\r\n\tWith the discovery of more unconventional heavier crude and alternative hydrocarbon sources, primary upgrading or cracking of the oil into lighter liquid fuel is critical. With increasing concern for environmental sustainability, the regulations on fuel specifications are becoming more stringent. Processing and treating crude oil into a cleaner oil with better quality is equally important. Hence, there has been a relentless and continuous effort to develop new crude upgrading and treating technologies, such as various catalytic systems for more economical and better system performance, as well as cleaner and higher-quality oil.
\r\n\r\n\tThis edited book aims to provide the reader with an overview of the state-of-the-art technologies of crude oil downstream processing which include the primary and secondary upgrading or treating processes covering desulfurization, denitrogenation, demetallation, and evidence-based developments in this area.
",isbn:"978-1-80356-681-8",printIsbn:"978-1-80356-680-1",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80356-682-5",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"808b0ddfb3b92e0636ae44a83ef7dbd9",bookSignature:"Dr. Ching Thian Tye",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11542.jpg",keywords:"Crude Oil Properties, Hydrocracking, Catalytic Cracking, Coking, Visbreaking, Thermal Cracking, Hydroprocessing, Hydrodesulfurization, Desulfurization, Denitrogenation, Demetallation, Dearomatization",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"March 22nd 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"April 19th 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"June 18th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"September 6th 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"November 5th 2022",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"a month",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!1,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Associate professor at the School of Chemical Engineering in Universiti Sains Malaysia and dedicated researcher in fuel-related catalytic process and chemical reaction engineering. 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She has been involved in projects to improve catalysis activities, system efficiency, as well as products quality via different upgrading and treating paths that are related to petroleum and unconventional oil such as heavy oil, used motor oil, spent tire pyrolysis oils as well as renewable resources like palm oil. 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It surrounds by hard tissues called dentin. Nutrients and oxygen supply are acquired from blood vessels passing through apical and accessory foramen of the teeth’s root. Dental pulp originates from cranial neural crest cells [1]. Dental pulp tissues are composed of extracellular matrix and various cell types, e.g. fibroblasts, odontoblasts, endothelial cells, pericytes, immune cells and stem cells. When injured, cells in dental pulp tissues are capable of differentiating odontoblasts or odontoblast‐like cells, leading to the promotion of tertiary dentin formation. The formation of tertiary dentin is a mechanism which can protect the tooth vitality. Dental pulp tissues remaining in physiological shedding of deciduous teeth are the alternative source of mesenchymal stem cells, due to the ease of accessibility and minimally invasive technique to obtain tissues [2]. Stem cells from human exfoliated deciduous teeth (SHEDs) are firstly identified by Miura et al. in 2003 [2]. SHEDs have high proliferation potency and are multipotent mesenchymal stem cells. These cells are able to differentiate into, not only, dental pulp‐related cells, but also, other cell lineages, for example osteoblasts, adipocytes, neuronal‐like cells and endothelial cells [2–8]. Taking these advantageous properties together, SHEDs are one of the candidate cell types for tissue regeneration study.
SHEDs are heterogeneous population of cells isolated from dental pulp tissues remained in exfoliated deciduous teeth. Similar to those mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs), SHEDs exhibit fibroblast‐like morphology, adhere on plastic tissue culture surface, express mesenchymal stem cell surface marker and have multipotential differentiation ability (Figure 1). SHEDs have higher proliferation rate compared to dental pulp stem cells (DPSCs) and bone marrow‐derived mesenchymal stem cells (BMMSCs) [2, 9]. This could be due to the high expression of genes related to cell proliferation and extracellular matrix in SHEDs comparing with DPSCs [9]. First, a study by Miura et al. demonstrated that SHEDs express mesenchymal surface markers, STRO‐1 and CD146 [2], though, the percentage of positive cells is low [2]. Later studies utilized various surface markers for SHEDs characterization protocol. SHEDs expressed CD44, CD73, CD90, CD105 and STRO‐1 [6]. In addition, these cells lack of CD45 expression [6]. Besides these markers described above, SHEDs also express other surface markers for example, CD166 and SSEA4. Lack of CD34 is also reported [10]. There is no specific surface marker to precisely identify SHEDs population.
Characteristics of stem cells isolated from human exfoliated deciduous teeth. The expression of stem cells markers was evaluated using flow cytometry and conventional semi‐quantitative PCR (A and B). The osteogenic, adipogenic and neurogenic differentiation were evaluated at day 14, 16 and 7 after induction, respectively (C–E). The mineral deposition and intracellular lipid accumulation were determined using alizarin red and oil red O staining, respectively (C and D). The β3‐tubulin protein expression was evaluated by immunocytochemistry staining (E). The expression of differentiation marker was examined using conventional semi‐quantitative PCR. Reprinted from Archives of Oral Biology, 60(3), Nunthawan Nowwarote, Prasit Pavasant, Thanaphum Osathanon, Role of endogeneous basic fibroblast growth factor in stem cells isolated from human exfoliated deciduous teeth, 408–15, Copyright (2015), with permission from Elsevier [
Up to date, MSCs can be isolated from many tissue types. Though, there is no specific marker to clearly identify these cells. According to the Mesenchymal and Tissue Stem Cell Committee of the International Society for Cellular Therapy, the minimum criteria to identify MSCs are as follow [11]. First, the isolated MSCs should adhere to plastic tissue culture plate [11]. Second, MSCs must express several specific surface markers, namely CD105, CD73 and CD90 [11]. They also should not express CD45, CD34, CD14 or CD11b, CD79α or CD19, and HLA‐DR [11]. Finally, MSCs have to be able to differentiate into osteoblasts, adipocytes and chondroblasts
Two methods have been utilized for SHEDs isolation, namely an enzymatic digestion and a tissue explant. The enzymatic digestion is performed by digesting minced remaining pulp tissues from deciduous teeth, normally with type I collagenase and dispase mixed enzyme solution [12–14]. For tissue explant, minced pulp tissues are placed on the tissue culture dishes, allowing the outgrowth of the cells from the tissues [12]. Enzymatic digestion technique leads to more heterogeneous population of isolated cells than those obtained from tissue outgrowth protocol [14]. A study illustrated that there is no significant difference regarding cell morphology and proliferation between cells isolated using enzymatic digestion and tissue outgrowth [14]. Enzymatic digestion‐derived SHEDs had higher mineralization ability
Studies have shown that SHEDs possess multi‐differentiation potency similar to MSCs. Those lineages include odontogenic/osteoblastic, adipogenic, neurogenic and angiogenic differentiation [2].
The ability of SHEDs to differentiate into odontoblastic lineage is widely known [2, 15, 16]. Primitively, SHEDs were characterized by their
Evidence suggested that SHEDs might have the preference towards the odontoblastic lineage due to its origin. SHEDs can be induced to become functional odontoblasts
Neurogenic potential of SHEDs is expecting due to their neural crest embryonic origin. Several research studies focusing on differentiating dental stem cells to be used for neurodegenerative disease therapy. These cells are prone to undergo neurogenic differentiation both
Angiogenic potential of SHEDs is another aspect of interest for the benefit of connective tissue regeneration. The rapid and effective induction of vasculation is required for sufficiently supply of oxygen and nutrients as well as removing the toxic waste from the newly synthesized tissues. Unstimulated SHEDs expressed VEGFR1 and NP‐1, the known important receptors in angiogenesis and VEGFR1 signalling play an important role in VEGF‐induced capillary tube formation by SHEDs as shown by VEGFR1 gene silencing [30]. SHEDs cultured in the tooth slice/scaffolds in combine with VEGF expressed several endothelial differentiation markers such as VEGFR1, VEGFR2, platelet endothelial cell adhesion molecule‐1 (PECAM‐1) and vascular endothelial cadherin (VE‐Cadherin). When transplanted in immunodeficient mice, SHEDs actually lined the new blood vessels within the tooth slice/scaffolds close to the blood vessels of host [3]. Similar results were observed when SHEDs seeded in human tooth slice/scaffolds and transplanted into immunodeficient mice differentiate into human blood vessels that anastomosed with the mouse vasculature and VEGF induced the angiogenic differentiation of SHEDs through Wnt/β‐catenin signalling [31]. Another study also showed that SHEDs can differentiate into VEGFR2‐positive and CD31‐positive endothelial cells
Several studies have reported that SHEDs can be induced into adipogenic lineage [6, 32–34]. After cultured in an adipogenic medium, SHEDs’ morphology changed from spindle‐like to polygonal shapes and lipid vacuoles were observed, along with the increased in PPARγ2 and LPL mRNA [32]. However, the studies evaluated the adipogenic potential of SHEDs
Like other MSCs, SHEDs exhibit immunomodulatory properties. Though, the potency and mechanism are not exact the same to those of BMMSCs [10, 35]. SHEDs significantly reduced the percentage of IL17+IFNγ cells population in CD4+ T cells
Basic fibroblast growth factor (bFGF) is a member in fibroblast growth factor family [38]. It binds to fibroblast growth factor receptors (FGFR) and further initiates intracellular signalling [39]. bFGF has been shown to participate in the regulation of stemness maintenance and cellular differentiation. In human DPSCs, bFGF promotes pluripotent stem cell marker expression, corresponding with the increase of colony‐forming unit [40]. Furthermore, bFGF inhibits osteogenic differentiation by SHEDs, human DPSCs and human periodontal ligament stem cells (PDLSCs) when supplemented in osteogenic induction medium (Figure 2) [5, 40]. In this regard, alkaline phosphatase enzymatic activity and mineralization are markedly decreased under bFGF‐treated condition compared with the control [5, 40]. On the contrary, bFGF enhances the expression of neurogenic marker, βIII‐tubulin, via FGFR and PLCγ when human DPSCs are cultured in a neurogenic induction medium supplemented with bFGF [40].
bFGF inhibited
In SHEDs, long‐term culture
Regarding osteogenic differentiation, bFGF attenuated osteogenic differentiation. In this regard, bFGF attenuated alkaline phosphatase enzymatic activity and mineralization in SHEDs after osteogenic induction [5, 43]. The inhibition of endogenous bFGF in SHEDs either by a chemical inhibitor for FGFR or lentiviral shRNA against bFGF resulted in the enhancement of osteogenic differentiation [6]. It was also demonstrated that bFGF attenuated alkaline phosphatase mRNA expression and mineral deposition via FGFR and MEK signalling pathway [5].
Several possible mechanisms were reported. Firstly, bFGF might attenuate osteogenic differentiation in SHEDs via decreasing Notch signalling [5]. Notch signalling activation led to the enhancement of mineralization in SHEDs [7]. Treatment with bFGF attenuated Notch receptor, ligand and target gene expression which may participate in bFGF attenuated osteogenic differentiation in SHEDs [5]. Secondly, bFGF inhibited matrix metalloproteinase (MMP) expression, for example
Canonical Wnt signalling also has a significant role in tooth development and stem cells self‐renewal through β‐catenin [46, 47]. Inactivation of β‐catenin in the mesenchyme of developing tooth results in arrested tooth developmental at the bud stage [48]. Various studies established the influence of canonical Wnt signalling pathway to promote the osteogenic differentiation of dental stem cells, i.e. DPSCs, PDLSCs, stem cells from apical papilla (SCAPs) and dental follicle stem cells (DFSCs) [49–52]. However, the effect of the canonical Wnt/ β‐catenin on SHEDs is very limited. The involvement of Wnt/β‐catenin on SHEDs‐mediated mineralized tissue regeneration was investigated with the addition of basic fibroblast growth factor (bFGF) [43]. Treatment with bFGF attenuated SHEDs‐mediated mineralized tissue regeneration via activation of ERK 1/2 pathway and consequently inhibited Wnt/β‐catenin pathway, leading to osteogenic deficiency of SHEDs [43].
A recent
Activation of β‐catenin by LiCl in SHEDs led to the significant decrease of colony formation by SHEDs [55]. In addition, LiCl enhanced subG0 population in SHEDs [55].
Notch signalling controls various function of stem cells, ranging from stemness maintenance to cell‐specific differentiation [56]. It is a highly conserved pathway, firstly identified in Drosophila. Notch signalling is initiated by the binding between membrane‐bound Notch receptors and ligands of neighbouring cells [56–58]. Further, Notch receptors are cleaved by a γ‐secretase enzyme, leading to the release of Notch intracellular domain (NICD) [56–58]. Subsequently, NICD translocates into nucleus and forms complex with other transcriptional molecules, resulting in the activation of Notch target genes [56–58]. Common Notch signalling target genes are Hes and Hey families [56–58]. In the canonical Notch signalling pathway, four receptors and five ligands are identified [56–58]. The four types of Notch receptors are Notch1, Notch2, Notch3 and Notch4. Five ligands are Delta‐like‐1 (Dll‐1), Delta‐like‐3 (Dll‐3), Delta‐like‐4 (Dll‐4), Jagged1 and Jagged2 [56–58].
Notch signalling participates in odontogenesis, dental pulp repair and regeneration. Mice lacking of Jagged2 expression exhibited defective enamel formation of incisors and malformation of molars [59]. The expression of Notch receptors and ligands was upregulated in response to calcium hydroxide, a material for direct pulp capping treatment [60]. Human DPSCs over‐expressing Jagged1 exhibited the reduction of osteogenic differentiation ability and mineralization
Studies illustrated that indirectly immobilized Notch ligands, Jagged1 or Dll‐1, on tissue culture surface increased
Effects of Dll‐1 and Jagged1 on osteogenic differentiation. The alkaline phosphatase enzymatic activity (A) and mineralization (B) were evaluated at day 7 and 14 after osteogenic induction, respectively. For osteoblast marker gene expression, cells were cultured on Dll‐1, Jagged1 or hFc treated surface for 7 days after osteogenic differentiation. The graphs demonstrated the relative mRNA expression of
It has been shown that bFGF inhibited the mRNA expression of Notch signalling components. In this regard, bFGF significantly reduced the mRNA levels of
Dental pulp tissues are surrounded by hard tissues, namely dentin. During inflammation, an interstitial fluid pressure increases [65, 66], causing biological changes in local cells and tissues. In addition, fluid movement in dentin‐pulp complex during normal occlusal force may expose cells to mechanical stimuli [67]. Mechanical forces are shown to regulate biological functions in many cell types, for example osteoblasts, osteocytes, periodontal ligament cells and dental pulp cells. Different types and magnitude of force lead to different cell responses. In human DPSCs, uniaxial cycle stretching inhibited odonto/osteogenic differentiation but increased cell proliferation [68, 69], while cyclic hydrostatic pressure synergistically enhanced BMP‐2‐induced DSPP expression by human DPSCs
SHEDs are the good candidate for the stem cells used in regenerative therapy due to their high plasticity as well as ability to cross lineage boundaries and differentiate into several specialized cells. Current progresses have been made for tissue engineering‐based therapies involving a large number of tissues. However, dentin-pulp complex and neuronal tissue seem to be the most promising aspects for the application of SHEDs in regenerative therapy.
The first evidence to show that SHEDs can differentiate to become the functional odontoblasts with the ability to generate the mineralized tissue resemble to dentin was shown in mice [3]. SHEDs were seeded within a scaffold in a tooth slice and implanted into the dorsum of mice. Dental pulp‐like tissue was observed in the central area of the pulp chamber of the tooth slice [3]. The expression of odontoblastic differentiation markers such as DSPP and DMP‐1 was detected [3]. Remarkably, the newly deposited dentin was observed and suggested that SHEDs can differentiate into fully functional odontoblasts
Current possible experimental approaches for dentin pulp complex regeneration using SHEDs.
In addition to dentin-pulp complex regeneration, SHEDs also show the potential to be used in neuroregeneration. Stem cell therapy is the promising therapeutic options for treating the neurodegenerative diseases due to the limited regenerative capacity of the specialized cells in the nervous system. The neural crest cell in origin makes SHEDs the candidate cell model for neuron tissue regeneration. These cells are prone to undergo neurogenic differentiation both
In a focal cerebral ischemia rat model induced by permanent middle cerebral artery occlusion, intranasal administration of supernatants from the medium used to culture SHEDs significant decreased in the motor disability score and significantly reduced in the infarct volume [72]. Moreover, positive signals for neuronal nucleus, neurofilament H, doublecortin and rat endothelial cell antigen in the peri‐infarct area were observed in the rats treated with SHEDs conditioned media compared to the DMEM control from approximately 140 mm3 in DMEM control to 50 mm3 in SHEDs conditioned medium [72]. These results suggest that SHEDs might secrete some compounds that positively influence the recovery of the brain lesion in focal cerebral ischemia [72].
Studies have shown that SHEDs have remarkable neuroregenerative activity and promote functional recovery in a spinal cord injury animal model [29, 75]. Rats that received SHEDs transplantation within the lesion created at the 9th–11th thoracic vertebral levels exhibited higher scores in the locomotor rating scale compared to the bone marrow stromal cells or fibroblasts transplantation control [75]. In addition, the rescue of hindlimb locomotor function was prominent in the rats that received SHEDs. These animals were able to move hindlimb coordinately and walk, while the bone marrow stromal cells transplantation exhibited only subtle movements [75]. A similar trend was observed in another study, a complete recovery of hindlimb motor function was observed after implantation of neural‐induced SHEDs in a rat spinal cord injury [29] which suggested that preinduction of the undifferentiated SHEDs into the neural‐like cells before implantation might improve the efficiency of SHEDs in regenerating specialized neural cells. Taken together, these high neurogenic potential of SHEDs especially in animal models makes them the favourable source for stem cell regeneration treatment for neural diseases.
Dental stem cells, including SHEDs, have been extensively studied in the past decades leading to the better understanding in their unique biological properties and therapeutic potential. As SHEDs can be easily obtained with limited ethical concern, their multi‐differentiation potentials have been demonstrated, which creates great opportunities for the application in the regenerative therapy. However, despite the intriguing results, we still need further study to deepen the understanding of the mechanisms underlying the differentiation processes to attain clinical reality. Also, the potential risks for the clinically use of SHEDs or other dental stem cells should be thoroughly studied for the safety of the patients who will greatly benefit from their regenerative ability.
The authors thank for support of the Faculty of Dentistry Research Fund, Chulalongkorn University. We would like to thank Dr. Pattarin Potisomporn for the illustration in Figure 4.
Akt | Protein kinase B |
ALP | Alkaline phosphatase |
ApoE | apolipoprotein E |
ATP | Adenosine triphosphate |
bFGF | Basic fibroblast growth factor |
BMMSCs | Bone marrow‐derived mesenchymal stem cells |
BSP | Bone sialoprotein |
CD | Cluster of differentiation |
COL1 | Collagen type 1 |
DAPT | N‐[N‐(3,5‐Difluorophenacetyl)‐L‐alanyl]‐S‐phenylglycine t‐butyl ester |
DDK | Dickkopf |
DFSCs | Dental follicle stem cells |
Dll | Delta‐like |
DMEM | Dulbecco’s Modified Eagle Medium |
DMP‐1 | Dentin matrix acidic phosphoprotein 1 |
DMP | Dentin matrix protein |
DPSCs | Dental pulp stem cells |
DSP | Dentin sialoprotein |
DSPP | Dentin phosphoprotein |
ERK | Extracellular signal‐regulated kinase |
FASL | Fas ligand |
FGFR | Fibroblast growth factor receptor |
GFAP | Glial fibrillary acidic protein |
HA | Hydroxyapatite |
Hes | Hairy and enhancer of split |
Hey | Hairy and enhancer of split related with YRPW motif protein |
HGF | Hepatocyte growth factor |
HLA‐DR | Human leukocyte antigen‐antigen D related |
IFN | Interferron |
IL | Interleukin |
JAK | Janus kinase |
LEF‐1 | Lymphoid enhancer binding factor 1 |
LiCl | Lithium chloride |
LPL | Lipoprotein |
MEK | Mitogen‐activated protein kinase kinase |
MEPE | Matrix extracellular phosphoglycoprotein |
MMP | Matrix metalloproteinase |
MSCs | Mesenchymal stem cells |
MSX2 | Msh homeobox 2 |
MT1‐MMP | Membrane type1‐ matrix metalloproteinase |
NICD | Notch intracellular domain |
Nurr1 | Nuclear receptor related 1 protein |
OCN | Osteocalcin |
OCT4 | Octamer‐binding transcription factor 4 |
OPN | Osteopontin |
OSX | Osterix |
P2Y1 | Purinergic receptor P2Y1 |
PCR | Polymerase chain reaction |
PDLSCs | Periodontal ligament stem cells |
PECAM‐1 | Platelet endothelial cell adhesion molecule 1 |
Pitx3 | Paired like homeodomain 3 |
PLCγ | Phospholipase C gamma |
PPARγ2 | Peroxisome proliferator‐activated receptor‐gamma 2 |
PRP | Platelet‐rich plasma |
REX1 | Reduced Expression Protein 1 |
RUNX2 | Runt‐related transcription factor 2 |
SCAPs | Stem cells from apical papilla |
SHEDs | Stem cells isolated from human exfoliated deciduous teeth |
shRNA | Short hairpin ribonucleic acid |
SOX2 | Sex determining region Y‐box 2 |
SSEA4 | Stage‐specific embryonic antigen‐4 |
TCP | Tricalcium phosphate |
TERT | Telomerase reverse transcriptase |
TWIST | Twist Family BHLH Transcription Factor |
VE‐Cadherin | Vascular endothelial cadherin |
VEGF | Vascular endothelial growth factor |
VEGFR | Vascular endothelial growth factor receptor |
In the past decades, the health effects of environmental pollution on the population have been a growing source of worry around the world. According to the WHO (World Health Organization), one-third of the diseases afflicting humanity are caused by extended exposure to pollution. Since World War II, scientists have identified a number of chemical contaminants that are toxic, persistent in the environment, bioaccumulative, and prone to long-range atmospheric transboundary migration and deposition, and are expected to have serious health consequences for humans, wildlife, and marine biota both near and far from their source of emission. These toxins are chemical contaminants, also called the dirty dozen [1]. Being volatile substances, POPs evaporate into the air in warm regions of the globe, are transported by air currents up to cold regions and in mountainous regions where they condense [2, 3].
Most POP chemicals are non-polar organic compounds, consequently hydrophobic, with extremely low water solubility. In marine and terrestrial systems, they bind strongly to solids, particularly organic matter, evading the aqueous segment [4]. They are also lipophilic, which means that they accumulate in the fatty tissue of living animals and human beings. The stockpiling in fatty tissue allows the compound to persevere in biota, where the metabolism rate is low [5, 6, 7, 8]. Due to the bioaccumulation and biomagnification phenomena, the POP concentration may be much higher in the tissues of the organisms (up to 70,000 higher concentrations). POP concentrations tend to rise as you travel up the food chain, therefore species at the top of the food chain, such as fish, predatory birds, mammals, and humans, have the largest concentrations of these chemicals and are thus at the greatest danger of acute and chronic harmful effects. POPs are mostly man-made chemical products intended to be used in various areas, for an example, in agriculture and industry, or unintentional by-products resulting from industrial processes, or from waste incineration. Different classes of POPs substances such as organochlorinated pesticides (OCP), polychlorinated biphenyl (PCBs), perfluorinated compounds (PFCs), brominated compounds (BFR), dioxins and furans are known. Most of these substances are anthropogenic origin. However, substances such as dioxins and furans may have natural origin (Figure 1), such as volcanic activities and vegetation fires [10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17].
Classification of persistent organic compounds according to their origin. Picture adapted from [
Many POPs were widely used during industrial revolution after World War II. However, many of these chemicals proved to be beneficial in pest and disease control, but they had unforeseen effects on human health and environment. In Stockholm 2001, representatives from 92 countries have agreed to sign the Stockholm Convention on POPs to reduce and/or eliminate the release of 12 original POP substances. More contaminants have been discovered; the main concern is over the original 12. These contaminants are the 10 intentionally produced chemicals: aldrin, endrin, chlordane, DDT, dieldrin, heptachlor, mirex, toxaphene, hexachlorobenzene (HCB) and PCBs and the two unintentionally produced substances polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins (PCDDs) and polychlorinated dibenzofurans (PCDFs) [18, 19]. Another type of interest also classified as persistent organic compounds is polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs). Combustion and burning of organic compounds produces these substances unintentionally. Their occurrences are related to anthropogenic processes, and contamination of PAHs in river sediment is especially serious in high-density industrial areas [18]. Persistent organic pollutants (POPs) are a group of chemicals that have been intentionally or unintentionally produced, and introduced into the environment as shown in Figure 2.
Categories of persistent organic pollutants. Picture adapted from [
Intentionally produced chemicals currently or were once used in agriculture, manufacturing, disease control or industrial processes. These intentional POPs compounds, shown in Figure 3, will be produced as wanted products by different chemical reactions that include chlorine. These types are organic molecules with linked chlorine atoms, high lipophilicity and, usually, high neurotoxicity, and they are called organochlorine compounds. Some of the well-known examples of organochlorine compounds are the chlorinated insecticides, such as dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane, and polychlorinated biphenyls. They have several compounds which can be divided into two types that are industrial chemicals and organochlorine pesticides [22, 23].
Intentionally persistent organic pollutants chemical structures. Adapted from [
Polychlorinated biphenyls, very stable mixtures that are resistant to extreme temperature and pressure, are a group of manmade chemicals, oily liquids or solids, clear to yellow in color, with no smell or taste. They have been discovered in water, sediments, avian tissue, and fish tissue all throughout the planet. These chemicals make up a significant subset of special wastes. PCBs are a group of chemical compounds in which the biphenyl molecule has 2–10 chlorine atoms linked to it. When explaining PCBs, monochlorinated biphenyls (i.e., one chlorine atom bonded to the biphenyl molecule) are frequently mentioned. The chemical structure of chlorinated biphenyls is depicted in Figure 4. There are 209 distinct PCB congeners in theory. Many of them are resistant to degradation, allowing them to survive for lengthy periods of time in the environment and spread via air and water transport mechanisms [25, 26, 27].
Industrial POPs chemical structure. Adapted from [
Many industrial applications, such as fire-resistant transformers and insulating condensers, relied heavily on PCBs. Prior to 1977, they were utilized as heat exchanger fluids and in the fabrication of aluminum, copper, iron, and steel [27]. Apart from their usage in the above applications, they were also applied as plasticizers in natural and synthetic rubber products, as well as adhesives, insulating materials, flame retardants, lubricants in the treatment of wood, clothing, paper, and asbestos, chemical stabilizers in paints and pigments, and as dispersing agents in aluminum oxide formulations. PCBs are frequently discovered in the effluent and sludge of municipal wastewater treatment plants. Although prohibited in the 1980s, PCBs are presently employed in transformers in some parts of the world, especially Brazilian [28, 29].
Organochlorine (OC) pesticides are typically man-made synthetic pesticides widely used all over the world. They belong to the group of chlorinated hydrocarbon derivatives, which have vast application in the chemical industry and in agriculture. Pesticides are a class of chemicals used to kill insects, weeds, fungi, bacteria, and other organisms. Insecticides, fungicides, bactericides, herbicides, and rodenticides are some of the terms used to describe them. The majority of pesticides may kill a wide range of pests and weeds, but some are targeted at specific pests or pathogens. Although these substances are typically man-made, plant derivatives and naturally occurring inorganic minerals are examples of exceptions that occur naturally. Since the first naturally occurring pesticide, nicotine derived from tobacco leaf extracts, was employed to control the plum curculio and the lace bug in the seventeenth century. Many chlorinated hydrocarbon insecticides were created in the 1940s, although they were not widely used until the 1950s. Aldrin, dieldrin, heptochlor, and endrin form part of the reported chlorinated hydrocarbon insecticides. However, in spite of their early promise, these organochlorine insecticides are now much less used because of their environmental pollution impact [30, 31].
Pesticides are employed for many different purposes. Pesticide use has increased due to increased agricultural production, resulting in increased pollution of environmental compartments such as soil, water, and air. Pesticide properties like high lipophilicity, bioaccumulation, long half-life, and potential for long-range transport have enhanced the risk of contamination in air, water, and soil, even after many years of use. This occurrence has the potential to become a long-term hazard to the ecosystem’s plant and animal groups’ coexistence. Pest problems result in the loss of nearly a third of the world’s agricultural productivity each year, despite the fact that pesticide consumption exceeds two millio liters each year. A study by Pimentel showed that only a small percentage (0.3%) of applied pesticides goes into the target pest while 99.7% go somewhere else into the environment [32].
Although the application of organochlorine pesticides has been forbidden for a considerable period in many countries, the residues continue to induce a significant impact on the environment and its ecosystems [33]. Overuse or misuse of pesticides has a negative impact on environmental health as well as ecosystem services. Many aquatic and terrestrial animals, have been documented to be toxicated by pesticides. Pesticides have a negative impact on aquatic ecosystems, including microbes, animals, plants, and fish [34, 35, 36, 37, 38].
During the last three or four decades, insecticide manufacturing has been rather constant. Insecticides and fungicides, on the other hand, are the most important pesticides for human exposure in food since they are sprayed just before or after harvesting. Herbicide output has risen as chemicals have increasingly supplanted land cultivation in weed management, accounting for the majority of agricultural pesticides. Large amounts of pesticides have the ability to enter water either directly, as in mosquito control applications, or indirectly, as in drainage of agricultural lands [39, 40, 41].
DDT was widely employed during World War II to protect soldiers and civilians from malaria, typhoid, and other diseases caused by insects before its insidious effects on humans and wildlife were discovered. DDT was employed to manage disease after the war, and it was sprayed on a number of agricultural crops, particularly cotton. It did the job, reducing the threat of malaria and the loss of income to the agriculture industry [42]. DDT continues to be applied against mosquitoes in several countries to control malaria. Its stability, its persistence, and its widespread use have meant that DDT residues can be found everywhere; residual DDT has even been detected in the Arctic.
Unintentionally produced chemicals (see Figure 5) are a result of combustion of medical waste, incarnation and some industrial processes. They are divided into three types, viz., polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), dioxin and furan compounds.
Unintentional produced POPs chemical structures. Adapted from [
PAHs are ubiquitous group of several hundreds of chemicals that comprise two or more fused benzene rings in linear, angular or cluster arrangements, containing only carbon and hydrogen. The central molecular structure is held together by stable carbon-carbon bonds. They are mostly caused by incomplete combustion of natural or man-made fuels such as coal and wood, as well as vehicular pollutants and cigarette smoke [44]. Dietary exposure accounts for more than 70% of human exposure in non-smokers [45]. According to a dietary survey conducted in the United Kingdom, cereals and oils/fats account for a significant portion of PAH intake [46]. Typical PAH contamination occurs when food is subjected to combustion products in technical procedures such as direct fire drying [47]. High PAH concentrations in charcoal grilled/barbecued foods may also result from certain traditional home cooking methods such as grilling, roasting, frying, and smoking [48]. However, the greatest amounts of PAHs released into the environment are via anthropogenic processes like fossil fuel combustion and by-products of industrial processing. The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) of the United States included 16 PAHs on a priority pollutants list because they are considered potential or probable human carcinogens. As a result, their dispersal and the likelihood of human exposure have received a lot of interest. PAHs have been found in soil, air, and sediments, as well as on a variety of food and beverage products [49, 50, 51].
Polychlorinated dibenzo-
Molecular structures of chlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins (dioxins, PCDDs) and dibenzofurans (furans, PCDFs). Adapted from [
PCDDs and PCDFs are solids at room temperature and have a rather low volatility. Dispersion in the atmosphere is thus likely to occur mainly in particulate aerosols. The PCDD/F have been of concern for decades because of their toxic properties. A structurally similar series of compounds, the chlorinated dibenzofurans (furans), have similar chemical properties and toxic effects. The most toxic and most extensively studied representative of the chlorinated dioxins (PCDDs) is 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-
In the past decades, many reports on the dependents of POPs by industry and agricultural sectors were seen. POPs proved to be beneficial in pest and disease control, crop production, and industrial applications. Many were widely used commercially during the boom in industrial production after World War II, resulting in wide geographical distribution. Figure 7 shows some of the sources related to POPs [57].
Schematic depicting POPs in the environment and main environmental processes during long-distance atmosphere transport, bioaccumulation, and biomagnification. Adapted from [
POPs are extremely stable in all environmental elements. They are discharged into the atmosphere through a variety of industrial sources, including power plants, heating plants, and incinerating facilities, as well as from domestic furnaces, transportation, agricultural sprays, and evaporation from water surfaces, soil, and landfills. Other sources of POPs compounds, such as inadvertent generation, can be present in incinerations, chemical plants, other combustions, forest fires, putrefaction, and PCB-containing wastes. This type of trash can be found in a variety of places and stems from a variety of activities, such as the use of old oil, equipment repair and maintenance, and building destruction [58, 59].
Wastewaters from plants generating or using POPs, as well as runoff from fields and roads, and atmospheric deposition, are the origins of pollutants, oil, fates, liquid fuels, dirt, ash, and silt entering the water system. Oceans and seas are their greatest reservoirs, where they collect from river sediments, air deposition, trash disposal, and accidents. They are retained in sediments on the bottoms of seas, oceans, and huge lakes, where they can be released and re-enter the atmosphere after a period of time, as indicated in Figure 8 [42, 60].
Conceptual model for the behavior of persistent organic pollutants in the air-plant soil system. Adapted from [
POPs have adversely posed a health concern worldwide for ages. Due to their concerning health issues, some countries have resorted to reduce the use of chemicals or processes that produce POPs, while others have prohibited them entirely. However, most processes that result in the production of POPs are beneficial to both human and environmental health. This is because some POPs are produced during production of synthetic chemicals for crop production, medication, clothing etc. In addition, some POPs are unavoidable since they may be produced unintentional from simple combustions. Since most of these POPs end up in water streams, various methods for wastewater treatment have been implement and reported in literature. These methods ensure the conversion of wastewater into portable water by removing harmful and hazardous chemicals [61]. Conventional treatment refers to some of the most effective water treatment procedures used in the service and distribution of industrial or municipal potable water. At different stages of a typical treatment method, any of the physical, chemical, or biological channels provide good combination.
Preliminary, primary, secondary, and tertiary wastewater treatment stages are in sequence of increasing treatment level, with final pH adjustments as needed. The chosen conventional approach must be able to meet the regulatory authority’s recommended microbiological and chemical criteria while operating and maintaining at a low cost [62].
Conventional treatment methods such as flocculation, coagulation, filtration, and oxidant chemical treatment are ineffective against POPs. The chemical properties of POPs, such as, low water and high fat solubility, stability to all degradation processes and low vapor pressure, are the main components for their efficiency as pesticides and for their persistence in the environment [63]. The inability in some instances to remove POPs from wastewater using conventional methods have prompted scientists to develop other methods. Various advanced wastewater treatment technologies such as, activated carbon adsorption, biodegradation using membrane bioreactor [64] and advanced oxidation processes [65] have been applied in the treatment of POPs. This is because of growing number of emerging POPs that are being identified in water and the concerns that are accompanied by human and environmental health hazard [66]. Various setbacks such as cost, sophisticated instrumentation, low degradation efficiency, generation of toxic secondary chemicals and massive sludge production have recently been addressed using advanced methods and technologies. Below is the short discussion of biodegradation and advanced oxidation processes wastewater treatment technologies.
Biodegradation is an evolving technology that comprises the application of selected living microorganisms to degrade, metabolize/immobilize any unwanted substances such as pesticides, organic pollutants and hydrocarbons from soil and water, to improve its quality [67]. Although every microorganism has the ability to eradicate pollutants, only few particular or engineered microorganisms are used broadly to eradicate pollutants efficiently. Bioremediation technology, applied in perspective to POPs removal, takes into consideration the following methods: (1) bioventing: aerating water to stimulate
Currently, the membrane bioreactor does not always achieve the desired results in the treatment of POPs, and it performs poorly in the removal of non-biodegradable aliphatic and aromatic hydrocarbon compounds, halogenated organic compounds, organic dyes, pesticides, and phenols and their derivatives. The process technicalities and economic feasibilities are the two most significant assessment elements for achieving the goal in wastewater treatment technology [70].
The use of conventional methods is not wholly accepted nowadays because of the high costs and operational problems. Consequently, it is necessary to adopt modern systems like advanced oxidative processes (AOPs) [71]. Some of the AOPs’ characteristics include: (1) potential capacity for mineralization of organic pollutants to carbon dioxide and water, as well as oxidation of inorganic compounds and ions such as chlorides, nitrates, and others; (2) non-selective reactivity with the vast majority of organic compounds, which is particularly appealing to avoid the presence of potentially toxic by-products from the primary pollutants that can be produced by other methods that do not achieve complete oxidation [65]. Some of the AOPs discussed below.
AOPs have successfully used both homogeneous and heterogeneous catalysts. Heterogeneous systems have obvious advantages over homogeneous systems, such as the ability to separate the catalyst easily for reuse from the treated water, the lack of a secondary treatment to remove dissolved metals from the treated water, and the ability to withstand extreme operating conditions. The system is also effective over a broader pH range including the common pH for natural water and wastewater (pH 2–9) [72].
The AOPs, as water treatment processes, are performed at pressure and temperature close to environmental conditions. They involve the generation of hydroxyl radicals in sufficient quantity to interact with the organic compounds of the medium. Hydroxyl radicals are the best of the powerful oxidants because they meet a number of criteria, including: (1) they do not generate additional waste; (2) they are not toxic and have a short lifetime; (3) they are not corrosive to equipment; and (4) usually produced by easy-to-manipulate assemblies [73]. The following are some of the most common approaches used for this purpose: UV alone, UV/H2O2, UV/Fe3+, UV/H2O2/Fe3+, UV/O3, UV/S2O82−, UV/TiO2, UV/chlorine and UV in combination with other photocatalysts. The major issue is the removal efficiency of specific target contaminants by the UV AOPs. UV AOP removal rates vary depending on the molecular structure of the pollutants, both in terms of direct photolysis and radical processes. Furthermore, water matrix effects have a significant influence on removal rates. As a result, each UV AOP system must be individually controlled in line with its water matrix and targeted contaminant removal for optimal POPs control [74]. In most situations, the UV/chlorine oxidation process outperformed UV alone or chlorination, according to Xiang et al. [75]. During the UV/chlorine reaction, hydroxyl and Cl radicals were produced, with the hydroxyl radical taking the lead in the oxidation process. Its contribution to the rate of diuron degradation was calculated to be 28.95%.
Most AOPs use a combination of oxidants and irradiation (O3/H2O2/UV) or a catalyst and irradiation (Fe2+/H2O2; UV/TiO2) to achieve their goals. The disadvantages that make them economically undesirable vary depending on the AOP are: (1) high electricity demand (for example, ozone and UV-based AOPs), (2) relatively large volumes of oxidants and/or catalysts (for example, ozone, hydrogen peroxide, and iron-based AOPs), and (3) pH operating conditions (e.g. Fenton and photo-Fenton) [76]. Photo-Fenton oxidation system has been identified as a feasible oxidation system for treating these wastewaters. In Fenton and Fenton-like reactions, hydroxyl radicals are usually generated from H2O2 catalyzed by iron (Fe2+, α-Fe2O3, Fe3O4, H2Fe2O4, α-FeOOH, etc.) [77]. Nonetheless, the cost effectiveness is one of the major concerns. However, the cost reduction can be obtained through application of heterogeneous catalysts, chelating agent, solar energy and integration with biological treatment technologies [78].
Electrochemical oxidation procedures, among the numerous AOPs, are gaining popularity for water and wastewater decontamination due to their low cost and high efficiency. Dissolved organic contaminants are primarily oxidized in electrochemical oxidation processes by (i) direct anodic oxidation on the anode surface via charge transfer, and (ii) interaction with physio- and/or chemisorbed hydroxyl radical produced during water oxidation [79]. Electrochemical AOPs have been widely explored for the total degradation of POPs. The electrochemical oxidation is an effective and environmentally friendly technology because it does not require chemicals, only electric current is consumed. The first one is direct oxidation which occurs when the compound reacts directly at the anode’s surface or by physisorbed or chemisorbed •OH. The second mechanism is indirect oxidation, which is achieved through the electrochemical generation of a mediator in the bulk solution such as ozone (O3), hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), active chlorine, active bromine or S2O82−, among others [80].
Recently, coupling approaches including an electrochemical pre-treatment followed by a biological process have been proposed as cost-effective and reliable remediation methods for persistent chemicals mineralization. This opens the door to more selective electrochemical methods than those involving hydroxyl radicals do, because the goal of the pre-treatment is no longer to achieve total mineralization of non-biodegradable species, but rather to improve their biodegradability by focusing on functional groups that have been shown to reduce biodegradability [81].
In the one-time elimination of POPs, nanofibers have demonstrated to be the most effective. These adsorbents, on the other hand, demonstrate adaptability in the collection of pollutants. The use of fiber layers with varied pore channels and surface chemistry to produce selectivity for a target chemical could be researched further. Because adsorption is a common water treatment method, the production and operational costs of adsorbent materials are crucial to the introduction of any new classes of materials [82]. Physically and chemically stable carbon-based materials alone (without metals) have also been successfully used as the electro-catalysts [83]. Inexpensive, non-noble transition metals or their oxides supported in carbon nanotube has been reported for treatment of POPs. Bismuth-based nanocomposites [84], copper-reduced graphene oxide electrode [85], boron-doped diamond [86], with different boron and substrate silicon or niobium content [87] have indicated to be an efficient technology for treating POPs wastewater.
The POPs are organic compounds of anthropogenic origin, and are resistant to environmental degradation through chemical, biological, or photolytic processes and as a result, accumulate in the food chain. Contamination by POPs is widespread, and circulate globally via the atmosphere, oceans, and other pathways. The Stockholm Convention defines criteria for new POP candidates in terms of their persistence, long-range transport, bioaccumulation and toxicity. Recognizing the dangers of POPs, countries began limiting their production, use, and release. This global, legally binding agreement is to reduce and eliminate the release of 12 POPs, including pesticides and industrial chemicals, as well as unintentionally produced POPs. Conventional water treatment facilities have failed to effectively degrade persistent contaminants from wastewater. However, advanced water treatment options such as activated carbons, membrane bioreactors and advanced oxidation processes are well documented for their capital intensive treatment of these recalcitrant pollutants.
The authors would like to thank the University of Limpopo for the financial assistance towards this project.
Authors report no conflict of interest.
IntechOpen - where academia and industry create content with global impact
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\\n\\nSara Uhac was appointed Managing Director of IntechOpen at the beginning of 2014. She directs and controls the company’s operations. Sara joined IntechOpen in 2010 as Head of Journal Publishing, a new strategically underdeveloped department at that time. After obtaining a Master's degree in Media Management, she completed her Ph.D. at the University of Lugano, Switzerland. She holds a BA in Financial Market Management from the Bocconi University in Milan, Italy, where she started her career in the American publishing house Condé Nast and further collaborated with the UK-based publishing company Time Out. Sara was awarded a professional degree in Publishing from Yale University (2012). She is a member of the professional branch association of "Publishers, Designers and Graphic Artists" at the Croatian Chamber of Commerce.
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\n\nSara Uhac was appointed Managing Director of IntechOpen at the beginning of 2014. She directs and controls the company’s operations. Sara joined IntechOpen in 2010 as Head of Journal Publishing, a new strategically underdeveloped department at that time. After obtaining a Master's degree in Media Management, she completed her Ph.D. at the University of Lugano, Switzerland. She holds a BA in Financial Market Management from the Bocconi University in Milan, Italy, where she started her career in the American publishing house Condé Nast and further collaborated with the UK-based publishing company Time Out. Sara was awarded a professional degree in Publishing from Yale University (2012). She is a member of the professional branch association of "Publishers, Designers and Graphic Artists" at the Croatian Chamber of Commerce.
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\n\nDr Alex Lazinica
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MRI is commonly used once treating brain, prostate cancers, ankle and foot. The Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) images are usually liable to suffer from noises such as Gaussian noise, salt and pepper noise and speckle noise. So getting of brain image with accuracy is very extremely task. An accurate brain image is very necessary for further diagnosis process. During this chapter, a median filter algorithm will be modified. Gaussian noise and Salt and pepper noise will be added to MRI image. A proposed Median filter (MF), Adaptive Median filter (AMF) and Adaptive Wiener filter (AWF) will be implemented. The filters will be used to remove the additive noises present in the MRI images. The noise density will be added gradually to MRI image to compare performance of the filters evaluation. The performance of these filters will be compared exploitation the applied mathematics parameter Peak Signal-to-Noise Ratio (PSNR).",book:{id:"6144",slug:"high-resolution-neuroimaging-basic-physical-principles-and-clinical-applications",title:"High-Resolution Neuroimaging",fullTitle:"High-Resolution Neuroimaging - Basic Physical Principles and Clinical Applications"},signatures:"Hanafy M. Ali",authors:[{id:"213318",title:"Dr.",name:"Hanafy",middleName:"M.",surname:"Ali",slug:"hanafy-ali",fullName:"Hanafy Ali"}]},{id:"41589",doi:"10.5772/50323",title:"The Role of the Amygdala in Anxiety Disorders",slug:"the-role-of-the-amygdala-in-anxiety-disorders",totalDownloads:9671,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:28,abstract:null,book:{id:"2599",slug:"the-amygdala-a-discrete-multitasking-manager",title:"The Amygdala",fullTitle:"The Amygdala - A Discrete Multitasking Manager"},signatures:"Gina L. Forster, Andrew M. Novick, Jamie L. Scholl and Michael J. Watt",authors:[{id:"145620",title:"Dr.",name:"Gina",middleName:null,surname:"Forster",slug:"gina-forster",fullName:"Gina Forster"},{id:"146553",title:"BSc.",name:"Andrew",middleName:null,surname:"Novick",slug:"andrew-novick",fullName:"Andrew Novick"},{id:"146554",title:"MSc.",name:"Jamie",middleName:null,surname:"Scholl",slug:"jamie-scholl",fullName:"Jamie Scholl"},{id:"146555",title:"Dr.",name:"Michael",middleName:null,surname:"Watt",slug:"michael-watt",fullName:"Michael Watt"}]},{id:"26258",doi:"10.5772/28300",title:"Excitotoxicity and Oxidative Stress in Acute Ischemic Stroke",slug:"excitotoxicity-and-oxidative-stress-in-acute-ischemic-stroke",totalDownloads:7157,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:25,abstract:null,book:{id:"931",slug:"acute-ischemic-stroke",title:"Acute Ischemic Stroke",fullTitle:"Acute Ischemic Stroke"},signatures:"Ramón Rama Bretón and Julio César García Rodríguez",authors:[{id:"73430",title:"Prof.",name:"Ramon",middleName:null,surname:"Rama",slug:"ramon-rama",fullName:"Ramon Rama"},{id:"124643",title:"Prof.",name:"Julio Cesar",middleName:null,surname:"García",slug:"julio-cesar-garcia",fullName:"Julio Cesar García"}]},{id:"62072",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.78695",title:"Brain-Computer Interface and Motor Imagery Training: The Role of Visual Feedback and Embodiment",slug:"brain-computer-interface-and-motor-imagery-training-the-role-of-visual-feedback-and-embodiment",totalDownloads:1439,totalCrossrefCites:13,totalDimensionsCites:23,abstract:"Controlling a brain-computer interface (BCI) is a difficult task that requires extensive training. Particularly in the case of motor imagery BCIs, users may need several training sessions before they learn how to generate desired brain activity and reach an acceptable performance. A typical training protocol for such BCIs includes execution of a motor imagery task by the user, followed by presentation of an extending bar or a moving object on a computer screen. In this chapter, we discuss the importance of a visual feedback that resembles human actions, the effect of human factors such as confidence and motivation, and the role of embodiment in the learning process of a motor imagery task. Our results from a series of experiments in which users BCI-operated a humanlike android robot confirm that realistic visual feedback can induce a sense of embodiment, which promotes a significant learning of the motor imagery task in a short amount of time. We review the impact of humanlike visual feedback in optimized modulation of brain activity by the BCI users.",book:{id:"6610",slug:"evolving-bci-therapy-engaging-brain-state-dynamics",title:"Evolving BCI Therapy",fullTitle:"Evolving BCI Therapy - Engaging Brain State Dynamics"},signatures:"Maryam Alimardani, Shuichi Nishio and Hiroshi Ishiguro",authors:[{id:"11981",title:"Prof.",name:"Hiroshi",middleName:null,surname:"Ishiguro",slug:"hiroshi-ishiguro",fullName:"Hiroshi Ishiguro"},{id:"231131",title:"Dr.",name:"Maryam",middleName:null,surname:"Alimardani",slug:"maryam-alimardani",fullName:"Maryam Alimardani"},{id:"231134",title:"Dr.",name:"Shuichi",middleName:null,surname:"Nishio",slug:"shuichi-nishio",fullName:"Shuichi Nishio"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"29764",title:"Underlying Causes of Paresthesia",slug:"underlying-causes-of-paresthesia",totalDownloads:192666,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:7,abstract:null,book:{id:"1069",slug:"paresthesia",title:"Paresthesia",fullTitle:"Paresthesia"},signatures:"Mahdi Sharif-Alhoseini, Vafa Rahimi-Movaghar and Alexander R. Vaccaro",authors:[{id:"91165",title:"Prof.",name:"Vafa",middleName:null,surname:"Rahimi-Movaghar",slug:"vafa-rahimi-movaghar",fullName:"Vafa Rahimi-Movaghar"}]},{id:"63258",title:"Anatomy and Function of the Hypothalamus",slug:"anatomy-and-function-of-the-hypothalamus",totalDownloads:4558,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:12,abstract:"The hypothalamus is a small but important area of the brain formed by various nucleus and nervous fibers. Through its neuronal connections, it is involved in many complex functions of the organism such as vegetative system control, homeostasis of the organism, thermoregulation, and also in adjusting the emotional behavior. The hypothalamus is involved in different daily activities like eating or drinking, in the control of the body’s temperature and energy maintenance, and in the process of memorizing. It also modulates the endocrine system through its connections with the pituitary gland. Precise anatomical description along with a correct characterization of the component structures is essential for understanding its functions.",book:{id:"6331",slug:"hypothalamus-in-health-and-diseases",title:"Hypothalamus in Health and Diseases",fullTitle:"Hypothalamus in Health and Diseases"},signatures:"Miana Gabriela Pop, Carmen Crivii and Iulian Opincariu",authors:null},{id:"57103",title:"GABA and Glutamate: Their Transmitter Role in the CNS and Pancreatic Islets",slug:"gaba-and-glutamate-their-transmitter-role-in-the-cns-and-pancreatic-islets",totalDownloads:3478,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:9,abstract:"Glutamate and gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) are the major neurotransmitters in the mammalian brain. Inhibitory GABA and excitatory glutamate work together to control many processes, including the brain’s overall level of excitation. The contributions of GABA and glutamate in extra-neuronal signaling are by far less widely recognized. In this chapter, we first discuss the role of both neurotransmitters during development, emphasizing the importance of the shift from excitatory to inhibitory GABAergic neurotransmission. The second part summarizes the biosynthesis and role of GABA and glutamate in neurotransmission in the mature brain, and major neurological disorders associated with glutamate and GABA receptors and GABA release mechanisms. The final part focuses on extra-neuronal glutamatergic and GABAergic signaling in pancreatic islets of Langerhans, and possible associations with type 1 diabetes mellitus.",book:{id:"6237",slug:"gaba-and-glutamate-new-developments-in-neurotransmission-research",title:"GABA And Glutamate",fullTitle:"GABA And Glutamate - New Developments In Neurotransmission Research"},signatures:"Christiane S. Hampe, Hiroshi Mitoma and Mario Manto",authors:[{id:"210220",title:"Prof.",name:"Christiane",middleName:null,surname:"Hampe",slug:"christiane-hampe",fullName:"Christiane Hampe"},{id:"210485",title:"Prof.",name:"Mario",middleName:null,surname:"Manto",slug:"mario-manto",fullName:"Mario Manto"},{id:"210486",title:"Prof.",name:"Hiroshi",middleName:null,surname:"Mitoma",slug:"hiroshi-mitoma",fullName:"Hiroshi Mitoma"}]},{id:"35802",title:"Cross-Cultural/Linguistic Differences in the Prevalence of Developmental Dyslexia and the Hypothesis of Granularity and Transparency",slug:"cross-cultural-linguistic-differences-in-the-prevalence-of-developmental-dyslexia-and-the-hypothesis",totalDownloads:3601,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:7,abstract:null,book:{id:"673",slug:"dyslexia-a-comprehensive-and-international-approach",title:"Dyslexia",fullTitle:"Dyslexia - A Comprehensive and International Approach"},signatures:"Taeko N. Wydell",authors:[{id:"87489",title:"Prof.",name:"Taeko",middleName:"N.",surname:"Wydell",slug:"taeko-wydell",fullName:"Taeko Wydell"}]},{id:"58597",title:"Testosterone and Erectile Function: A Review of Evidence from Basic Research",slug:"testosterone-and-erectile-function-a-review-of-evidence-from-basic-research",totalDownloads:1331,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"Androgens are essential for male physical activity and normal erectile function. Hence, age-related testosterone deficiency, known as late-onset hypogonadism (LOH), is considered a risk factor for erectile dysfunction (ED). This chapter summarizes relevant basic research reports examining the effects of testosterone on erectile function. Testosterone affects several organs and is especially active on the erectile tissue. The mechanism of testosterone deficiency effects on erectile function and the results of testosterone replacement therapy (TRT) have been well studied. Testosterone affects nitric oxide (NO) production and phosphodiesterase type 5 (PDE-5) expression in the corpus cavernosum through molecular pathways, preserves smooth muscle contractility by regulating both contraction and relaxation, and maintains the structure of the corpus cavernosum. Interestingly, testosterone deficiency has relationship to neurological diseases, which leads to ED. Testosterone replacement therapy is widely used to treat patients with testosterone deficiency; however, this treatment might also induce some problems. Basic research suggests that PDE-5 inhibitors, L-citrulline, and/or resveratrol therapy might be effective therapeutic options for testosterone deficiency-induced ED. Future research should confirm these findings through more specific experiments using molecular tools and may shed more light on endocrine-related ED and its possible treatments.",book:{id:"5994",slug:"sex-hormones-in-neurodegenerative-processes-and-diseases",title:"Sex Hormones in Neurodegenerative Processes and Diseases",fullTitle:"Sex Hormones in Neurodegenerative Processes and Diseases"},signatures:"Tomoya Kataoka and Kazunori Kimura",authors:[{id:"219042",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Tomoya",middleName:null,surname:"Kataoka",slug:"tomoya-kataoka",fullName:"Tomoya Kataoka"},{id:"229066",title:"Prof.",name:"Kazunori",middleName:null,surname:"Kimura",slug:"kazunori-kimura",fullName:"Kazunori Kimura"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"18",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"81998",title:"Understanding the Neuropathophysiology of Psychiatry Disorder Using Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation",slug:"understanding-the-neuropathophysiology-of-psychiatry-disorder-using-transcranial-magnetic-stimulatio",totalDownloads:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103748",abstract:"Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) is a safe and non-invasive tool that allows researchers to probe and modulate intracortical circuits. The most important aspect of TMS is its ability to directly stimulate the cortical neurons, generating action potentials, without much effect on intervening tissue. This property can be leveraged to provide insight into the pathophysiology of various neuropsychiatric disorders. Using multiple patterns of stimulations (single, paired, or repetitive), different neurophysiological parameters can be elicited. Various TMS protocol helps in understanding the neurobiological basis of disorder and specific behaviors by allowing direct probing of the cortical areas and their interconnected networks. While single-pulse TMS can provide insight into the excitability and integrity of the corticospinal tract, paired-pulse TMS (ppTMS) can provide further insight into cortico-cortical connections and repetitive TMS (rTMS) into cortical mapping and modulating plasticity.",book:{id:"11742",title:"Neurophysiology",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11742.jpg"},signatures:"Jitender Jakhar, Manish Sarkar and Nand Kumar"},{id:"81646",title:"Cortical Plasticity under Ketamine: From Synapse to Map",slug:"cortical-plasticity-under-ketamine-from-synapse-to-map",totalDownloads:15,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104787",abstract:"Sensory systems need to process signals in a highly dynamic way to efficiently respond to variations in the animal’s environment. For instance, several studies showed that the visual system is subject to neuroplasticity since the neurons’ firing changes according to stimulus properties. This dynamic information processing might be supported by a network reorganization. Since antidepressants influence neurotransmission, they can be used to explore synaptic plasticity sustaining cortical map reorganization. To this goal, we investigated in the primary visual cortex (V1 of mouse and cat), the impact of ketamine on neuroplasticity through changes in neuronal orientation selectivity and the functional connectivity between V1 cells, using cross correlation analyses. We found that ketamine affects cortical orientation selectivity and alters the functional connectivity within an assembly. These data clearly highlight the role of the antidepressant drugs in inducing or modeling short-term plasticity in V1 which suggests that cortical processing is optimized and adapted to the properties of the stimulus.",book:{id:"11374",title:"Sensory Nervous System - Computational Neuroimaging Investigations of Topographical Organization in Human Sensory Cortex",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11374.jpg"},signatures:"Ouelhazi Afef, Rudy Lussiez and Molotchnikoff Stephane"},{id:"81582",title:"The Role of Cognitive Reserve in Executive Functioning and Its Relationship to Cognitive Decline and Dementia",slug:"the-role-of-cognitive-reserve-in-executive-functioning-and-its-relationship-to-cognitive-decline-and",totalDownloads:24,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104646",abstract:"In this chapter, we explore how cognitive reserve is implicated in coping with the negative consequences of brain pathology and age-related cognitive decline. Individual differences in cognitive performance are based on different brain mechanisms (neural reserve and neural compensation), and reflect, among others, the effect of education, occupational attainment, leisure activities, and social involvement. These cognitive reserve proxies have been extensively associated with efficient executive functioning. We discuss and focus particularly on the compensation mechanisms related to the frontal lobe and its protective role, in maintaining cognitive performance in old age or even mitigating the clinical expression of dementia.",book:{id:"11742",title:"Neurophysiology",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11742.jpg"},signatures:"Gabriela Álvares-Pereira, Carolina Maruta and Maria Vânia Silva-Nunes"},{id:"81488",title:"Aggression and Sexual Behavior: Overlapping or Distinct Roles of 5-HT1A and 5-HT1B Receptors",slug:"aggression-and-sexual-behavior-overlapping-or-distinct-roles-of-5-ht1a-and-5-ht1b-receptors",totalDownloads:20,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104872",abstract:"Distinct brain mechanisms for male aggressive and sexual behavior are present in mammalian species, including man. However, recent evidence suggests a strong connection and even overlap in the central nervous system (CNS) circuitry involved in aggressive and sexual behavior. The serotonergic system in the CNS is strongly involved in male aggressive and sexual behavior. In particular, 5-HT1A and 5-HT1B receptors seem to play a critical role in the modulation of these behaviors. The present chapter focuses on the effects of 5-HT1A- and 5-HT1B-receptor ligands in male rodent aggression and sexual behavior. Results indicate that 5-HT1B-heteroreceptors play a critical role in the modulation of male offensive behavior, although a definite role of 5-HT1A-auto- or heteroreceptors cannot be ruled out. 5-HT1A receptors are clearly involved in male sexual behavior, although it has to be yet unraveled whether 5-HT1A-auto- or heteroreceptors are important. Although several key nodes in the complex circuitry of aggression and sexual behavior are known, in particular in the medial hypothalamus, a clear link or connection to these critical structures and the serotonergic key receptors is yet to be determined. This information is urgently needed to detect and develop new selective anti-aggressive (serenic) and pro-sexual drugs for human applications.",book:{id:"10195",title:"Serotonin and the CNS - New Developments in Pharmacology and Therapeutics",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10195.jpg"},signatures:"Berend Olivier and Jocelien D.A. Olivier"},{id:"81093",title:"Prehospital and Emergency Room Airway Management in Traumatic Brain Injury",slug:"prehospital-and-emergency-room-airway-management-in-traumatic-brain-injury",totalDownloads:49,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104173",abstract:"Airway management in trauma is critical and may impact patient outcomes. Particularly in traumatic brain injury (TBI), depressed level of consciousness may be associated with compromised protective airway reflexes or apnea, which can increase the risk of aspiration or result in hypoxemia and worsen the secondary brain damage. Therefore, patients with TBI and Glasgow Coma Scale (GCS) ≤ 8 have been traditionally managed by prehospital or emergency room (ER) endotracheal intubation. However, recent evidence challenged this practice and even suggested that routine intubation may be harmful. This chapter will address the indications and optimal method of securing the airway, prehospital and in the ER, in patients with traumatic brain injury.",book:{id:"11367",title:"Traumatic Brain Injury",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11367.jpg"},signatures:"Dominik A. Jakob, Jean-Cyrille Pitteloud and Demetrios Demetriades"},{id:"81011",title:"Amino Acids as Neurotransmitters. The Balance between Excitation and Inhibition as a Background for Future Clinical Applications",slug:"amino-acids-as-neurotransmitters-the-balance-between-excitation-and-inhibition-as-a-background-for-f",totalDownloads:19,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103760",abstract:"For more than 30 years, amino acids have been well-known (and essential) participants in neurotransmission. They act as both neuromediators and metabolites in nervous tissue. Glycine and glutamic acid (glutamate) are prominent examples. These amino acids are agonists of inhibitory and excitatory membrane receptors, respectively. Moreover, they play essential roles in metabolic pathways and energy transformation in neurons and astrocytes. Despite their obvious effects on the brain, their potential role in therapeutic methods remains uncertain in clinical practice. In the current chapter, a comparison of the crosstalk between these two systems, which are responsible for excitation and inhibition in neurons, is presented. The interactions are discussed at the metabolic, receptor, and transport levels. Reaction-diffusion and a convectional flow into the interstitial fluid create a balanced distribution of glycine and glutamate. Indeed, the neurons’ final physiological state is a result of a balance between the excitatory and inhibitory influences. However, changes to the glycine and/or glutamate pools under pathological conditions can alter the state of nervous tissue. Thus, new therapies for various diseases may be developed on the basis of amino acid medication.",book:{id:"10890",title:"Recent Advances in Neurochemistry",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10890.jpg"},signatures:"Yaroslav R. Nartsissov"}],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:18},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:87,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:99,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:27,numberOfPublishedChapters:290,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:10,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:139,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:0,numberOfUpcomingTopics:2,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:108,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:104,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:1,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}},{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",issn:"2632-0517",scope:"Paralleling similar advances in the medical field, astounding advances occurred in Veterinary Medicine and Science in recent decades. These advances have helped foster better support for animal health, more humane animal production, and a better understanding of the physiology of endangered species to improve the assisted reproductive technologies or the pathogenesis of certain diseases, where animals can be used as models for human diseases (like cancer, degenerative diseases or fertility), and even as a guarantee of public health. Bridging Human, Animal, and Environmental health, the holistic and integrative “One Health” concept intimately associates the developments within those fields, projecting its advancements into practice. This book series aims to tackle various animal-related medicine and sciences fields, providing thematic volumes consisting of high-quality significant research directed to researchers and postgraduates. It aims to give us a glimpse into the new accomplishments in the Veterinary Medicine and Science field. By addressing hot topics in veterinary sciences, we aim to gather authoritative texts within each issue of this series, providing in-depth overviews and analysis for graduates, academics, and practitioners and foreseeing a deeper understanding of the subject. Forthcoming texts, written and edited by experienced researchers from both industry and academia, will also discuss scientific challenges faced today in Veterinary Medicine and Science. In brief, we hope that books in this series will provide accessible references for those interested or working in this field and encourage learning in a range of different topics.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/13.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"May 25th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:11,editor:{id:"38652",title:"Prof.",name:"Rita",middleName:null,surname:"Payan-Carreira",slug:"rita-payan-carreira",fullName:"Rita Payan-Carreira",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRiFPQA0/Profile_Picture_1614601496313",biography:"Rita Payan Carreira earned her Veterinary Degree from the Faculty of Veterinary Medicine in Lisbon, Portugal, in 1985. She obtained her Ph.D. in Veterinary Sciences from the University of Trás-os-Montes e Alto Douro, Portugal. 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He has both an MS and Ph.D. in Biomedical Engineering. He was previously a research scientist at the University of California Los Angeles (UCLA) and visiting professor and researcher at the University of North Dakota. He is currently working in artificial intelligence and its applications in medical signal processing. In addition, he is using digital signal processing in medical imaging and speech processing. Dr. Asadpour has developed brain-computer interfacing algorithms and has published books, book chapters, and several journal and conference papers in this field and other areas of intelligent signal processing. He has also designed medical devices, including a laser Doppler monitoring system.",institutionString:"Kaiser Permanente Southern California",institution:null},{id:"169608",title:"Prof.",name:"Marian",middleName:null,surname:"Găiceanu",slug:"marian-gaiceanu",fullName:"Marian Găiceanu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/169608/images/system/169608.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Marian Gaiceanu graduated from the Naval and Electrical Engineering Faculty, Dunarea de Jos University of Galati, Romania, in 1997. He received a Ph.D. (Magna Cum Laude) in Electrical Engineering in 2002. Since 2017, Dr. Gaiceanu has been a Ph.D. supervisor for students in Electrical Engineering. He has been employed at Dunarea de Jos University of Galati since 1996, where he is currently a professor. Dr. Gaiceanu is a member of the National Council for Attesting Titles, Diplomas and Certificates, an expert of the Executive Agency for Higher Education, Research Funding, and a member of the Senate of the Dunarea de Jos University of Galati. He has been the head of the Integrated Energy Conversion Systems and Advanced Control of Complex Processes Research Center, Romania, since 2016. He has conducted several projects in power converter systems for electrical drives, power quality, PEM and SOFC fuel cell power converters for utilities, electric vehicles, and marine applications with the Department of Regulation and Control, SIEI S.pA. (2002–2004) and the Polytechnic University of Turin, Italy (2002–2004, 2006–2007). He is a member of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) and cofounder-member of the IEEE Power Electronics Romanian Chapter. He is a guest editor at Energies and an academic book editor for IntechOpen. He is also a member of the editorial boards of the Journal of Electrical Engineering, Electronics, Control and Computer Science and Sustainability. Dr. Gaiceanu has been General Chairman of the IEEE International Symposium on Electrical and Electronics Engineering in the last six editions.",institutionString:'"Dunarea de Jos" University of Galati',institution:{name:'"Dunarea de Jos" University of Galati',country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"4519",title:"Prof.",name:"Jaydip",middleName:null,surname:"Sen",slug:"jaydip-sen",fullName:"Jaydip Sen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/4519/images/system/4519.jpeg",biography:"Jaydip Sen is associated with Praxis Business School, Kolkata, India, as a professor in the Department of Data Science. His research areas include security and privacy issues in computing and communication, intrusion detection systems, machine learning, deep learning, and artificial intelligence in the financial domain. He has more than 200 publications in reputed international journals, refereed conference proceedings, and 20 book chapters in books published by internationally renowned publishing houses, such as Springer, CRC press, IGI Global, etc. Currently, he is serving on the editorial board of the prestigious journal Frontiers in Communications and Networks and in the technical program committees of a number of high-ranked international conferences organized by the IEEE, USA, and the ACM, USA. He has been listed among the top 2% of scientists in the world for the last three consecutive years, 2019 to 2021 as per studies conducted by the Stanford University, USA.",institutionString:"Praxis Business School",institution:null},{id:"320071",title:"Dr.",name:"Sidra",middleName:null,surname:"Mehtab",slug:"sidra-mehtab",fullName:"Sidra Mehtab",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00002v6KHoQAM/Profile_Picture_1584512086360",biography:"Sidra Mehtab has completed her BS with honors in Physics from Calcutta University, India in 2018. She has done MS in Data Science and Analytics from Maulana Abul Kalam Azad University of Technology (MAKAUT), Kolkata, India in 2020. Her research areas include Econometrics, Time Series Analysis, Machine Learning, Deep Learning, Artificial Intelligence, and Computer and Network Security with a particular focus on Cyber Security Analytics. Ms. Mehtab has published seven papers in international conferences and one of her papers has been accepted for publication in a reputable international journal. She has won the best paper awards in two prestigious international conferences – BAICONF 2019, and ICADCML 2021, organized in the Indian Institute of Management, Bangalore, India in December 2019, and SOA University, Bhubaneswar, India in January 2021. Besides, Ms. Mehtab has also published two book chapters in two books. Seven of her book chapters will be published in a volume shortly in 2021 by Cambridge Scholars’ Press, UK. Currently, she is working as the joint editor of two edited volumes on Time Series Analysis and Forecasting to be published in the first half of 2021 by an international house. Currently, she is working as a Data Scientist with an MNC in Delhi, India.",institutionString:"NSHM College of Management and Technology",institution:null},{id:"226240",title:"Dr.",name:"Andri Irfan",middleName:null,surname:"Rifai",slug:"andri-irfan-rifai",fullName:"Andri Irfan Rifai",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/226240/images/7412_n.jpg",biography:"Andri IRFAN is a Senior Lecturer of Civil Engineering and Planning. He completed the PhD at the Universitas Indonesia & Universidade do Minho with Sandwich Program Scholarship from the Directorate General of Higher Education and LPDP scholarship. He has been teaching for more than 19 years and much active to applied his knowledge in the project construction in Indonesia. His research interest ranges from pavement management system to advanced data mining techniques for transportation engineering. He has published more than 50 papers in journals and 2 books.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universitas Internasional Batam",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"314576",title:"Dr.",name:"Ibai",middleName:null,surname:"Laña",slug:"ibai-lana",fullName:"Ibai Laña",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/314576/images/system/314576.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ibai Laña works at TECNALIA as a data analyst. He received his Ph.D. in Artificial Intelligence from the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU), Spain, in 2018. He is currently a senior researcher at TECNALIA. His research interests fall within the intersection of intelligent transportation systems, machine learning, traffic data analysis, and data science. He has dealt with urban traffic forecasting problems, applying machine learning models and evolutionary algorithms. He has experience in origin-destination matrix estimation or point of interest and trajectory detection. Working with large volumes of data has given him a good command of big data processing tools and NoSQL databases. He has also been a visiting scholar at the Knowledge Engineering and Discovery Research Institute, Auckland University of Technology.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"314575",title:"Dr.",name:"Jesus",middleName:null,surname:"L. Lobo",slug:"jesus-l.-lobo",fullName:"Jesus L. Lobo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/314575/images/system/314575.png",biography:"Dr. Jesús López is currently based in Bilbao (Spain) working at TECNALIA as Artificial Intelligence Research Scientist. In most cases, a project idea or a new research line needs to be investigated to see if it is good enough to take into production or to focus on it. That is exactly what he does, diving into Machine Learning algorithms and technologies to help TECNALIA to decide whether something is great in theory or will actually impact on the product or processes of its projects. So, he is expert at framing experiments, developing hypotheses, and proving whether they’re true or not, in order to investigate fundamental problems with a longer time horizon. He is also able to design and develop PoCs and system prototypes in simulation. He has participated in several national and internacional R&D projects.\n\nAs another relevant part of his everyday research work, he usually publishes his findings in reputed scientific refereed journals and international conferences, occasionally acting as reviewer and Programme Commitee member. Concretely, since 2018 he has published 9 JCR (8 Q1) journal papers, 9 conference papers (e.g. ECML PKDD 2021), and he has co-edited a book. He is also active in popular science writing data science stories for reputed blogs (KDNuggets, TowardsDataScience, Naukas). Besides, he has recently embarked on mentoring programmes as mentor, and has also worked as data science trainer.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"103779",title:"Prof.",name:"Yalcin",middleName:null,surname:"Isler",slug:"yalcin-isler",fullName:"Yalcin Isler",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRyQ8QAK/Profile_Picture_1628834958734",biography:"Yalcin Isler (1971 - Burdur / Turkey) received the B.Sc. degree in the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering from Anadolu University, Eskisehir, Turkey, in 1993, the M.Sc. degree from the Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, Suleyman Demirel University, Isparta, Turkey, in 1996, the Ph.D. degree from the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey, in 2009, and the Competence of Associate Professorship from the Turkish Interuniversity Council in 2019.\n\nHe was Lecturer at Burdur Vocational School in Suleyman Demirel University (1993-2000, Burdur / Turkey), Software Engineer (2000-2002, Izmir / Turkey), Research Assistant in Bulent Ecevit University (2002-2003, Zonguldak / Turkey), Research Assistant in Dokuz Eylul University (2003-2010, Izmir / Turkey), Assistant Professor at the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering in Bulent Ecevit University (2010-2012, Zonguldak / Turkey), Assistant Professor at the Department of Biomedical Engineering in Izmir Katip Celebi University (2012-2019, Izmir / Turkey). He is an Associate Professor at the Department of Biomedical Engineering at Izmir Katip Celebi University, Izmir / Turkey, since 2019. In addition to academics, he has also founded Islerya Medical and Information Technologies Company, Izmir / Turkey, since 2017.\n\nHis main research interests cover biomedical signal processing, pattern recognition, medical device design, programming, and embedded systems. He has many scientific papers and participated in several projects in these study fields. He was an IEEE Student Member (2009-2011) and IEEE Member (2011-2014) and has been IEEE Senior Member since 2014.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Izmir Kâtip Çelebi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"339677",title:"Dr.",name:"Mrinmoy",middleName:null,surname:"Roy",slug:"mrinmoy-roy",fullName:"Mrinmoy Roy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/339677/images/16768_n.jpg",biography:"An accomplished Sales & Marketing professional with 12 years of cross-functional experience in well-known organisations such as CIPLA, LUPIN, GLENMARK, ASTRAZENECA across different segment of Sales & Marketing, International Business, Institutional Business, Product Management, Strategic Marketing of HIV, Oncology, Derma, Respiratory, Anti-Diabetic, Nutraceutical & Stomatological Product Portfolio and Generic as well as Chronic Critical Care Portfolio. A First Class MBA in International Business & Strategic Marketing, B.Pharm, D.Pharm, Google Certified Digital Marketing Professional. Qualified PhD Candidate in Operations and Management with special focus on Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning adoption, analysis and use in Healthcare, Hospital & Pharma Domain. Seasoned with diverse therapy area of Pharmaceutical Sales & Marketing ranging from generating revenue through generating prescriptions, launching new products, and making them big brands with continuous strategy execution at the Physician and Patients level. Moved from Sales to Marketing and Business Development for 3.5 years in South East Asian Market operating from Manila, Philippines. Came back to India and handled and developed Brands such as Gluconorm, Lupisulin, Supracal, Absolut Woman, Hemozink, Fabiflu (For COVID 19), and many more. In my previous assignment I used to develop and execute strategies on Sales & Marketing, Commercialization & Business Development for Institution and Corporate Hospital Business portfolio of Oncology Therapy Area for AstraZeneca Pharma India Ltd. Being a Research Scholar and Student of ‘Operations Research & Management: Artificial Intelligence’ I published several pioneer research papers and book chapters on the same in Internationally reputed journals and Books indexed in Scopus, Springer and Ei Compendex, Google Scholar etc. Currently, I am launching PGDM Pharmaceutical Management Program in IIHMR Bangalore and spearheading the course curriculum and structure of the same. I am interested in Collaboration for Healthcare Innovation, Pharma AI Innovation, Future trend in Marketing and Management with incubation on Healthcare, Healthcare IT startups, AI-ML Modelling and Healthcare Algorithm based training module development. I am also an affiliated member of the Institute of Management Consultant of India, looking forward to Healthcare, Healthcare IT and Innovation, Pharma and Hospital Management Consulting works.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Lovely Professional University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"1063",title:"Prof.",name:"Constantin",middleName:null,surname:"Volosencu",slug:"constantin-volosencu",fullName:"Constantin Volosencu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/1063/images/system/1063.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Constantin Voloşencu graduated as an engineer from\nPolitehnica University of Timișoara, Romania, where he also\nobtained a doctorate degree. He is currently a full professor in\nthe Department of Automation and Applied Informatics at the\nsame university. Dr. Voloşencu is the author of ten books, seven\nbook chapters, and more than 160 papers published in journals\nand conference proceedings. He has also edited twelve books and\nhas twenty-seven patents to his name. He is a manager of research grants, editor in\nchief and member of international journal editorial boards, a former plenary speaker, a member of scientific committees, and chair at international conferences. His\nresearch is in the fields of control systems, control of electric drives, fuzzy control\nsystems, neural network applications, fault detection and diagnosis, sensor network\napplications, monitoring of distributed parameter systems, and power ultrasound\napplications. He has developed automation equipment for machine tools, spooling\nmachines, high-power ultrasound processes, and more.",institutionString:"Polytechnic University of Timişoara",institution:{name:"Polytechnic University of Timişoara",country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"221364",title:"Dr.",name:"Eneko",middleName:null,surname:"Osaba",slug:"eneko-osaba",fullName:"Eneko Osaba",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/221364/images/system/221364.jpg",biography:"Dr. Eneko Osaba works at TECNALIA as a senior researcher. He obtained his Ph.D. in Artificial Intelligence in 2015. He has participated in more than twenty-five local and European research projects, and in the publication of more than 130 papers. He has performed several stays at universities in the United Kingdom, Italy, and Malta. Dr. Osaba has served as a program committee member in more than forty international conferences and participated in organizing activities in more than ten international conferences. He is a member of the editorial board of the International Journal of Artificial Intelligence, Data in Brief, and Journal of Advanced Transportation. He is also a guest editor for the Journal of Computational Science, Neurocomputing, Swarm, and Evolutionary Computation and IEEE ITS Magazine.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"275829",title:"Dr.",name:"Esther",middleName:null,surname:"Villar-Rodriguez",slug:"esther-villar-rodriguez",fullName:"Esther Villar-Rodriguez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/275829/images/system/275829.jpg",biography:"Dr. Esther Villar obtained a Ph.D. in Information and Communication Technologies from the University of Alcalá, Spain, in 2015. She obtained a degree in Computer Science from the University of Deusto, Spain, in 2010, and an MSc in Computer Languages and Systems from the National University of Distance Education, Spain, in 2012. Her areas of interest and knowledge include natural language processing (NLP), detection of impersonation in social networks, semantic web, and machine learning. Dr. Esther Villar made several contributions at conferences and publishing in various journals in those fields. Currently, she is working within the OPTIMA (Optimization Modeling & Analytics) business of TECNALIA’s ICT Division as a data scientist in projects related to the prediction and optimization of management and industrial processes (resource planning, energy efficiency, etc).",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"49813",title:"Dr.",name:"Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Del Ser",slug:"javier-del-ser",fullName:"Javier Del Ser",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49813/images/system/49813.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Javier Del Ser received his first PhD in Telecommunication Engineering (Cum Laude) from the University of Navarra, Spain, in 2006, and a second PhD in Computational Intelligence (Summa Cum Laude) from the University of Alcala, Spain, in 2013. He is currently a principal researcher in data analytics and optimisation at TECNALIA (Spain), a visiting fellow at the Basque Center for Applied Mathematics (BCAM) and a part-time lecturer at the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU). His research interests gravitate on the use of descriptive, prescriptive and predictive algorithms for data mining and optimization in a diverse range of application fields such as Energy, Transport, Telecommunications, Health and Industry, among others. In these fields he has published more than 240 articles, co-supervised 8 Ph.D. theses, edited 6 books, coauthored 7 patents and participated/led more than 40 research projects. He is a Senior Member of the IEEE, and a recipient of the Biscay Talent prize for his academic career.",institutionString:"Tecnalia Research & Innovation",institution:null},{id:"278948",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos Pedro",middleName:null,surname:"Gonçalves",slug:"carlos-pedro-goncalves",fullName:"Carlos Pedro Gonçalves",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRcmyQAC/Profile_Picture_1564224512145",biography:'Carlos Pedro Gonçalves (PhD) is an Associate Professor at Lusophone University of Humanities and Technologies and a researcher on Complexity Sciences, Quantum Technologies, Artificial Intelligence, Strategic Studies, Studies in Intelligence and Security, FinTech and Financial Risk Modeling. He is also a progammer with programming experience in:\n\nA) Quantum Computing using Qiskit Python module and IBM Quantum Experience Platform, with software developed on the simulation of Quantum Artificial Neural Networks and Quantum Cybersecurity;\n\nB) Artificial Intelligence and Machine learning programming in Python;\n\nC) Artificial Intelligence, Multiagent Systems Modeling and System Dynamics Modeling in Netlogo, with models developed in the areas of Chaos Theory, Econophysics, Artificial Intelligence, Classical and Quantum Complex Systems Science, with the Econophysics models having been cited worldwide and incorporated in PhD programs by different Universities.\n\nReceived an Arctic Code Vault Contributor status by GitHub, due to having developed open source software preserved in the \\"Arctic Code Vault\\" for future generations (https://archiveprogram.github.com/arctic-vault/), with the Strategy Analyzer A.I. module for decision making support (based on his PhD thesis, used in his Classes on Decision Making and in Strategic Intelligence Consulting Activities) and QNeural Python Quantum Neural Network simulator also preserved in the \\"Arctic Code Vault\\", for access to these software modules see: https://github.com/cpgoncalves. He is also a peer reviewer with outsanding review status from Elsevier journals, including Physica A, Neurocomputing and Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence. Science CV available at: https://www.cienciavitae.pt//pt/8E1C-A8B3-78C5 and ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0298-3974',institutionString:"University of Lisbon",institution:{name:"Universidade Lusófona",country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"241400",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammed",middleName:null,surname:"Bsiss",slug:"mohammed-bsiss",fullName:"Mohammed Bsiss",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241400/images/8062_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"276128",title:"Dr.",name:"Hira",middleName:null,surname:"Fatima",slug:"hira-fatima",fullName:"Hira Fatima",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/276128/images/14420_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Hira Fatima\nAssistant Professor\nDepartment of Mathematics\nInstitute of Applied Science\nMangalayatan University, Aligarh\nMobile: no : 8532041179\nhirafatima2014@gmal.com\n\nDr. Hira Fatima has received his Ph.D. degree in pure Mathematics from Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh India. Currently working as an Assistant Professor in the Department of Mathematics, Institute of Applied Science, Mangalayatan University, Aligarh. She taught so many courses of Mathematics of UG and PG level. Her research Area of Expertise is Functional Analysis & Sequence Spaces. She has been working on Ideal Convergence of double sequence. She has published 17 research papers in National and International Journals including Cogent Mathematics, Filomat, Journal of Intelligent and Fuzzy Systems, Advances in Difference Equations, Journal of Mathematical Analysis, Journal of Mathematical & Computer Science etc. She has also reviewed few research papers for the and international journals. She is a member of Indian Mathematical Society.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"414880",title:"Dr.",name:"Maryam",middleName:null,surname:"Vatankhah",slug:"maryam-vatankhah",fullName:"Maryam Vatankhah",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Borough of Manhattan Community College",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"414879",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammad-Reza",middleName:null,surname:"Akbarzadeh-Totonchi",slug:"mohammad-reza-akbarzadeh-totonchi",fullName:"Mohammad-Reza Akbarzadeh-Totonchi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ferdowsi University of Mashhad",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"414878",title:"Prof.",name:"Reza",middleName:null,surname:"Fazel-Rezai",slug:"reza-fazel-rezai",fullName:"Reza Fazel-Rezai",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"American Public University System",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"302698",title:"Dr.",name:"Yao",middleName:null,surname:"Shan",slug:"yao-shan",fullName:"Yao Shan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Dalian University of Technology",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"125911",title:"Prof.",name:"Jia-Ching",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"jia-ching-wang",fullName:"Jia-Ching Wang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Central University",country:{name:"Taiwan"}}},{id:"357085",title:"Mr.",name:"P. Mohan",middleName:null,surname:"Anand",slug:"p.-mohan-anand",fullName:"P. Mohan Anand",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"356696",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"P.V.",middleName:null,surname:"Sai Charan",slug:"p.v.-sai-charan",fullName:"P.V. Sai Charan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"357086",title:"Prof.",name:"Sandeep K.",middleName:null,surname:"Shukla",slug:"sandeep-k.-shukla",fullName:"Sandeep K. Shukla",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"356823",title:"MSc.",name:"Seonghee",middleName:null,surname:"Min",slug:"seonghee-min",fullName:"Seonghee Min",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Daegu University",country:{name:"Korea, South"}}},{id:"353307",title:"Prof.",name:"Yoosoo",middleName:null,surname:"Oh",slug:"yoosoo-oh",fullName:"Yoosoo Oh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:"Yoosoo Oh received his Bachelor's degree in the Department of Electronics and Engineering from Kyungpook National University in 2002. He obtained his Master’s degree in the Department of Information and Communications from Gwangju Institute of Science and Technology (GIST) in 2003. In 2010, he received his Ph.D. degree in the School of Information and Mechatronics from GIST. In the meantime, he was an executed team leader at Culture Technology Institute, GIST, 2010-2012. In 2011, he worked at Lancaster University, the UK as a visiting scholar. In September 2012, he joined Daegu University, where he is currently an associate professor in the School of ICT Conver, Daegu University. Also, he served as the Board of Directors of KSIIS since 2019, and HCI Korea since 2016. From 2017~2019, he worked as a center director of the Mixed Reality Convergence Research Center at Daegu University. From 2015-2017, He worked as a director in the Enterprise Supporting Office of LINC Project Group, Daegu University. 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