Creep model equations and their primary literature sources.
\\n\\n
More than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\\n\\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\\n\\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\\n\\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\\n\\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\\n\\n\\n\\n
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"IntechOpen Maintains",originalUrl:"/media/original/113"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
Simba Information has released its Open Access Book Publishing 2020 - 2024 report and has again identified IntechOpen as the world’s largest Open Access book publisher by title count.
\n\nSimba Information is a leading provider for market intelligence and forecasts in the media and publishing industry. The report, published every year, provides an overview and financial outlook for the global professional e-book publishing market.
\n\nIntechOpen, De Gruyter, and Frontiers are the largest OA book publishers by title count, with IntechOpen coming in at first place with 5,101 OA books published, a good 1,782 titles ahead of the nearest competitor.
\n\nSince the first Open Access Book Publishing report published in 2016, IntechOpen has held the top stop each year.
\n\n\n\nMore than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\n\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\n\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\n\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\n\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\n\n\n\n
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"6326",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Novel Aspects of Nanofibers",title:"Novel Aspects of Nanofibers",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"This book is a supplement of the previous book Nanofibers: Production, Properties and Functional Applications (published by InTech in 2011). It reports on novel methods of fabricating nanofibers, nanofiber yarns, and collagen nanofibers; functionalities of photochromic nanofibers, bead-on-string nanofibers, and bio-regeneration nanofibers; as well as piezoelectric nanoparticle-reinforced nanofibers. I deeply appreciate the authors' great contributions to nanofiber discipline.",isbn:"978-1-78923-075-8",printIsbn:"978-1-78923-074-1",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83881-404-5",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.69649",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"novel-aspects-of-nanofibers",numberOfPages:160,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:1,isInBkci:!1,hash:"6585d128fb06c600192cc380a8eec4cb",bookSignature:"Tong Lin",publishedDate:"April 26th 2018",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6326.jpg",numberOfDownloads:9213,numberOfWosCitations:23,numberOfCrossrefCitations:14,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:1,numberOfDimensionsCitations:34,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:1,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:71,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"July 10th 2017",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"July 31st 2017",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"September 18th 2017",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"October 11th 2017",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"February 28th 2018",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"49937",title:"Dr.",name:"Tong",middleName:null,surname:"Lin",slug:"tong-lin",fullName:"Tong Lin",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49937/images/54_n.png",biography:"Professor Tong Lin received his PhD degree in Physical Chemistry from the Chinese Academy of Sciences in 1998. He has been serving as a professor and personal chair at Deakin University since 2013. Professor Lin is an active researcher in the field of electrospinning, functional fibers, and polymers. He contributes to the development of needleless electrospinning for large-scale nanofiber production and novel applications of nanofibrous materials. He has published over 225 peer-referred articles in high-impact-factor journals, 14 books, 16 book chapters, and 70 other papers.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"4",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"2",institution:{name:"Deakin University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Australia"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"208",title:"Material Science",slug:"nanotechnology-and-nanomaterials-material-science"}],chapters:[{id:"59124",title:"Mechanical Force for Fabricating Nanofiber",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73521",slug:"mechanical-force-for-fabricating-nanofiber",totalDownloads:979,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:6,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Nanofiber has attracted increasing attention owing to its wide applications such as filtration, drug delivery, wound dressing, separator, etc. A lot of fabrication methods are developed in the last few decades, electrospinning method is the most frequently utilized method for producing nanofiber. However, electrospinning features a use of electrical field to produce nanofiber, which have obviously high production cost and a big burden on the environment. And several limitations are observed such as orientation of fibers and limited options of polymer and solvents, so many researchers try to develop more facile and more effective method for making nanofiber. In this chapter, recent developed fabrication methods, handspinning, direct writing, touch and brush spinning, are discussed and the advantages of each methods are described, respectively. They utilize a simple mechanical force instead of electrical force, which delivers great benefits to producing nanofiber such as orientation of fibers along with the force direction, reduction of every cost, availability of various options for selecting polymer and solvents, and a facility to design a pattern with high precision. Those innovative and novel methods will enable us to make functional nanofibers more effective than traditional methods; consequently, they will broaden the application of nanofibers.",signatures:"Hoik Lee, Davood Kharaghani and Ick Soo Kim",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/59124",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/59124",authors:[{id:"214444",title:"Prof.",name:"Ick Soo",surname:"Kim",slug:"ick-soo-kim",fullName:"Ick Soo Kim"},{id:"216083",title:"Dr.",name:"Hoik",surname:"Lee",slug:"hoik-lee",fullName:"Hoik Lee"},{id:"216084",title:"MSc.",name:"Davood",surname:"Kharaghani",slug:"davood-kharaghani",fullName:"Davood Kharaghani"}],corrections:null},{id:"59974",title:"Nanofiber Filaments Fabricated by a Liquid-Bath Electrospinning Method",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.75197",slug:"nanofiber-filaments-fabricated-by-a-liquid-bath-electrospinning-method",totalDownloads:1133,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"In order to investigate the forming process of multi-needle liquid-bath electrospun nanofiber filaments, nanofiber filaments were prepared using the multi-needle liquid-bath electrospinning method in this chapter. The effect of auxiliary electrode on jet state, and bundling and drawing processes of nanofibers were studied. The results show that the forming process of nanofiber filaments was mainly influenced by electrostatic field interference, bundling process, and drawing process, including two processes: forming process of as-spun nanofiber filaments and post-drawing process. In the forming process of as-spun nanofiber filaments, when the auxiliary electrode was added, the electrostatic field interference between needles reduced, inducing the decrease of jet offsets and the enhancement of Taylor cone and jet stability, and nanofibers with skin-core structure were finally deposited on the bath in good condition. The bundling process of nanofiber filament was divided into three processes: wet process, wet-dry process, and dry process; the structure transformation of nanofiber filaments mainly occurred in the wet process. In the post-drawing process, the crystallinity and alignment degree of nanofibers increased, and nanofiber diameter decreased. The initial modulus and breaking stress of filaments increased while the breaking strain of filaments decreased. Finally, nanofiber filaments were produced with better structures and properties.",signatures:"Long Tian, Tao Yan, Jie Li and Zhijuan Pan",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/59974",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/59974",authors:[{id:"217399",title:"Prof.",name:"Zhijuan",surname:"Pan",slug:"zhijuan-pan",fullName:"Zhijuan Pan"},{id:"219516",title:"Dr.",name:"Long",surname:"Tian",slug:"long-tian",fullName:"Long Tian"},{id:"219517",title:"BSc.",name:"Tao",surname:"Yan",slug:"tao-yan",fullName:"Tao Yan"},{id:"219519",title:"Dr.",name:"Jie",surname:"Li",slug:"jie-li",fullName:"Jie Li"}],corrections:null},{id:"59128",title:"Electrospinning of Collagen and Its Derivatives for Biomedical Applications",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73581",slug:"electrospinning-of-collagen-and-its-derivatives-for-biomedical-applications",totalDownloads:2018,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:8,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Collagen, gelatin and their derived polypeptides can act as multifunctional natural polymers with excellent physicochemical properties for biomedical applications. The use of electrospinning technology can convert collagen materials into nanofibrous materials that exhibit porous micro-nanostructures with good mechanical properties and excellent biocompatibility profiles. In this chapter, a systematic review of collagen electrospinning is presented and related applications are introduced including tissue engineering (e.g., artificial skin, artificial vasculature, cartilage repair, etc.), drug delivery, hemostatic dressings, periodontal restoration, biofilms, and wound dressings will now be discussed.",signatures:"Wei Peng Lu and Yanchuan Guo",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/59128",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/59128",authors:[{id:"216875",title:"Prof.",name:"Yanchuan",surname:"Guo",slug:"yanchuan-guo",fullName:"Yanchuan Guo"},{id:"222094",title:"Dr.",name:"Weipeng",surname:"Lu",slug:"weipeng-lu",fullName:"Weipeng Lu"}],corrections:null},{id:"59674",title:"Photochromic Nanofibers",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.74663",slug:"photochromic-nanofibers",totalDownloads:1061,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Photochromic compounds exhibit a reversible color change via UV irradiation. The use of photochromic nanofibers in the field of functional materials such as optical sensors, processing media, optical data storage devices, and functional components for smart surfaces can be attractive. This review chapter gives an overview of the production of photochromic nanofibers by electrospinning.",signatures:"Emriye Perrin Akçakoca Kumbasar, Seniha Morsunbul and Simge\nAlır",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/59674",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/59674",authors:[{id:"10485",title:"Dr.",name:"Emriye",surname:"Akcakoca Kumbasar",slug:"emriye-akcakoca-kumbasar",fullName:"Emriye Akcakoca Kumbasar"},{id:"217290",title:"MSc.",name:"Seniha",surname:"Morsunbul",slug:"seniha-morsunbul",fullName:"Seniha Morsunbul"},{id:"217291",title:"BSc.",name:"Simge",surname:"Alır",slug:"simge-alir",fullName:"Simge Alır"}],corrections:null},{id:"59669",title:"Electrospun Bead-on-String Fibers: Useless or Something of Value?",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.74661",slug:"electrospun-bead-on-string-fibers-useless-or-something-of-value-",totalDownloads:1252,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:8,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Bead-on-string fibers, which were initially thought to be a “by-product” of the electrospun fibers, are widely observed in electrospinning, which is a convenient method to produce nanofibers. The electrospun bead-on-string fibers were thought to have detrimental properties and were generally discarded, but recently they have gained attention since they are considered to have promising applications in many fields, including tissue engineering, drug delivery, and air/water filtration, among others. This chapter is a comprehensive and systematic literature review that summarizes the processes, methods, vital influencing factors, formation conditions, morphology changes, and applications of the electrospun bead-on-string fibers. It helps to understand the current research status and to further understand the mechanism by which these bead-on-string fibers are formed.",signatures:"Huijing Zhao and Huanjie Chi",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/59669",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/59669",authors:[{id:"216913",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Huijing",surname:"Zhao",slug:"huijing-zhao",fullName:"Huijing Zhao"},{id:"216940",title:"MSc.",name:"Huanjie",surname:"Chi",slug:"huanjie-chi",fullName:"Huanjie Chi"}],corrections:null},{id:"59853",title:"Electrospinning of Functional Nanofibers for Regenerative Medicine: From Bench to Commercial Scale",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73677",slug:"electrospinning-of-functional-nanofibers-for-regenerative-medicine-from-bench-to-commercial-scale",totalDownloads:1512,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:7,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Nanofibers are an important material for regenerative medicine as they have a commensurate morphology to that of the macromolecular matrix that supports and houses the growth of cells and tissues within the body. Electrospinning is widely used to fabricate non-woven structures on the nanoscale and the versatility of the technique has widened the application of nanofibers. This is due to ease of extending nanofiber functionality through the incorporation of active materials both during and after electrospinning. Recent developments in electrospinning devices, such as needle-free systems, have reinvigorated research as these advances now allow fabrication of nanofibers at commercial scales. The process of electrospinning has a number of operating parameters that are adjusted in optimisation to achieve ideal fibres and a multitude of instrument configurations can be adopted to achieve the required manufacture. The innate properties of nanofibers, such as high surface area to volume ratio, have many proven benefits for regenerative medicine and the chapter examines these before discussing how functionality can be further improved. Numerous materials can be incorporated in the manufacture of electrospun mats, however when choosing materials for regenerative medicine, biocompatibility and biodegradability are the dominant functionalities that are required.",signatures:"Chris J. Mortimer, Jonathan P. Widdowson and Chris J. Wright",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/59853",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/59853",authors:[{id:"180027",title:"Dr.",name:"Chris",surname:"Wright",slug:"chris-wright",fullName:"Chris Wright"},{id:"225425",title:"Mr.",name:"Chris",surname:"Mortimer",slug:"chris-mortimer",fullName:"Chris Mortimer"},{id:"225426",title:"Mr.",name:"Jonathan",surname:"Widdowson",slug:"jonathan-widdowson",fullName:"Jonathan Widdowson"}],corrections:null},{id:"59584",title:"Effect of Barium Titanate Reinforcement on Tensile Strength and Dielectric Response of Electrospun Polyvinylidene Fluoride Fibers",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.74662",slug:"effect-of-barium-titanate-reinforcement-on-tensile-strength-and-dielectric-response-of-electrospun-p",totalDownloads:1258,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:4,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"In this study, we used electrospinning to obtain polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) fibers reinforced with barium titanate (BaTiO3) and investigated the influence of BaTiO3 concentration on the tensile strength and dielectric behavior of PVDF fibers. X-ray diffraction (XRD) study and infrared spectroscopy revealed that PVDF fibers filled with BaTiO3 possessed higher fraction of ferroelectric β-crystals compared to neat PVDF fibers. Further, incorporation of 40 wt% BaTiO3 within the fibers increased their stiffness and strength by 95 and 38%, respectively. These improvements in tensile properties of BaTiO3 filled PVDF fibers arose from the reinforcement effect of BaTiO3. Also, the dielectric response of the BaTiO3/PVDF fibers was characterized. The effective dielectric constants of PVDF fibers reinforced with BaTiO3 were found to increase consistently with BaTiO3 content at all frequencies. The dielectric loss of the fibers did not show any significant change for all concentrations of BaTiO3 within the fibers.",signatures:"Avinash Baji and Yiu-Wing Mai",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/59584",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/59584",authors:[{id:"219294",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Avinash",surname:"Baji",slug:"avinash-baji",fullName:"Avinash Baji"},{id:"230729",title:"Prof.",name:"Yiu-Wing",surname:"Mai",slug:"yiu-wing-mai",fullName:"Yiu-Wing Mai"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"397",title:"Nanofibers",subtitle:"Production, Properties and Functional Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"934fe33b73b2ecba961c67d5a90021ec",slug:"nanofibers-production-properties-and-functional-applications",bookSignature:"Tong Lin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/397.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"49937",title:"Dr.",name:"Tong",surname:"Lin",slug:"tong-lin",fullName:"Tong Lin"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6408",title:"Novel Nanomaterials",subtitle:"Synthesis and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f3585d338d78e4d31c200d9991b03692",slug:"novel-nanomaterials-synthesis-and-applications",bookSignature:"George Z. 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\r\n\tGeostatistical modeling too often falls into the trap of "button pushing" on commercial software without an understanding of the basic underlying principles. After more than 30 years of teaching earth modeling classes, it is clear that the base knowledge of geostatistical principles has grown amongst earth modelers, yet, there remains a great deal more to learn. Many modelers today have become lost in software products and rely too heavily on embedded defaults, or suggestions from colleagues.
\r\n\r\n\tThis book is intended to be a companion to modelers interested in knowing the practical meaning of what is behind the buttons they are pushing. It is not a textbook on the mathematics of geostatistics or the evolution of its theory. It is a guide to help make practical decisions and simply explain the “why” and “how” of what works and what does not. Further, it will attempt to answer questions where difficult choices and resulting implications are not clear; e.g. What variogram model should I use? What simulation algorithm is best? How many realizations should I run? After a review of basic principles and common pitfalls, case study examples will be drawn from both conventional and unconventional reservoirs. The case studies will be followed by a constructive review from a panel of experts geostatisticians articulating both strong and weak points of the models, and offer suggestions. Finally, the impact of high-performance computing, machine learning, data analytics (big and small), Python, and R will be discussed with a view towards successful earth modeling for the next decade.
",isbn:"978-1-83968-502-6",printIsbn:"978-1-83968-501-9",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83968-503-3",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,isSalesforceBook:!1,hash:"423cb3896195a618c4acb493ce4fd23d",bookSignature:"Prof. Jeffrey M. Yarus, Dr. Marko Maucec, Dr. Timothy C. Coburn and Associate Prof. Michael Pyrcz",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9985.jpg",keywords:"Variograms Kriging, Conditional Simulation, Nugget Effect, Nested Models, Clastic Hydrocarbon Reservoirs, Carbonate Hydrocarbon Reservoirs, Geothermal, Solar, Soil, Nitrates, Machine Learning, Advanced Data Analytics",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"August 25th 2021",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"November 1st 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"December 31st 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"March 21st 2023",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"May 20th 2023",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"5 months",secondStepPassed:!1,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:2,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Professor at the Case Western Reserve University with more than 42 years of industry experience, one of the creators of the Earth Modeling software in 2006 that is a core module on the DecisionSpace Geoscience Suite even today.",coeditorOneBiosketch:"Dr. Maucec is a Petroleum Engineering Consultant with Reservoir Description and Simulation Department at Saudi Aramco in Saudi Arabia. He has authored more than 80 peer-reviewed and professional conference papers, co-authored a reference book on Intelligent Digital Oil & gas Fields, and is an inventor on 30 US patents and patent applications. Formerly, he has worked internationally with Halliburton/Landmark, Shell International E&P, and in nuclear research and industry.",coeditorTwoBiosketch:"Dr. Tim Coburn is a Professor of Systems Engineering at Colorado State University (CSU) and Research Associate in the CSU Energy Institute. He also held professional externships at Sandia National Laboratory, the US Geological Survey, and the Kansas Geological Survey, and is active in numerous geoscience, engineering, and energy-related professional organizations.",coeditorThreeBiosketch:"Michael is an Associate Professor in the Department of Petroleum and Geosystems Engineering at the University of Texas at Austin. Michael has written over 60 peer-reviewed publications, a Python package, and a textbook on spatial data analytics with Oxford University Press. He is currently an associate editor with Computers and Geosciences, and on the editorial board member for Mathematical Geosciences. Previously, he conducted a great impact and led the research with Chevron’s technology company.",coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"78011",title:"Prof.",name:"Jeffrey M.",middleName:null,surname:"Yarus",slug:"jeffrey-m.-yarus",fullName:"Jeffrey M. Yarus",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/78011/images/system/78011.jpg",biography:"Jeffrey Yarus is a Professor at the Case Western Reserve University and a retired Halliburton Technology Fellow for Landmark with over 42 years of industry experience. Jeffrey’s specific areas of thought leadership include Earth Modeling and Geostatistics, and he is the technical lead and a Senior Manager of DecisionSpace Earth and Reservoir Modeling software.\r\nEarly in his career, Dr. Yarus enjoyed the opportunity to work with a number of Major Oil Companies and Technology Service Companies including Amoco, Marathon, Beicip-Franlab, and Roxar. In 2001, Yarus and a business partner were responsible for funding their own research and consulting company – Quantitative Geosciences (QGSI) – specializing in applied Earth Modeling. The QGSI staff along with Dr. Yarus joined Landmark Graphics Corporation in 2006 to build an Earth Modeling software product; today a core module on the DecisionSpace Geoscience Suite.\r\nDr. Yarus earned his Ph.D. and master’s degree in Geology from the University of South Carolina and his bachelor’s degree in Geology from the College of Wooster. Yarus served as a Chair of a number of AAPG’s committees including the Computer Applications, Publications, and Reservoir Development Committees. He has authored many papers and abstracts on reservoir modeling and Geostatistics including AAPG volumes on Stochastic Modeling and Geostatistics, the chapter on Reservoir Characterization and Geostatistics and the recent SPE Petroleum Engineering Handbook, Volume 6.\r\nAn acknowledged lecturer and author in the industry, Dr. Yarus earned the distinction of 12-year Adjunct Faculty Member for the University of Houston Department Of Petroleum Engineering. He is one of the senior editors of the Stochastic Modeling volumes in AAPG’s Computer Applications Series. In 2016, Dr. Yarus received the prestigious, George Matheron Lecturer Award from the International Association of Mathematical Geosciences.",institutionString:"Case Western Reserve University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Case Western Reserve University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}],coeditorOne:{id:"429659",title:"Dr.",name:"Marko",middleName:null,surname:"Maucec",slug:"marko-maucec",fullName:"Marko Maucec",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/429659/images/system/429659.jpg",biography:"Marko Maucec is a Petroleum Engineering Consultant with Reservoir Description and Simulation Department at Saudi Aramco, Dhahran, Saudi Arabia. His main responsibilities cover the development and implementation of methods for uncertainty quantification, dynamic model inversion with assisted history matching, production optimization, and data- and physics-driven predictive modeling into reservoir simulation practices. Formerly, Maucec has worked internationally with Halliburton/Landmark, Shell International E&P, and in nuclear research and industry. He has authored more than 80 peer-reviewed and professional conference papers, co-authored a reference book on Intelligent Digital Oil & gas Fields, and is an inventor on 30 US patents and patent applications. Maucec holds Ph.D. and MSc degrees in Nuclear Engineering and BSc degree in Electrical Engineering. 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Previously, Coburn served as Founding Director, School of Energy Economics, Policy and Commerce at The University of Tulsa, and Founding Director, School of Information Technology and Computing, Abilene Christian University. Prior to his academic career, Coburn worked in various administrative and technical positions in the data science arena at Marathon Oil Company, Phillips Petroleum Company, and the National Renewable Energy Laboratory. He also held professional externships at Sandia National Laboratory, the US Geological Survey, and the Kansas Geological Survey, and is active in numerous geoscience, engineering, and energy-related professional organizations. He currently serves on the lectures committee of the International Association of Mathematical Geoscientists (IAMG), the education advisory committee of the Professional Petroleum Data Management (PPDM) Association, and the energy statistics committee of the American Statistical Association (ASA). Coburn is the author of numerous technical and professional publications, and, with Jeffrey Yarus, is co-editor of two prior texts on spatial data analysis: Geographic Information Systems in Petroleum Exploration and Development and Stochastic Modeling and Geostatistics, Vol. 2.",institutionString:"Colorado State University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Colorado State University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},coeditorThree:{id:"437107",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Michael",middleName:null,surname:"Pyrcz",slug:"michael-pyrcz",fullName:"Michael Pyrcz",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003FVU4kQAH/Profile_Picture_1640088624476",biography:"Michael is an Associate Professor in the Department of Petroleum and Geosystems Engineering, Cockrell School of Engineering and the Department of Geological Sciences and Bureau of Economic Geology, Jackson School of Geosciences at The University of Texas at Austin where he teaches and conducts research on subsurface data analytics, geostatistics and machine learning. In addition, Michael accepted the role of Principal Investigator in the College of Natural Sciences, The University of Texas at Austin, of the freshman research initiative in energy data analytics and teaches widely in the energy industry. Before joining The University of Texas at Austin, Michael conducted and led research on reservoir data analytics and modeling for 13 years with Chevron’s technology company. He was an enterprise-wide subject matter expert, advising and mentoring on workflow development and best practice. Michael has written over 60 peer-reviewed publications, a Python package and a textbook on spatial data analytics with Oxford University Press. He is currently an associate editor with Computers and Geosciences, and on the editorial board member for Mathematical Geosciences. For more information see www.michaelpyrcz.com, and his course lectures at https://www.youtube.com/GeostatsGuyLectures, along with the demonstration numerical workflows at https://github.com/GeostatsGuy and contributions to outreach through social media at https://twitter.com/GeostatsGuy.",institutionString:"The University of Texas at Austin",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"The University of Texas at Austin",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"10",title:"Earth and Planetary Sciences",slug:"earth-and-planetary-sciences"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"429341",firstName:"Paula",lastName:"Gavran",middleName:null,title:"Ms.",imageUrl:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",email:"paula@intechopen.com",biography:null}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"5962",title:"Estuary",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"43058846a64b270e9167d478e966161a",slug:"estuary",bookSignature:"William Froneman",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5962.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"109336",title:"Prof.",name:"William",surname:"Froneman",slug:"william-froneman",fullName:"William Froneman"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophile",surname:"Theophanides",slug:"theophile-theophanides",fullName:"Theophile Theophanides"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"371",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",subtitle:"Mechanisms and Adaptations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"588466f487e307619849d72389178a74",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-mechanisms-and-adaptations",bookSignature:"Arun Shanker and B. 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As a result of the increase in the number of elderly people, their health problems have increased significantly. Parallel to the demographic change that conditioned population aging, the “epidemiological transition” appeared that modified the profile of prevalent diseases, chronic noncommunicable diseases being the core of attention. All these conditions present frequent exacerbations and relapses, making the elderly require repeatedly assessment in an emergency service. However, it is clear that the care models in the emergency services are not adapted to the geriatric patient [2].
The demand in the attention to the emergency services has been growing progressively in the last years, and this increase is more noticeable in the population of older adults. Older people have differential features, in relation to younger age groups, starting from the biological point of view with not only physiological changes related to aging but also functional, psychological, and social changes, all of which lead to a decrease or narrowing of the homeostatic responses to the different noxas, placing them in a state of greater vulnerability, which has an effect of greater comorbidity, loss of autonomy, disability, sensory alterations, cognitive deterioration, and a social-familiar problematic that can occur simultaneously, determining a special difficulty for their evaluation and treatment and, many times, altering its prognosis adversely [3].
In this way, the concept of biological aging is important, understood as the state of an individual resulting from the wear and tear associated with age plus its conditions of illness, functionality, mental well-being, and social support. This biological aging is very different among the elderly, regardless of their chronological age and condition differences in the functional capacity [4].
In a recent Spanish study, it was established that older patients had a higher priority in the care by severity, had more complementary tests taken, had a longer average stay, had a higher probability of hospital admission and of being exitus, and needed assessment by the social services. In addition, it requires more complex evaluations, more consultations with other specialists, and a higher percentage of readmissions [5]; however, they attend in a justified manner and with a significantly used pattern different from young adults. Therefore, the progressive aging of the population may seriously affect the dynamics and functioning of the hospital emergency services.
In young patients admitted to an emergency department, it has been determined that there are undoubtedly clinical factors related to the acute disease, which decisively influence the outcome. However, this is not so clear in the elderly, and the characteristics that go beyond the severity of the acute disease modify the prognosis. More specifically, these conditions refer to the functional, emotional, and cognitive states, the level of comorbidity, the degree of polypharmacy, and the social support networks. Due to their condition of high vulnerability or fragility, in the elderly patients, the health problems are explained in the multi-causality model, and the resolution of these does not derive from the attention of a single cause, but from a comprehensive identification and treatment of all related factors that affect the prognosis [6].
Hospitalization alone is already a negative factor in the outcome of elderly patients. Survival decreases by the mere fact of being reduced to a hospital bed, immobilized, both in men and women, but above all in the older groups (>80 years) [7]. Even if you take into account that the emergency services are noisy, in constant movement and lack of privacy, which can be disconcerting for the elderly and enhance their deterioration in relation to hearing, vision, attention, and understanding.
In general, the elderly patients have a longer stay in the emergency department, requiring more time for medical assessment and nursing care, and alarmingly they have a higher frequency of readmissions, generating a great assistance pressure on the professionals that attend these services [8].
The lack of knowledge of the elements that affect the prognosis of the elderly patients in the emergency services is still notorious, which results in diagnostic errors and what is more serious therapeutic errors, affecting adversely the outcome; the aim of this paper is to provide knowledge that leads to the identification of these factors and may lead to earlier and more successful intervention lines.
Recent studies have shown a progressive increase in emergency visits, which is much more noticeable in the elderly population. In fact, some studies mention that up to 25% of all emergency visits correspond to elderly patients. In general, they represent more than 15% of all consultations and almost 50% of all admissions to intensive care units. Therefore, some authors mention that “the emergency units are aging” [9].
In the United States, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) report that between 1993 and 2003, there was an increase in the absolute number of visits to the emergency department, with the group of people over 65 years of age, who had the highest frequency of visits (an increase of 26%). If this trend is maintained, it is expected that the frequency of emergency consultations in the elderly will double from 6.4 million to 11.7 million by 2013 [10]. Elderly patients are four to six times more likely to be admitted to an emergency unit than a non-elderly patient.
The organic response to different acutely unbalanced pathologies is altered in some elderly, especially in the fragile ones [11]. Among the most relevant physiological changes associated with age are mentioned:
Alteration in the homeostasis of intercellular junctions and the production of the second messengers, which causes some adrenergic receptors to be internalized, decreasing the effectiveness of catecholaminergic responses.
Presbycardia or cardiac aging conditioned by the increase in cardiac stiffness with a decreased diastole capacity and greater dependence on atrial contraction, which results in less tolerance to increased extravascular volume and lower tolerance to tachyarrhythmias.
The physiological changes of lung aging make it more difficult to adapt to situations that generate hypoxemia. Among them are an increase of the rib cage rigidity, decrease in the forces of elastic retraction of the lung parenchyma, and decline in the strength of the respiratory muscles. All this generates changes in pulmonary dynamics with an increase in residual volume, decrease in tidal volume, and decrease in FEV1 associated with age. The effectiveness of protective airway reflexes is also altered. The alveoli flatten and the gaseous exchange surface decreases. In general, all these changes produce a decrease in the PO2, for which one must be cautious when interpreting the arterial gases in an older adult and apply a formula to correct them by age.
The most important changes that affect the aged kidney are a reduction in size, decreased renal blood flow, and a drop in the glomerular filtration rate. Therefore, older adults have difficulty managing water loads, either in hypervolemia or in dehydration states, as well as regulating plasma osmolarity.
Deregulation of the immune system, low-grade inflammation, and alteration of acquired immunity make the responses to infections less effective.
There is desensitization of the vascular mechanoreceptors with alteration of the vasoconstrictive responses upon hypotension states.
Endocrine changes with pancreatic aging, islets decrease, and insulin resistance increases, causing an increase in fasting plasma glucose. There is also an alteration in the production of counter-regulatory hormones.
The disease presentation in the elderly makes it difficult to approach it, due to situations such as:
Multipathology
Complex medication regime
Atypical presentation
Frequent Iatrogenic
Multiple consultations
Although laboratory tests are an invaluable aid, in the elderly they cannot get altered in the presence of disease or have higher rates of false positives, related to physiological changes [12]. The following are worthy of mention:
In the elderly the erythrocyte sedimentation rate is not a reliable indicator of the presence of inflammation. C-reactive protein (CRP) is more sensitive, with the disadvantage that it can take up to 12–24 h to rise after a bacterial aggression and maintain its levels even days after healing. Recently, it has been published in a systematic review that PCR accuracy decreases as the patient’s age increases. Procalcitonin maintains a good diagnostic capacity in this patient profile, and a value of >0.5 ng/ml is significantly associated with greater mortality at 30 days [13].
Serum creatinine does not reflect renal function, if one considers that it is a protein of muscular origin and the sarcopenia associated to age.
It is common to find in the elderly of the community (20%) and institutionalized patients (50%) the presence of asymptomatic bacteriuria, which should not be misinterpreted as a urinary infection and even less should be given an antibiotic treatment.
The readings of hemoglobin and hematocrit in the elderly are the same as for the adult population. The myth of the so-called anemia of aging is false.
The same applies for the serum sodium values, being these from 135 to 145 mosm/Lt and being an error to believe that the elderly tolerate hyponatremia better; in fact, studies have shown an increase in cognitive alterations, falls, and acute coronary mortality, with values less than 135 mosm/Lt.
When using drugs in the elderly, it is necessary to know some changes that can alter the responses to medications [14]:
In general terms, there is no alteration in the absorption of oral medications, and this remains one of the choices.
There is a decrease in liver size, hepatic blood flow, and liver microsomal enzymes, which alter the metabolism of some drugs.
The free fraction of drugs that travel bound to albumin or alpha-2-microglobulin, which are variably decreased with age, increase and so does toxicity.
With aging, there is a greater proportion of body fat and less water and lean mass, which changes the bioavailability of drugs.
Greater toxicity of some molecules associated with decreased renal function.
Specific pharmacodynamic alterations for some molecules due to changes in the quantity or sensitivity of receptors at the cellular level.
Next, emphasis will be placed on the most frequent pathologies in an emergency department and their differential characteristics in the elderly.
In the past, it was controversial to define the readings for normal blood pressure in the elderly and when to administer pharmacological treatment. Today, it is clear that the normal readings correspond to those of the adult population and that the benefit of administering pharmacological management is evident, even at very advanced ages. However, the latest studies (SPRINT, PURE) have put confusion regarding the goals. In the emergency department, it is important to differentiate between emergency and hypertensive emergencies, due to the implications in defining the speed and route of treatment.
Rule out pseudo-hypertension at very advanced ages.
During the measurements, the patient must be in a controlled environment and in an appropriate position, with an adequate technique and the minimum possible stress.
Always evaluate the underlying comorbidities that alter the prognosis of the current decompensation.
In a hypertensive emergency, the blood pressure readings should not be lowered abruptly, as it generates more morbidity and mortality.
As an adequate physiological goal in elderly hypertensive patients, a pulse pressure between 50 and 60 mm Hg is recommended.
In hypertensive emergencies use medication orally. It is a mistake to use the sublingual route because of its unpredictable effects and because the drugs were not designed for this route. In emergencies, use the intravenous way, and transfer the patient to an intermediate or intensive care room.
In the elderly, no drugs with adrenergic blocking effect such as clonidine or prazosin are the first choice, because of their excessive hypotensive effects and, in the case of clonidine, its sedative and anticholinergic effects.
It is estimated that 60–65% of all heart attacks occur in people older than 65 years and 80% of the deaths due to this cause affect this population. They are one of the most frequent causes of emergency consultation, where more mistakes are committed, both in diagnosis and in the therapeutic decision-making.
Only 57% of those over 80 have chest pain. In octogenarians, the main presenting symptom is dyspnea. Syncope, dizziness, delirium, and falls are also frequent. This leads to frequent delays in diagnosis and treatment.
In relation to age, there are more incidences of tachyarrhythmias.
An elderly person is more likely to show a non-ST-segment elevation myocardial infarct (STEMI) than with an ST-segment elevation myocardial infarct (STEMI), given the phenomenon of ischemic preconditioning.
NT-proBNP levels are associated with short-term mortality in the elderly population treated in emergency services.
Long-term mortality and morbidity are increased compared to younger patients, either with medical or intervention management. Heart failure, bleeding, and reinfarction rates are more frequent. However, the benefit of the treatment remains.
In part, the poor results in the elderly are explained by the decrease in the use of treatments because of toxicity fear. The protocols must be applied strictly and not to discriminate the age. Consider the general state of health, life expectancy, functional status, and cognitive status.
The intervention strategy has shown greater benefits in the elderly compared with thrombolysis.
Always provide the patient with cardiac and functional rehabilitation.
Although it is not clear whether advanced age is an independent risk factor for thromboembolism, elderly patients have a high incidence of risk factors for clot formation. Venous stasis, commonly caused by immobility, has been found to be the most common risk factor.
The diagnosis is notoriously difficult at all ages. In 70% of the cases in which the patient dies of a pulmonary embolism, there was no antemortem suspicion of the diagnosis.
The rule in the elderly is that the pulmonary embolism occurs in a subtle and atypical way. Acute dyspnea, pleuritic chest pain, tachypnea, tachycardia, and hemoptysis are less frequent. Syncope and hemodynamic instability increase in frequency.
D-dimer decreases its utility with advancing age because the values rarely fall below the negative predictive threshold.
As aging is related to a decrease of the oxygen partial pressure and an increase in the alveolar-arterial gradient, gasometrical changes can be difficult to be interpreted in the elderly.
Neurovascular disease is the major cause of disability and death in the elderly. The aging brain is less resistant to physiological stress: the cerebral blood flow gradually decreases with age, the collateral circulation is diminished, the cerebrovascular barrier is less efficient, the cerebral self-regulation is altered, and the neuronal oxidative metabolism decreases. All this makes an ischemic event more pronounced, and the time threshold for effective interventions lowers.
Twenty-one percent (21%) of elderly patients with cerebral ischemia have a normal physical examination.
Always look for common risk factors: atrial fibrillation, carotid atherosclerosis, myocardial infarction, valvular disease, and dyslipidemia.
The approach by an interdisciplinary group is important to improve the functional prognosis.
Thrombolysis in cerebrovascular disease has shown full benefits up to the 75 years. In older patients there is evidence of benefit, coming from clinical trials with a small number of patients or case reports. Therefore, there is no contraindication for age. The key is to choose the patient properly, based on parameters of functionality, comorbidity, and strict application of the protocols.
The use of ASA plus clopidogrel has not improved the final results, but it does increase the risk of intracranial bleeding.
Start the integral rehabilitation therapy early once the patient stabilizes.
Avoid all cost prostration or immobility.
The incidence of infectious processes in patients older than 75 years who attend the emergency services has increased significantly in the last 10 years (from 24.8% to 31.7%), as well as the severity of their clinical presentation and short-term mortality (30 days). This is explained by the summing effect of immunosenescence plus fragility [15].
The criteria of systemic response syndrome are not always present in the infected elderly and decrease its usefulness to stratify the risk in this age group.
The most accepted criterion for fever in the elderly is an increase of 1.2°C based on the basal temperature or higher than 37.2 (sensitivity 83%).
Several studies have documented the absence of fever, as traditionally defined, in the presence of serious infections. The cut point of 38.2° centigrade loses sensitivity (40%).
It is common that there is no leukocytosis in the elderly, as part of the infectious response. The cutoff point of the greatest sensitivity for infection is an absolute count of 14,000.
Tachycardia may not occur.
The respiratory rate greater than 24 is conserved as part of the inflammatory response.
In cases of bacteremia, it is more difficult to identify the source.
The only independent predictors of bacteremia in the elderly are the altered mental state (odds ratio [OR] 2.88; 95% CI 1.52–5.50), vomiting (OR 2.63; 95% CI 1.16–6.15), and the presence of bands in the leucogram greater than 6% (OR 3.50; 95% CI 1.58–5.27).
The etiology is multimicrobial in 5–17% of patients.
The presence of a Barthel index less than 60, systolic blood pressure less than 90 mm Hg, and serum lactate >4 mmol/l are significantly associated with short-term mortality.
Tendency to overdiagnosis due to high prevalence of asymptomatic bacteriuria. 52.2% of urinary tract infections are misdiagnosed.
Do not attribute a septic picture in an elderly person to a urinary infection first, until carefully ruling out other causes.
Treating asymptomatic bacteriuria does not improve mortality but increases the side effects of antibiotics and the rates of infection by resistant germs.
The presence of symptoms is less clear in the elderly with cognitive impairment or the use of probes to stay in those who prevail atypical presentations (delirium, falls, functional decline, etc.).
If in doubt, focus on the blood picture or PCR.
The incidence of community-acquired pneumonia (CAP) increases with age and is associated with high morbidity and mortality due to physiological changes associated with aging and a greater presence of chronic diseases. Pneumonia is the fifth cause of death in the United States among those over 65 years. It results in 600,000 hospitalizations and almost 60,000 deaths [16].
There is an increased risk of pneumonia due to deglutition disorder, neurological disease, functional decline, malnutrition, use of sedatives, comorbidity, chronic neuropathies, smoking, heart failure, and institutionalization.
The diagnosis is complicated by the absence of classic symptoms, there is fever in only 26% of cases when compared with young people, and 44% have cough, fever, and dyspnea due to clinical history. In institutionalized patients, alterations of the mental state are more frequent.
The CURB-65 is an index that has been validated adequately in the elderly and allows to decide the appropriate level of care to administer the treatment.
To stratify the risk and possible complications in elderly patients with pneumonia who enter the emergency department, it is useful to classify them as fragile and non-fragile.
Lack of fever, absence of hypoxia, and altered mental state are associated with therapeutic delay.
Studies have shown a decrease in mortality in the elderly, related to the rapid administration of the appropriate antibiotic treatment.
Pneumonia in institutionalized patients and pneumonia associated with health care are related with higher comorbidity, poor functional status, and higher mortality.
Patients with risk factors such as institutionalization in nursing homes, hospitalization for more than 2 days in the last 90 days, wound care in the last 30 days, high frequency of resistance to antibiotics in the community, infusion of home medications, dialysis, a member of the family with resistant germs and diseases, or immunosuppressive therapy should be covered for resistant germs (
Remember the importance of vaccination against influenza and pneumococcus to the impact on mortality and hospitalizations in the ICU, respectively.
If in the young man, the acute abdomen becomes a diagnostic challenge, in the elderly it is a real mystery. It is frequent that a nonspecific pain and a soft abdomen without many signs conceal a true abdominal catastrophe. Total mortality for an elderly man who enters with abdominal pain complaint exceeds 10% [17].
In the “surgical abdomen of the old man,” the atypical presentation of the different entities is usual.
There is difficulty in the interrogation (dementia, basic pathology, loss of senses).
Fever and leukocytosis are not constant.
The decrease of the myenteric receptors in the viscera modifies the perception of pain, making it diffuse and badly defined, with the absence of the so-called signs of peritoneal irritation, which increases the false-negative rate.
The use of NSAIDs masks peritonitis and increases the risk of peptic ulcer.
Normotensions are synonymous with hypotension in patients with abdominal infection and who are chronically hypertensive.
Prolonged presentation time, normothermia or hypothermia, and leukopenia are synonyms of severe intra-abdominal infections.
Emergency physicians frequently fail to identify and focus on psychiatric disorders, either as a primary reason for consultation or concomitant to the index disease, although they adversely and independently affect the prognosis [18].
It is essential, upon the appearance of new psychiatric symptoms in the elderly, to rule out organicity: infections, metabolic disorders, tumors of the central nervous system, reactions to drugs, etc.
Discard substance abuse.
Investigate mistreatment of the elderly.
Depression is the most frequent psychiatric disorder in the elderly, with subsyndromal depression being the most common. It must be clarified that depression is not a natural consequence of aging and must always be treated.
The most common entities within the “late-onset psychosis” (older than 60 years) are as follows in order: dementias, delirium, affective disorders, schizophrenia, and schizophreniform disorders.
Delirium: acute alteration of the state of consciousness, fluctuating, with difficulty to maintain the attention, alteration of the sleep-wake pattern, alteration of the perception. Always look for the triggering factor.
Dementia: cognitive disorder of long duration without alteration of the conscience. It contributes to 16–23% of psychotic symptoms in aging.
The elderly has the highest rate of death by suicide compared to all age groups.
Fundamental: good clinical history and functional and neurological examination.
In the agitated elderly patient, the use of mechanical restrictions produces greater complications.
The early detection of the high-risk adult patient is essential to avoid new admissions and visits in the emergency room and to improve the level of physical and cognitive function. In adults, prognostic assessment methods are based on the clinical characteristics of severity of the index event. But the older adult cannot be seen under the traditional biomedical gaze that the unifactorial analysis of patients tends to. The complexity of the disease in the elderly is preferable to approach it from a biopsychosocial approach through multidimensional analysis, which identifies how the demographic, clinical, psychological, functional, and social factors influence the acute disease in the elderly and alter its forecast [19]. At the emergency environment, we need brief, simple, and validated tools that help us detect problems in different areas. However, currently there are few prognostic indices used in clinical practice that include these variables typical of the elderly baseline condition.
Having clear prognostic variables to help the quick detection of the patient at high risk of this outcome helps to decide which patients should be considered for aggressive interventions, treatments with curative purposes, support treatments, or treatments only for palliative purposes.
Currently, there are models of structured triage in the emergency services, being the most prominent: the Australian model (Australasian Triage Scale (ATS)), the Canadian scale of triage and gravity for emergency services (Canadian Emergency Department Triage and Acuity Scale (CTAS), the Manchester Triage System (MTS), the Emergency Severity Index (ESI), and the Andorran model of triage (Model Andorra of Triage (MAT)); however, these are not suitable for use in elderly patients.
When referring to the young and adult population, there are known instruments that try to predict the short-term prognosis of critical hospitalized patients, such as the APACHE III used in the intensive care units (ICU); the SUPPORT, to establish the 6-month prognosis of hospitalized patients both inside and outside the ICU; and more recently the short version of the EORTC QLQ-30 for use in palliative care. The drawback of these evaluations is that they overestimate age a priori as an element of risk, without considering that there are also “robust” elderly or with successful aging, in which the chronological age alone does not weigh as a negative factor.
The scales “Identification of Seniors at Risk” (ISAR) and the “Triage Risk Screening Tool” (TRST) have been published for use in the elderly, which allow assessing the risk of complications at release of the service and classifying the degree of fragility [20].
The prognosis of the diseases in geriatric patients is frequently influenced by the basal health condition of the elderly, which is determined by the nutritional status, the mental state, and the functional capacity (level of independence for the activities of daily life), variables that are not contemplated in the scales of habitual use in adults. In this sense, it has been shown that the deterioration of each of these areas can be an independent factor of mortality in the elderly.
The multidimensional geriatric assessment is an evaluation carried out by an interdisciplinary team to identify the problems and establish a care plan to improve the functionality and quality of life of the geriatric patient. It offers an integral and holistic view of the elderly adult patient, in which the clinical condition is evaluated, but psychological, functional, and social evaluation is also included. In fact, having knowledge of the instruments used in daily practice in geriatric care is extremely useful. Different scales and protocols are used and duly validated. Several authors have proposed to stratify the risk of the geriatric patient in the emergency department based on a model of comprehensive geriatric assessment, adapted to this service [21].
The frail senior is the one who has his homeostatic reserves to the limit, with a high probability of suffering a deleterious outcome. The detection of this patient is fundamental in the emergency services, since in this scenario it is where there is more risk of entering the cascade of functional decline and dependence. It is interesting how the acute disease acts as a trigger, unmasking the frailty picture. Studies have shown how frail senior people in the emergency room have higher rates of hospitalization, functional deterioration, readmissions, and short-term mortality, when compared with non-frail elderly. For the screening of frail elderly people in the emergency department, the ISAR, TRST, deficit accumulation index (DAI), and comprehensive geriatric assessment are recommended in selected patients defined as high risk. Identifying frail elderly allows designing a special care plan, which has shown a decrease in the number of admissions in residence at 30 days, an increase in patient satisfaction, less functional deterioration, fewer readmissions, and without increasing costs. No impact on mortality or institutionalization has been demonstrated [22].
It is common to observe how some interventions are systematically denied to the elderly, arguing as the only reason age. This produces gross errors, since chronological age alone does not provide enough information to make the best decision. They are the multidimensional parameters that include basal functionality, comorbidities, and emotional-cognitive and social support, which together reflect biological aging and support the relevance or not of the proposed treatment [23].
The diagnostic approach and the therapeutic approach of the elderly, in the emergency department, should be framed in a deep knowledge of their physiological alterations, a careful anamnesis, and therapeutic prudence. Because of the diminished homeostatic reserve of the elderly, the time to establish adequate treatment is shorter.
I declare not having any conflict of interest in the elaboration of this paper.
When trying to simulate deformation rates during creep, one can basically follow two different approaches: (i) phenomenologically based—and or (ii) physically inspired models. In phenomenological models, the deformation (rate) is usually stated as analytical function with system parameters such as temperature and stress as input [1, 2, 3, 4]. These kinds of models are easily and quickly employed; however, the approaches carry some disadvantages as well: (1) they give little or no insight into the actual underlying physical processes governing the creep rate, and (2) the model parameters cannot be usually determined independently from the creep experiment the model is actually aiming to predict. For these reasons, we choose to focus on a physically based model instead [5], which is a reviewed, corrected, and extended version of the seminal work of Ghoniem [6]. In addition to avoiding the mentioned drawbacks of phenomenological approaches, our physical model has the advantage of including a variety of microstructural elements such as dislocations and subgrain boundaries (SGBs), and their interactions. This allows for getting a deeper understanding of the creep process and opens the opportunity of rating individual material badges by taking their as-received microstructure as starting condition for a creep simulation. Finally, we end up with an assembly of rate equations for the microstructural elements along with some side equations modeling the physical processes. In summary, the model gives us insights into the specific reasons why a material badge features good or bad creep behavior, as long as its microstructure can be considered homogeneous. The model also has the potential to rate the impact of individual microstructural phenomena.
Our model includes the microstructure by mean values of specific microstructural elements (e.g. dislocation density, grain boundary precipitates, etc.) instead of a spatially resolved features. This allows for a simpler construction of a “representative volume element,” which speeds up computation and is more easily compared to microstructural investigations.
In our work, we focus on martensitic 9–12% Cr steels. We select the material P91 to demonstrate the validity of the model due to its widespread use and industrial significance. Nevertheless, the concept can be adapted to other material groups by including their specific microstructural elements and their interactions.
Please note that all symbols used in the equations are explained in Table 6 at the end of the chapter.
The aim of our creep model is to predict the creep rate and microstructural evolution, based on the initial microstructure and the system parameters stress and temperature. A very simple, yet useful approximation of the creep rate
Frank—read sources (generation of mobile dislocations
Emission from static dislocations
Immobilization of mobile dislocations
Recovery by climb processes for mobile (d1) and static dislocations (d2)
Spontaneous annihilation of mobile (e1) and static dislocations (e2)
Subgrain boundaries produced from static dislocations
Subgrain growth minus Zener—pinning of boundary precipitates
Microstructural interactions within a subgrain. See text for individual interactions. “X” signifies annihilation of dislocations and arrows mark transformations.
These interactions (a–g) are also integrated into the rate equations for the microstructural evolution of mobile dislocations
Eq. | |
---|---|
Creep strain rate (modified Orowan equation, see text): | (1) |
Mobile dislocation density rate [5]: | |
(2) | |
Static dislocation density rate [6]: | |
(3) | |
Boundary dislocation density rate [6]: | |
(4) | |
Subgrain growth rate (h: nucleation of subgrains) [5]: | |
(5) | |
Effective subgrain growth pressure (only precipitates at boundaries) [6]: | |
(6) | |
Subgrain boundary mobility – case 1, if | |
(7) | |
Subgrain boundary mobility – case 2, if | |
(8) | |
Mean dislocation spacing within the subgrain boundary [6]: | |
(9) | |
Effective dislocation velocity (only precipitates in grain interior) [5]: | |
(10) | |
Dislocation glide velocity [9]: | |
(11) | |
Corrected applied stress [5]: | |
(12) | |
Dislocation climb velocity [6]: | |
(13) | |
Dislocation climb velocity-lattice diffusion share [5]: | |
(14) | |
Parameter for elastic interactions between dislocations/defects [6]: | |
(15) | |
Dislocation climb velocity-pipe diffusion share [5]: | |
(16) | |
Distance of core-vacancy diffusion before evaporation into lattice [10]: | |
(17) | |
Internal stress [11] | |
(18) | |
Damage parameter for cavities, see text: | |
(19) | |
Particle coarsening: | |
(20) | |
Reduction of number density of particles due to coarsening: | |
(21) |
Creep model equations and their primary literature sources.
In addition to the “rate equations” of the microstructural evolution of the material, Table 1 also assembles the framework of the underlying physical phenomena. Within this paragraph, we only give a brief overview. Detailed discussions can be found in the cited sources.
The effective subgrain growth pressure
The input parameters needed to simulate creep over a range of stresses can be divided into three groups/types:
General material data from the material group;
Microstructural data in as-received condition of the material badge of interest;
Parameters which have to be adapted to one single master-creep-curve.
Group (i) is applicable to a wider range of materials and has already been collected in [5]. Table 2 gives an overview on the findings.
Input | Value | Details | Source |
---|---|---|---|
2.866 × 10−10 m | Fe-bcc | [12] | |
0.02 | 9Cr-1Mo steel at 650°C | [11] | |
2.48 × 10−10 m | Fe-bcc | [13] | |
0.3 | 9Cr-1Mo steel at 650°C | [11] | |
5b | Edge dislocations | [11] | |
2 × 10−19 m2/s | Fe in Fe-1.5Mo at 650°C | [14] | |
4.75 × 10−19 m2/s | P91 | [5] | |
2 × 10−4 | Ferritic steels | [6] | |
61.9 GPa | 9–12% Cr steels at 650°C | [15] | |
1.38065 × 10−23 J/K | Fundamental constant | [16] | |
2.1 | P91 | [5] | |
3 | Crystals | [11] | |
1.177 × 10−29 m | Volume/atom | [5] | |
4.01 × 10−19 J | HT-9 at 550°C | [6] | |
3°=0.0524 rad | 9–12% Cr steels | [17] | |
35 | P91 at 650°C | [5] | |
0.317 | 9–12% Cr steels at 650°C | [15] | |
1.26 × 10−19 J | P91 at 650°C | [5] | |
0.034 | 9–12% Cr steels | [18] |
Input parameters for the material group. Input parameters type (i).
Group (ii) is the parameter for a specific material badge. This group accounts for the different creep behavior stemming from specific processing routines, e.g. chemical composition and heat treatment. Result from the processing routine is the as-received microstructure, which also acts as an input for our simulation. In our case, we directly measured the subgrain size
Input | Value | Note | Source |
---|---|---|---|
4.0 × 10−7 m | EBSD | [5] | |
5.9 × 1014 m−2 | EBSD | [5] | |
4.5 × 1014 m−2 | TEM | [19] | |
4.5 × 1013 m−2 | Estimate 1/10 of | [11] | |
1.49 × 10−7 m | At boundaries | [5] | |
4.17 × 10−8 m | Grain interior | [5] | |
7.55 × 10−8 m | Grain interior | [5] | |
4.43 × 10−8 m | Grain interior | [5] | |
9.52 × 1018 m−3 | At boundaries | [5] | |
1.09 × 1020 m−3 | Grain interior | [5] | |
4.04 × 1018 m−3 | Grain interior | [5] | |
8.85 × 1018 m−3 | Grain interior | [5] | |
6.90 × 10−28 s−1 | At boundaries | [5] | |
2.21·10−30 s−1 | Grain interior | [5] | |
0 s−1 | Grain interior | [5] | |
1.19 × 10−29 s−1 | Grain interior | [5] |
Microstructure-specific input data for the as-received state. Input parameters type (ii).
After these parameters have been set, only the variables
We conducted/performed an instrumented creep test at 650°C and a nominal stress of 70 MPa which led to a rupture time of 8740 h [5]. The simulated creep curve has been validated against the experimental results and the missing parameters
Parameter | Value |
---|---|
3.725 m/s | |
0.035 | |
0.07 |
Parameters found by fitting against one creep curve. Input parameters type (iii).
Since the creep model already contains the impact of stress and temperature explicitly within its network of equations, the found input parameters are stress- and temperature-independent. We can thus use the same input for other stresses to produce time-to-rupture (TTR) diagrams. To do so, we have left all input parameters unchanged as indicated in Tables 2–4 and generated creep simulations in the stress range of 50–120 MPa. The next section comprises the result of the simulated master creep curve including the calculated microstructural evolution, as well as the changes of the creep behavior with altering stresses, leading to the construction of the TTR diagram.
First simulated result is the master-creep curve at 650°C and 70 MPa, indicating the creep deformation and deformation rate. Figures 2 and 3 demonstrate the agreement between the simulated and the experimental result of the creep deformation: the simulated creep curve is very close to the experiment including primary, secondary, and tertiary creep stage, and also the final fracture of the sample. The experimental minimum of the creep strain rate is about 2.5 × 10−6 h−1 in the range between 1.000 and 3.000 h, whereas the simulated result is 3.0 × 10−6 h−1 at 900 h, suggesting good agreement as well.
Experimental and simulated master-creep curve at 650°C, 70 MPa.
Experimental and simulated creep-strain rates at 650°C, 70 MPa.
Regarding the microstructural evolution, the simulation predicts a quick recovery of the mobile dislocation density
Simulated microstructural evolution at 650°C, 70 MPa.
In summary, the simulation results of the test case of the master-creep experiment are good enough to apply the model to multiple stresses. We carried out creep simulation in the stress range of 50–120 MPa in steps of 10 MPa, with a resulting creep curve and accompanying microstructural evolution in each simulation. One side result, the rupture time
Simulated microstructural evolution at 650°C, 70 MPa.
Please note that the creep curves appear to look different from Figure 2 because the logarithmic time-scale is used in order to simultaneously show all results. Each of the creep curves feature primary, secondary, and tertiary creep regimes. Figure 6 now finally shows the constructed TTR stemming from the simulated creep data and compares them against the standard literature data from European Creep Collaborative Committee (ECCC) [23], ASME [24], and NIMS [25].
Simulated TTR diagram compared against standard literature data.
The agreement is excellent, and the simulated curve lies right between the data from the three standard literature sources for creep rupture data of P91. Once again, it is important to mention that all model input data (except for the system stress) were identical for all creep simulations. This detail is very important, because the simulation allows for a predictive extrapolation from a single-creep experiment carried out for 8.740 h to up to six times longer creep times. As it appears, the simulation also allows for extrapolating to shorter running times by a factor of about 40 in our case. We thus motivate to use and test our model for even shorter reference experiments in order to extrapolate for long running times.
It has been long established [26] and is now well accepted [27, 28] that failure during creep loading results mainly due to intergranular rupture. Cavities nucleate predominantly at grain boundaries, grow during creep exposure, and coalesce to form microcracks. In tertiary creep, these cracks are so numerous that they significantly weaken the microstructure, and the remaining available cross section is put under more stress which further promotes damage and accelerates the strain rate.
In some cases, the remaining creep life can be directly correlated with the degree of cavitation [29, 30].
It is not well established by what mechanism cavities nucleate [31]; however, the linear relationship between cavity nucleation rate, first observed by Needham et al [32], still holds true to this day [33]. Grain boundary sliding, as necessitated to maintain contact between the grains when they elongate during diffusional creep, is one proposed mechanism [34]. This sliding generates cavities at ledges that are pulled apart at the grain boundary.
We propose a model based on the physics of diffusion and fluctuational theory, known as classical nucleation theory (CNT). CNT was formulated at the beginning of the twentieth-century by the works of Volmer and Weber [35], Becker and Döring [36], Frenkel [37], and Zeldovich [38]. It has been prominent and successful in modeling the nucleation of new phases, precipitates, and similar phenomena.
Balluffi [39] was the first to explain the nucleation of holes (cavities) by vacancy supersaturation. However, Raj and Ashby [40] were the first to consider the mechanical stress as the driving force for nucleation, a theory which was further developed by Hirth and Nix [41] and Riedel [28] and forms the basis for our nucleation model.
While CNT generally speaks of nuclei, which may form new phases, we specify these as clusters of vacancies which may form cavities.
The free energy change on formation of such a cluster in the bulk encompasses the pressure-volume work done by the external stress,
Plotting this relation over the cluster radius, as shown in Figure 7, we see that the free energy reaches a maximum at a certain cluster size,
Free energy change vs. radius for a spherical cluster of vacancies.
From Eq. (22), we derive the critical radius and critical (maximum) free energy as follows:
Clusters below the critical size are naturally/always present in the microstructure due to thermal fluctuations [35, 43]. Their concentration is determined by the number of possible nucleation sites,
Some vacancies, which exist throughout the microstructure and are more prevalent at higher temperatures, may find themselves on the surface of a critical cluster and only one atomic jump away from joining it. The number of these vacancies jumping toward the critical cluster per unit time is described by the vacancy attachment rate,
The Zeldovich factor is explained by its namesake [38] and other literature [28, 44] to reduce the nucleation rate, since steady-state nucleation artificially removes supercritical clusters and because slightly supercritical clusters are still more likely to dissolve rather than grow. It is defined in Eq. (27) with
While the nucleation rate is only directly proportional to most of the physical parameters in Eq. (25), the Arrhenius term dominates. Small changes in the height of the nucleation barrier lead to large variations in the equilibrium number of critical cavities available for nucleation and therefore the final nucleation rate. Smaller critical clusters are more likely to nucleate, such as in the case for clusters formed on grain boundaries as shown in Figure 8. The dihedral angle,
Cluster formed between two grains.
Nucleation is further boosted by the quicker diffusion of vacancies along the grain boundaries and the effect of converting the multiaxial stress state to an average stress on the grain boundary [46]. Also, real defects, such as dislocations, interacting with the grain boundary supply additional vacancies which can effectively increase the driving force by several gigapascals [47]. These effects predict cavity nucleation almost exclusively at grain boundaries and do not require extreme threshold stresses for nucleation, which is an enduring criticism of classical nucleation of cavities [48].
Finally, a theory based on generalized broken bonds (GNBBs) [49] is used to calculate the free surface energy from the energy of vacancy formation and a correction is applied [50] when dealing with nanosized critical clusters.
Diffusional cavity growth is less controversial and commonly assumed to follow the rate of radial growth in Eq. (29) by Hull and Rimmer [51]. Its resemblance to the Svoboda, Fischer, Fratzl, Kozeschnik (SFFK) model [20] used in precipitate growth simulations further strengthens its prestige:
The sintering stress,
The equations for nucleation and growth are integrated into a Kampmann-Wagner framework [52] at a constant temperature and external stress state. At regularly spaced time intervals, a class of newly formed cavities with a population derived from Eq. (25) is formed, each with a radius slightly (20%) above the critical radius from Eq. (23). During the intervals, the respective radii of all classes grow according to Eq. (29). As the available nucleation sites are used, the nucleation rate diminishes. The simulation ends when all nucleation sites are consumed and there is no more uncavitated grain boundary area. The number of nucleation sites at grain boundaries is calculated [53] from average grain diameters, assuming all grains to be tetrakaidekahedral (Table 5).
Var. | Description | Unit | Source |
---|---|---|---|
Free surface energy | J m−2 | [49] | |
External stress | Pa | Experiment | |
Number of nucleation sites | — | Experiment and [53] | |
Temperature | K | Experiment | |
Driving force of defects | Pa | [47] | |
Grain boundary energy | J m−2 | [54] | |
Vacancy formation energy | J mol−1 | [55] | |
Diffusion coefficient | m2 s−1 | [56] | |
Interatomic spacing | m | [57] | |
Grain diameter | m | Experiment |
Model parameters and physical constants.
Figures 9 and 10 compare simulated results of nucleated cavities with experimental results obtained from secondary electron microscopy and density measurements. Case studies comparing our model to experimental investigations have been published [42, 58].
Comparison between simulated (red) and measured (blue) histograms of cavities in Nickel-based alloy 625 after 5500 h at 700°C and 183 MPa.
Comparison between simulated (red) and measured (blue) histograms of cavities in P23 steel after 9000 h at 600°C and 90 MPa.
We have introduced a complex physically based creep model and demonstrated its capabilities in the case of the martensitic steel P91. The model is capable of simulating the creep deformation as well as the microstructural evolution during creep. As soon as some final parameters have been set, based on a single-creep experiment, those parameters can be used for simulating the creep behavior over a wide range of stresses allowing for extrapolating the creep behavior. Current results suggest an extrapolation of the creep lifetime by a factor of at least 6 over a reference experiment. Furthermore, we have introduced a physically based model for the formation of creep pores due to vacancy diffusion, which is also showing very good agreement with experiments.
Var. | Description | Unit |
---|---|---|
Parameter for glide velocity | [m/s] | |
Size of unit cell | [m] | |
Material-specific constant | [–] | |
Dislocation interaction factor | [–] | |
Burgers vector ½ <111> for bcc | [m] | |
Parameter for density of sources | [–] | |
Weighting factor for statics in the internal stress | [–] | |
Dislocation annihilation length | [m] | |
Cavitation damage parameter | [–] | |
Lattice diffusion coefficient | [m2/s] | |
Pipe diffusion coefficient | [m2/s] | |
Creep strain | [–] | |
Transfer coefficient for defects into jogs | [–] | |
Shear modulus | [Pa] | |
Free surface energy | [J m−2] | |
Specific grain boundary energy | [J m−2] | |
Mean dislocation spacing within the subgrain wall | [m] | |
Boltzmann constant | [J/K] | |
Holt constant | [–] | |
Precipitate coarsening parameter of precipitate class i | [s−1] | |
Parameter for elastic interactions between dislocation/defects | [m] | |
Diffusion path of core-vacancy before evaporation into lattice | [m] | |
Taylor factor | [–] | |
Subgrain boundary mobility | [m/Pa s] | |
Precipitate number density of class i | [m−3] | |
Number of nucleation sites | – | |
Poisson’s ratio | [–] | |
Effective subgrain growth pressure | [Pa] | |
Activation energy for dislocation glide | [J] | |
Vacancy formation energy | [J mol−1] | |
Precipitate radius of particle class i | [m] | |
Subgrain radius | [m] | |
Boundary dislocation density | [m−2] | |
Mobile dislocation density | [m−2] | |
Static dislocation density | [m−2] | |
Total dislocation density | [m−2] | |
Applied initial stress | [Pa] | |
Corrected applied stress | [Pa] | |
Internal stress | [Pa] | |
Driving force of defects | [Pa] | |
Time | [s] | |
Rupture time | [s] | |
Temperature | [K] | |
Mean misorientation of subgrains | [rad] | |
Climb velocity | [m/s] | |
Lattice diffusion share of | [m/s] | |
Pipe diffusion share of | [m/s] | |
Effective velocity of mobile dislocations | [m/s] | |
Glide velocity | [m/s] | |
Apparent activation volume for thermally activated glide | [m3] | |
Activation energy difference between pipe and lattice diffusion | [J] | |
Atomic volume (unit cell size divided by two atoms in bcc) | [m3] | |
Fraction of statics annihilating when transforming to boundaries | [–] |
List of symbols and variables used within the creep model.
The authors gratefully acknowledge funding from Austrian Science Fund (FWF) within project “Software development on dislocation creep in alloys” (P-31374).
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