\r\n\tThis cell has evolved an effective defense system to counteract the challenges as it is always in an oxygen-rich environment. The evolution of hemoglobin and deformability of erythrocyte membrane adapting to its function in circulation is especially striking. Erythrocyte aging and eryptosis strike a balance - the mixed population of cells and constant recycling every 120 days is a very distinct feature. Its metabolic shunt pathways and metabolites/enzymes alter and adapt with age and changes in the microenvironment.
\r\n
\r\n\tErythrocyte and its cytoskeleton responses to various situations such as infections, hypoxia, hypothermia, intrigues researchers and biologists alike. This book aims to throw light on the significance of erythrocyte and its characteristic nature and survival in different physiological situations as it plays a very crucial role.
\r\n
\r\n\tThis book hopes to bring different perspectives from various aspects and provide insights into the effective mechanisms evolved by erythrocytes, to counteract the challenges faced in its oxidation environment and the further research approaches.
",isbn:"978-1-80356-732-7",printIsbn:"978-1-80356-731-0",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80356-733-4",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"1b6073b9ff3f8f63004943bd263cd04e",bookSignature:"Dr. Vani Rajashekaraiah",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11725.jpg",keywords:"Erythrocyte, Hemoglobin, Erythrocyte Aging, Pathways, Metabolites, Deficiencies, Membrane Changes, Band 3, Deformability, Hemolysis, Disease Conditions, Free Radical Initiators",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"March 24th 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"May 26th 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"July 25th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"October 13th 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"December 12th 2022",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"3 months",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:4,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Dr. Vani Rajashekaraiah, Associate Professor, JAIN (Deemed-to-be University), Bangalore has 20 years of research experience in Oxidative Stress Physiology and Hematology and 16 years of teaching experience. 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Asha Devi, Professor, Dept. of \n Zoology, Bangalore University, Bangalore-560056, towards Ph.D in Zoology.\n Title of the thesis- “Studies on Oxidative Stress in Erythrocytes of Rats Exposed to \n Intermittent Hypobaric Hypoxia”.",institutionString:"Jain University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Jain University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"16",title:"Medicine",slug:"medicine"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"185543",firstName:"Maja",lastName:"Bozicevic",middleName:null,title:"Mrs.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/185543/images/4748_n.jpeg",email:"maja.b@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. 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1. Introduction
The term “complementary therapies or medicine” refers to a broad spectrum of therapeutic and diagnostic practices that exist largely outside conventional medicine and are not fully integrated into the dominant healthcare system [1]. It is often used interchangeable with both alternative medicine and traditional medicine in some countries [2] or collectively called traditional, complementary, and alternative medicine (TCAM). Stricter definitions describe “indigenous traditional medicine” also known as ethno-medicine as the sum total of knowledge and practices, whether explicable or not, used in diagnosing, preventing, or eliminating physical, mental, and social diseases, administered by a trained practitioner or as self-care [3]. This knowledge or practice may rely exclusively on past experience and observation handed down orally or in writing from generation to generation. These practices are native to the country in which they are practiced. The majority of indigenous traditional medicine has been practiced at the primary healthcare level [4]. Complementary medicine (CM), on the other hand, is defined as a broad set of healthcare practices that are neither part of a country’s own tradition nor part of conventional medicine and are not fully integrated into the dominant healthcare system. CM practices are used interchangeably with TCAM practices in some countries [5], while alternative medicine refers to practices used in place of conventional practice. Integrative medicine refers to conventional medicine combined with TCAM that are safe and show evidence of efficacy. TCAM is a focus on biological, psychological, social, and spiritual influences to pathology. It is characterized by a belief in the supernatural cause of illness, divination being a diagnostic tool, and the use of a wide variety of agents and techniques in its treatment [6, 7]. In the modern African setting, it may encompass local herbal medicines or products, indigenous healthcare practices [6, 8], and imported complementary and alternative medicine products and practices (e.g., acupuncture or chiropractic, etc.). Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) is one region of the world in which TCAM has long been held to be widespread, with a considerable number of its population relying on it to maintain their health or prevent and treat communicable and noncommunicable diseases [9, 10]. However, some peculiar practices of TCAM, which include voodooism, incantations, chants and mysticism, etc., generate controversies and reduce the scientific credibility. The traditional healers’/attendants’ rituals/incantations and other peculiar practices appear to be more important than the pharmacological effects of herbs and other practices. The traditional medical practitioner is usually a well-known and trusted person in his community, with competence to provide healthcare by using plant, animal, and mineral substances and other methods based on and religious practices. He makes use of indigenous social, cultural, and knowledge, beliefs, and/or experiences to treat disease and promote health. Healing power is passed down through generations via oral transmission and apprenticeship or through knowledge imbued by the “gods.” Its powers and skills are generally reserved for the members of certain families by inheritance or the members of regional or cultural communities [8, 11].
TCAM is an important and often underestimated health resource with many applications, especially in the prevention and management of lifestyle-related chronic diseases and in meeting the health needs of indigenous populations, especially in Sub-Saharan Africa, where conventional healthcare systems are largely inadequate. Other terminologies that have been used include natural medicine, nonconventional medicine, or holistic medicine [2]. Common to most TCAM systems is a focus on individualizing treatment [1]. TCAM encompasses products, practices, and practitioners. TCAM has evolved over millennia by drawing on the religious beliefs and social structures of indigenous people and by exploiting natural products in their environment and more recently by developing and validating therapeutic and preventive approaches through scientific methods [12]. Despite the promise of contemporary medical practice, large segments of humanity either cannot access its benefits or cannot afford; rather, people opt for practices based on their culture, proof of efficacy, and accessibility. TCAM use is indeed very common in Africa but varies among different populations based on their beliefs and sociocultural practices [13, 14]. At least 4 out of 10 adults have used some form of TCAM.
In Africa, TCAM is interwoven with religious practices involving body and soul, hence the name holistic. This spiritual aspect of healing encompasses belief and worship to God and reverence and acknowledgement of ancestors. Ancestors are compassionate spirits of departed blood relatives of an individual and may involve a whole lineage spanning generations. They are revered but not worshipped as one would pray to God but serve to mediate between the living and God to bring healing and luck to them. They are regarded as custodians of the lives of future generations and, therefore, occupy a position of dignity and respect among their descendants [15]. According to [9], a considerable number of people in Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) rely on traditional, complementary, and alternative medicine (TCAM) to meet their primary healthcare needs; yet, there remains a dearth of research evidence on the overall picture of TCAM utilization in the region. There have been reports of varied prevalence of the use of TCAM in Africa. In comparison, the use of TCAM products was found to be higher than that of practitioner services, especially for self-care and over-the-counter use among the general population. TCAM may be used alone or in combination with orthodox medicine, in both general population and specific health conditions.
2. Types of complementary therapies
The National Institutes of Health has grouped TCAM into five overlapping domains, namely, biologically based therapies, manipulative and body-based approaches, mind-body medicine, alternative medical systems, and energy medicine [1, 12]. Some complimentary therapies are discussed as follows:
Biologically based practices: Nutritional excess and deficiency have been problems in today’s society, both leading to certain chronic diseases. Thus, many dietary and herbal approaches are used to balance the body’s nutritional well-being, e.g., vitamins and mineral supplements, unconventional diets (such as low-carbohydrate and keto diets), and natural products [16]. A dietary supplement could be intended to supplement the diet and will contain, for instance, a vitamin, a mineral, an herb, a botanical, or an amino acid. A dietary supplement might also be intended to supplement the diet by increasing the total daily intake of a concentrate, a metabolite, a constituent, an extract, or a combination of these ingredients. Health foods, including functional foods, are any natural food popularly believed to promote or sustain good health by containing vital nutrients. Functional foods also include any foodstuff enhanced by additives and marketed as beneficial to health or longevity. Examples include cereals, breads, or beverages, which are fortified with vitamins and herbs. Health foods and/or functional foods may be advertised or marketed with specific health claims and may, therefore, be regulated differently than other foods [4]. Eating nutritious foods help patients get important nutrients, such as protein, vitamins, and minerals. Depending on the ailment, patients may experience appetite loss, weight loss, or weight gain. Eating well helps to maintain a healthy body weight during and after treatment. Natural products are substances produced by living organisms and built by cells from biomolecule, e.g., botanicals, minerals, herbs and herbal preparations, and probiotics. Animal fats, cartilage, bones, and other parts are also part of natural products. Herbal medicines include herbs, herbal materials, herbal preparations, and finished herbal products that contain phytochemicals (alkaloids, tannins, glycosides, flavonoids, etc.) as active ingredients, parts of plants (leaves, seeds, roots, flowers, and bark) are used for medicinal purposes, other plant materials, or combinations thereof. In some countries, herbal medicines may contain, by tradition, natural organic or inorganic active ingredients that are not of plant origin (e.g., animal and mineral material) [4].
Manipulative and body-based approaches: These focus primarily on the structures and systems of the body. They include massage, chiropractic (spinal manipulation), osteopathy, and traditional bone setting. Womb manipulation and alignment is also an important aspect of preconception therapy. Spinal manipulation is used to treat an array of conditions that arise as a result of abnormal alignment or stress on the vertebrae, often due to musculoskeletal complaints. Traditional bone setting is the traditional form of osteopathy. Though appearing crude because of the lack of the use of X-ray, it has recorded tremendous success. The bonesetter may often make used of herbs to relieve pain and promote healing and may use primitive forms of straps and wooden splints to hold the bone in place.
Mind-body medicine: This is based on the fact that the mind exerts powerful influences on bodily functions and vice versa. They include an array of approaches that incorporate spiritual, meditative, and relaxation techniques, including hypnosis, yoga, acupuncture, Tai chi, Qi gong, and breathing exercises. Appropriate psychotherapy was found to reduce depression and anxiety and improved coping skills.
Alternative medical systems: Health is based on the balance and flow of vital energies through the body. For example, in acupuncture, vital energy flow is restored by placing needles at critical body points.
Energy medicine: This involves the use of energy either biofield- or bioelectromagnetic-based interventions, e.g., reiki, purging, bleeding/bloodletting, and treatment with heavy metals.
Based on literature, biological therapies, such as the use of herbal and animal products, are the most common forms of TCAM used in Sub-Saharan Africa, followed by faith-based healing methods, such as prayer/spirituality [17, 18], and mind and body therapies (traditional bone setting, meditation and yoga, massage, relaxation, and music and art therapy). Others include acupuncture, Tai chi and Qi gong, massage, hydrotherapy, physical activity, and diet and nutrition [19]. Some of these health practices, though not originally African, have been adopted overtime and are included in complementary therapies practiced today in modern Africa, especially Chinese medicine due to the recently increased influx of the Chinese into Africa.
Acupuncture is a form of complementary medicine and a component of traditional Chinese medicine and is one of the imported complementary therapies in Africa [20, 21]. It involves the use of very thin needles or pressure to stimulate specific points on the body. Acupuncture causes changes in the fascia, which is the connective tissue that covers the muscles and bones. This can lead to changes in the brain, such as the release of chemicals like serotonin or changes in electrical activity. These changes are thought to explain, in part, how acupuncture works to treat different symptoms. Acupuncture has been used for the alleviation of pain [22], nausea, vomiting [23], fertility, childbirth chronic asthma, epilepsy, and addiction, among others. The efficacy of acupuncture is considered to be due to the release of endorphins and the stimulation of the peripheral nervous system when the skin is punctured [24]. The safety of acupuncture is assured when administered by well-trained practitioners using sterile needles. However, being an invasive procedure, adverse effects have been reported, such as hemorrhage, hematoma and bacterial infection, nerve injuries, hepatitis, kidney damage, etc. [25].
Homeopathy: According to the principles of homoeopathy, certain remedies, when given in high concentrations, tend to mimic the symptoms presented by the patient, and that upon dilution and vigorous shaking releases the curative “essence.” Dilution continues until no more of the original substance remains, but the water molecules are believed to retain a “memory” of the original substance [26]. While no scientific evidence has been found to support the theories of homeopathy, some successes have been reported. Randomized clinical trials have suggested that it might be effective for treating influenza, allergies, and postoperative ileum [12]. Some schools of thought consider it to be a little more effective than placebo [27].
Yoga is another important aspect of complementary therapies. Yoga promotes slow breathing techniques used to relax mind and body, as well as to increase oxygenation [28]. It reduces stress and anxiety by using breathing exercises, meditation, relaxation techniques, and poses to stretch and flex different muscle groups. Yoga also calms the mind and connects mind and body. Studies have shown that yoga increases the activities of the parasympathetic nervous system by releasing γ-amino butyric acid, GABA [29].
The benefits of yoga include improved overall quality of life, increased physical functioning, and increased ability to conduct the activities of daily living. Yoga also improves mood and physical well-being, improves nausea, reduces pain and fatigue, improves sleep problems, and helps regulate stress hormones. It also decreases inflammation and increases immune function.
Tai chi and Qi gong are part of traditional Chinese medicine that combine a series of fluid movements, which are slow and deliberate, meditation, regulated breathing, and calming of the mind, thus enhancing physical health and emotional well-being. Derived from martial art, Tai chi and Qi gong can improve the quality of life, reduce sleep problems, and decrease inflammation. Tai chi is based on spiritual and philosophical ideas that advocate for a need for balance in the body, mind, and spirit, with the notion that life energy or “chi” needs to flow freely for good health to occur. Qi gong, also derived from martial art, on the other hand, trains both body and soul and focuses on the relationship between the individual and the cosmic environment [30, 31].
Meditation is the practice of focusing your attention to calm the mind and relax the body. Sometimes, a calming word or chant is silently repeated. Other times, there is only focus on breathing or just being aware of thoughts and feelings with no judgment, attachment, or interpretation. Meditation can be self-taught or guided by others. There are many different types, including focused meditation, open awareness and mindfulness, and compassion or loving-kindness meditation, with or without religious undertone. Studies show that meditation can decrease chronic pain, improve mood and many other aspects of quality of life, lower stress hormones, and improve immune function [32].
Music therapy involves the use of musical and rhythm-based interventions to support and develop physical, mental, social, and spiritual well-being. It is a noninvasive, nonpharmaceutical, relatively inexpensive but effective therapy, which targets improvements in cognitive function and physical rehabilitation. Music has been shown to have psychosocial, behavioral, and motor benefits as treatment for neurological dysfunctions. Music induces changes by linking brain regions within multisensory and motor networks, thereby having effects on emotion and reward systems. Evidence suggests that music-based therapy improves balance and functional mobility in patients with Parkinson’s disease and positive benefits in dementia as well as mitigating pain, improving blood flow and joint flexion required for a more rapid healing process during the rehabilitation phase after stroke [33, 34].
Art therapy is a form of complementary psychotherapy that uses artistic materials (visual art, painting, and drawing) as palliative care focused on relieving suffering patient with serious illness to ameliorate symptom burden and adapt to the stressful life experiences associated with life-limiting diagnosis. It utilizes the expressive qualities of art to improve physical, mental, and emotional well-being. It also improves cognitive and semimotor functions, fosters self-esteem and self-awareness, cultivates emotional resilience, promotes insight, enhances social skills, reduces and resolves conflict and distress, and advances societal and ecological changes. Art therapy is used mainly for cancer, depression, anxiety, autism, dementia, and cognitive impairment, especially in situations when verbal interaction becomes difficult and provides a safe and indirect way to connect oneself to others [35, 36].
Massage can help promote relaxation, ease tension, increase comfort, and reduce pain, especially in musculoskeletal conditions. People with cancer may especially benefit from massage and its subspecialty called oncology massage. In addition to receiving massage from a massage therapist, a caregiver can do simple massage to help relax. It is also possible to do a self-massage [32].
Research shows that massage can reduce pain, decrease tension and stress, help with recover after surgery, ease anxiety and depression, and help with sleep problems and fatigue [32].
Regular exercise: A growing amount of research shows that exercise can greatly improve different aspects of patients’ physical and mental health during every phase of treatment. An exercise program can rejuvenate a patient, if used appropriately [37].
3. Factors affecting and reasons for TCAM use
A number of factors were identified as being promoters of TCAM use. Generally, the use of TCAM could simply be for health promotion and maintenance, but could equally be dependent on the type of illness and severity. Favorites among diseases include mental illness, impotence, infertility in females, and chronic disorders. Key factors that affect its use include relatively low cost and flexibility of payment of products and services, accessibility, availability affordability, compatibility, and suitability for the treatment of various diseases particularly certain chronic ones that orthodox medicine has not been able to cure, and the perception that because these products are natural, they must be safe with fewer side effects [38]. It was observed that patients that use TCAM also access conventional medicine, which more common in developing countries [39]. The fact that TCAM is in alignment with sociocultural, religious, and spiritual values is also a strong factor. Trust and confidence in traditional medicine practitioners and the perceived privacy as well as recommendation by elders, relatives, and friends also contributed to the choice to patronize TCAM products and facilities. Furthermore, recent increase in scientific research and validation of traditional medicines and aggressive advertisement of products and services are enhancing factors.
Dissatisfaction with conventional medicine, inadequate health facilities, unavailability of drugs, difficulty in accessing healthcare, negative attitudes of health workers, lengthy procedures, and long waiting time are other push factors to patronizing TCAM. Furthermore, TCAM is sought for: i) health conditions that had failed to respond to initial treatment, ii) health conditions stigmatized at communities of origin, and iii) health conditions thought to have resulted from supernatural causes [40]. Some of the benefits of complementary therapies are the holistic approach, which is more or less according to the philosophies and beliefs of a people, and the individualized approach to patients’ care, involving them as active participants in their own health, portraying a high degree of physical, psychological, and spiritual contribution to treatment with a sense of self-satisfaction. There is also a strong emphasis on use as preventive medicine [41, 42] (Figure 1).
Figure 1.
Factors related to reasons for TCAM use and nonuse [41].
4. Barriers to the use of TCAM
Limiting factors to the use of TCAM in Africa include absence of scientific evidence supporting TCAM practices, lack of belief in safety and efficacy, lack of appropriate dose, unhygienic preparations [43], unregulated TCAM practitioner practice, and lack of education and proper training of practitioners. There are also no standard regulations as in orthodox medicine such that fake, ineffective substances and practices may be commonplace. The World Health Organization (WHO) further advocates that for future existence and integration of TCAM into conventional healthcare, attention ought to be paid to overcome the following hurdles: lack of research data, lack of mechanisms to monitor the safety of products, lack of expertise within national health authorities and control against appropriate mechanisms to monitor and regulate practitioners and products, lack of cooperative channels between national health authorities to share information about TCAM mechanisms to monitor the safety of products, and lack of mechanisms to control and regulate TCAM advertising and claims [4]. In addition, the lack of control of overharvesting and the conservation of endangered species and dwindling biodiversity due to climate change, thereby resulting possibly in extinction, are of great concern [44]. All these present major challenges to any effort to optimize TCAM.
5. Safety of TCAM
TCAM is still very much in use in modern-day Africa after hundreds of years of its existence without much reported cases of adverse effects [40]. Limited correlation between research and scientific evidence on safety and efficacy of most TCAM treatments has made them potential risks. Although practices such as acupuncture, homeopathy, and medication are low risks, adverse effects due to TCAM alone or in combination with conventional medicines have been reported [45]. These may be due to the side effects of TCAM products or drug interaction with conventional medicine. Herbs have been found to be toxic and produce herb-drug interactions due to their content of substances that have powerful pharmacological effects. Commonly observed effects include allergies, nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, abdominal pains, as well as dizziness, headache, and general malaise, and even death may ensue [46]. Liver and kidney problems have been observed among the chronic users of TCAM products [47]. However, the results of many evidence-based clinical trials have equally promoted credibility in TCAM.
6. Economic factors affecting the use of TCAM
Although social, medical, and cultural reasons account for why people in any given country prefer TCAM to conventional medicines, economic factors play a vital role in influencing TCAM use. The cost of TCAM, which is much cheaper than the cost of accessing conventional medical services, is the primary factor. Others include choosing a trusted traditional healer in whom much confidence is reposed, ease of access, and convenience. The poor are more likely to use TCAM, although people with high income are also likely to use TCAM for different reasons [48]. The method of payment is flexible, often on credit, in exchange for labor or contingent on outcome.
7. Prevalence of TCAM in Sub-Saharan Africa
Africa African traditional medicine is said to be one of the oldest and most diverse of all medicine systems, even though the medicines are poorly recorded. In developing countries, TCAM use is driven mostly by tradition and lack of resources. Over the years, the use of TCAM in both rural and urban areas across Africa has increased, but there is a great concern for its safety [45], efficacy, and control, and this poses a great challenge for health authorities and the general public [14]. There have been reports that there is varied prevalence but substantial use of TCAM, more of products (either for self-care and over-the-counter) than practitioner services, among the general population and specific clinical populations [19]. At least 80% of populations in Africa use TCAM [4].
The prevalence of TCAM during pregnancy, childbirth, and pregnancy termination is between 12% and 90.3% [49], but fewer patronage of TCM services during pregnancy but high use in the case of infertility, enhancing libido, general gynaecological conditions, and sexually transmitted diseases [50, 51].
TCAM products are highly used by patients with diabetes: Tanzania (77.1%), Nigeria (43%), Guinea (33%), and Kenya (12.4%) [52]. A higher rate was reported for cancer: Nigeria (65%), Ethiopia (79%), and Ghana (73.5%) [53]. Psychosis in some African countries (Nigeria, Ethiopia, Ghana, and Malawi) was also high (73%) [54]. The elusive COVID-19 was not left out in TCAM use. Massage and steam inhalation with various African herbs and spices were highly used and were believed to be effective for prevention and treatment.
Other reports revealed the following prevalence for noncommunicable diseases (61%), asthma (50%), epilepsy (65.5%), and schizophrenia (76%) [19, 38]. Musculosketetal problems, osteoarthritis, and bone fracture showed high patronage for bonesetters. All other health conditions, such as diarrhea, infantile colic, oral health, etc., were reported with varying prevalence.
In terms of different categories of people, a higher TCAM utilization rate was observed among outpatients than inpatients (72% versus 18.5%) [55]. Among student population, a higher utilization rate of products was found with high school than undergraduates, and much less for medical and paramedical students in both Ghana and Nigeria [56, 57]. Among healthcare professionals, TCAM use was much lower in Nigeria (20.777%) and South Africa (23.5%) [58, 59].
Sociodemographic studies indicated that TCAM users compared with non-TCAM users are more likely to be of low socioeconomic and educational status, unemployed and unskilled, while there were inconsistencies in age, sex, spatial location, and religious affiliation between TCAM users and non-TCAM users. Some reports, however, indicated that urban and semiurban dwellers were found to be younger (20–50 years) than rural dwellers (>58 years). Users were also found to be higher among married than not married [60] and women more likely than men [13].
The mean prevalence of concurrent use of TCAM products and conventional medicine within the general population and for specific health conditions in SSA was reported to be high but lower among patients with HIV/AIDS, and least with noncommunicable diseases such as diabetes [19].
Most TCAM users (55.8–100%) in SSA fail to disclose TCAM use to their healthcare providers, with the main reasons for nondisclosure being fear of receiving improper care, healthcare providers’ negative attitude and a lack of enquiry about TCAM use from healthcare providers.
Evidence suggests that Africans in diaspora still maintain their use of TCAM overseas, and it is commonplace to find them transporting medicines from Africa to their country of abode [61].
The increasing uptake of TCAM services across the continent in recent decades has attracted the attention of policy makers, researchers, and healthcare professionals. In the past 20 years, the WHO regional office for Africa spearheaded the implementation of a regional strategy endorsed by African Heads of State in Lusaka, Zambia to promote the role of TCAM in health systems in the African region [62]. The gains experienced since the adoption of the regional plan include policy formation in 36 countries and research promotion, including the establishment of TCAM research centers in some countries such as Nigeria, Ghana, and South Africa. The regional plan has also promoted the inclusion of TCAM courses into the curricula of healthcare training institutions in countries across the continent. For instance, such plan has seen the inclusion of TCAM courses in some South African and Nigerian universities at both undergraduate and postgraduate levels. In Ghana, universities offer a BSc in herbal medicine. In Guinea, Sierra Leone, and Tanzania, Master’s degree in herbal medicine has been made compulsory for pharmacists [62]. It has also promoted the training of TCAM practitioners and the local production and cultivation of medicinal plants, as well as the establishment of intellectual property rights for traditional medicine knowledge in few nations [55]. Despite such progress, most African countries continue to grapple with an absence of TCAM policy or its implementation, inadequate TCAM research infrastructure, and insufficient regulation of TCAM products and practices [15, 62]. For instance, by 2005, only 32% and 27% of the African countries who responded to the WHO global survey had a national policy and law or regulation on TCAM [63].
8. Conclusion
The pattern of disease is changing in developing countries of Africa as a result of globalization, mostly due to contributing factors such as lifestyle, diet, obesity, lack of exercise, stress, etc. A steady rise in the prevalence of chronic noncommunicable diseases is significantly contributing to Africa’s disease burden and is adding to healthcare systems already strained due to the high incidence of infectious diseases. It is, therefore, postulated that TCAM will continue to play an integral role in the health and well-being of people suffering from chronic diseases in Africa as it is part and parcel of African heritage.
Although the use of TCAM is increasing in both developed and developing countries, while this may be substantial, it continues to exist only at the periphery of conventional medicine. It is noteworthy that Western religion, education, modernization, and globalization in Africa have not affected the continuous existence of TCAM, as practiced both in urban and rural areas. This is because it is affordable, dependable, and culture oriented, taking care of healthcare needs of the people. The continued use and future of TCAM is to a great extent hinged on its coexistence with conventional medicine. The extent to which this integration will occur in future as well as the nature of this integration will be greatly influenced by the attitude of physicians, which is mostly negative. For futuristic purposes, the medical students’ attitude toward TCAM is, therefore, important in assessing the possibility that this may change. Students’ attitudes and beliefs may have a strong impact on the way they will ultimately practice this type of integrative medicine in future. A proper policy and practice response to increasing TCAM use requires an in-depth insight into the nature of TCAM use, including the profile of TCAM users as well as the drivers and barriers that facilitate and limit the use of TCAM. It is, therefore, important for health departments and governments across Africa to put forward policy designs and implementations regarding TCAM, its current role and future possibilities in healthcare systems in general and promoting TCAM training, research and development, as well as integration into mainstream healthcare systems and educational systems as a means of advancing TCAM use.
The WHO, in spite of the challenges of uplifting the role of TCAM in Africa, has noted quite a number of achievements, namely, formation of national policies and regulatory framework in some African member countries, promotion of research by the production of scientific evidence on the safety, efficacy, and quality of TCAM products and services, the development of inventories and monographs on medicinal plants and herbal pharmacopoeia, and capacity building by the inclusion of TCAM in training curricula of health professionals, educating, training, and integration of traditional health practitioners for primary healthcare. However, some challenges yet to be addressed in many African countries exist. There are limited data on safety, efficacy, and quality, limited resources for clinical trials, integrating TCAM to tertiary institutions healthcare systems, and inadequate protection of indigenous knowledge and intellectual proprietary rights. The way forward would, therefore, be to tackle these challenges. No doubt, there are differences between the degrees of organization and integration of TCAM into the mainstream health systems. While some countries may have no structure in place, others have considerable structures in place.
Overall, there is definitely hope for growth and future of TCAM in Africa.
\n',keywords:"traditional, complementary, alternative integrative, therapies, medicine, African",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/81951.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/81951.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/81951",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/81951",totalDownloads:15,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,totalAltmetricsMentions:0,introChapter:null,impactScore:0,impactScorePercentile:0,impactScoreQuartile:0,hasAltmetrics:0,dateSubmitted:"November 22nd 2021",dateReviewed:"February 4th 2022",datePrePublished:null,datePublished:"July 6th 2022",dateFinished:"May 25th 2022",readingETA:"0",abstract:"Complementary therapies describe a wide range of healthcare practices that can be used alongside conventional treatments to deal with chronic health problems, treat symptoms, or simply to stay healthy. Examples include herbalism, bloodletting, purgation, prayers and incantations, hydrotherapy, diet, exercise, massage, etc. The basis for these practices stems from core beliefs: imbalance of body functions causes illness, the body can self-heal under the right conditions, and treatment should be of the whole body and not just symptoms; religion, spirituality, and culture are very strong underlying factors. The reasons for using complementary therapies are primarily to maintain good health, dissatisfaction with conventional medicines, taking charge of one’s own health, ready availability, and notions of safety. In rural Africa, complementary therapies have been used solely as alternative therapies due to inadequate healthcare. This chapter deals with the African traditional complementary therapies that coexist with conventional medical practices and their advantages and disadvantages.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/81951",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/81951",book:{id:"11042",slug:"complementary-therapies"},signatures:"Josephine Ozioma Ezekwesili-Ofili and Anthony Okechukwu Ogbonna",authors:[{id:"191264",title:"Prof.",name:"Josephine",middleName:"Ozioma",surname:"Ozioma Ezekwesili-Ofili",fullName:"Josephine Ozioma Ezekwesili-Ofili",slug:"josephine-ozioma-ezekwesili-ofili",email:"ezekjossie@gmail.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"Nnamdi Azikiwe University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"444768",title:"Dr.",name:"Anthony",middleName:null,surname:"Okechukwu Ogbonna",fullName:"Anthony Okechukwu Ogbonna",slug:"anthony-okechukwu-ogbonna",email:"anthonyogbonna95@gmail.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Types of complementary therapies",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Factors affecting and reasons for TCAM use",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4",title:"4. Barriers to the use of TCAM",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5",title:"5. Safety of TCAM",level:"1"},{id:"sec_6",title:"6. Economic factors affecting the use of TCAM",level:"1"},{id:"sec_7",title:"7. Prevalence of TCAM in Sub-Saharan Africa",level:"1"},{id:"sec_8",title:"8. Conclusion",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Pace O. Complementary and alternative medicine facts and figures. The Journal of Malta Collee of Family Doctors. 2012;1(1):18-24'},{id:"B2",body:'Mothibe ME, Sibanda M. African Traditional Medicine: South African Perspective. London, UK: IntechOpen Publishers; 2019'},{id:"B3",body:'Sirios FM, Salamousen A, Kristofferson AE. Reasons for continuing use of complementary and alternative medicine in students: A consumer commitment model. 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Department of Applied Biochemistry, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Nigeria
Department of Medicine, Enugu State University Teaching Hospital, Nigeria
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1. Introduction
The purpose of this chapter is to understand how seven different sects in Islam, namely Sunni, Shia, Whabbi, Salafi, Berelvi, Sufi and Deobandi (Seven Sects) have different perspectives on creativity in Islam.1 As Islam is a complete way of life and the religious, financial and political platforms must be part of the assessment of creativity. Creativity in Islam can only be assessed by educated and intellectually qualified Islamic Ulema (scholars) that hold the relevant knowledge and are authentic Ulemas. This chapter will explore the stages of Islamic creative thinking, legal reasoning and deductive reasoning in Islam relating to the seven different Ulemas belonging to seven different Islamic sects. The Ulemas will provide a unique insight into their understanding and interpretations of Islamic scriptures and texts in relation to creativity and how their perceptions and practices of differing Islamic traditions compare with each other concerning creativity.
Prior to this study, there has been research conducted examining how creativity is effective in Islam [2]. However, that research did not focus on how Seven Sects assesses creativity. It does not look at the required support of ulemas and the application of Islamic reasoning to determine effective and approved creativity in Islam. It also does not examine how creativity is rejected in Islam. The need for this study was due to gaps in other studies. This study will explore the stage of Islamic creative thinking, legal reasoning, and deductive reasoning in Islam differs between Seven Sects and this comparison and differences have yet to be researched.
This study was conducted by examining seven different leading Islamic traditions based in the UK. Each sect provided unique insight into their understanding and interpretations of Islamic scriptures and texts in relation to creativity and its assessment. This study demonstrates how perceptions and practices of differing Islamic traditions compare with each other.2 The uniqueness of creativity research in Islam is the explorative nature of this research that lends itself to qualitative studies, such as religious ethnography and discourse analysis will form two key approaches [3]. Religious ethnography will assist in eliciting responses from each of the Seven Sect’s representatives, and discourse analysis will be used to identify different perspectives [4].
2. Literature review
2.1 Creativity and innovation: The Quran (recitation)
Islam came at a time when there was prevalent ignorance in pre-Islamic Arabia. The Quran guided Muslims to be creative and to use their creativity for the benefit of humanity and in accordance with Sharia law and Islamic principles [5]. The Quran promoted creativity by providing examples of creativity to inspire and make Muslims understand in a greater depth. The Quran created a system that allowed Muslims to become focused on helping people and societies by being inventors of new theories and ideas. Science, math, biology, languages, culture, geography, psychology, sociology, algorithms, and many other areas began to take shape, assisting and creating new building blocks that lead to the great Islamic civilisations that followed.
Before examples are provided of the Quran promoting creativity, it is important to first examine an unsupported supposition amongst many Muslims. Muslims believe that Allah is the creator of the universe, therefore a question sometimes arises that can the word ‘to create’ or the Arabic word ‘khalq’ be used in reference to human beings. It is a consensus (Ijma) amongst the Scholars that Allah is the creator of all creation but it is sometimes debated whether can Muslims or people be referred to as a creator? The Quran uses the word ‘khalq’ when addressing and referring to the people, it states: ‘You only worship idols besides Allah and you create (khalq) a lie.’ [6]. This is clear evidence that the Arabic word ‘khalq’ can be used in reference to human invention and creativity as Allah has used it to highlight the lies created.
Another example, where Allah describes his creativity and also identifies creativity of the people in the Quran, is in the verse: ‘Then we made the seed a clot, then we made the clot a lump of flesh, then we made (in) the lump of flesh bones, then we clothed the bones with flesh, then we caused it to grow into another creation, so blessed be Allah, the best of the creators’ [7]. The verse ends with ‘so blessed be Allah, the best of the creators’, firstly, this confirms that Allah is the best of creators as He has created from nothingness. Secondly, Allah confirms that He is not the only creator, but He is the best. Thirdly, as for human beings, Allah states He is the best, therefore, if human beings create or are creative then that is acceptable in Islam as they can never be better than Allah for what He has created. Fourthly, Allah accepts that creativity or creation by human beings will be limited to their needs and intellect, as the above verse relating to the creation of a human being by Allah, can only vest in Allah as He has the intelligence, creativity and power to be that creative. It appears by this verse that Allah sets the creativity framework in Islam by acknowledging that He is ‘the best of the creators’ He is acknowledging that there will be creative thinkers and creators less blessed than Allah who will also create and be creative and innovative.
The Quran is seen as a creative miracle as it holds accounts of the past and the future and cannot be duplicated by human beings. Allah, knowing this, provides three creative challenges to all of creation including the Muslims to display creative intellect. In the first challenge He states: ‘Say: ‘If all mankind and the jinn3would come together to produce the like of this Quran, they could not produce its like even though they exerted all and their strength in aiding one another’ [8]. There is also the verse: ‘Knowing that they have failed in their creativity, He challenges them again to become creative by issuing a second challenge He states: ‘Or do they say that he has invented it? Say (to them), ‘Bring ten invented chapters like it, and call (for help) on whomever you can besides God, if you are truthful’ [9]. Also, ‘The humans and Jinns, unable to successfully complete the creative task of providing 10 Chapters, Allah further challenges them lowering the degree of the challenge to a single chapter only where He states: ‘And if you all are in doubt about what I have revealed to My servant, bring a single chapter4like it, and call your witnesses besides God if you are truthful’ [10].
Allah in His three challenges challenged the whole of creation to create a chapter as He has done in the Quran. Allah’s challenge was also towards those that spoke Arabic eloquently and they too after attempting to draft a chapter of the Quran were unable to successfully produce a chapter like that in the Quran. This is an example of Islam promoting creativity and asking people to become creative and innovators and even asking the whole creation to team up together to challenge Islam. This very challenge threatens the very fabric of Islamic existence but still remains today open to the whole of mankind to participate in.
2.2 Creativity and innovation: the sunnah of prophet Muhammad (pbuH)
Prophet Muhammad (pbuH) understood that all answers can be obtained from the Quran and that if any matters required clarification, then Muslims could go to Islamic scholars who are learned in the Quran, Ahadith, and Sunnah. The Prophet (pbuH) required Muslims to be learned and acquire knowledge throughout their lifetime. It is important to explain that many sects—including Salafi, Deobandi, and Wahabi—do not believe in Ahadith and Sunnah but rely solely on the Quran. They believe that any individual can translate the Quran. The Sunni, Sufi, Shia, and Berelvi sects believe the contrary. Such debates have led to segregation between the sects, causing difficulties for dialogue and rapport5 [11].
To provide an example, the Prophet (pbuH) states: ‘O Abu Huraira! I have thought that none will ask me about it before you as I know your longing for the (learning of) Ahadiths.’ [12]. It was reported in the same Hadith that Umar bin Abdul Aziz wrote to Abu Bakr bin Hazm who stated ‘Look for the knowledge of hadith and get it’ written, as I am afraid that religious knowledge will vanish and the religious learned men will pass away (die)…’
Scholars at the time of the Prophet pbuH were afraid that there may be a dispute about the reliance on the Ahadith and for that reason asked for the Ahadith to be written so that it may never be forgotten. As the Prophet pbuH Himself highlighted the learning of the Ahadiths and di not object to learning them qualifies a Muslim to rely upon them for guidance. This same understanding can be applied to all Ahadiths.
In relation to the Sunnah, the Quran states: ‘Your companion (Muhammad) is neither astray nor being misled. Nor does he speak of his own desire. It is (only) the revelation with which he is inspired’ [13]. Therefore, Muslims are required to believe that the Quran and Sunnah6 go hand in hand together as their sources of legislated law. The confusion between the sects relation to Ahadith and Sunnah is just a misunderstanding.
To understand the importance of knowledge in Islam from which creativity is derived, it is important to examine the first revelation to Prophet pbuH which was: ‘Read in the name of your Lord Who created. He created man from a clot. Read and your Lord is Most Honourable, Who taught (to write) with the pen. Taught man what he knew not.’ [14].
This is a very important revelation as the first revelation in Islam is asking the Prophet (pbuH) to read. By reading this revelation the reader would understand, by understanding the reader would gain knowledge and by gaining knowledge the reader would bring about new ideas and creativity. Allah is then saying ‘He created man from a clot’, ‘Who taught (to write) with the pen’ and ‘Taught man what he knew not’, this is very important as Allah is telling the Prophet (pbuH) His creative nature. He is telling the Prophet (pbuH) that He taught man and provided knowledge and creativity to man as ‘pen’ is a creative idea.
3. Questions and responses from the seven sects relating to the questions asked
The participants from the Seven Sects were asked the following semi-structured questions:
In Islam, what is creativity?
Do different traditions have different perceptions of creativity in Islam?
Does Islam promote creativity?
How do you view creativity?
Does Islam limit creativity?
Does Islamic Law block the expansion of creativity in Islam due to its stringent rules on ethics?
Do you believe Islam should have a greater contribution to creativity?
What is the process of determining creativity in Islam in the absence of any guidelines that one can follow?
What would you say has been the biggest prevention in the rise of Islamic creativity?
Sect
Response to Question 1
Response to Question 2
Response to Question 3
Response to Question 4
Response to Question 5
Response to Question 6
Response to Question 7
Response to Question 8
Response to Question 9
1
Sunni
In Islam, creativity (bida’h) is to create and Islam is not against it.
There are limitations on creativity definition, some people have a complete ban. There is a good innovation and then there is also bad innovation. Good innovation is something good that does not contradict with Islam. The bad is that contradicts Islam. We do not see anything that would complete stop creativity. Or else in the Quran, which came after such as the pulpit in the Mosque, something that is not against Islam, you cannot say anything against it. If Islam was against innovation then things that have been derived would not have been done. Islam does not ban creativity.
Yes, Islam states things that are not against Islam, and benefit people is fine. For example, the translation of the Quran, benefits people and does not go against Islam. There are some technologies that benefit people and Islam allows that
The Quran allows creativity and we are not against it
There are limitations, just that rule or obligations of Islam is not contradicted then that cannot be agreed to If Allah and Prophet pbuH state that there are four rakat (stages) in a prayer and someone reads five, then they have gone against Islam and its rule. This will be rejected.
No, absolutely does not block it, a person must follow the rules of Islam and Islam will not stop you. According to Islam, there are certain rules that allow and permit people to do certain things and it is not against Islam
Absolutely, I believe that in Islam the trouble started when people started to interpret innovation in a manner that prevented people to push forward for creativity… …Some people believe that they do not understand the limit of Islam and then they do not wish to cross that limit… Islam does not allow you to put your intelligence on the back foot, this is not acceptable in Islam. The Quran states: ‘Oh intelligent people the wisdom is for you…’ That is why the Quran has directed the intelligent people to seek knowledge. In other religions, the intelligence stopped when creativity stopped. I believe that a person in Deen (religion) will expand Deen by expanding Deen through creativity. Question: Deen and Bida’h are two different things: Answer: Yes, there are so many technologies that they benefit from. Now the news can travel faster, and people can travel faster, and that benefits people. When the loudspeaker was introduced, people placed a fatwa on it, whenever a new thing appears, some people attempt to discredit it by labelling it wrong. Allah has given intelligence so that people can understand and be responsible and be knowledgeable
There are rules in Islam such as permissible, obligatory, unlawful etc… A person must contact an Ulema for this. If you do not know if something is good or bad, or permitted or not permitted then an Ulema can tell you. But if something is against Islam then no that is not permitted
In every society, there are people that are against creativity and knowledge. In Islam, there are these hardliner people, and these people start placing fatwa on people. Then research will be stopped as a result of this. The authentic Ulema should only decide and the hardliner people should not listen to.
2
Shia
In Islam, where there is ignorance then there will be concerns and there will be rejection. It does not mean that thing does not exist. I do not know medicine but I cannot deny its existence. After Ibn Hasina etc, for 500 years they have been creative and after that, they have not done anything practical.
[no response]
Yes, Islam has asked Muslims to obtain knowledge even if you have to China. The word China was never said by the Prophet pbuH but knowledge was important and people just accepted that was said as it was good to obtain knowledge.It was discussed that how is it that we can obtain knowledge from a religion that is not Islam, it was said that you (Muslims) have a right over knowledge so should.
Islam is creative as it mentions test-tube babies and the internet in the Quran.
Islam has not provided people with freedom but rather has asked them to remain within guidelines.
Islam has rules, Islam does not prevent from spending money but not on yourself, Islam does not prevent you from ownership, but stops you from taking someone else’s, Islam does not stop you from eating well but stops you from kicking a hungry person away. In Islam, there are rules that must be followed for the benefit of you and the people…
Islam has not provided people with freedom but rather has asked them to remain within guidelines.
The biggest thing is the intention of creating, secondly Islam has not provided people with freedom but rather has asked them to remain within guidelines. It is the intention and that creation how it benefits the people, and looking at all this then a conclusion can be reached.
There is a concern, that Muslims have not contributed… It is because Islam wants Muslims to follow it and Muslims want Islam to follow them… Muslims see Islam as a commodity that they can mould to their satisfaction. If Muslims want to achieve success and creativity then they need the Quran and the knowledge of the Ahl Ul Bayt and… after that… even if Muslims wanted to step on the surface of the sun they would find a way to do so.
3
Wahabbi
The answer to this is the Hadith of the Prophet pbuH who states: ‘He who innovates, or creates or brings into Deen (Islam) and that thing is not part of the Deen, that thing will be rejected’. So anything which Prophet pbuH did not teach or did not practice or anything the Sahabah, the Companions (of the Prophet pbuH) never understood as Deen and also the students of the Sahabah, those that came after them and what they class as out of Deen is classed as bida’h. The three generations that we talk about… anything to do with Deen was present in these three times that will be classed as-Sunnah and contrary to that will be bidah, something new to Islam.
Others… will see bida’h with a different point of view… Others (Salafi)… will see practices of sects as bida’h
In terms of Deen no, things which are already set for us, we have to follow them, in terms of creativity in terms of duniyah (world) and we create things in this world, that we have to make sure we remain in the guidelines of Islam
A lot of people have a misunderstanding that means the cars we drive… the houses we live in… the planes we travel in are also bidah… these things were not present during the great era of Sahabah. In the Hadith, it states: ‘He, who innovates in this matter of Deen’… anything to do with worldly things… there is no stoppage to that. The Prophet pbuH states that ‘all bida’h is misguided’ and will lead you astray and will not keep you on the right path.
Creativity, innovation or bida’h has no place in Islam. Deen is complete and there is no room that we can start saying that we can start bringing this thing into Islam or that thing into Islam, Islam does not allow that.
You need to ask a Mufti
In terms of duniya, the West has exceeded in science and technology and definitely Muslims, must make sure they remain in the guidelines of Quran and Sunnah, must contribute…
Within Muslim groups there are certain scholars and certain Ulema’s will sit down and assess a situation or … a product and then will make a judgement and say this complies with Quran, Sunnah or Shariah, or if it does not comply… they will say this thing is wrong or haram… On a world level, scholars… get together and discuss issues… and accordingly, they will pass their judgements…
Back in the days, when Islam was one unit, the government was run through the Islamic jurisprudence, the Quran and Sunnah, and they fund Scholars and they will do their researches. The whole idea was to benefit mankind and humanity, since this is not the case and has not been the case for several centuries… greed has crept into…gone away from the Deen and Islam, the true teachings of Prophet pbuH… Therefore, anything that we do we do not look at it from a universal point of view and we have gone away from the Deen and the love of the duniyah has come into our hearts so that has stopped us from creativity.
4
Deobandi
Imam Nawani says something that was not in the time of Prophet pbuH is bida’h. Whatever was not in the time of the Prophet pbuH is bida’h (bad bida’h). Question: Celebrating the birth of the Prophet pbuH what category would that fall in? Answer: If it was celebrated in those times by the Sahabah (Companions of the Prophet pbuH) then yes.
Yes everyone has their own different opinions regarding bida’h.
There are two types of bidah, the good bida’h and bad bida’h.
I go along with the view of my teachers.
Islam limits, there is good bida’h and bad bidah which must fall into seven categories, permitted, obligatory, recommended, unlawful…
No
I do not know the answer to this
There are seven types as I have said, you have to view it under that, is it permitted, obligatory, recommended, unlawful… You have to view it under those categories
It is not the religion itself, it is probably the people.
5
Barelvi
Bida’h means, it has come from the word badah which means something new and innovative. According to many Ulemas something not in the time of Prophet pbuH.
There is one interpretation… but different schools of thought have taken control of this issue from different angles… not every innovation is bad… in Bukhari… every bidah is misguidance and… leads to hell-fire. The collection of Hadith… was not at the time of Prophet pbuH. … Is Sahih Al Bukhari a good bidah or bad bidah? … People are acting on it and successfully practising Islam… There are some schools of thoughts that say all bidah is bad bidah. … Our pious predecessors have given us… what good and bad bidah is…
Everything is allowed unless proven wrong… If in Islam something wrong and Islam will not praise
I personally view bidah as seeing something and seeing what Islam says about it, is it good for me… Does it take me closer to Allah…to Prophet pbuH and does not have any physical and spiritual harm then we will promote that…
if there is no Quranic injunction against it or any injunction against Hadith against it then we will promote it. If there is solid proof or Quranic or injunction or from hadith then we will reject it…
In Islam, Islam does not basically block bidah… Islam is a Deen, a religion that has come for all times, so it means that after 20 30 40 50 years new things will take place… and if they are beneficial to the Muslim for example the iPhone, people can read the Quran on it… even those that say bidah is wrong they even use iphone as well. Islam will only block the expansion of bidah if it seems this bidah is taking people away from the right path.
Islam does have a great contribution to bidah. There are many things that Islam allows us to do, for example, the carpet infront of us, it has prayer marks on it, it wasn’t at the time of the Prophet pbuH, but we have the marks to tell me where they need to stand for prayer and the space they have. If this form of bidah carries on… it will be allowed
All the work that needed to be done has been done by the pious predecessors and the Ulema. People need to look at their life… all the groundwork has been done… Acknowledging the works of… Imam Nawani (ra) Imam Tabrezi (ra)… great men who worked in the field… if we do not acknowledge that work and do not rely upon their trust and on their hard work then we will be misguided. Our pious predecessors Allah has given them much more… than this generation… every time and every era were much closer to the time of the Prophet pbuH and is better than the time coming after it. … people undermining… the Ulema
The biggest prevention… in creativity… is lack of knowledge in the minds of the people and they need to be taught and they can only be taught if they have interest… The other thing that is blocking creativity is where we have small groups of self styled scholars, self styled Imams, self styled teachers, can speak good English… get on the media… and think he can speak Islam… but have no authenticity… they are extreme people have extreme mind and they always say we stick to what was in the times of the Prophet pbuH and everything after that is haram and they are the biggest hindrance and the Prophet pbuH came to make the world creative… but people have become ignorant… to the true teachings of Islam
6
Salafi
Allah has completed the religion and chosen Islam for you. Islam cannot create something as it states that ‘if it’s not in my way it is rejected’. There are two types of bida’h, the good bida’h and bida’h according to Shariah Law
Yes—some practice Shirk
People create bida’h Islam does not
Bida’h is to bring something new to Shariah from Islam. People do not know its bida’h they think it is true or else they will not do bida’h. Something new that was not there before
In its entirety. If ‘it’s not of my way its rejected’
Everything in worldly life is permissible unless we have [sacred] text to prohibit it e.g. alcohol
Yes it is permissible, there should be engineers and scientists
If its haram or halal. If you create perfume then it’s okay, if you create alcohol then no.
All good comes from practising religion—Muslims have left practising
7
Sufi
There are two definitions, one is anything new that was not there in the past, second is in the quran and Sunnah and complies with it
There are different explanations, but the definition is the same… There has been development in Islam and that is bida’h, e.g. the form of the Quran was not there before, and that is being read by Shia, Salafi… There has been a great development in the grammar of Arabic that is bida’h, that is a development and that is good bida’h. Also, a watch, that was not there in the past. Also, prayer timetable in your mobile phone, the way you live that is a development. However, at weddings, the way we do weddings that is a development… The use of loudspeaker and radio that is a good development, a good bida’h… In the past people were fighting with swords and arrows and now there are bombs… This is a development…
There are two types, one is the one that is against Quran and Sunnah, that is forbidden… There are certain sects that are bida’h and it is haram (unlawful) There is bida’h hasnah (good bidah) such as prayers, celebrating the birth of the Prophet pbuH… prayers of ramzan… Reading behind the Imam… This is good bida’h
There are two definitions, one is anything new that was not there in the past, second is in the quran and Sunnah and complies with it
No, if it is Sunnah and Quran then it is a good thing…
No, if it is Sunnah and Quran then it is a good thing… If there is no proof then that is Bidah Seeyah (forbidden bida’h) and the Prophet pbuH said that person will enter hell-fire… … The way we celebrate weddings with music and dancing that is wrong… A good development according to Quran and Sunnah such as heart surgery
There should substantial contributions… Some have made watches… Ibn Hasina [expert in eye operations]… Muslims have done great developments
Has to be according to Quran, Sunnah and Hadith
We have become lazy, we have started fighting between ourself… If I am doing a good job, the other person will say that is bad bida’h to stop me from doing it even though he himself is doing it… There is a lot of advancement and Muslims should be part of it… some developments have to be seen if that is according to Quran and Sunnah… and if we advance then that is good bida’h
4. Analysis and interpretation
This study examined how the Seven Sect Islam assesses creativity. Seven interviews were carried out with ulemas from seven different sects: Imam Nasar (Sunni), Imam Alvi (Shia), Imam Chisti (Barelvi), Imam Rasab (Sufi), Imam Dawud (Salafi), Imam Younas (Wahabi), and Imam Huzayf (Deobandi).
Islam is a religion that was revealed to Prophet Muhammad pbuH that incentivised the seeking of any knowledge for its believers [10]. It is important to note that Islam views knowledge as a base of human intelligence and creativity as a branch of that intelligence. Therefore when Islam refers to knowledge it is sometimes referring to creativity too. In the pursuit of any knowledge, Islam provides rewards in the hereafter to Muslims for any knowledge gained in this world. Islam incentivises the thought process of creativity, the journey and the destination of accumulating knowledge and creativity and those rewards are rewarded separately at each stage. Islam makes it lucrative for Muslims to seek any knowledge and as the Prophet pbuH states: ‘The best of people are those that bring the most benefit to the rest of mankind’ [15].
Islam leads Muslims to question not only the existence of man but also the creation of mountains, trees, space and so forth [16]. Islam holds itself out to be questioned so that through such questioning knowledge can be gained progressing to the creation of theories and leading to creativity. Islam openly challenges its followers and non-believers to creativity even at the threat of its own existence [8, 10]. Islam uses itself as a mechanism, providing a platform to Muslims to bounce ideas against and advancing ones understanding and mind to grasp what Allah has created, why it was created and the open challenge by Allah to mankind to do better than what He has done [8, 10, 12, 17].
As a universal religion, Islam places great importance on creativity and innovation to create an Ummatan Wasatan a ‘Middle Ummah’, a balanced society that avoids extravagances making it a practical and fair religion that is in the middle path avoiding the extremes and excesses. Islam requires its followers to be moderated on belief (Aqidah), in acts of worship (Ibadah), in their understanding of Islamic Law (Shariah Law) and morals and manners (Akhlaq). By being moderate it will allow the Muslims to see the liberal side of society and the extreme side of society making it a fair religion that is able to view the whole of society and its creativity will then assist the whole of society too.
However, despite Islam seeking to create a ‘Middle Ummah’, Muslims have been faced with great difficulties due to religious interpretations of the terms bid’ah (innovation) and ijtihad (critical legal thinking) and the application of these processes. Many Islamic sects use terms: bid’ah, ijtihad, kufr (disbelief or denial) and shirk (avoid or neglect in the Oneness of Allah) to counter opposing views when the topic of creativity or innovation arises.
From the interviews, all informants understood what bida’h meant in Islam. Imam Nasar (Sunni) explained that the definition of bida’h means to create and Islam is not against bida’h. Imam Alvi (Shia) highlighted that just because bida’h has controversy surrounding it, it does not mean it does not exist in Islam. He indicated that Muslims are not implementing bida’h. Imam Chisti (Barelvi) provided an interpretation that the word bida’h comes from the word badah, which means something new in Islam. Imam Rasab (Sufi) similarly to Imam Chisti (Barelvi) explained that it is something new. Imam Dawud (Salafi) provided his interpretation of bida’h which is what was accepted at the time of the Prophet pbuH. He explained that there is good bida’h and bad bida’h. Imam Younas (Wahabi) explained that it is something new to Islam. Imam Huzayf (Deobandi) described that bida’h is what was not at the time of the Prophet pbuH. Imam Dawud (Salafi) and Imam Huzayf (Deobandi) responses placed a negative outlook upon their understanding of bida’h as times have since changed from the Prophet pbuH’s time.
4.1 Islam promoting creativity
On the question of Islam promoting creativity, Imam Nasar (Sunni) explained that Islam does promote creativity but only those things that are not against Islam. He provided an example that the translation of the Quran was a new creative idea after the demise of the Prophet pbuH. He stated that this benefits people and does not go against Islam. He also stated that some technologies that benefit people are allowed under Islam. Imam Alvi (Shia) agreed that Islam promotes creativity. He explained that Islam has asked Muslims to obtain knowledge even if you have to go to China. He explained that the word ‘China’ was never said by the Prophet pbuH but knowledge was so important and people just accepted that He pbuH had said it as it was good to obtain knowledge. He described that currently, people may feel that to be creative, one must obtain Western knowledge or from people that follow a different religion than Islam. He provided a response to that and said that Muslims have a right over knowledge so they should go where knowledge is even to other religions. Imam Chisti (Barelvi) believes that Islam allows all forms of creativity unless particular creativity is wrong. He highlighted that if Islam views something as wrong that thing will not be praised. Imam Rasab (Sufi) emphasised that Islam promoted creativity and it is divided into two categories: the good and bad bid’ah.
Imam Dawud (Salafi) explained that people create bida’h Islam does not. Imam Younas (Wahabi) explained In terms of deen (Islam) there is no creativity, things which are already set for us, we have to follow them, in terms of creativity in terms of duniyah (world) and we create things in this world, but we have to make sure we remain in the guidelines of Islam. Imam Huzayf (Deobandi) similarly to Imam Rasab described that there are two types of bidah, the good bid’ah and bad bida’h. Imam Dawud (Salafi) comments regarding the promoting of creativity vesting with humans and not Islam creates the possibility that Salafi may have negative reflections upon what bida’h is as Islam promotes creativity.
4.2 Differing perceptions of creativity in Islam
The Quran has acknowledged that human beings are able to create (khalq) [6] and be inventive. The Prophet pbuH also understood that to obtain creativity a Muslim has to gain knowledge and through knowledge, a Muslim would obtain a creative imagination (khayal). A Muslim imagination cannot become an automatic creation, therefore, his creative ideas are always within the confinement of Islam even at the very beginning. The Quran states: ‘Allah will raise in rank those of you who believe and those who have been given knowledge’ [18]. The Prophet pbuH states: ‘The seeking of knowledge is obligatory for every Muslim’ [19] and further stating: ‘One who treads a path in search of knowledge has his path to Paradise made easy by God…’ [20]. The Prophet pbuH is clearly indicating that knowledge is very important for Muslims and telling them that if you go in search of knowledge then their path to paradise will be made easy. This Ahadith does not state, you will achieve the knowledge that you set out to gain, but only that you will be rewarded on deciding to go to seek knowledge. This is important as the Prophet pbuH is incentivising the journey to knowledge, not the destination, as not all knowledge leads to creativity.
Despite having such clear direction from the Quran and the Hadith, Muslims remain absent from seeking knowledge that may lead to creativity and innovation due to numerous interpretations of the Quran, Hadith and Sunnah. Sects including Salafi, Deobandi and Wahabi have certain reservations with the Ahadiths and Sunnah but rely solely on the Quran, which they interpret themselves. They believe that any individual is capable of translating the Quran. The Sunnis, Shia, Sufi and Barelvi sects believe the contrary and rely on the Ahadith and Sunnah to interpret the Quran [11].
On the question of there being different perceptions of bida’h in Islam, Imam Nasar (Sunni) explained that some people have a complete ban on bida’h. He explained that in the Sunni sect, there are limitations on creativity definition but never a complete ban. He indicated that if Islam was against innovation then things that have been derived from Islam and Islam would not have been successful. He suggested that Islam does not ban creativity but seeks its progression.
Imam Chisti (Barelvi) explained that there is one interpretation but different schools of thought have taken control of this issue from different angles. Imam Chisti (Barelvi) suggested that due to this control Muslims are not able to be creative. Imam Chisti (Barelvi) in his response to those that attempt to control the explanations of bida’h provided an example of Sahih Al Bukhari a collection of Ahadiths; he asked if they were a good thing or a bad thing as they came after the time of the Prophet (pbuH).
Imam Rasab (Sufi) said that there are different explanations, but the definition is the same. He provided his own examples of Arabic grammar, the book version of the Quran, prayer timetable and even the mobile phone. He said that these developments are a benefit and accepted in Islam. Imam Dawud (Salafi) response was that there are different perceptions of bida’h in Islam and that some practised shirk. Imam Dawud (Salafi) comments emphasise that some sects fall outside the limits Islam has set.
Imam Younas (Wahabi) and Imam Huzayf (Deobandi) both agreed with Imam Chisti (Barelvi) that there is one interpretation but different meanings. There are many different interpretations of the Quran and Hadith relating to bida’h, but Allah states that: ‘And whoever opposes the Messenger after guidance has become clear to him and follows other than the way of the believers - We will give him what he has taken and drive him into Hell, and evil it is as a destination’ [21]. Allah is giving a warning that if any believer separates from the Prophet pbuH guidance, which includes the Prophet pbuH’s guidance on bid’ah then his abode will be hell. Despite this clear warning, many Muslim Ulemas specifically in Salafi, Deobandi and Wahabi take the literal meaning of the Hadith: ‘The most evil affairs are the innovations (bida), and every innovation (bida) is an error’ [22]. These sects have reservations about Hadiths due to the word Hadith not appearing in the Quran, and their position becomes contradictory as they rely upon a Hadith despite having reservations about their authenticity as a source of guidance. However, Sunni, Shia, Sufi and Barelvi are more open to the idea of relying on Ahadith [23] and despite the word Ahadith not appearing in the Quran, they believe that Hadith is the guidance from the Prophet pbuH and that is what Allah refers to when He states: ‘And whoever opposes the Messenger after guidance has become clear…’.
In relation to the Sunnah, the Quran states: ‘Your companion (Muhammad) is neither astray nor being misled. Nor does he speak of his own desire. It is (only) the revelation with which he is inspired’ [13]. Therefore Muslims are required to believe that the Quran, the Ahadith and Sunnah go hand in hand together as sources of law.
4.3 Each sect own view of creativity
Imam Nasar (Sunni), Imam Alvi (Shia), Imam Chisti (Barelvi) and Imam Rasab (Sufi) all agree that creativity is a necessity. Imam Dawud (Salafi) believed that bida’h is wrong or else people will not be doing it but did not provide any further response. Imam Younas (Wahabi) believed that there is a misunderstanding amongst people as to what it means but indicated towards the practices of the Prophet pbuH, and Imam Huzayf (Deobandi) believed that he has been taught by his teacher is correct and did not wish to provide his opinion.
The Prophet (pbuH) states: ‘The best speech is that which is embodied in the Book of Allah, the Al Quran; and the best guidance is the guidance given by me, Mohamed. The most evil affairs are the innovations (bid’ah), and every innovation (bid’ah) is an error’ [24]. This is where the confusion stems between the Muslims. The reference to bid’ah in this Ahadith here is relating to the creation of statements that oppose what has already been clarified in the Quran and the guidance provided by the Prophet pbuH, therefore, it is permissible to innovate that, which benefits the religion and are compliant with Sharia Law.
4.4 Islam limiting creativity
On the question of Islam limiting creativity, Imam Nasar (Sunni) believes that there are limitations on creativity, which is for a Muslim to comply with the rule or obligations of Islam and that the creativity should not contradict Islamic principles or else it will be rejected. Imam Alvi (Shia) stated that Islam has not provided people with freedom but rather has asked them to remain within guidelines and that they should be within the Islamic guidelines. Imam Chisti (Barelvi) explained that if there is no Quranic injunction against it or any injunction against it, or there is no Hadith against it then Islam will promote that creativity. However, he explained that if there is solid proof or Quranic injunction or creativity goes against the hadith then Islam will reject that creative idea.
Imam Rasab (Sufi) explained that if Sunnah and Quran are complied with then it is good bida’h and Islam will not restrict it. Imam Dawud (Salafi) explained that Islam rejects bida’h in its entirety. He explained that Prophet (pbuH) stated that if it is not of my way then it is rejected.
Imam Younas (Wahabi) explained that there is a complete ban on creativity, innovation or bida’h and it has no place in Islam. He stated that Islam is complete and there is no room that Muslims can start saying that new innovations will be brought about within Islam. Imam Huzayf (Deobandi) stated that Islam does limit creativity but as there is good bid’ah and bad bida’h it must fall into the categories set out in Shariah Law such as permitted, obligatory, recommended, unlawful and offensive/disliked.
However, the Prophet (pbuH) states: ‘If somebody innovates something which is not in harmony with the principles of our religion, that thing is rejected’ [25]. Therefore, the Prophet pbuH permitted bid’ah, but only opposed it when it was not in harmony with Islam. Furthermore, this Ahadith confirms that introduction of new innovations or ideas are welcomed if they were in conformity with Islamic principles and beliefs. At the time of the Prophet (pbuH), there were many new inventions and innovations, therefore, the issue surrounding bida’h must only refer to religion and religious practices, not inventions and creative ideas that do not change the Islamic principles.
Bid’ah only has any legal standing if it complies with Shariah Law and the Sunnah of the Prophet (pbuH). Bid’ah is being used as a tool to prevent free-thinking of ideas, which affects and withers away the critical legal thinking (ijtihad) process of the Muslims due to the substantial opposition to those that commit good bid’ah.
In response to those that oppose good bid’ah, the following Hadith states: ‘He who introduced some good practice in Islam which was followed after him (by people) he would be assured of reward like one who followed it, without their rewards being diminished in any respect. And he who introduced some evil practice in Islam which had been followed subsequently (by others), he would be required to bear the burden like that of one who followed this (evil practice) without theirs being diminished in any respect’ [26]. Sects, such as Deobandi, Salafi and Wahabi provide limitations that go far beyond the required limitations required by Islam, preventing their followers from being creative by propagating the understanding that innovation is wrong. Sunni, Shia, Barelvi and Sufi are utilising this Hadith to spread and promote creativity in Islam.
The difficulties due to religious interpretations or applications of bid’ah, qiyas, [27] ijtihad, kufr and shirk when addressing the topic of creativity or innovation are based upon peer pressure, ignorance, lack of knowledge in Islamic teachings which leads to a schism preventing an ijma to finally put these matters to rest. However, in the absence of an ijma, Muslims are to only look at the inventions and creative thoughts of the Muslims that have had a positive impact on the Western civilisation [4] to reach a conclusion that Islam does not prevent or limit creativity.
4.5 Islamic law (Shariah Law) and creativity in Islam
On the question of Shariah Law blocking creativity due to its ethics, Imam Nasar (Sunni) disagreed that Shariah Law blocked creativity. He stated that if a Muslim needs to follow the rules of Islam and Islam will not stop you. He explained that there are certain rules that allow and permit people to do certain things and which are not against Islam. Imam Alvi (Shia) stated that Islam has rules and these rules that must be followed and if they benefit you and people then Shariah Law will not block it.
Imam Chisti (Barelvi) explained that Islam does not basically block bid’ah, and if that bid’ah is beneficial to the Muslims then Shariah Law will not stand in your way. Shariah Law will only block the expansion of bida’h if it seems that the bida’h is taking people away from the right path. Imam Rasab (Sufi) explained that Shariah Law does not block bida’h if it is in agreement with the Quran and the Sunnah and if it is a good thing. There are guidelines that need to be followed to be in compliance with Shariah Law.
Imam Dawud (Salafi) explained that everything in worldly life is permissible unless we have sacred text prohibiting it. Imam Younas (Wahabi) proposed that a Mufti be approached to seek an answer to this question and Imam Huzayf (Deobandi) said Shariah Law does not block bida’h and explained the need to look at the categories of Shariah Law to seek compliance with it.
However, these interpretations prevent an open dialogue about creativity in the Islamic world. The importance of Quranic exegesis, Hadith and jurisprudence (fiqh) are important when addressing Shariah Law but for any argument to be valid in Islam it must have the backing of, and be in compliant with Shariah Law and the Sunnah or else the interpretation has no validity.
An Islamic ruling under Shariah Law against al-ʾaḥkām al-khamsa (the five status), which form part of fiqh when deciding bida’h discovered that Islam does not prevent innovations unless it attempts to change the religious ideology or religious framework that covers the principles of Islam as then that would be unlawful. The al-ʾaḥkām al-khamsa under Shariah Law is: obligatory, recommended, unlawful, offensive/disliked, and permissible. Out of the ‘five status’, only ‘unlawful’ status prevents certain bida’h from taking place that is against the Islamic principles. As a result, the Muslims are able to validate their creative ideas and innovations from the four remaining statuses in Islam. Shariah Law propagates Al-tafkir al-ibda’l (Creative Thinking) by making it a law upon all Muslims to be creative thinkers.
The literal meaning of the Hadith: ‘Every Bidah is misguidance and every path of misguidance goes to hell’ [28] in light of the verse of the Quran: ‘This day I have perfected for you your religion and completed My favour upon you and have approved for you Islam as religion’ [17] does not conform to this Quranic verse as it raises the question as to why Allah would prevent Muslims from being creative or being intellectually advance when He Himself has provided examples of His brilliance and then challenged the Muslims to create as He has and then incentivises them to do so [7, 29, 30, 31].
4.6 Islamic contribution to creativity
It has been a challenging time for Ulemas, who have attempted to bring the legal process in Shariah Law more close to the social norms in our society. As a result of the differing interpretations between sects, there is a substantial misinterpretation of the Quran and the Hadith surrounding bid’ah resulting in the reduction of creativity in Islam. The Ulemas in different sects have to guide and provide a balance between religion and worldly affairs, and it is this difficulty and possible fear that may have led Ulemas to interpret all creativity and innovation as bid’ah. The Hadith states: ‘Scholars are the inheritors of the prophets’ therefore, the Ulemas are the inheritors from Prophet Muhammad (pbuH). This is a great responsibility and many Islamic Ulemas are too fearful to make a mistake resulting in the notion that it is safer not to do something than to do it thereby depicting that Islam is limiting innovation when it is really some Ulemas fear of the responsibility that they carry.
All informants, except for Imam Huzayf (Deobandi), believed that Islam or more specifically Muslims should have a greater contribution to creativity as Islam permits creativity. Imam Huzayf (Deobandi) did not have a response to this question.
All informants believed that if bid’ah looked to change the principles of Islam then that bid’ah will be rejected, but if the bid’ah looked to benefit the world having no direct changes to Islamic principles then that bid’ah will be accepted.
The Hadith states: ‘If a question relates to your worldly matters you would know better about it, but if it relates to your religion then to me it belongs’ [32]. The Prophet (pbuH) has confirmed that the Muslims know better when it comes to their worldly affairs, which include necessities and through necessities comes creativity and innovation. The Prophet (pbuH) has confirmed that bid’ah is permissible in Islam, and He (pbuH) has also confirmed that it is up to the Muslim to decide his worldly affairs. Therefore, if the Ulemas and their congregations decide that they will not be creative or innovative then that is a choice that they have made as Shariah Law does restrict innovation but limits its function to avoid unlawfulness. Other than that, Shariah Law is not an obstacle to creativity but makes it an obligation to participate in creativity and innovation to assist Islam.
4.7 Prevention of creativity in Islam
There are political, financial and international obstacles leading to environmental effects that prevent the rise of Islamic creativity. Imam Nasar (Sunni) stated that in every society, there are people that are against creativity and knowledge. In Islam, there are these ‘hardliner’ people, and these people start placing fatwa (decree) on people resulting in creative research being stopped. The authentic Ulema should only decide and the ‘hardliner’ people should not be listened to.
Imam Alvi (Shia) stated that Muslims have not contributed to creativity, for some time, it is because Islam wants Muslims to follow it, and Muslims want Islam to follow them which leads to misunderstanding and stagnation of creativity. He stated that Muslims see Islam as a commodity that they can mould to their satisfaction. He explained that if Muslims want to achieve success and creativity then they need the Quran and the knowledge and guidance of the Ulema. Imam Chisti (Barelvi) stated that the biggest prevention in creativity is lack of knowledge in the minds of the people. He highlighted that Muslims lack interest.
The other thing that is blocking creativity according to Imam Chisti (Beralvi) is small groups of self-styled scholars, self-styled Imams and self-styled teachers, who can speak good English but have no authenticity and misinterpret Islam. Imam Rasab (Sufi) stated that Muslims have become lazy and have started fighting between themselves. He explained that if a particular Muslim is doing a good job, the other person will say that is bad bida’h to stop him from doing it even though he himself may be doing it.
Imam Dawud (Salafi) stated that all good comes from practising religion and Muslims have left practising. Imam Younas (Wahabi) believes that the whole idea was to benefit mankind and humanity, since this is not the case anymore and has not been the case for several centuries, greed has crept in and Muslims have gone away from their religion. Imam Huzayf (Deobandi) stated it is not the religion itself, it is probably the Muslims that are the prevention to creativity.
4.8 Mechanisms needed to assess creativity in Islam
All informants believed that the guidelines to follow when addressing creativity in Islam must include either all or some of the following stages: the intention (of the creator), the Quran, the Sunnah, the Hadith, Shariah Law and the Ulema.
This study provides an Islamic Creativity Framework with reliance on the Quran, Hadith and the Sunnah, which embeds authority in Islam and provides clear guidance and direction to Muslims to be creative. Abd-Allah in his study ‘Innovation and Creativity in Islam’ [33] does not provide a methodology in assessing creativity in Islam but provides a methodology in promoting creativity. He also uses the methodology of ijtihad [33] to further the promotion of creativity in Islam but does not provide a connection or a process linking Ijtihad to the Quran, Sunnah, the Ahadith and Qiyas.
Similarly to Abd-Allah’s work Al-Karasneh and Jubran study of ‘Islamic Perspective of Creativity: A Model for Teachers of Social Studies as Leaders’ [34] use the content analysis approach of the Quran to determine a model for teachers in social studies as leaders. Al-Karasneh and Jubran do not propose an Islamic creative framework despite the Quran being an analysis of their research. Their methodology relies heavily upon the primary source in Islam which is the Quran. They confirm that there is not a developed Islamic methodology of creativity and possibly for this reason they have created a methodology to teach creativity in Islam.
Al-Karasneh and Jubran then rely upon ijtihad (and Shariah law as a secondary source) as a good methodology in reaching creative ideas and new solutions. They then rely upon Quranic verses. The difficulty with their research is that some verses of the Quran cannot be taken in their literal form. The Quran requires an interpretation that is found within the hadith and Sunnah and explained by Ulemas. Al-Karasneh and Jubran have not done this. They have attempted to translate the Quran without any authority and as a result, they have not actually explained anything as there is no interpretation to back up the verses of the Quran that they have cited. This study has cited the Quranic verses and backed them up with Sunnah and Ahadiths.
5. Conclusion
The Seven Sects each have their own interpretations of scriptures, whoever, what binds them is the similarities and not the differences. Unfortunately, the differences between them are what separate them, creating the possibility of further debate which exceeds the bounds of open dialogue and rather leads to some sects being neglectful of the other’s beliefs. What is apparent is that the Seven Sects do believe that creativity can be accepted but for some (Whabbi, Salafi and Deobandi) this is limited to what was acceptable in the 6th Century. Despite advancements in technology at the very least on a social level, it is difficult to accept that innovation can only be accepted to what was available in the sixth century. Sunni, Shia, Berelvi and Sufi have a contrary view that innovation is acceptable, provided it brings about good to a greater amount of people. Islamic creativity it appears, is accepted widely, but may be due to religious and political aspects there is influence on certain sects not to accept, what can be defined as a wider acceptance of Islamic creativity by its followers. The scope of this study does not extend further than this and further academic contribution will be required to answer such research questions.
\n',keywords:"Quran, Islam, Ahadith, creativity (bid’ah) and sects",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/80779.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/80779.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/80779",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/80779",totalDownloads:65,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:"December 4th 2021",dateReviewed:"January 27th 2022",datePrePublished:"March 18th 2022",datePublished:null,dateFinished:"March 8th 2022",readingETA:"0",abstract:"The purpose of this study is to understand how seven different Islamic sects namely Sunni, Shia, Whabbi, Salafi, Berelvi, Sufi and Deobandi have different perspectives when it comes to creativity (bid’ah). Each participant provided a unique insight into their understanding and interpretations of Islamic scriptures and texts in relation to creativity, and to determine how creativity in Islam is assessed. This study provides a unique understanding of differences and similarities of creativity and innovation and explains how each participant’s sect analyses and affords its own perspective on creativity.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/80779",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/80779",signatures:"Cameron Iqbal",book:{id:"11303",type:"book",title:"Creativity",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Creativity",slug:null,publishedDate:null,bookSignature:"Ph.D. Sílvio Manuel Da Rocha Brito and Dr. João Thomaz",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11303.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:null,isbn:"978-1-80355-034-3",printIsbn:"978-1-80355-033-6",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80355-035-0",isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"170935",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sílvio Manuel",middleName:"Da Rocha",surname:"Brito",slug:"silvio-manuel-brito",fullName:"Sílvio Manuel Brito"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"322647",title:"Dr.",name:"Cameron",middleName:null,surname:"Iqbal",fullName:"Cameron Iqbal",slug:"cameron-iqbal",email:"cameroniqbal@hotmail.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Literature review",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"2.1 Creativity and innovation: The Quran (recitation)",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"2.2 Creativity and innovation: the sunnah of prophet Muhammad (pbuH)",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5",title:"3. Questions and responses from the seven sects relating to the questions asked",level:"1"},{id:"sec_6",title:"4. Analysis and interpretation",level:"1"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"4.1 Islam promoting creativity",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7_2",title:"4.2 Differing perceptions of creativity in Islam",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8_2",title:"4.3 Each sect own view of creativity",level:"2"},{id:"sec_9_2",title:"4.4 Islam limiting creativity",level:"2"},{id:"sec_10_2",title:"4.5 Islamic law (Shariah Law) and creativity in Islam",level:"2"},{id:"sec_11_2",title:"4.6 Islamic contribution to creativity",level:"2"},{id:"sec_12_2",title:"4.7 Prevention of creativity in Islam",level:"2"},{id:"sec_13_2",title:"4.8 Mechanisms needed to assess creativity in Islam",level:"2"},{id:"sec_15",title:"5. Conclusion",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Iqbal C. Assessing Creativity and Innovation in Islam [online first]. London: IntechOpen; 2020. DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.94110. Available from: https://www.intechopen.com/online-first/assessing-creativity-and-innovation-in-islam'},{id:"B2",body:'Abd-Allah UF. Innovation and Creativity in Islam. Burr Ridge, IL: Nawawi Foundation; 2006; See also Karasneh SM, Saleh AMJ. Islamic Perspective of Creativity: A Model for Teachers of Social Studies as Leaders. Innovation and Creativity in Education, Social and Behavioral Sciences. 2010;2:412-26; Kharkhurin AV, Samadpour Motalleebi SN. The impact of culture on the creative potential of American, Russian and Iranian College Students. Creativity Research Journal. 2008;20(4):404-416'},{id:"B3",body:'Creswell JW. Research Design: Qualitative, Quantitative, and Mixed Methods Approaches. 3rd ed. London: SAGE Publications; 2009. Eisenhardt KM. Building theories from case study research. Academy of Management Review. 1989;14(4):539. Ariff TNAZ. Ethnographic discourse analysis: Conversion to Islam ceremony. Discourse and Communication. 2012;6(3):295-322'},{id:"B4",body:'Salim STS, Woodcock E. 1001 Inventions: Islamic Heritage in our World. London: FSTC Publisher; 2006'},{id:"B5",body:'Al-Mazeidy ZM, Al-Ibda’ MFM, Islamiyyah R. An Introduction to the Methodology of Creativity: An Islamic Point of View. Egypt: Dar Al-Wafa’ Littiba’a wa Al-Nashr; 1993. p 306'},{id:"B6",body:'The Holy Quran 29:17'},{id:"B7",body:'The Holy Quran 23:14'},{id:"B8",body:'The Holy Quran 17:88'},{id:"B9",body:'The Holy Quran 11:13'},{id:"B10",body:'The Holy Quran 2:23'},{id:"B11",body:'Sahih Bukhari, Vol. 1, Book 3, Hadith No. 56 and 98'},{id:"B12",body:'Sahih Bukhari, Vol. 1, Book 3, Hadith No. 098'},{id:"B13",body:'The Holy Quran 53:2-4'},{id:"B14",body:'The Holy Quran 96:1-5'},{id:"B15",body:'Sunan al-Daraqutni, al-Mutalif wa-l-Mukhtalif, Ilal al-Hadit and at-Tatabbu'},{id:"B16",body:'The Holy Quran 18:22'},{id:"B17",body:'The Holy Quran 6:125'},{id:"B18",body:'The Holy Quran 58:11'},{id:"B19",body:'Sunan At-Tirmidhi, Hadith No. 74'},{id:"B20",body:'The Holy Quran 4:80'},{id:"B21",body:'The Holy Quran 4:115'},{id:"B22",body:'Sunan Al Tirmizi/Tirmidhi, Hadith Collection, Vol. 2. p. 39'},{id:"B23",body:'The Holy Quran 4:136'},{id:"B24",body:'Sahih Muslim, Hadith No. 1885'},{id:"B25",body:'Sahih Bukhari, Vol. 3, Book 49, Hadith No. 861'},{id:"B26",body:'Sahih Muslim, Book 34, Hadith No. 6466'},{id:"B27",body:'Imam Ali bin Muhammad al-Aamadi, Al-Risalah, Kitab al-Risāla Fī Uṣūl al-Fiqh. p. 477'},{id:"B28",body:'Wasail al shia, Vol. 11. p. 511'},{id:"B29",body:'Sunan At-Tirmidhi, Hadith No. 422'},{id:"B30",body:'Sunan of Abu-Dawood, Hadith No. 1631'},{id:"B31",body:'Sunan of Abu-Dawood, Book 19, Hadith No. 3634'},{id:"B32",body:'Musnad Ahmad, Hadith No. 12086'},{id:"B33",body:'Abd-Allah UF. Innovation and Creativity in Islam. Burr Ridge, IL: Nawawi Foundation; 2006. p. 7'},{id:"B34",body:'Karasneh SM et al. Islamic perspective of creativity: A model for teachers of social studies as leaders, innovation and creativity in education. Social and Behavioral Sciences. 2010;2(2):412-426'}],footnotes:[{id:"fn1",explanation:"As a matter of openness and transparency, the author confirms that the research in this chapter from part of another chapter namely Islamic Creativity Framework [1] and such works have also been published with the same publisher. The previous works [1] focused on the Islamic Creativity Framework, but this chapter focuses only on the responses of the Seven Sects. This chapter includes new research and may have some repetition."},{id:"fn2",explanation:"There are approximately 72 different Islamic followings and traditions, all with different interpretations of the Quran, Sunnah, and the Ahadith."},{id:"fn3",explanation:"Jinn are the creation of Allah, made out of a smokeless flame, which exist alongside Muslims but cannot see the Jinn. The Jinn can see the human beings."},{id:"fn4",explanation:"The smallest chapter in the Quran is Al-Kawthar, which consists of only three verses, Allah is challenging the whole of creation to be creative and create just three verses of the Quran."},{id:"fn5",explanation:"For example, the Prophet (pbuH) states, “O Abu Huraira! I have thought that none will ask me about it before you as I know your longing for the (learning of) Ahadith” [11]. It was reported in the same hadith that Umar bin Abdul Aziz wrote to Abu Bakr bin Hazm, who stated, “Look for the knowledge of hadith and get it written, as I am afraid that religious knowledge will vanish and the religious learned men will pass away (die)” [11]."},{id:"fn6",explanation:"The Sunnah is the primary source of law, legal ways, orders and acts of worships and statements of the Prophet pbuH that Muslims are to follow."}],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Cameron Iqbal",address:"cameroniqbal@hotmail.com",affiliation:'
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Open Access Funding
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To explore funding opportunities and learn more about how you can finance your IntechOpen publication, go to our Open Access Funding page. IntechOpen offers expert assistance to all of its Authors. We can support you in approaching funding bodies and institutions in relation to publishing fees by providing information about compliance with the Open Access policies of your funder or institution. We can also assist with communicating the benefits of Open Access in order to support and strengthen your funding request and provide personal guidance through your application process. You can contact us at funders@intechopen.com for further details or assistance.
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For Authors who are still unable to obtain funding from their institutions or research funding bodies for individual projects, IntechOpen does offer the possibility of applying for a Waiver to offset some or all processing feed. Details regarding our Waiver Policy can be found here.
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Added Value of Publishing with IntechOpen
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Benefits of Publishing with IntechOpen
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Proven world leader in Open Access book publishing with over 10 years experience
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The Open Access Publishing Fee (OAPF) is payable only after your book chapter, monograph or journal article is accepted for publication.
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OAPF Publishing Options
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During the launching phase journals do not charge an APC, rather they will be funded by IntechOpen.
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\n\n
Services included are:
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An online manuscript tracking system to facilitate your work
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Personal contact and support throughout the publishing process from your dedicated Author Service Manager
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Assurance that your manuscript meets the highest publishing standards
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English language copyediting and proofreading, including the correction of grammatical, spelling, and other common errors
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XML Typesetting and pagination - web (PDF, HTML) and print files preparation
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Discoverability - electronic citation and linking via DOI
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Permanent and unrestricted online access to your work
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What isn't covered by the Open Access Publishing Fee?
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If your manuscript:
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Exceeds the number of pages defined by the publishing guidelines, an additional fee per page may be required
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If a manuscript requires Heavy Editing or Language Polishing, this will incur additional fees.
\n
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Your Author Service Manager will inform you of any items not covered by the OAPF and provide exact information regarding those additional costs before proceeding.
\n\n
Open Access Funding
\n\n
To explore funding opportunities and learn more about how you can finance your IntechOpen publication, go to our Open Access Funding page. IntechOpen offers expert assistance to all of its Authors. We can support you in approaching funding bodies and institutions in relation to publishing fees by providing information about compliance with the Open Access policies of your funder or institution. We can also assist with communicating the benefits of Open Access in order to support and strengthen your funding request and provide personal guidance through your application process. You can contact us at funders@intechopen.com for further details or assistance.
\n\n
For Authors who are still unable to obtain funding from their institutions or research funding bodies for individual projects, IntechOpen does offer the possibility of applying for a Waiver to offset some or all processing feed. Details regarding our Waiver Policy can be found here.
\n\n
Added Value of Publishing with IntechOpen
\n\n
Choosing to publish with IntechOpen ensures the following benefits:
\n\n
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Indexing and listing across major repositories, see details ...
\n\t
Long-term archiving
\n\t
Visibility on the world's strongest OA platform
\n\t
Live Performance Metrics to track readership and the impact of your chapter
\n\t
Dissemination and Promotion
\n
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Benefits of Publishing with IntechOpen
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Proven world leader in Open Access book publishing with over 10 years experience
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+5,700 OA books published
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Most competitive prices in the market
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Fully compliant with OA funding requirements
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Optimized processes that assure your research is made available to the scientific community without delay
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Personal support during every step of the publication process
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+184,650 citations in Web of Science databases
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Currently strongest OA platform with over 175 million downloads
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Generally, the phytochemical constituents of plants fall into two categories based on their role in basic metabolic processes, namely primary and secondary metabolites. Primary plant metabolites are involved in basic life functions; therefore, they are more or less similar in all living cells. On the other hand, secondary plant metabolites are products of subsidiary pathways as the shikimic acid pathway. In the course of studying, the medicinal effect of herbals is oriented towards the secondary plant metabolites. Secondary plant metabolites played an important role in alleviating several aliments in the traditional medicine and folk uses. In modern medicine, they provided lead compounds for the production of medications for treating various diseases from migraine up to cancer. Secondary plant metabolites are classified according to their chemical structures into various classes. In this chapter, we will be presenting various classes of secondary plant metabolites, their distribution in different plant families and their important medicinal uses.",book:{id:"6302",slug:"herbal-medicine",title:"Herbal Medicine",fullTitle:"Herbal Medicine"},signatures:"Rehab A. Hussein and Amira A. El-Anssary",authors:[{id:"212117",title:"Dr.",name:"Rehab",middleName:null,surname:"Hussein",slug:"rehab-hussein",fullName:"Rehab Hussein"},{id:"221140",title:"Dr.",name:"Amira",middleName:null,surname:"El-Anssary",slug:"amira-el-anssary",fullName:"Amira El-Anssary"}]},{id:"64851",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.80348",title:"Herbal Medicines in African Traditional Medicine",slug:"herbal-medicines-in-african-traditional-medicine",totalDownloads:14525,totalCrossrefCites:33,totalDimensionsCites:58,abstract:"African traditional medicine is a form of holistic health care system organized into three levels of specialty, namely divination, spiritualism, and herbalism. The traditional healer provides health care services based on culture, religious background, knowledge, attitudes, and beliefs that are prevalent in his community. Illness is regarded as having both natural and supernatural causes and thus must be treated by both physical and spiritual means, using divination, incantations, animal sacrifice, exorcism, and herbs. Herbal medicine is the cornerstone of traditional medicine but may include minerals and animal parts. The adjustment is ok, but may be replaced with –‘ Herbal medicine was once termed primitive by western medicine but through scientific investigations there is a better understanding of its therapeutic activities such that many pharmaceuticals have been modeled on phytochemicals derived from it. Major obstacles to the use of African medicinal plants are their poor quality control and safety. Traditional medical practices are still shrouded with much secrecy, with few reports or documentations of adverse reactions. However, the future of African traditional medicine is bright if viewed in the context of service provision, increase of health care coverage, economic potential, and poverty reduction. Formal recognition and integration of traditional medicine into conventional medicine will hold much promise for the future.",book:{id:"6302",slug:"herbal-medicine",title:"Herbal Medicine",fullTitle:"Herbal Medicine"},signatures:"Ezekwesili-Ofili Josephine Ozioma and Okaka Antoinette Nwamaka\nChinwe",authors:[{id:"191264",title:"Prof.",name:"Josephine",middleName:"Ozioma",surname:"Ozioma Ezekwesili-Ofili",slug:"josephine-ozioma-ezekwesili-ofili",fullName:"Josephine Ozioma Ezekwesili-Ofili"},{id:"211585",title:"Prof.",name:"Antoinette",middleName:null,surname:"Okaka",slug:"antoinette-okaka",fullName:"Antoinette Okaka"}]},{id:"54028",doi:"10.5772/67291",title:"Chemical Composition and Biological Activities of Mentha Species",slug:"chemical-composition-and-biological-activities-of-mentha-species",totalDownloads:7520,totalCrossrefCites:13,totalDimensionsCites:50,abstract:"The genus Mentha L. (Lamiaceae) is distributed all over the world and can be found in many environments. Mentha species, one of the world’s oldest and most popular herbs, are widely used in cooking, in cosmetics, and as alternative or complementary therapy, mainly for the treatment of gastrointestinal disorders like flatulence, indigestion, nausea, vomiting, anorexia, and ulcerative colitis. Furthermore, it is well documented that the essential oil and extracts of Mentha species possess antimicrobial, fungicidal, antiviral, insecticidal, and antioxidant properties. The economic importance of mints is also evident; mint oil and its constituents and derivatives are used as flavoring agents throughout the world in food, pharmaceutical, herbal, perfumery, and flavoring industry. To provide a scientific basis for their traditional uses, several studies have been conducted to determine the chemical composition of mints and assess their biological activities. This chapter describes the therapeutic effects and uses of Mentha species and their constituents, particularly essential oils and phenolic compounds; some additional biological activities will also be considered.",book:{id:"5612",slug:"aromatic-and-medicinal-plants-back-to-nature",title:"Aromatic and Medicinal Plants",fullTitle:"Aromatic and Medicinal Plants - Back to Nature"},signatures:"Fatiha Brahmi, Madani Khodir, Chibane Mohamed and Duez Pierre",authors:[{id:"193281",title:"Dr.",name:"Fatiha",middleName:null,surname:"Brahmi",slug:"fatiha-brahmi",fullName:"Fatiha Brahmi"},{id:"199693",title:"Prof.",name:"Khodir",middleName:null,surname:"Madani",slug:"khodir-madani",fullName:"Khodir Madani"},{id:"199694",title:"Prof.",name:"Pierre",middleName:null,surname:"Duez",slug:"pierre-duez",fullName:"Pierre Duez"},{id:"203738",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohamed",middleName:null,surname:"Chibane",slug:"mohamed-chibane",fullName:"Mohamed Chibane"}]},{id:"58270",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72437",title:"Toxicity and Safety Implications of Herbal Medicines Used in Africa",slug:"toxicity-and-safety-implications-of-herbal-medicines-used-in-africa",totalDownloads:3447,totalCrossrefCites:16,totalDimensionsCites:40,abstract:"The use of herbal medicines has seen a great upsurge globally. In developing countries, many patronize them largely due to cultural acceptability, availability and cost. In developed countries, they are used because they are natural and therefore assumed to be safer than allopathic medicines. In recent times, however, there has been a growing concern about their safety. This has created a situation of ambivalence in discussions regarding their use. Some medicinal plants are intrinsically toxic by virtue of their constituents and can cause adverse reactions if inappropriately used. Other factors such as herb-drug interactions, lack of adherence to good manufacturing practice (GMP), poor regulatory measures and adulteration may also lead to adverse events in their use. Many in vivo tests on aqueous extracts largely support the safety of herbal medicines, whereas most in vitro tests on isolated single cells mostly with extracts other than aqueous ones show contrary results and thus continue the debate on herbal medicine safety. It is expected that toxicity studies concerning herbal medicine should reflect their traditional use to allow for rational discussions regarding their safety for their beneficial use. While various attempts continue to establish the safety of various herbal medicines in man, their cautious and responsible use is required.",book:{id:"6302",slug:"herbal-medicine",title:"Herbal Medicine",fullTitle:"Herbal Medicine"},signatures:"Merlin L.K. Mensah, Gustav Komlaga, Arnold D. Forkuo, Caleb\nFirempong, Alexander K. Anning and Rita A. Dickson",authors:[{id:"190435",title:"Dr.",name:"Caleb",middleName:null,surname:"Firempong",slug:"caleb-firempong",fullName:"Caleb Firempong"},{id:"212111",title:"Dr.",name:"Gustav",middleName:null,surname:"Komlaga",slug:"gustav-komlaga",fullName:"Gustav Komlaga"},{id:"217045",title:"Dr.",name:"Arnold Forkuo",middleName:null,surname:"Donkor",slug:"arnold-forkuo-donkor",fullName:"Arnold Forkuo Donkor"},{id:"217049",title:"Prof.",name:"Merlin Lincoln Kwao",middleName:null,surname:"Mensah",slug:"merlin-lincoln-kwao-mensah",fullName:"Merlin Lincoln Kwao Mensah"},{id:"217488",title:"Dr.",name:"Alexander K.",middleName:null,surname:"Anning",slug:"alexander-k.-anning",fullName:"Alexander K. Anning"},{id:"223959",title:"Prof.",name:"Akosua Rita",middleName:null,surname:"Dickson",slug:"akosua-rita-dickson",fullName:"Akosua Rita Dickson"}]},{id:"26489",doi:"10.5772/28224",title:"Alternative and Traditional Medicines Systems in Pakistan: History, Regulation, Trends, Usefulness, Challenges, Prospects and Limitations",slug:"alternative-and-traditional-medicines-systems-in-pakistan-history-regulation-trends-usefulness-chall",totalDownloads:9226,totalCrossrefCites:9,totalDimensionsCites:21,abstract:null,book:{id:"542",slug:"a-compendium-of-essays-on-alternative-therapy",title:"A Compendium of Essays on Alternative Therapy",fullTitle:"A Compendium of Essays on Alternative Therapy"},signatures:"Shahzad Hussain, Farnaz Malik, Nadeem Khalid, Muhammad Abdul Qayyum and Humayun Riaz",authors:[{id:"73162",title:"Dr.",name:"Shahzad",middleName:null,surname:"Hussain",slug:"shahzad-hussain",fullName:"Shahzad Hussain"},{id:"82266",title:"Dr.",name:"Farnaz",middleName:null,surname:"Malik",slug:"farnaz-malik",fullName:"Farnaz Malik"},{id:"124185",title:"Dr.",name:"Humayun",middleName:null,surname:"Riaz",slug:"humayun-riaz",fullName:"Humayun Riaz"},{id:"124186",title:"Mr.",name:"Muhammad Abdul",middleName:null,surname:"Qayyum",slug:"muhammad-abdul-qayyum",fullName:"Muhammad Abdul Qayyum"},{id:"125340",title:"Mr.",name:"Nadeem",middleName:null,surname:"Khalid",slug:"nadeem-khalid",fullName:"Nadeem Khalid"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"64851",title:"Herbal Medicines in African Traditional Medicine",slug:"herbal-medicines-in-african-traditional-medicine",totalDownloads:14512,totalCrossrefCites:33,totalDimensionsCites:58,abstract:"African traditional medicine is a form of holistic health care system organized into three levels of specialty, namely divination, spiritualism, and herbalism. The traditional healer provides health care services based on culture, religious background, knowledge, attitudes, and beliefs that are prevalent in his community. Illness is regarded as having both natural and supernatural causes and thus must be treated by both physical and spiritual means, using divination, incantations, animal sacrifice, exorcism, and herbs. Herbal medicine is the cornerstone of traditional medicine but may include minerals and animal parts. The adjustment is ok, but may be replaced with –‘ Herbal medicine was once termed primitive by western medicine but through scientific investigations there is a better understanding of its therapeutic activities such that many pharmaceuticals have been modeled on phytochemicals derived from it. Major obstacles to the use of African medicinal plants are their poor quality control and safety. Traditional medical practices are still shrouded with much secrecy, with few reports or documentations of adverse reactions. However, the future of African traditional medicine is bright if viewed in the context of service provision, increase of health care coverage, economic potential, and poverty reduction. Formal recognition and integration of traditional medicine into conventional medicine will hold much promise for the future.",book:{id:"6302",slug:"herbal-medicine",title:"Herbal Medicine",fullTitle:"Herbal Medicine"},signatures:"Ezekwesili-Ofili Josephine Ozioma and Okaka Antoinette Nwamaka\nChinwe",authors:[{id:"191264",title:"Prof.",name:"Josephine",middleName:"Ozioma",surname:"Ozioma Ezekwesili-Ofili",slug:"josephine-ozioma-ezekwesili-ofili",fullName:"Josephine Ozioma Ezekwesili-Ofili"},{id:"211585",title:"Prof.",name:"Antoinette",middleName:null,surname:"Okaka",slug:"antoinette-okaka",fullName:"Antoinette Okaka"}]},{id:"61866",title:"Plants Secondary Metabolites: The Key Drivers of the Pharmacological Actions of Medicinal Plants",slug:"plants-secondary-metabolites-the-key-drivers-of-the-pharmacological-actions-of-medicinal-plants",totalDownloads:9021,totalCrossrefCites:60,totalDimensionsCites:153,abstract:"The vast and versatile pharmacological effects of medicinal plants are basically dependent on their phytochemical constituents. Generally, the phytochemical constituents of plants fall into two categories based on their role in basic metabolic processes, namely primary and secondary metabolites. Primary plant metabolites are involved in basic life functions; therefore, they are more or less similar in all living cells. On the other hand, secondary plant metabolites are products of subsidiary pathways as the shikimic acid pathway. In the course of studying, the medicinal effect of herbals is oriented towards the secondary plant metabolites. Secondary plant metabolites played an important role in alleviating several aliments in the traditional medicine and folk uses. In modern medicine, they provided lead compounds for the production of medications for treating various diseases from migraine up to cancer. Secondary plant metabolites are classified according to their chemical structures into various classes. In this chapter, we will be presenting various classes of secondary plant metabolites, their distribution in different plant families and their important medicinal uses.",book:{id:"6302",slug:"herbal-medicine",title:"Herbal Medicine",fullTitle:"Herbal Medicine"},signatures:"Rehab A. Hussein and Amira A. El-Anssary",authors:[{id:"212117",title:"Dr.",name:"Rehab",middleName:null,surname:"Hussein",slug:"rehab-hussein",fullName:"Rehab Hussein"},{id:"221140",title:"Dr.",name:"Amira",middleName:null,surname:"El-Anssary",slug:"amira-el-anssary",fullName:"Amira El-Anssary"}]},{id:"77433",title:"Extraction of Bioactive Compounds from Medicinal Plants and Herbs",slug:"extraction-of-bioactive-compounds-from-medicinal-plants-and-herbs",totalDownloads:1428,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:8,abstract:"Human beings have relied on herbs and medicinal plants as sources of food and remedy from time immemorial. Bioactive compounds from plants are currently the subject of much research interest, but their extraction as part of phytochemical and/or biological investigations present specific challenges. Herbalists or scientists have developed many protocols of extraction of bioactive ingredients to ensure the effectiveness and the efficacy of crude drugs that were used to get relief from sickness. With the advent of new leads from plants such as morphine, quinine, taxol, artemisinin, and alkaloids from Voacanga species, a lot of attention is paid to the mode of extraction of active phytochemicals to limit the cost linked to the synthesis and isolation. Thus, the extraction of active compounds from plants needs appropriate extraction methods and techniques that provide bioactive ingredients-rich extracts and fractions. The extraction procedures, therefore, play a critical role in the yield, the nature of phytochemical content, etc. This chapter aims to present, describe, and compare extraction procedures of bioactive compounds from herbs and medicinal plants.",book:{id:"10356",slug:"natural-medicinal-plants",title:"Natural Medicinal Plants",fullTitle:"Natural Medicinal Plants"},signatures:"Fongang Fotsing Yannick Stéphane, Bankeu Kezetas Jean Jules, Gaber El-Saber Batiha, Iftikhar Ali and Lenta Ndjakou Bruno",authors:[{id:"224515",title:"Dr.",name:"Fongang Fotsing",middleName:null,surname:"Yannick Stéphane",slug:"fongang-fotsing-yannick-stephane",fullName:"Fongang Fotsing Yannick Stéphane"},{id:"227816",title:"Dr.",name:"Bankeu Kezetas",middleName:null,surname:"Jean Jules",slug:"bankeu-kezetas-jean-jules",fullName:"Bankeu Kezetas Jean Jules"},{id:"227817",title:"Prof.",name:"Lenta Ndjakou",middleName:null,surname:"Bruno",slug:"lenta-ndjakou-bruno",fullName:"Lenta Ndjakou Bruno"},{id:"349790",title:"Prof.",name:"Gaber",middleName:null,surname:"El-Saber Batiha",slug:"gaber-el-saber-batiha",fullName:"Gaber El-Saber Batiha"},{id:"357350",title:"Dr.",name:"Iftikhar",middleName:null,surname:"Ali",slug:"iftikhar-ali",fullName:"Iftikhar Ali"}]},{id:"26491",title:"Homeopathy: Treatment of Cancer with the Banerji Protocols",slug:"homeopathy-treatment-of-cancer-with-the-banerji-protocols",totalDownloads:54241,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:null,book:{id:"542",slug:"a-compendium-of-essays-on-alternative-therapy",title:"A Compendium of Essays on Alternative Therapy",fullTitle:"A Compendium of Essays on Alternative Therapy"},signatures:"Prasanta Banerji and Pratip Banerji",authors:[{id:"79939",title:"Dr",name:"Prasanta",middleName:null,surname:"Banerji",slug:"prasanta-banerji",fullName:"Prasanta Banerji"},{id:"79943",title:"Dr.",name:"Pratip",middleName:null,surname:"Banerji",slug:"pratip-banerji",fullName:"Pratip Banerji"}]},{id:"54028",title:"Chemical Composition and Biological Activities of Mentha Species",slug:"chemical-composition-and-biological-activities-of-mentha-species",totalDownloads:7515,totalCrossrefCites:13,totalDimensionsCites:50,abstract:"The genus Mentha L. (Lamiaceae) is distributed all over the world and can be found in many environments. Mentha species, one of the world’s oldest and most popular herbs, are widely used in cooking, in cosmetics, and as alternative or complementary therapy, mainly for the treatment of gastrointestinal disorders like flatulence, indigestion, nausea, vomiting, anorexia, and ulcerative colitis. Furthermore, it is well documented that the essential oil and extracts of Mentha species possess antimicrobial, fungicidal, antiviral, insecticidal, and antioxidant properties. The economic importance of mints is also evident; mint oil and its constituents and derivatives are used as flavoring agents throughout the world in food, pharmaceutical, herbal, perfumery, and flavoring industry. To provide a scientific basis for their traditional uses, several studies have been conducted to determine the chemical composition of mints and assess their biological activities. 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Dr. Koprowski has authored more than a hundred research papers with dozens in impact factor (IF) journals and has authored or co-authored six books. Additionally, he is the author of several national and international patents in the field of biomedical devices and imaging. Since 2011, he has been a reviewer of grants and projects (including EU projects) in biomedical engineering.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Silesia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:3,paginationItems:[{id:"7",title:"Bioinformatics and Medical Informatics",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/7.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"351533",title:"Dr.",name:"Slawomir",middleName:null,surname:"Wilczynski",slug:"slawomir-wilczynski",fullName:"Slawomir Wilczynski",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000035U1loQAC/Profile_Picture_1630074514792",biography:"Professor Sławomir Wilczyński, Head of the Chair of Department of Basic Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Medical University of Silesia in Katowice, Poland. 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He completed a one-year Post-Doctoral Fellowship awarded by the DFAIT (Foreign Affairs and International Trade Canada) at the Institute of Biomedical Engineering of the University of New Brunswick (Canada) in 2010. Currently, he is Professor in the Faculty of Electrical Engineering (UFU). He has authored and co-authored more than 200 peer-reviewed publications in Biomedical Engineering. He has been a researcher of The National Council for Scientific and Technological Development (CNPq-Brazil) since 2009. He has served as an ad-hoc consultant for CNPq, CAPES (Coordination for the Improvement of Higher Education Personnel), FINEP (Brazilian Innovation Agency), and other funding bodies on several occasions. He was the Secretary of the Brazilian Society of Biomedical Engineering (SBEB) from 2015 to 2016, President of SBEB (2017-2018) and Vice-President of SBEB (2019-2020). He was the head of the undergraduate program in Biomedical Engineering of the Federal University of Uberlândia (2015 - June/2019) and the head of the Centre for Innovation and Technology Assessment in Health (NIATS/UFU) since 2010. He is the head of the Postgraduate Program in Biomedical Engineering (UFU, July/2019 - to date). He was the secretary of the Parkinson's Disease Association of Uberlândia (2018-2019). Dr. Andrade's primary area of research is focused towards getting information from the neuromuscular system to understand its strategies of organization, adaptation and controlling in the context of motor neuron diseases. 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Dr. Villarreal is the editor in chief and founder of the Revista de Ciencias Tecnológicas (RECIT) (https://recit.uabc.mx/) and is a member of several editorial and reviewer boards for numerous international journals. He has published more than thirty international papers and reviewed more than ninety-two manuscripts. 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For 20 years, he has studied the analysis and processing of biomedical images, emphasizing the full automation of measurement for a large inter-individual variability of patients. Dr. Koprowski has authored more than a hundred research papers with dozens in impact factor (IF) journals and has authored or co-authored six books. Additionally, he is the author of several national and international patents in the field of biomedical devices and imaging. 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His fields of interest are anterior segment disease, keratoconus, glaucoma, corneal dystrophies, and cataracts. His research topics include\nintraocular lens power calculation, eye modification induced by refractive surgery, glaucoma progression, and validation of new diagnostic devices in ophthalmology. \nHe has published more than 100 papers in international and Italian scientific journals, more than 60 in journals with impact factors, and chapters in international and Italian books. 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Scientific interests: computer analysis and processing of images, biomedical images, databases and programming languages. He is an author and co-author of scientific publications covering analysis and processing of biomedical images and development of database systems.",institutionString:"University of Silesia",institution:{name:"University of Silesia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"6843",title:"Biomechanics",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6843.jpg",slug:"biomechanics",publishedDate:"January 30th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Hadi Mohammadi",hash:"85132976010be1d7f3dbd88662b785e5",volumeInSeries:4,fullTitle:"Biomechanics",editors:[{id:"212432",title:"Prof.",name:"Hadi",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammadi",slug:"hadi-mohammadi",fullName:"Hadi Mohammadi",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/212432/images/system/212432.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Hadi Mohammadi is a biomedical engineer with hands-on experience in the design and development of many engineering structures and medical devices through various projects that he has been involved in over the past twenty years. Dr. Mohammadi received his BSc. and MSc. degrees in Mechanical Engineering from Sharif University of Technology, Tehran, Iran, and his PhD. degree in Biomedical Engineering (biomaterials) from the University of Western Ontario. He was a postdoctoral trainee for almost four years at University of Calgary and Harvard Medical School. He is an industry innovator having created the technology to produce lifelike synthetic platforms that can be used for the simulation of almost all cardiovascular reconstructive surgeries. He’s been heavily involved in the design and development of cardiovascular devices and technology for the past 10 years. He is currently an Assistant Professor with the University of British Colombia, Canada.",institutionString:"University of British Columbia",institution:{name:"University of British Columbia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Canada"}}}]}]},openForSubmissionBooks:{paginationCount:2,paginationItems:[{id:"11474",title:"Quality of Life Interventions - Magnitude of Effect and Transferability",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11474.jpg",hash:"5a6bcdaf5ee144d043bcdab893ff9e1c",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,submissionDeadline:"July 7th 2022",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editors:[{id:"245319",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sage",surname:"Arbor",slug:"sage-arbor",fullName:"Sage Arbor"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{id:"11473",title:"Social Inequality - Structure and Social Processes",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11473.jpg",hash:"cefab077e403fd1695fb2946e7914942",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,submissionDeadline:"July 13th 2022",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editors:[{id:"313341",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Yaroslava",surname:"Robles-Bykbaev",slug:"yaroslava-robles-bykbaev",fullName:"Yaroslava Robles-Bykbaev"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null}]},onlineFirstChapters:{paginationCount:20,paginationItems:[{id:"82526",title:"Deep Multiagent Reinforcement Learning Methods Addressing the Scalability Challenge",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105627",signatures:"Theocharis Kravaris and George A. 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The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. 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He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). He was also awarded 'Outstanding Clinician in General Medicine” by Venus International Foundation for his extensive research expertise and services, perform over and above the standard expected in the advancement of healthcare, patient safety and quality of care.",institutionString:"Interfaith Medical Center",institution:{name:"Interfaith Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"93517",title:"Dr.",name:"Clement",middleName:"Adebajo",surname:"Meseko",slug:"clement-meseko",fullName:"Clement Meseko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/93517/images/system/93517.jpg",biography:"Dr. Clement Meseko obtained DVM and PhD degree in Veterinary Medicine and Virology respectively. He has worked for over 20 years in both private and public sectors including the academia, contributing to knowledge and control of infectious disease. Through the application of epidemiological skill, classical and molecular virological skills, he investigates viruses of economic and public health importance for the mitigation of the negative impact on people, animal and the environment in the context of Onehealth. \r\nDr. Meseko’s field experience on animal and zoonotic diseases and pathogen dynamics at the human-animal interface over the years shaped his carrier in research and scientific inquiries. He has been part of the investigation of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza incursions in sub Saharan Africa and monitors swine Influenza (Pandemic influenza Virus) agro-ecology and potential for interspecies transmission. He has authored and reviewed a number of journal articles and book chapters.",institutionString:"National Veterinary Research Institute",institution:{name:"National Veterinary Research Institute",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"94928",title:"Dr.",name:"Takuo",middleName:null,surname:"Mizukami",slug:"takuo-mizukami",fullName:"Takuo Mizukami",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94928/images/6402_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Institute of Infectious Diseases",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"233433",title:"Dr.",name:"Yulia",middleName:null,surname:"Desheva",slug:"yulia-desheva",fullName:"Yulia Desheva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/233433/images/system/233433.png",biography:"Dr. Yulia Desheva is a leading researcher at the Institute of Experimental Medicine, St. Petersburg, Russia. She is a professor in the Stomatology Faculty, St. Petersburg State University. She has expertise in the development and evaluation of a wide range of live mucosal vaccines against influenza and bacterial complications. Her research interests include immunity against influenza and COVID-19 and the development of immunization schemes for high-risk individuals.",institutionString:'Federal State Budgetary Scientific Institution "Institute of Experimental Medicine"',institution:null},{id:"238958",title:"Mr.",name:"Atamjit",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"atamjit-singh",fullName:"Atamjit Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/238958/images/6575_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"252058",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"Sulca",slug:"juan-sulca",fullName:"Juan Sulca",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252058/images/12834_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"191392",title:"Dr.",name:"Marimuthu",middleName:null,surname:"Govindarajan",slug:"marimuthu-govindarajan",fullName:"Marimuthu Govindarajan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/191392/images/5828_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. M. Govindarajan completed his BSc degree in Zoology at Government Arts College (Autonomous), Kumbakonam, and MSc, MPhil, and PhD degrees at Annamalai University, Annamalai Nagar, Tamil Nadu, India. He is serving as an assistant professor at the Department of Zoology, Annamalai University. His research interests include isolation, identification, and characterization of biologically active molecules from plants and microbes. He has identified more than 20 pure compounds with high mosquitocidal activity and also conducted high-quality research on photochemistry and nanosynthesis. He has published more than 150 studies in journals with impact factor and 2 books in Lambert Academic Publishing, Germany. He serves as an editorial board member in various national and international scientific journals.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"274660",title:"Dr.",name:"Damodar",middleName:null,surname:"Paudel",slug:"damodar-paudel",fullName:"Damodar Paudel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/274660/images/8176_n.jpg",biography:"I am DrDamodar Paudel,currently working as consultant Physician in Nepal police Hospital.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"241562",title:"Dr.",name:"Melvin",middleName:null,surname:"Sanicas",slug:"melvin-sanicas",fullName:"Melvin Sanicas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241562/images/6699_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"117248",title:"Dr.",name:"Andrew",middleName:null,surname:"Macnab",slug:"andrew-macnab",fullName:"Andrew Macnab",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of British Columbia",country:{name:"Canada"}}},{id:"322007",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria Elizbeth",middleName:null,surname:"Alvarez-Sánchez",slug:"maria-elizbeth-alvarez-sanchez",fullName:"Maria Elizbeth Alvarez-Sánchez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma de la Ciudad de México",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"337443",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"A. 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\r\n\tIn general, the harsher the environmental conditions in an ecosystem, the lower the biodiversity. Changes in the environment caused by human activity accelerate the impoverishment of biodiversity.
\r\n
\r\n\tBiodiversity refers to “the variability of living organisms from any source, including terrestrial, marine and other aquatic ecosystems and the ecological complexes of which they are part; it includes diversity within each species, between species, and that of ecosystems”.
\r\n
\r\n\tBiodiversity provides food security and constitutes a gene pool for biotechnology, especially in the field of agriculture and medicine, and promotes the development of ecotourism.
\r\n
\r\n\tCurrently, biologists admit that we are witnessing the first phases of the seventh mass extinction caused by human intervention. It is estimated that the current rate of extinction is between a hundred and a thousand times faster than it was when man first appeared. The disappearance of species is caused not only by an accelerated rate of extinction, but also by a decrease in the rate of emergence of new species as human activities degrade the natural environment. The conservation of biological diversity is "a common concern of humanity" and an integral part of the development process. Its objectives are “the conservation of biological diversity, the sustainable use of its components, and the fair and equitable sharing of the benefits resulting from the use of genetic resources”.
\r\n
\r\n\tThe following are the main causes of biodiversity loss:
\r\n
\r\n\t• The destruction of natural habitats to expand urban and agricultural areas and to obtain timber, minerals and other natural resources.
\r\n
\r\n\t• The introduction of alien species into a habitat, whether intentionally or unintentionally which has an impact on the fauna and flora of the area, and as a result, they are reduced or become extinct.
\r\n
\r\n\t• Pollution from industrial and agricultural products, which devastate the fauna and flora, especially those in fresh water.
\r\n
\r\n\t• Global warming, which is seen as a threat to biological diversity, and will become increasingly important in the future.
",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/40.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!0,hasPublishedBooks:!1,annualVolume:11968,editor:{id:"209149",title:"Prof.",name:"Salustiano",middleName:null,surname:"Mato",slug:"salustiano-mato",fullName:"Salustiano Mato",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRLREQA4/Profile_Picture_2022-03-31T10:23:50.png",biography:"Salustiano Mato de la Iglesia (Santiago de Compostela, 1960) is a doctor in biology from the University of Santiago and a Professor of zoology at the Department of Ecology and Animal Biology at the University of Vigo. He has developed his research activity in the fields of fauna and soil ecology, and in the treatment of organic waste, having been the founder and principal investigator of the Environmental Biotechnology Group of the University of Vigo.\r\nHis research activity in the field of Environmental Biotechnology has been focused on the development of novel organic waste treatment systems through composting. The result of this line of work are three invention patents and various scientific and technical publications in prestigious international journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Vigo",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:{id:"60498",title:"Prof.",name:"Josefina",middleName:null,surname:"Garrido",slug:"josefina-garrido",fullName:"Josefina Garrido",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRj1VQAS/Profile_Picture_2022-03-31T10:06:51.jpg",biography:"Josefina Garrido González (Paradela de Abeleda, Ourense 1959), is a doctor in biology from the University of León and a Professor of Zoology at the Department of Ecology and Animal Biology at the University of Vigo. She has focused her research activity on the taxonomy, fauna and ecology of aquatic beetles, in addition to other lines of research such as the conservation of biodiversity in freshwater ecosystems; conservation of protected areas (Red Natura 2000) and assessment of the effectiveness of wetlands as priority areas for the conservation of aquatic invertebrates; studies of water quality in freshwater ecosystems through biological indicators and physicochemical parameters; surveillance and research of vector arthropods and invasive alien species.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Vigo",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorThree:{id:"464288",title:"Dr.",name:"Francisco",middleName:null,surname:"Ramil",slug:"francisco-ramil",fullName:"Francisco Ramil",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003RI7lHQAT/Profile_Picture_2022-03-31T10:15:35.png",biography:"Fran Ramil Blanco (Porto de Espasante, A Coruña, 1960), is a doctor in biology from the University of Santiago de Compostela and a Professor of Zoology at the Department of Ecology and Animal Biology at the University of Vigo. His research activity is linked to the taxonomy, fauna and ecology of marine benthic invertebrates and especially the Cnidarian group. Since 2004, he has been part of the EcoAfrik project, aimed at the study, protection and conservation of biodiversity and benthic habitats in West Africa. He also participated in the study of vulnerable marine ecosystems associated with seamounts in the South Atlantic and is involved in training young African researchers in the field of marine research.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Vigo",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},series:{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",issn:"2754-6713"},editorialBoard:[{id:"220987",title:"Dr.",name:"António",middleName:"Onofre",surname:"Soares",slug:"antonio-soares",fullName:"António Soares",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRNtzQAG/Profile_Picture_1644499672340",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of the Azores",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"276688",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammed Latif",middleName:null,surname:"Khan",slug:"mohammed-latif-khan",fullName:"Mohammed Latif Khan",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRcCZQA0/Profile_Picture_2022-07-15T15:04:17.jpg",institutionString:"Dr. Harisngh Gour Central University, India",institution:null}]},onlineFirstChapters:{paginationCount:1,paginationItems:[{id:"82526",title:"Deep Multiagent Reinforcement Learning Methods Addressing the Scalability Challenge",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105627",signatures:"Theocharis Kravaris and George A. 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