nanocomposites. Supervisor: Prof. Wei Cai,\r\n•\tM.Sc in Applied Physics, From: 1996, to: 1998, Faculty of Physics & Nuclear Science, Amirkabir Uni. of Technology, Tehran, Iran, Thesis: Determination of Boron in Micro alloy Steels with solid state nuclear track detectors by neutron induced auto radiography, Supervisors: Dr. M. Hosseini Ashrafi and Dr. A. Hosseini.\r\n•\tB.Sc. in Applied Physics, From: 1991, to: 1996, Faculty of Physics & Nuclear Science, Amirkabir Uni. of Technology, Tehran, Iran, Thesis: Design of shielding for Am-Be neutron sources for In Vivo neutron activation analysis, Supervisor: Dr. M. Hosseini Ashrafi.\r\n\r\nResearch Experiences:\r\n1.\tNanomaterials, Carbon Nanotubes, Graphene: Synthesis, Functionalization and Characterization,\r\n2.\tMWCNTs/Polymer Composites: Fabrication and Characterization, \r\n3.\tShape Memory Polymers, Biodegradable Polymers, ORC, Collagen,\r\n4.\tMaterials Analysis and Characterizations: TEM, SEM, XPS, FT-IR, Raman, DSC, DMA, TGA, XRD, GPC, Fluoroscopy, \r\n5.\tInteraction of Radiation with Mater, Nuclear Safety and Security, NDT(RT),\r\n6.\tRadiation Detectors, Calibration (SSDL),\r\n7.\tCompleted IAEA e-learning Courses:\r\nNuclear Security (15 Modules),\r\nNuclear Safety:\r\nTSA 2: Regulatory Protection in Occupational Exposure,\r\nTips & Tricks: Radiation Protection in Radiography,\r\nSafety and Quality in Radiotherapy,\r\nCourse on Sealed Radioactive Sources,\r\nCourse on Fundamentals of Environmental Remediation,\r\nCourse on Planning for Environmental Remediation,\r\nKnowledge Management Orientation Course,\r\nFood Irradiation - Technology, Applications and Good Practices,\r\nEmployment:\r\nFrom 2010 to now: Academic staff, Nuclear Science and Technology Research Institute, Kargar Shomali, Tehran, Iran, P.O. Box: 14395-836.\r\nFrom 1997 to 2006: Expert of Materials Analysis and Characterization. Research Center of Agriculture and Medicine. Rajaeeshahr, Karaj, Iran, P. O. Box: 31585-498.",institutionString:"Atomic Energy Organization of Iran",institution:{name:"Atomic Energy Organization of Iran",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"248279",title:"Dr.",name:"Monika",middleName:"Elzbieta",surname:"Machoy",slug:"monika-machoy",fullName:"Monika Machoy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/248279/images/system/248279.jpeg",biography:"Monika Elżbieta Machoy, MD, graduated with distinction from the Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry at the Pomeranian Medical University in 2009, defended her PhD thesis with summa cum laude in 2016 and is currently employed as a researcher at the Department of Orthodontics of the Pomeranian Medical University. She expanded her professional knowledge during a one-year scholarship program at the Ernst Moritz Arndt University in Greifswald, Germany and during a three-year internship at the Technical University in Dresden, Germany. She has been a speaker at numerous orthodontic conferences, among others, American Association of Orthodontics, European Orthodontic Symposium and numerous conferences of the Polish Orthodontic Society. She conducts research focusing on the effect of orthodontic treatment on dental and periodontal tissues and the causes of pain in orthodontic patients.",institutionString:"Pomeranian Medical University",institution:{name:"Pomeranian Medical University",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"252743",title:"Prof.",name:"Aswini",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Kar",slug:"aswini-kar",fullName:"Aswini Kar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252743/images/10381_n.jpg",biography:"uploaded in cv",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"KIIT University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"204256",title:"Dr.",name:"Anil",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Kumar Sahu",slug:"anil-kumar-sahu",fullName:"Anil Kumar Sahu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204256/images/14201_n.jpg",biography:"I have nearly 11 years of research and teaching experience. I have done my master degree from University Institute of Pharmacy, Pt. Ravi Shankar Shukla University, Raipur, Chhattisgarh India. I have published 16 review and research articles in international and national journals and published 4 chapters in IntechOpen, the world’s leading publisher of Open access books. I have presented many papers at national and international conferences. I have received research award from Indian Drug Manufacturers Association in year 2015. My research interest extends from novel lymphatic drug delivery systems, oral delivery system for herbal bioactive to formulation optimization.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Chhattisgarh Swami Vivekanand Technical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"253468",title:"Dr.",name:"Mariusz",middleName:null,surname:"Marzec",slug:"mariusz-marzec",fullName:"Mariusz Marzec",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/253468/images/system/253468.png",biography:"An assistant professor at Department of Biomedical Computer Systems, at Institute of Computer Science, Silesian University in Katowice. Scientific interests: computer analysis and processing of images, biomedical images, databases and programming languages. He is an author and co-author of scientific publications covering analysis and processing of biomedical images and development of database systems.",institutionString:"University of Silesia",institution:{name:"University of Silesia",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"212432",title:"Prof.",name:"Hadi",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammadi",slug:"hadi-mohammadi",fullName:"Hadi Mohammadi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/212432/images/system/212432.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Hadi Mohammadi is a biomedical engineer with hands-on experience in the design and development of many engineering structures and medical devices through various projects that he has been involved in over the past twenty years. Dr. Mohammadi received his BSc. and MSc. degrees in Mechanical Engineering from Sharif University of Technology, Tehran, Iran, and his PhD. degree in Biomedical Engineering (biomaterials) from the University of Western Ontario. He was a postdoctoral trainee for almost four years at University of Calgary and Harvard Medical School. He is an industry innovator having created the technology to produce lifelike synthetic platforms that can be used for the simulation of almost all cardiovascular reconstructive surgeries. He’s been heavily involved in the design and development of cardiovascular devices and technology for the past 10 years. He is currently an Assistant Professor with the University of British Colombia, Canada.",institutionString:"University of British Columbia",institution:{name:"University of British Columbia",country:{name:"Canada"}}},{id:"254463",title:"Prof.",name:"Haisheng",middleName:null,surname:"Yang",slug:"haisheng-yang",fullName:"Haisheng Yang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/254463/images/system/254463.jpeg",biography:"Haisheng Yang, Ph.D., Professor and Director of the Department of Biomedical Engineering, College of Life Science and Bioengineering, Beijing University of Technology. He received his Ph.D. degree in Mechanics/Biomechanics from Harbin Institute of Technology (jointly with University of California, Berkeley). Afterwards, he worked as a Postdoctoral Research Associate in the Purdue Musculoskeletal Biology and Mechanics Lab at the Department of Basic Medical Sciences, Purdue University, USA. He also conducted research in the Research Centre of Shriners Hospitals for Children-Canada at McGill University, Canada. Dr. Yang has over 10 years research experience in orthopaedic biomechanics and mechanobiology of bone adaptation and regeneration. He earned an award from Beijing Overseas Talents Aggregation program in 2017 and serves as Beijing Distinguished Professor.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Beijing University of Technology",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"89721",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:"Cuneyt",surname:"Ozmen",slug:"mehmet-ozmen",fullName:"Mehmet Ozmen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/89721/images/7289_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Gazi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"265335",title:"Mr.",name:"Stefan",middleName:"Radnev",surname:"Stefanov",slug:"stefan-stefanov",fullName:"Stefan Stefanov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/265335/images/7562_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Medical University Plovdiv",country:{name:"Bulgaria"}}},{id:"242893",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Joaquim",middleName:null,surname:"De Moura",slug:"joaquim-de-moura",fullName:"Joaquim De Moura",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/242893/images/7133_n.jpg",biography:"Joaquim de Moura received his degree in Computer Engineering in 2014 from the University of A Coruña (Spain). In 2016, he received his M.Sc degree in Computer Engineering from the same university. He is currently pursuing his Ph.D degree in Computer Science in a collaborative project between ophthalmology centers in Galicia and the University of A Coruña. His research interests include computer vision, machine learning algorithms and analysis and medical imaging processing of various kinds.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of A Coruña",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"294334",title:"B.Sc.",name:"Marc",middleName:null,surname:"Bruggeman",slug:"marc-bruggeman",fullName:"Marc Bruggeman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/294334/images/8242_n.jpg",biography:"Chemical engineer graduate, with a passion for material science and specific interest in polymers - their near infinite applications intrigue me. \n\nI plan to continue my scientific career in the field of polymeric biomaterials as I am fascinated by intelligent, bioactive and biomimetic materials for use in both consumer and medical applications.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"255757",title:"Dr.",name:"Igor",middleName:"Victorovich",surname:"Lakhno",slug:"igor-lakhno",fullName:"Igor Lakhno",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/255757/images/system/255757.jpg",biography:"Igor Victorovich Lakhno was born in 1971 in Kharkiv (Ukraine). \nMD – 1994, Kharkiv National Medical Univesity.\nOb&Gyn; – 1997, master courses in Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education.\nPh.D. – 1999, Kharkiv National Medical Univesity.\nDSC – 2019, PL Shupik National Academy of Postgraduate Education \nProfessor – 2021, Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology of VN Karazin Kharkiv National University\nHead of Department – 2021, Department of Perinatology, Obstetrics and gynecology of Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education\nIgor Lakhno has been graduated from international training courses on reproductive medicine and family planning held at Debrecen University (Hungary) in 1997. Since 1998 Lakhno Igor has worked as an associate professor in the department of obstetrics and gynecology of VN Karazin National University and an associate professor of the perinatology, obstetrics, and gynecology department of Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education. Since June 2019 he’s been a professor in the department of obstetrics and gynecology of VN Karazin National University and a professor of the perinatology, obstetrics, and gynecology department. He’s affiliated with Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education as a Head of Department from November 2021. Igor Lakhno has participated in several international projects on fetal non-invasive electrocardiography (with Dr. J. A. Behar (Technion), Prof. D. Hoyer (Jena University), and José Alejandro Díaz Méndez (National Institute of Astrophysics, Optics, and Electronics, Mexico). He’s an author of about 200 printed works and there are 31 of them in Scopus or Web of Science databases. Igor Lakhno is a member of the Editorial Board of Reproductive Health of Woman, Emergency Medicine, and Technology Transfer Innovative Solutions in Medicine (Estonia). He is a medical Editor of “Z turbotoyu pro zhinku”. Igor Lakhno is a reviewer of the Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology (Taylor and Francis), British Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology (Wiley), Informatics in Medicine Unlocked (Elsevier), The Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology Research (Wiley), Endocrine, Metabolic & Immune Disorders-Drug Targets (Bentham Open), The Open Biomedical Engineering Journal (Bentham Open), etc. He’s defended a dissertation for a DSc degree “Pre-eclampsia: prediction, prevention, and treatment”. Three years ago Igor Lakhno has participated in a training course on innovative technologies in medical education at Lublin Medical University (Poland). Lakhno Igor has participated as a speaker in several international conferences and congresses (International Conference on Biological Oscillations April 10th-14th 2016, Lancaster, UK, The 9th conference of the European Study Group on Cardiovascular Oscillations). His main scientific interests: are obstetrics, women’s health, fetal medicine, and cardiovascular medicine. \nIgor Lakhno is a consultant at Kharkiv municipal perinatal center. He’s graduated from training courses on endoscopy in gynecology. He has 28 years of practical experience in the field.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"244950",title:"Dr.",name:"Salvatore",middleName:null,surname:"Di Lauro",slug:"salvatore-di-lauro",fullName:"Salvatore Di Lauro",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0030O00002bSF1HQAW/ProfilePicture%202021-12-20%2014%3A54%3A14.482",biography:"Name:\n\tSALVATORE DI LAURO\nAddress:\n\tHospital Clínico Universitario Valladolid\nAvda Ramón y Cajal 3\n47005, Valladolid\nSpain\nPhone number: \nFax\nE-mail:\n\t+34 983420000 ext 292\n+34 983420084\nsadilauro@live.it\nDate and place of Birth:\nID Number\nMedical Licence \nLanguages\t09-05-1985. Villaricca (Italy)\n\nY1281863H\n474707061\nItalian (native language)\nSpanish (read, written, spoken)\nEnglish (read, written, spoken)\nPortuguese (read, spoken)\nFrench (read)\n\t\t\nCurrent position (title and company)\tDate (Year)\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl. National Health System.\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Instituto Oftalmologico Recoletas. Red Hospitalaria Recoletas. Private practise.\t2017-today\n\n2019-today\n\t\n\t\nEducation (High school, university and postgraduate training > 3 months)\tDate (Year)\nDegree in Medicine and Surgery. University of Neaples 'Federico II”\nResident in Opthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid\nMaster in Vitreo-Retina. IOBA. University of Valladolid\nFellow of the European Board of Ophthalmology. Paris\nMaster in Research in Ophthalmology. University of Valladolid\t2003-2009\n2012-2016\n2016-2017\n2016\n2012-2013\n\t\nEmployments (company and positions)\tDate (Year)\nResident in Ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl.\nFellow in Vitreo-Retina. IOBA. University of Valladolid\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl. National Health System.\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Instituto Oftalmologico Recoletas. Red Hospitalaria Recoletas. \n\t2012-2016\n2016-2017\n2017-today\n\n2019-Today\n\n\n\t\nClinical Research Experience (tasks and role)\tDate (Year)\nAssociated investigator\n\n' FIS PI20/00740: DESARROLLO DE UNA CALCULADORA DE RIESGO DE\nAPARICION DE RETINOPATIA DIABETICA BASADA EN TECNICAS DE IMAGEN MULTIMODAL EN PACIENTES DIABETICOS TIPO 1. Grant by: Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovacion \n\n' (BIO/VA23/14) Estudio clínico multicéntrico y prospectivo para validar dos\nbiomarcadores ubicados en los genes p53 y MDM2 en la predicción de los resultados funcionales de la cirugía del desprendimiento de retina regmatógeno. Grant by: Gerencia Regional de Salud de la Junta de Castilla y León.\n' Estudio multicéntrico, aleatorizado, con enmascaramiento doble, en 2 grupos\nparalelos y de 52 semanas de duración para comparar la eficacia, seguridad e inmunogenicidad de SOK583A1 respecto a Eylea® en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad' (CSOK583A12301; N.EUDRA: 2019-004838-41; FASE III). Grant by Hexal AG\n\n' Estudio de fase III, aleatorizado, doble ciego, con grupos paralelos, multicéntrico para comparar la eficacia y la seguridad de QL1205 frente a Lucentis® en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad. (EUDRACT: 2018-004486-13). Grant by Qilu Pharmaceutical Co\n\n' Estudio NEUTON: Ensayo clinico en fase IV para evaluar la eficacia de aflibercept en pacientes Naive con Edema MacUlar secundario a Oclusion de Vena CenTral de la Retina (OVCR) en regimen de tratamientO iNdividualizado Treat and Extend (TAE)”, (2014-000975-21). Grant by Fundacion Retinaplus\n\n' Evaluación de la seguridad y bioactividad de anillos de tensión capsular en conejo. Proyecto Procusens. Grant by AJL, S.A.\n\n'Estudio epidemiológico, prospectivo, multicéntrico y abierto\\npara valorar la frecuencia de la conjuntivitis adenovírica diagnosticada mediante el test AdenoPlus®\\nTest en pacientes enfermos de conjuntivitis aguda”\\n. National, multicenter study. Grant by: NICOX.\n\nEuropean multicentric trial: 'Evaluation of clinical outcomes following the use of Systane Hydration in patients with dry eye”. Study Phase 4. Grant by: Alcon Labs'\n\nVLPs Injection and Activation in a Rabbit Model of Uveal Melanoma. Grant by Aura Bioscience\n\nUpdating and characterization of a rabbit model of uveal melanoma. Grant by Aura Bioscience\n\nEnsayo clínico en fase IV para evaluar las variantes genéticas de la vía del VEGF como biomarcadores de eficacia del tratamiento con aflibercept en pacientes con degeneración macular asociada a la edad (DMAE) neovascular. Estudio BIOIMAGE. IMO-AFLI-2013-01\n\nEstudio In-Eye:Ensayo clínico en fase IV, abierto, aleatorizado, de 2 brazos,\nmulticçentrico y de 12 meses de duración, para evaluar la eficacia y seguridad de un régimen de PRN flexible individualizado de 'esperar y extender' versus un régimen PRN según criterios de estabilización mediante evaluaciones mensuales de inyecciones intravítreas de ranibizumab 0,5 mg en pacientes naive con neovascularización coriodea secunaria a la degeneración macular relacionada con la edad. CP: CRFB002AES03T\n\nTREND: Estudio Fase IIIb multicéntrico, randomizado, de 12 meses de\nseguimiento con evaluador de la agudeza visual enmascarado, para evaluar la eficacia y la seguridad de ranibizumab 0.5mg en un régimen de tratar y extender comparado con un régimen mensual, en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad. CP: CRFB002A2411 Código Eudra CT:\n2013-002626-23\n\n\n\nPublications\t\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n2015-16\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n2014\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n2014\n\nJose Carlos Pastor; Jimena Rojas; Salvador Pastor-Idoate; Salvatore Di Lauro; Lucia Gonzalez-Buendia; Santiago Delgado-Tirado. Proliferative vitreoretinopathy: A new concept of disease pathogenesis and practical\nconsequences. Progress in Retinal and Eye Research. 51, pp. 125 - 155. 03/2016. DOI: 10.1016/j.preteyeres.2015.07.005\n\n\nLabrador-Velandia S; Alonso-Alonso ML; Di Lauro S; García-Gutierrez MT; Srivastava GK; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I. Mesenchymal stem cells provide paracrine neuroprotective resources that delay degeneration of co-cultured organotypic neuroretinal cultures.Experimental Eye Research. 185, 17/05/2019. DOI: 10.1016/j.exer.2019.05.011\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro; Maria Teresa Garcia Gutierrez; Ivan Fernandez Bueno. Quantification of pigment epithelium-derived factor (PEDF) in an ex vivo coculture of retinal pigment epithelium cells and neuroretina.\nJournal of Allbiosolution. 2019. ISSN 2605-3535\n\nSonia Labrador Velandia; Salvatore Di Lauro; Alonso-Alonso ML; Tabera Bartolomé S; Srivastava GK; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I. Biocompatibility of intravitreal injection of human mesenchymal stem cells in immunocompetent rabbits. Graefe's archive for clinical and experimental ophthalmology. 256 - 1, pp. 125 - 134. 01/2018. DOI: 10.1007/s00417-017-3842-3\n\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro, David Rodriguez-Crespo, Manuel J Gayoso, Maria T Garcia-Gutierrez, J Carlos Pastor, Girish K Srivastava, Ivan Fernandez-Bueno. A novel coculture model of porcine central neuroretina explants and retinal pigment epithelium cells. Molecular Vision. 2016 - 22, pp. 243 - 253. 01/2016.\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro. Classifications for Proliferative Vitreoretinopathy ({PVR}): An Analysis of Their Use in Publications over the Last 15 Years. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2016, pp. 1 - 6. 01/2016. DOI: 10.1155/2016/7807596\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro; Rosa Maria Coco; Rosa Maria Sanabria; Enrique Rodriguez de la Rua; Jose Carlos Pastor. Loss of Visual Acuity after Successful Surgery for Macula-On Rhegmatogenous Retinal Detachment in a Prospective Multicentre Study. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2015:821864, 2015. DOI: 10.1155/2015/821864\n\nIvan Fernandez-Bueno; Salvatore Di Lauro; Ivan Alvarez; Jose Carlos Lopez; Maria Teresa Garcia-Gutierrez; Itziar Fernandez; Eva Larra; Jose Carlos Pastor. Safety and Biocompatibility of a New High-Density Polyethylene-Based\nSpherical Integrated Porous Orbital Implant: An Experimental Study in Rabbits. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2015:904096, 2015. DOI: 10.1155/2015/904096\n\nPastor JC; Pastor-Idoate S; Rodríguez-Hernandez I; Rojas J; Fernandez I; Gonzalez-Buendia L; Di Lauro S; Gonzalez-Sarmiento R. Genetics of PVR and RD. Ophthalmologica. 232 - Suppl 1, pp. 28 - 29. 2014\n\nRodriguez-Crespo D; Di Lauro S; Singh AK; Garcia-Gutierrez MT; Garrosa M; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I; Srivastava GK. Triple-layered mixed co-culture model of RPE cells with neuroretina for evaluating the neuroprotective effects of adipose-MSCs. Cell Tissue Res. 358 - 3, pp. 705 - 716. 2014.\nDOI: 10.1007/s00441-014-1987-5\n\nCarlo De Werra; Salvatore Condurro; Salvatore Tramontano; Mario Perone; Ivana Donzelli; Salvatore Di Lauro; Massimo Di Giuseppe; Rosa Di Micco; Annalisa Pascariello; Antonio Pastore; Giorgio Diamantis; Giuseppe Galloro. Hydatid disease of the liver: thirty years of surgical experience.Chirurgia italiana. 59 - 5, pp. 611 - 636.\n(Italia): 2007. ISSN 0009-4773\n\nChapters in books\n\t\n' Salvador Pastor Idoate; Salvatore Di Lauro; Jose Carlos Pastor Jimeno. PVR: Pathogenesis, Histopathology and Classification. Proliferative Vitreoretinopathy with Small Gauge Vitrectomy. Springer, 2018. ISBN 978-3-319-78445-8\nDOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-78446-5_2. \n\n' Salvatore Di Lauro; Maria Isabel Lopez Galvez. Quistes vítreos en una mujer joven. Problemas diagnósticos en patología retinocoroidea. Sociedad Española de Retina-Vitreo. 2018.\n\n' Salvatore Di Lauro; Salvador Pastor Idoate; Jose Carlos Pastor Jimeno. iOCT in PVR management. OCT Applications in Opthalmology. pp. 1 - 8. INTECH, 2018. DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.78774.\n\n' Rosa Coco Martin; Salvatore Di Lauro; Salvador Pastor Idoate; Jose Carlos Pastor. amponadores, manipuladores y tinciones en la cirugía del traumatismo ocular.Trauma Ocular. Ponencia de la SEO 2018..\n\n' LOPEZ GALVEZ; DI LAURO; CRESPO. OCT angiografia y complicaciones retinianas de la diabetes. PONENCIA SEO 2021, CAPITULO 20. (España): 2021.\n\n' Múltiples desprendimientos neurosensoriales bilaterales en paciente joven. Enfermedades Degenerativas De Retina Y Coroides. SERV 04/2016. \n' González-Buendía L; Di Lauro S; Pastor-Idoate S; Pastor Jimeno JC. Vitreorretinopatía proliferante (VRP) e inflamación: LA INFLAMACIÓN in «INMUNOMODULADORES Y ANTIINFLAMATORIOS: MÁS ALLÁ DE LOS CORTICOIDES. RELACION DE PONENCIAS DE LA SOCIEDAD ESPAÑOLA DE OFTALMOLOGIA. 10/2014.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"243698",title:"Dr.",name:"Xiaogang",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"xiaogang-wang",fullName:"Xiaogang Wang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243698/images/system/243698.png",biography:"Dr. Xiaogang Wang, a faculty member of Shanxi Eye Hospital specializing in the treatment of cataract and retinal disease and a tutor for postgraduate students of Shanxi Medical University, worked in the COOL Lab as an international visiting scholar under the supervision of Dr. David Huang and Yali Jia from October 2012 through November 2013. Dr. Wang earned an MD from Shanxi Medical University and a Ph.D. from Shanghai Jiao Tong University. Dr. Wang was awarded two research project grants focused on multimodal optical coherence tomography imaging and deep learning in cataract and retinal disease, from the National Natural Science Foundation of China. He has published around 30 peer-reviewed journal papers and four book chapters and co-edited one book.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"7227",title:"Dr.",name:"Hiroaki",middleName:null,surname:"Matsui",slug:"hiroaki-matsui",fullName:"Hiroaki Matsui",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Tokyo",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"312999",title:"Dr.",name:"Bernard O.",middleName:null,surname:"Asimeng",slug:"bernard-o.-asimeng",fullName:"Bernard O. Asimeng",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Ghana",country:{name:"Ghana"}}},{id:"318905",title:"Prof.",name:"Elvis",middleName:"Kwason",surname:"Tiburu",slug:"elvis-tiburu",fullName:"Elvis Tiburu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Ghana",country:{name:"Ghana"}}},{id:"336193",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdullah",middleName:null,surname:"Alamoudi",slug:"abdullah-alamoudi",fullName:"Abdullah Alamoudi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Majmaah University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"318657",title:"MSc.",name:"Isabell",middleName:null,surname:"Steuding",slug:"isabell-steuding",fullName:"Isabell Steuding",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Harz University of Applied Sciences",country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"318656",title:"BSc.",name:"Peter",middleName:null,surname:"Kußmann",slug:"peter-kussmann",fullName:"Peter Kußmann",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Harz University of Applied Sciences",country:{name:"Germany"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"6",type:"subseries",title:"Viral Infectious Diseases",keywords:"Novel Viruses, Virus Transmission, Virus Evolution, Molecular Virology, Control and Prevention, Virus-host Interaction",scope:"The Viral Infectious Diseases Book Series aims to provide a comprehensive overview of recent research trends and discoveries in various viral infectious diseases emerging around the globe. The emergence of any viral disease is hard to anticipate, which often contributes to death. A viral disease can be defined as an infectious disease that has recently appeared within a population or exists in nature with the rapid expansion of incident or geographic range. This series will focus on various crucial factors related to emerging viral infectious diseases, including epidemiology, pathogenesis, host immune response, clinical manifestations, diagnosis, treatment, and clinical recommendations for managing viral infectious diseases, highlighting the recent issues with future directions for effective therapeutic strategies.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/6.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!0,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11402,editor:{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. 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Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. 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We encourage the submission of manuscripts that provide novel and mechanistic insights that report significant advances in the fields. Topics can include but are not limited to: Biotechnology such as biotechnological products and process engineering; Biotechnologically relevant enzymes and proteins; Bioenergy and biofuels; Applied genetics and molecular biotechnology; Genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics; Applied microbial and cell physiology; Environmental biotechnology; Methods and protocols. Moreover, topics in biosensor technology, like sensors that incorporate enzymes, antibodies, nucleic acids, whole cells, tissues and organelles, and other biological or biologically inspired components will be considered, and topics exploring transducers, including those based on electrochemical and optical piezoelectric, thermal, magnetic, and micromechanical elements. Chapters exploring biomaterial approaches such as polymer synthesis and characterization, drug and gene vector design, biocompatibility, immunology and toxicology, and self-assembly at the nanoscale, are welcome. Finally, the tissue engineering subcategory will support topics such as the fundamentals of stem cells and progenitor cells and their proliferation, differentiation, bioreactors for three-dimensional culture and studies of phenotypic changes, stem and progenitor cells, both short and long term, ex vivo and in vivo implantation both in preclinical models and also in clinical trials.",annualVolume:11405,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/9.jpg",editor:{id:"126286",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",middleName:"Jesús",surname:"Villarreal-Gómez",fullName:"Luis Villarreal-Gómez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/126286/images/system/126286.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Baja California",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"35539",title:"Dr.",name:"Cecilia",middleName:null,surname:"Cristea",fullName:"Cecilia Cristea",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYQ65QAG/Profile_Picture_1621007741527",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Iuliu Hațieganu University of Medicine and Pharmacy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"40735",title:"Dr.",name:"Gil",middleName:"Alberto Batista",surname:"Gonçalves",fullName:"Gil Gonçalves",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYRLGQA4/Profile_Picture_1628492612759",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Aveiro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"211725",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Johann F.",middleName:null,surname:"Osma",fullName:"Johann F. 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