Classification of pharmaceuticals and personal care products [16].
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They have not been explicitly studied and there is limited information about their environmental effects, health implications and method of analysis. These pollutants are not new in our environments but they can stay for a longtime in the environment because of their biotransformation, formation of metabolites and by-products [2, 3].
EPs are recently recognized as re-emerging factory-made or naturally formed materials that are detrimental to human health after a long-term exposure and lacking regulatory health standard [4, 5]. They are classified as agricultural (pesticides), industrial and consumer waste products, pharmaceutical and illicit drug as well as personal care products [6, 7, 8]. More than 121 various types of unregulated chemicals and microbes are present in an untreated water and at least 25 were found in water treatment plants (WTP) [9]. Furthermore, unregulated chemicals such as nitrosamines (NAs), dioxane, nanomaterials, pharmaceuticals and personal care products (cosmetics, disinfectant, antiseptic, deodorant stick, soap, fragrances, insect repellent, sunscreen, surfactants and toothpaste) as well as perfluorinated alkyl acids (PFAA) are EPs [8, 10, 11]. For instance, N-Nitroso-dimethylamine (NDMA) an emerging contaminant produced as byproducts of chloramines in drinking water treatment plants [12]. Nanomaterials (NMs) are substances produced with a dimension in nanoscale range from 1 to 100 nanometer as to improve the chemical strength and reactivity [10]. However, some NMs introduced contaminants when used for water treatment. Polybrominated biphenyl ethers (PBDEs) PBDEs are brominated hydrocarbons used as flame retardants in the production of furniture, plastics, upholstery, electrical equipment, electronic devices and many other household products [10]. Perfluorooctane sulfonate (PFOS) and perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) fluorinated organic compounds with many industrial applications; such as surfactants in fluoropolymers and as grease, soil and water resistant in fluorinated polymer [13, 14].
Emerging pollutants are classified and categorized as follows [15, 16, 17]:
Pharmaceuticals (illicit and prescribed drugs).
Personal care products (cosmetic, surfactants, disinfectants, domestic biocides, food additives).
Industrial chemicals (food additives, pesticides, polychlorinated biphenyl, flame retardant, antimicrobial substances)
Disinfection by products (from water treatment plant: Nitrosamine, halonitromethanes, haloacetonitriles, trihalomethanes, halo acetic acids).
Algal toxins (toxic released from some algae: Cyanotoxins, microcystin)
Biocides and their metabolites (plants and agricultural preventive agents [pesticides])
Bioterrorism and disruption devices (Biological and Chemical weapons).
The personal care products and pharmaceuticals as ECs contain active substances in illicit, prescribed and non-prescribed drugs for human and animal consumption. Active ingredients are also found in disinfectants, biocides, preservatives and personal hygiene and beautification products [18]. PPCPs are classified (Table 1) base on the consumer product and their uses [19].
Personal care products | Pharmaceuticals |
---|---|
Fragrances, cosmetics, repellents, food supplements and their metabolites, and transformation products personal hygiene products, sunscreen agents, domestic insect, | Drugs such as cocaine and amphetamines, antiseptics, hormones, illicit analgesics, antibiotics, lipid regulators, steroids, anti-inflammatory drugs, diuretics, non-steroid stimulant drugs, antimicrobials, beta blockers, |
Classification of pharmaceuticals and personal care products [16].
More than 1036 EC and secondary metabolites as well as biotransformation products are identified on NORMAN List in Table 2 (NORMAN [20]). The most common classes/categories of ECs include; industrial chemicals, disinfection by-products, pesticides, sweeteners endocrine disrupting compounds, nanoparticles, sunscreens, UV filters, pharmaceuticals and personal care products among others [21, 22, 23].
Category I: Personal care products compound | |
---|---|
ATII (traseolide) | Boisvelone/Iso-E super |
Bayrepel | Butyl methoxydibenzoylmethane |
Benzaldehyde, (phenylmethylene) | Cineole |
hydrazone (Eusolex) | Damascone |
Benzophenone | Decamethylcyclopentasiloxane (D5) |
AHDI (phantolide) | Boisvelone/Iso-E super |
alpha-Terpineol | Decamethyltetrasiloxane (MD2M) |
2,4-Dihydroxybenzophenone | Dihydromethyljasmonate |
4-Methylbenzylidene camphor | Dodecamethylcyclohexasiloxane(D6) |
4-Oxoisophorone | |
Acetylcedrene | Dodecamethylpentasiloxane(MD3M) |
ADBI (celestolide) | Drometrizole |
Ethylhexyl methoxycinnamate | Drometrizole trisiloxane (INCI) |
Galaxolide | Methylsalicylate |
g-Methylionone | Musk ambrette |
Hexamethyldisiloxane (HM or HMDS) | Musk ketone |
Hexylcinnamaldehyde | Musk xylene |
Homosalate | Octamethylcyclotetrasiloxane (D4) |
Isobornylacetate | Octamethyltrisiloxane (MDM) |
Isobutyl paraben | Octocrylene |
Methylparaben | Oxybenzone |
Methyldihydrojasmonate (methyl 3-oxo-2- pentylcyclopentaneacetate) | Carvone |
Methyl-iso-propylcyclohexenone | Propyl paraben |
p-t-Bucinal (Lilial) | Tonalide |
Category II: Personal care products/biocides compounds | |
Triclosan | |
N,N-Diethyltoluamide | |
D-Limonene | |
Category III: Personal care products/food additive compounds | |
2,6-Di-tert-butylphenol | Triethylcitrate |
Butylated hydroxyanisole | Butylated hydroxytoluene |
2-Ethylthioacetic acid ethylester | Dipropyltrisulfide |
2-Methylthioacetic acid ethylester | Ethylene brassylate |
3-Methylthiopropionic acid | Habanolide |
Category I: Pharmaceuticals compounds | |
1-Hydroxy ibuprofen | Cyclophosphamide |
2-Hydroxy ibuprofen | Desmethylnaproxen (metabolite of naproxene) |
17-alpha-Estradiol | Danofloxacin |
17-alpha-Ethinylestradiol | Dantrolene |
17-beta-Estradiol | Dapsone |
1,1,1-Trichloro-2,2-dihydroxyethane (chloral hydrate) | Daunorubicin |
Acebutolol | Diethylstilbestrol |
Acecarbromal | Difloxacin |
Aceclofenac | Diphenhydramine |
Acemetacin | Domperidone |
Acetaminophen (Paracetamol) | Doxepine |
Acetazolamide | Doxorubicin |
Acetylsalicylic acid (Aspirin) | Doxycycline (anhydrous) |
Acyclovir | Doxycycline (monohydrate) |
Albuterol | Dexamethasone |
Allobarbital | Diatrizoate |
Alclofenac | Diazepam |
Albuterol sulfate | Diclofenac |
Alprazolam | Dicloxacillin |
Amitriptyline | Enoxacin |
Ampicillin | Epirubicin |
Amoxicillin | Enrofloxacin |
Amobarbital | Escitalopram |
Anthracene-1,4-dione | Erythromycin |
Apramycin | Esomeprazole |
Aprobarbital | Estriol |
Atenolol | Estrone |
Azithromycin | Estrone sulfate |
Bezafibrate | Ethosuximide |
Baquiloprim | Etofibrate |
Betamethasone | Fenofibric acid (metabolite of fenofibrate) |
Beta-sitosterol | Fenfluramine |
Betaxolol | Fenofibrate |
Baclofen | Famotidine |
Bisoprolol | Fenoprofen |
Bromazepam | Flumequine |
Butalbital | Fenoterol |
Carbamazepine | Flucloxacillin |
Carazolol | Fenoprofen calcium salt dihydrate |
Caffeine | Fluorouracil |
Cefacetrile | Fluoxetine |
Cefapirin | Fluvoxamine |
Cefalonium | Furosemide |
Cefalexin | Gemfibrozil |
Cefazoline | Gentamicin |
Cefoperazone | Glibenclamide (glyburide) |
Ciprofloxacin | Hexobarbital |
Clofibric acid (metabolite of clofibrate) | Hydrocodone |
Clarithromycin | Hydrochlorothiazide |
Citalopram | Chlortetracycline |
Clotrimazole | Chlorobutanol |
Clenbuterol | Chloramphenicol |
Crotamiton | Ibuprofen |
Cloxacillin | Cholesterol |
Codeine | Ifosfamide |
Category II: Pharmaceutical Compounds | |
Iopamidol | Penicillin G |
Iminostilbene | Penicillin V |
Indomethacin | Pentoxifylline |
Iohexol | Pentobarbital |
Iomeprol | Paroxetine |
Imapramine | Phenazone |
Iopromide | Phenylbutazone |
Ivermectin | Phenobarbital |
Josamycin | Phenytoin |
Kanamycin sulfate | Pindolol |
Lansoprazole | Prednisolone |
Lamotrigine | Pravastatin |
Ketoprofen | Pipamperon |
Levetiracetam | Primidone |
Lidocaine | Propranolol |
Lincomycin | Salbutamol |
Lorazepam | Ranitidine |
Loratadine | Roxithromycin |
Lithium carbonate | Propyphenazone |
Lovastatin | Sarafloxacin |
Marbofloxacin | Sotalol |
Meprobamate | Secobarbital sodium |
Meclofenamic acid | Sertraline |
Medazepam | Streptomycin |
Metformin | Secobarbital |
Mebeverine | Spectinomycin |
Mestranol | Spiramycin |
Mefenamic acid | Simvastatin |
Minocycline | Sulfamerazine |
Methylphenobarbital | Sulfadimethoxin |
Metoprolol | Sulfadoxin |
Mevastatin | Sulfadiazine |
Methicillin | Sulfamethazine |
Nandrolone | Sulfamethoxazole |
Nafcillin | Sulfapyridine |
Nadolol | Tetracycline |
Naproxen | Temazepam |
N-Methylphenacetine | Terbutaline |
Neomycin B | Taloxa |
Norfloxacin | Tolfenamic acid |
Nordiazepam | Tilmicosin |
Novobiocin | Timolol |
Ofloxacin | Tiamulin |
Oxacillin | Tramadol |
Omeprazole | Trimethoprim |
Oleandomycin | Tylosin |
Oxazepam | Verapamil |
Oxytetracycline | Valnemulin |
Oxprenolol | Zolpidem |
Series of anthropogenic activities such as agricultural, domestic and industrial activities leads to the discharged of the pollutants into our environments (Figure 1). Water and sediments serve as a sink to these contaminants [25, 26]. Constant consumption of drugs due to less attention given to traditional medicine for the treatment aliments and frequent use of personal care products as vogue has led to the release of different by-products at low concentrations into our environments [27]. The concentration of these pollutants are based on the production processes of some products (drugs) applied in various countries. For example, the concentration of bisphenol A in European water and North American were 43 and 12 ppb correspondingly [28, 29]. Their presence in water has affected the water physicochemical parameter and required urgent attention to drinking issues. Essentially however, many wastewater treatment plant (WWTP) are not considered or designed for the removal of emerging contaminants as shown Figure 1. As a result of their hydrophobic nature PPCPs and other EC metabolites as well as associated particular mater settled below water surface when discharged in water. Treated and untreated urban water as well as WWTP (Figure 1) are the main sources and path route of EC.
Potential sources of PPCPs/EDCs in water cycle modified [24].
PPCPs are present in our environment at very low concentrations ranging from ng/L to μg/L but there is paucity of information about the various secondary metabolites generated during the biotransformation of parent compounds [16] The impact of the metabolites could be more toxic than the main compounds and their adverse effect on non-target organism is less understood [30]. The longtime exposure to PPCPs pose severe threat to aquatic biota and human life. Also, many studies on environmental toxicology on the exposure of non-target organs to PPCP are results from acute toxicity data [31, 32, 33]. Many PPCPs contained bioactive ingredient that could have a chronic effect non-target biota. Goldfish shows bio-centration factor of 113 when it is exposed to high concentration of PPCPs for 14 days [34]. Chronic effect could lead to gene mutation and decline in fish population. For instance, diclofenac may cause ill-effect on fish organs. Fish are susceptible to PPPCPs contaminants since they live in the environment where these contaminants are present [35]. The presence of carbamazepine and diclofenac in aquatic environs damaged algal chloroplasts [36]. Long time exposure to Sulfamethoxazole cause severe toxicity and inhibit photosynthesis process [37]. Also, ciprofloxacin is toxic to green algae [38]. Natural bacteria developed antibiotic tolerance in PPCP antibiotic contaminated environments [39]. Endocrine disrupting chemicals are also referred to as hormones in aquatic or aqueous environments. Some endocrine chemicals reduce the proper functioning of endocrine system (ES) that is physiological activities [40]. For example, retardation in reproductive processes such as sex variation, poor metabolic and embryonic developments [41]. These environmental hormones could cause serious effects on both aquatic and terrestrials animals through inhibition and modification of hormonal growth in ES and hormones in the cell correspondingly [42].
Nowadays there is increase in technologies for the production of goods and services as to meet up the demand of dense population, resulting to release of EC in our environs. EC is a serious environmental issue across globe that desires vital consideration. There is need to development new production technique that uses raw materials that are eco-friendly, less toxic metabolites and by-products in our environment in order to prevent the aquatic biota and ecosystem.
We extent our gratitude to Arch. Mohammed, Moshood Kayode at Federal University of Technology, Minna, Niger State, Nigeria, Dr. Babatunde, Olubayo and Engr. Adedoja, Samson Oluwaseye at Tshwane University of Technology, Pretoria, South Africa for their supports.
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I am also a member of the team in charge for the supervision of Ph.D. students in the fields of development of silicon based planar waveguide sensor devices, study of inelastic electron tunnelling in planar tunnelling nanostructures for sensing applications and development of organotellurium(IV) compounds for semiconductor applications. I am a specialist in data analysis techniques and nanosurface structure. I have served as the editor for many books, been a member of the editorial board in science journals, have published many papers and hold many patents.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sheffield Hallam University",country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},{id:"54525",title:"Prof.",name:"Abdul Latif",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"abdul-latif-ahmad",fullName:"Abdul Latif Ahmad",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"20567",title:"Prof.",name:"Ado",middleName:null,surname:"Jorio",slug:"ado-jorio",fullName:"Ado Jorio",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"47940",title:"Dr.",name:"Alberto",middleName:null,surname:"Mantovani",slug:"alberto-mantovani",fullName:"Alberto Mantovani",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"12392",title:"Mr.",name:"Alex",middleName:null,surname:"Lazinica",slug:"alex-lazinica",fullName:"Alex Lazinica",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/12392/images/7282_n.png",biography:"Alex Lazinica is the founder and CEO of IntechOpen. After obtaining a Master's degree in Mechanical Engineering, he continued his PhD studies in Robotics at the Vienna University of Technology. Here he worked as a robotic researcher with the university's Intelligent Manufacturing Systems Group as well as a guest researcher at various European universities, including the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Lausanne (EPFL). During this time he published more than 20 scientific papers, gave presentations, served as a reviewer for major robotic journals and conferences and most importantly he co-founded and built the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems- world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics. Starting this journal was a pivotal point in his career, since it was a pathway to founding IntechOpen - Open Access publisher focused on addressing academic researchers needs. Alex is a personification of IntechOpen key values being trusted, open and entrepreneurial. Today his focus is on defining the growth and development strategy for the company.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",middleName:null,surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/19816/images/1607_n.jpg",biography:"Alexander I. Kokorin: born: 1947, Moscow; DSc., PhD; Principal Research Fellow (Research Professor) of Department of Kinetics and Catalysis, N. Semenov Institute of Chemical Physics, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow.\r\nArea of research interests: physical chemistry of complex-organized molecular and nanosized systems, including polymer-metal complexes; the surface of doped oxide semiconductors. He is an expert in structural, absorptive, catalytic and photocatalytic properties, in structural organization and dynamic features of ionic liquids, in magnetic interactions between paramagnetic centers. The author or co-author of 3 books, over 200 articles and reviews in scientific journals and books. He is an actual member of the International EPR/ESR Society, European Society on Quantum Solar Energy Conversion, Moscow House of Scientists, of the Board of Moscow Physical Society.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Semenov Institute of Chemical Physics",country:{name:"Russia"}}},{id:"62389",title:"PhD.",name:"Ali Demir",middleName:null,surname:"Sezer",slug:"ali-demir-sezer",fullName:"Ali Demir Sezer",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62389/images/3413_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ali Demir Sezer has a Ph.D. from Pharmaceutical Biotechnology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Marmara (Turkey). He is the member of many Pharmaceutical Associations and acts as a reviewer of scientific journals and European projects under different research areas such as: drug delivery systems, nanotechnology and pharmaceutical biotechnology. Dr. Sezer is the author of many scientific publications in peer-reviewed journals and poster communications. Focus of his research activity is drug delivery, physico-chemical characterization and biological evaluation of biopolymers micro and nanoparticles as modified drug delivery system, and colloidal drug carriers (liposomes, nanoparticles etc.).",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Marmara University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"61051",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"100762",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"St David's Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"107416",title:"Dr.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Texas Cardiac Arrhythmia",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"64434",title:"Dr.",name:"Angkoon",middleName:null,surname:"Phinyomark",slug:"angkoon-phinyomark",fullName:"Angkoon Phinyomark",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/64434/images/2619_n.jpg",biography:"My name is Angkoon Phinyomark. I received a B.Eng. degree in Computer Engineering with First Class Honors in 2008 from Prince of Songkla University, Songkhla, Thailand, where I received a Ph.D. degree in Electrical Engineering. My research interests are primarily in the area of biomedical signal processing and classification notably EMG (electromyography signal), EOG (electrooculography signal), and EEG (electroencephalography signal), image analysis notably breast cancer analysis and optical coherence tomography, and rehabilitation engineering. I became a student member of IEEE in 2008. During October 2011-March 2012, I had worked at School of Computer Science and Electronic Engineering, University of Essex, Colchester, Essex, United Kingdom. In addition, during a B.Eng. I had been a visiting research student at Faculty of Computer Science, University of Murcia, Murcia, Spain for three months.\n\nI have published over 40 papers during 5 years in refereed journals, books, and conference proceedings in the areas of electro-physiological signals processing and classification, notably EMG and EOG signals, fractal analysis, wavelet analysis, texture analysis, feature extraction and machine learning algorithms, and assistive and rehabilitative devices. I have several computer programming language certificates, i.e. Sun Certified Programmer for the Java 2 Platform 1.4 (SCJP), Microsoft Certified Professional Developer, Web Developer (MCPD), Microsoft Certified Technology Specialist, .NET Framework 2.0 Web (MCTS). I am a Reviewer for several refereed journals and international conferences, such as IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Engineering, IEEE Transactions on Industrial Electronics, Optic Letters, Measurement Science Review, and also a member of the International Advisory Committee for 2012 IEEE Business Engineering and Industrial Applications and 2012 IEEE Symposium on Business, Engineering and Industrial Applications.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Joseph Fourier University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"55578",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Jurado-Navas",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",fullName:"Antonio Jurado-Navas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/55578/images/4574_n.png",biography:"Antonio Jurado-Navas received the M.S. degree (2002) and the Ph.D. degree (2009) in Telecommunication Engineering, both from the University of Málaga (Spain). He first worked as a consultant at Vodafone-Spain. 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