More than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
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Our breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
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“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
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Additionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
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We are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
Simba Information has released its Open Access Book Publishing 2020 - 2024 report and has again identified IntechOpen as the world’s largest Open Access book publisher by title count.
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Simba Information is a leading provider for market intelligence and forecasts in the media and publishing industry. The report, published every year, provides an overview and financial outlook for the global professional e-book publishing market.
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IntechOpen, De Gruyter, and Frontiers are the largest OA book publishers by title count, with IntechOpen coming in at first place with 5,101 OA books published, a good 1,782 titles ahead of the nearest competitor.
\n\n
Since the first Open Access Book Publishing report published in 2016, IntechOpen has held the top stop each year.
\n\n\n\n
More than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\n\n
Our breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\n\n
“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\n\n
Additionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\n\n
We are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\n\n
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\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"919",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Electrical Generation and Distribution Systems and Power Quality Disturbances",title:"Electrical Generation and Distribution Systems and Power Quality Disturbances",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"The utilization of renewable energy sources such as wind energy, or solar energy, among others, is currently of greater interest. 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1. Introduction
The use of energy on a large scale has been a determining aspect of the world economy in modern times. For the last several centuries, this energy has come mainly from the transformation of combustible fossils, in the form of peat, coal, petroleum, and natural gas. During the year 2003 the supply of primary energy ran to 10,579 Mtoe (443 EJ), and this number represented a 75% increase over 30 years [1]. Of this, 80% came from fossil fuels. In 2003, the production of electricity worldwide was still dominated by coal (40%), followed by natural gas (19%), and nuclear and hydro generation (15% each) [1].
In contrast to the overall energy requirements stated above, transportation depends almost exclusively (to 95%) on petroleum and its derivatives; the problems surrounding this resource will necessitate the investment of an estimated 16 trillion U.S. dollars to develop and update new ways to power vehicles [1]. Bauen [1] mentioned that, in order to reduce CO2 emissions, in the future we could use a pre-combustion at the coal plants, producing 250 Mt of hydrogen per year, which is six times the present production. He held out a vision of use of fuel cells for the transformation of energy and its use in hybrid vehicles which would use as their fuel hydrogen produced from water. With respect to the energy invested during a process, Liu et al. [2] state that apart from a qualitative understanding of the energy, a quantitative understanding is essential, analyzing an industrial process in terms of the material flow and amount of energy, using as example an analysis of the statistical data from an aluminum refinery at Zhenzhou, China.
Research on renewable energy sources is, in large measure, driven by the expectation of future shortages in the supply of crude oil. In the U.S.A., maximal crude-oil production occurred in the 1990s [3]; this event was termed “Peak Oil” for the American case. Other important oil producers, such as Mexico, Indonesia, United Kingdom, Norway, Romania, are also clearly beyond their date of maximal production. As to the timing of Peak Oil on the worldwide scale, different workers have, at different times, made their predictions; some of these are summarized in Table 1. Most of these forecast that Peak Oil was less than a dozen years away from the date of their prediction, though some predictions are slightly more sanguine [5], [7]. But even if, by dint of new exploration, new crude-oil production technologies, more efficient use of this resource, and the development of alternative energy technologies the actual Peak Oil date has continually been deferred, this signal event will probably take place at some point in the relatively near future. This represents a substantial menace for the world economy, in light of the increasing energy demand of major, rapidly industrializing national economies, especially in Asia and South America.
Date of forecast
Peak Oil date
Reference
2000
2004-2014
Bartlett
2001
Beyond 2020
Deffeyes
2002
2011-2016
Smith
2003
Around 2010
Campbell
2004
2006-2007
Bakhtiari
2005
After 2010
Koppelaar
2006
After 2010
Skrebowski
2007
2008-2018
Robelius
2008
2035
CERA,
2008
2010-2011
Hirsch
2009
2015
de Almeida
2010
2030
Aleklett
2011
2015-2020
Murphy
2011
2035
Winch
Table 1.
Peak Oil dates projected by various authors.
The wide use of crude oil, and of fossil fuels in general, has also given rise to a separate, but equally pressing concern: that the liberation of carbon dioxide to the atmosphere attendant on the use of these fuels is having a major, and potentially accelerating, deleterious climate effect, which may impinge in critical ways on the world economy and the well-being of mankind. The two considerations are independently important: even if easily accessible, vast new oilfields were to be found in the near future, relieving the supply concerns in this area, the continuous increase in atmospheric CO2 over the past decades is deemed to be of sufficient concern to warrant worldwide, concerted efforts to reduce production of this gas, mainly by switching energy production on a large scale to new, alternative forms, which minimize or entirely avoid the formation of this by-product.
2. Overview
2.1. Hydrogen production.
A promising part in the new developments of energy technologies is played by hydrogen. It is not a primary fuel, as no hydrogen can be mined on our planet; rather it has to be considered an energy vector, a material produced by an endergonic chemical process starting from hydrogen-containing compounds, and whose chemical potential can in turn be converted to other forms of energy, by combustion in air, through fuel cells, or by other means. Hydrogen is, thus, useful as a storage form of energy derived from intermittent sources such as wind power, to later be transformed to electricity when and where required. An important application would be as a portable energy source in automotive transport, where hydrogen fuel cells now operate with an efficiency of about 40%, and perhaps 50% in the near future, while gasoline- or diesel-operated internal-combustion engines have efficiencies of 25%-30% under real driving conditions [18]. Also, fuel-cell powered vehicles are mechanically simpler, facilitating new designs in automobile construction. Finally, and importantly, fuel cells with proton membranes only release water to the environment, an innocuous product.
On our planet, hydrogen occurs naturally in the form of compounds such as water or hydrocarbons. It can be produced in elementary form through partial combustion of fossil fuels, as in reforming of natural gas, in coal gasification, through high-temperature electrolysis, e.g. at operating temperatures of 800 C in nuclear reactors [19], or from renewable energy by processes such as water electrolysis, water photoelectrolysis, or biomass gasification. In 2007 about 50 million metric tonnes of hydrogen were used worldwide, mainly in the production of ammonia fertilizers, in chemical syntheses, and in refining processes [20]. 95% of the hydrogen production is in a captive mode (i.e. it is produced where it is used) starting from fossil fuels (50% from natural gas, 30% from crude oil, and 20% from coal). However, from an economic-environmental point of view, the most favourable method of hydrogen production is starting from renewable energies, mainly from hydro and wind energies through electrolysis; nonetheless, water electrolysis only accounts for 4% of total worldwide hydrogen production [21], even though as far back as 1977 there was already an international consensus about the need for a concerted initiative to develop water-electrolysis technologies such as aqueous water electrolysis, solid-polymer and solid-oxide water electrolysis, and electrocatalysis [22].
Another method of hydrogen production is the reduction of water using aluminium or its alloys. Because of its light weight and great strength, aluminium is widely used for structural purposes, but it also offers important advantages for its potentially wide employment as an energy carrier: its high energy density, of 29 MJ/kg, the fact that it is the most abundant metal in the earth´s crust, and its highly negative standard redox potential (ε0 = -1.66 V) which makes it, in principle, an excellent reducing agent, capable of producing hydrogen gas upon contact with water, in a corrosion process which does not entail production of CO2. This type of reaction can be carried out with the help of alkali, or under neutral conditions, or at elevated temperatures, or via reaction of aluminium with alcohol [23]. As a practical example for the high energy density of aluminium, it can be calculated that an electrical automobile energized by fuel cells could run a distance of 400 km with about 4 kg of hydrogen which could be obtained from 36 kg of aluminium via an aluminium-water reaction [23]. This example points out the advantages inherent in the use of aluminium metal as a compact source of hydrogen; by contrast, storage of hydrogen at standard temperature and pressure requires volumes 3000-fold larger than for gasoline, and in liquid state it is necessary to take it to temperatures of -253 C through cooling systems, which entails additional important energy costs.
The aluminium-water reaction produces energy in different forms, all of which are potentially usable: heat, water vapour, and hydrogen gas. The water vapour and hydrogen gas formed can be used to power a turbine, and the hydrogen gas furthermore represents an energy reservoir to be used by high-temperature combustion or to feed fuel cells. Such systems have been quantitatively modeled [24], [25] and [26].
2.2. Aluminium production
The main prime material for aluminium production is alumina (Al2O3), found in a large number of natural minerals. 98% of metallurgical alumina is produced by the Bayer process [27] starting from bauxite, a mineral composed to 50%-80% of hydrous alumina (aluminium hydroxides and oxyhydroxides). A simplified rendition of the chemistry underlying the Bayer process is given in the equation:
Al2O3•nH2O + 2NaOH → 2NaAlO2 + (n + 1)H2O
The production of 1 kg of aluminium takes about 2 kg of alumina, which would be derived from 4 kg of bauxite. The energy investment in 1 kg of aluminium is 29.6 MJ for the obtention of the prime material (i.e. bauxite mining, alumina refining, and production of the carbon anodes) and 56 MJ for the electric work of alumina reduction. As the heat content required by the carbon for each kg of aluminium is about 14 MJ, the total energy investment of the aluminium is about 100 MJ/kg [28].
As stated before, it is of advantage to produce the hydrogen at the point of use, therefore, portable systems are required, based on electrochemical oxidation of the aluminium [29], or on the aluminium-water reaction in alkaline conditions, or on the oxidation of mechanochemically or mechanically activated aluminium [29]. Theoretically the electrochemical oxidation has an energy density of 4300 Wh/kg and an electrical efficiency of 55%. Chemical-oxidation technologies with aluminium can reach energy densities of 1040 Wh/kg and electrical efficiencies of 25%. As a reference in the comparison of efficiencies Schwarz et al. [30] stated that power plants which use heat derived from fossil fuels have efficiencies of 53% in the case of natural gas, 48% for crude oil, and 43% for coal.
3. Performance of the aluminium-water reaction
Because of its low equivalent weight, aluminium is an excellent potential producer of hydrogen by weight, though it is outdone in this regard by sodium borohydride, which in hydrolysis can produce 2.4 litres of hydrogen gas per gramme of substance. Aluminium and magnesium have values of 1.245 L and 0.95 L per gramme respectively, while their corresponding hydrides, AlH3 and MgH2, produce 2.24 L g-1 and 1.88 L g-1, respectively [31].
Due to its highly negative redox potential, aluminium should react easily with water, producing hydrogen gas and Al(OH)3 according to the equation:
2Al + 3H2O → 3H2 + Al2O3\n\t\t\t\t
In practice however, aluminium is generally passivated by formation of a tightly adhering surface film. For example, when exposed to air, the surface of aluminium metal is rapidly oxidized to form a tight layer of aluminium oxide, which prevents further penetration of oxygen, thus protecting the underlying metal from further oxidation. This passivation of the aluminium also interferes with the aluminium-water reaction at the interface between metal and liquid. Surface oxidation of the aluminium also comes about as a result of the aluminium-water reaction itself, and may also constitute a limitation to the rate and yield of the reaction. Overcoming these impediments is a central problem in all practical applications of the aluminium-water reaction.
The passivating surface layer of Al2O3 is an amphoteric material, soluble in both strongly acidic and strongly basic aqueous solution. Therefore, both acidic and basic hydrolysis of aluminium can be employed for hydrogen production. However, the corrosive character of the solutions employed in these instances is of disadvantage in practical applications. Accordingly, a large part of the recent research in this area has centred on methods to promote the aluminium-water reaction in neutral or near-neutral conditions, by employing special aluminium alloys, by addition of activators, by mechanical pretreatment of the aluminium, or by irradiation.
For several decades, aluminium alloys with gallium and indium have been studied as highly reactive materials in the aluminium-water reaction, as the minor-metal admixtures cause embrittlement of the metal and destruction of the intergranular bonds and of the passivating aluminium oxide film. The activation of aluminium powders by grinding or co-milling with gallams of various compositions, Ga-In (70:30), Ga-In-Zn (70:25:3), Ga-In-Sn (62:25:13), Ga-In-Sn-Zn (60:25:10:5), leads to significant rates of hydrogen gas evolution on water contact [31] [32]. These are in the range of 14-20 mL g-1 min-1 with powders prepared by soft mechanical treatments, but can be two orders of magnitude higher, at 1000 - 2500 mL g-1 min-1, in the case of the milled powders. The rate of the reaction rises with increasing admixture of the gallam, up to 10 wt%, relative to the aluminium, and with the reaction temperature. The cost of the gallams is, obviously, a consideration; still, a 2%-3% admixture of gallam and a temperature of 60 C bring about hydrogen evolution rates of 2000 mL g-1 min-1. Materials with lower gallium content, however, perform more poorly, and an increase in the concentration of cheaper dopants (Sn, Zn, Pb) is ineffective [33].
Certain aluminum-based composites, generally containing aluminium at 80 wt%, doped with gallium, indium, zinc, or tin, obtained by co-melting of the metallic components, have been studied by powder X-ray diffraction, differential thermal analysis, and EDX [33]. The tests indicated the presence of a crystalline aluminium metal phase, an intermetallic compound, InSn4, and a eutectic in the Ga-In-Sn-Zn system, melting at 6 C, distributed over the grain boundary space. Some of these alloys performed satisfactorily in the aluminium-water reaction, forming hydrogen and amorphous precipitates of the corresponding metal hydroxides; however, they lost effectiveness upon storage at room temperature, and were completely stable only in vacuum at liquid-nitrogen temperature.
Shaytura et al. [34] studied the aluminium-water reaction in the presence of an undisclosed chemical activator which interacts with the OH-groups of the Al(OH)3 formed during the reaction, thereby affecting the pore size distribution in the newly made oxide layer, which facilitates permeation through this layer and thus the hydrogen-forming reaction. Similar effects of better pore-size distribution and faster hydrogen evolution were also obtained by applying an ultrasonic field to the reacting mixture.
Czech and Troczynski [35] found that the passivation of aluminium metal in water in the pH range from 5 to 9 is significantly suppressed when the metal has been milled with inorganic salts, such as KCl o NaCl. Corrosion of this type of aluminium in tap water, with production of hydrogen and precipitation of aluminium hydroxide, at normal pressure and a temperature of about 55 C, is rapid and substantial. By way of example, 92% of the aluminium in the Al-KCl system (milled for 1 h) is corroded in 1 h, in aqueous solution at neutral or near-neutral pH, with liberation of 1.5 mol of hydrogen for each mole of aluminium consumed in the reaction. Apart from gaseous hydrogen, only solid aluminium hydroxides are formed as by-products of the reaction; this is a promising aspect for direct recycling from this system.
Similarly, Alinejad and Mahmoodi [36] proposed a simple method for hydrogen generation, based on highly activated aluminium and water. Activation was achieved by milling aluminium powder with sodium chloride as a nano-miller. The mean rate of hydrogen release per gram of aluminium was 75 ml/min, for powder prepared with a salt/aluminium molar ratio of 1.5, and 100% yield was reached after 40 minutes.
Mahmoodi and Alinejad [37] also reported preparing highly active material for the aluminium-water reaction by ball-milling the metal with a large amount of sodium chloride as a nano-miller, in a dilute argon atmosphere. The powder obtained could be stored for a long time; once submerged in hot water, it was rapidly hydrolysed, and hydrogen was produced in a 100% yield. The rate of hydrogen generation was found to depend critically on the initial water temperature. The heat released in the exothermal aluminium-water reaction was employed to raise the water temperature during the reaction. The mean rate of hydrogen production was 101 and 210 ml/min per 1 g de Al, using initial water temperatures of 55 C y 70 C, respectively. However, distinctly higher rates of hydrogen evolution were achieved (713 mL g-1 min-1) when the aluminium was activated by ball milling with 7 wt% bismuth.
Wang et al. [38] used nanocrystals of metal oxides such as TiO2, Co3O4, Cr2O3, Fe2O3, Mn2O3, NiO, CuO, and ZnO as modifiers in aluminium metal powders to produce hydrogen by a room-temperature reaction with deionised water or tap water. They studied the effect of TiO2 nanocrystals of different crystal size on hydrogen production in the reaction with tap water, and showed that the water quality and the metal-oxide nanocrystals such as TiO2, Co3O4, and Cr2O3 increase hydrogen production by the reaction of the aluminium powder in neutral water at ambient temperature.
Mercury or zinc amalgam have been used as activators to promote the hydrolysis of aluminium [39]. The results showed that in the presence of mercury or zinc amalgam aluminium hydrolysis to generate hydrogen could take place at room temperature, in distilled water. The rate of hydrogen release depended on the reaction temperature, and the maximum rate of hydrogen generation was 43.5 cm3 h-1 cm-2, obtained at 65 C with the zinc-amalgam technique. For this method, the apparent energy of activation for aluminium hydrolysis induced by zinc amalgam had a value 43.4 kJ mol- 1, while in the case of the mercury method it was 74.8 kJ mol-1. The results of the X-ray diffraction analysis showed that the subproduct formed is bayerite.
Deng et al. [40] used three different modification agents, -Al2O3, α-Al2O3, and TiO2, to surface-modify aluminium particles. The selected oxide was ball-milled with the aluminium metal in ethanol suspension, using highly pure Al2O3 spheres. They investigated the effect of different modification agents on hydrogen generation in the reaction of aluminium powder with water. The different modification agents were seen to have different effects on the dynamics of the aluminium-water reaction. In particular, induction times for the reaction increased in the series: -Al2O3-modified aluminium < α-Al2O3-modified < TiO2-modified, interpreted as the series of increasing energy barriers for nucleation of hydrogen bubbles on the variously modified metal surfaces.
Fan et al. [41] prepared a series of aluminium-based materials by ball-milling and/or fusion; they used the techniques of XRD, SEM, and TG-DTA to characterise the samples. They evaluated the effects of different alloying metals, such as Zn, Ca, Ga, Bi, Mg, In, and Sn, on hydrogen generation through hydrolysis in pure water. They found mechanical milling to be preferable to melting as a method to produce aluminium alloys containing metals with low melting points (Ga, In). The addition of Sn, Ga, or In could reduce the hydrolysis rate of the Al-Bi alloy, but the addition of Zn accelerated the hydrolysis of this alloy. Best yields of hydrogen were obtained with quinternary alloys containing Al, Bi, Zn, Ga, and calcium hydride.
Parker et al. [42] developed a process to obtain hydrogen by the reaction of mixtures of finely divided magnesium and finely divided aluminium with seawater, at normal pressure and temperature. The procedure is appropriate for fixed applications where no electric net is available, it requires no or only a minimal supply of electricity. As a side product a mixture of magnesium hydroxide and aluminum hydroxide are obtained; these side products have a high market value as prime materials for the production of thermal and electrical insulation (i.e. heatproof sheathings or linings).
Soler et al. [43] experimented with aluminium strips in aqueous solutions of NaOH or KOH, at alkali concentrations of 1 to 5 M and temperatures between 290 K and 350 K, and found a maximum hydrogen production per gramme of aluminium of 3100 cm3 min-1 with 5 M NaOH at 350 K, while the use of 5 M KOH at 350 K gave a rate of 2900 cm3min-1 per gramme of aluminium.
Macanás et al. [44] examined the effect of the presence of various inorganic salts, at a concentration of 0.01 M, as corrosion promoters in the reaction of metallic aluminium in 0.1 M NaOH at 75 C and found the advantages of 100% yield of hydrogen production, self-initiation without heating, and significant accelerating effects (almost two-fold in the case of NaF, and 1.5-fold with MgCl2, Fe2(SO4)3, Na2SO4, and FeCl3). High rates and good yields of hydrogen were also achieved in the absence of NaOH with the use of mixed solutions of sodium aluminate, sodium stannate, and sodium metaborate, each in concentrations between 0.1 M and 0.5 M. In almost all of these experiments, beginning and end values of pH were between 12 and 13.
The use of solutions containing only sodium aluminate was examined by Soler et al. [45] in comparison with NaOH solutions giving the same initial pH value; similar results both in terms of yields and of maximum hydrogen flow rates were obtained, leaving in doubt whether there is a specific chemical effect of the aluminate, especially as this salt was used in high concentration (0.5 M). For the sodium aluminate case, an Arrhenius energy of activation of 71 kJ mol-1 was determined, interpreted as indicating that the rate-controlling step in the process was a chemical event.
The aluminium-water reaction in the presence of sodium stannate at 0.075 M (Soler et al., [46]) gives interesting results in terms of acceleration. In this case, the reaction is affected from its earliest stages by formation of metallic tin as a by-product, noticeably reducing the hydrogen yield and complicating the product mixture. The energy of activation of the hydrogen formation was determined at 73 kJ mol-1.
Uehara et al. [47] observed that when aluminium metal was cut under water effervescence occurred at the freshly cut surface, which however soon subsided. The method is obviously not applicable as a practical way to produce hydrogen gas; nonetheless, the observation serves to illustrate the problem of rapid passivation under water and the need to address this issue in a realistic manner to produce hydrogen in the aluminium-water reaction, e.g. through addition of appropriate activators.
Watanabe [48] studied the mechanism of the aluminium-water reaction in aluminium powders with particle sizes in the micron and sub-micron range, obtained by mechanical grinding, and came to the following conclusions. Micro-cracks formed at grain boundaries at the surface of the metal particles grow inward, due to corrosion by water. Inside these fissures, unsaturated aluminium atoms (with one free bond or two free bonds, i.e. (Al=) and (Al-)) may conform, with other such atoms, clusters which split the water molecules present in the crack, with initial formation of AlH3, and hydroxylated aluminum species in the crevice wall. The formation of these species creates internal stresses in the metal, extending the micro-cracks, by a kind of micro-tribochemical effect. The AlH3 further reacts with water, producing diatomic hydrogen.
In a simulation using the reactive force-field method (ReaxFF), Russo et al. [49] examined the dynamics of water dissociation at the surface of aluminium nanoclusters, over time periods of up to 70 ps, and with different numbers of total participating water molecules. Interestingly, an optimum water concentration (of about 30 water molecules per Al100 cluster) was found, indicative of two countervailing effects: the need for some additional solvating water molecules to assist the reaction of the aluminium-adsorbed water undergoing reaction, and surface saturation of the aluminium surface at high water concentration, sterically hindering the binding of hydrogen to the cluster.
Table 2 summarises further results reported with different mixtures as prime materials for the aluminium-water reaction. A few examples of the related magnesium-water reaction are also included.
Mixture
Process
Rate of hydrogen production
Source
Hydrogenated Mg3La + water
Hydrolysis, during the first 20 minutes
43.8 ml min-1 g-1
Ouyang et al.
Hydrogenated La2Mg + water
40.1 ml min-1 g-1
Milled Mg + sea water
Hydrolysis, during the first 10 min
90.6 ml min-1 g-1
Zou et al.
Milled Mg/Co (95:5) + sea water
Hydrolysis, during the first minute
575 ml min-1 g-1
Zou et al.
Milled Al/Bi/NaCl (80:15:5) + water
Hydrolysis, during the first 30 min
300 ml min-1 g-1
Fan et al.
Milled Al/Bi/CaH2 (80:10:10) + water
Hydrolysis, during the first 3 min
340ml min-1 g-1
Milled Al/Bi (80:20) + water
Hydrolysis, during the first 30 min
24 ml min-1 g-1
Al-20%wt CaH2
Hydrolysis, during the first 5 min
24 ml min-1 g-1
Ni20Al80 + 0.46 M NaOH
Hydrolysis, during the first 15 min
63 ml min-1 g-1
Hu, et al.
Ni30Al70 + 0.46 M NaOH
Hydrolysis, during the first 15 min
54 ml min-1 g-1
Ni40Al60 + 0.46 M NaOH
Hydrolysis, during the first 20 min
47 ml min-1 g-1
Ni50Al50 + 0.46 M NaOH
Hydrolysis, during the first 60 min
7.3 ml min-1 g-1
Table 2.
Mixtures of water, aluminium, and other materials, for hydrogen production
4. Applications of the aluminium–water reaction
4.1. Thermal energy
A special type of application of the aluminium-water reaction, which emphasizes the thermal aspect, was described by Sabourin et al. [54], who carried out the combustion of nano-aluminium (38 nm diameter particle size) in mixtures of liquid water and hydrogen peroxide. They obtained, at 3.65 MPa argon pressure, mass burning rates per unit area between 6.93 g cm-2 s-1 (at 0% H2O2) and 37.04 g cm-2 s-1 (at 32% H2O2), corresponding to linear burning rates of 9.58 cm s-1 y 58.2 cm s-1, respectively. The difficulty lies in the high cost of the preparation of aluminium on the nanoscale for its combustion [55].
There are various techniques to prepare aluminium on the nanoscale, such as the electro-exploded wire method cited by Kotov [56] and by Kwon et al. [57], explosion in plasma [58], plasma electro-condensation process [59], sol-gel [60], heating evaporation [61], and evaporation [62], for which two routes can be used: induction heating evaporation (IHE) and laser-induction complex heating evaporation (LCHE). For the “IHE” method one uses a chamber which contains an induction coil; in the centre of the coil are located two crucibles, one made of graphite, the other of alumina. The alumina crucible is charged with aluminium of 99.6% purity, while the interior of the chamber holds a dilute argon atmosphere at 10 Pa pressure. The coil is energized at high frequency at an initial power of 5 kW; after several minutes the aluminium metal has melted. The coil is deenergized, and the molten liquid rapidly evaporates; these atoms of evaporated aluminium are collected through collisions with the argon gas, producing in this manner aluminium nanopowders. For the “LCHE” method the equipment is fitted with a continuous-wave 1.6-kW CO2 laser; this laser is switched on when the aluminium has molten and vaporises it rapidly, in the subsequent condensation step aluminium nanopowder is again obtained. The thermal properties were determined by Chen et al. [62] using thermogravimetric (TGA) techniques and differential thermo-analysis (DTA), finding that the temperature peaks were at 560 C and 565 C, and the enthalpy increases were 1.18 kJ/g and 3.54 kJ/g for “IHE” y “LCHE”, respectively.
Shafirovich et al. [63] proposed the use of NaBH4/metal/H2O, were aluminium metal in powder form can be used, thus reducing the extra cost entailed in the preparation of nanoparticulate aluminium. In their experiments they used different stoichiometric ratios, with the result that the mixtures containing powdered aluminium do not burn as easily as when nanoscale aluminium is used. To resolve this problem they added magnesium in powder form as an activator, thus achieving combustion. Here again, the main result is the thermal effect, with only a minor yield of hydrogen.
A different type of thermal application with Al/H20/NaOH, where the aluminium used was the shavings from lathes and milling machines, i.e. aluminium pieces on the centimeter scale, was described by Olivares-Ramírez et al. [64]. In this system, in a first stage hydrolysers are used to obtain hydrogen through the chemical reaction between aluminium, sodium hydroxide, and water, the hydrogen obtained is then passed through water to trap the vapour generated in the original exothermal reaction; finally the hydrogen is burned in air. The second stage consists of a refrigerator based on the ammonia-water absorption principle, energized by the heat produced in the combustion of the hydrogen.
4.2. Fuel cells
Hydrogen is the fuel most frequently used in fuel cells. At present, microfuel cells are being developed for applications in portable electronic devices, to address the problem of hydrogen storage in a portable mode. The difficulty lies in that we do not yet have portable systems for hydrogen storage; for instance, even a small hydrogen container, to energize a laptop computer, would not be allowed onto an airplane. Small aluminium-water reactors, however, could supply this need [65]. The hydrogen could be produced from variegated sources, such as electrical wire, metal hydride, or aluminium foil.
Jung et al. [66] describe a small-scale hydrogen generator, in which two types of additives, NaOH or CaO, are used to control the flow of the hydrogen generated, with the idea that this could be connected to a small fuel cell. In their experiment they feed the reactor, through a micro-pump, with NaOH solution at a rate of 0.2 x 10-6 m3 min-1, at a pressure of 1500 kgf cm-2, and NaOH at concentrations of 5%, 10%, 15% y 20% (w/w), achieving a maximum hydrogen production of 2.65x10-3 m3 using 15% (w/w) NaOH. They also tested mixtures of aluminium with 5% (w/w) NaOH, obtaining the maximal production of hydrogen (3.22 x 10-3 m3) with a CaO:Al mass ratio of 0.1; best performance was obtained at 2000 kgf cm-2.
Shkolnikov et al. [67] presented a 2-W cell-phone consisting of a micro fuel cell and a micro generator for hydrogen based on the aluminium-water reaction. Each gramme of aluminium produces 1.2 -1.8 Wh of electrical energy. In their experimental work they examined three ranges of current density: low current density, i.e. <200 mA cm−2; medium current density, 200–500 mA cm−2, and high current density, >500 mA cm−2. The micro fuel cell used was of the air–hydrogen polymer electrolyte membrane type, the air being supplied by a micro fan which was itself energised by the micro fuel cell.
Wanga et al. [68] used a mini-reactor containing an aqueous sodium hydroxide solution and strips of an alloy consisting to 99% (w/w) of aluminium, connected to a fuel cell, to constitute a portable device. In their work they tried NaOH concentrations of 9%, 17% y 25% (w/w); with the latter concentration they observed the maximum rate of hydrogen production, 247 ml min-1, at an initial temperature of 20 C; once this was coupled to the cell, the latter used hydrogen at a rate of 40 ml min1, producing power values of up to 0.15 W.
In an attempt to use lower-cost aluminium for hydrogen production, Silva et al. [69] used aluminium from empty soft-drink cans. To speed up the reaction they used 2 M NaOH, removing the paint cover of the cans with sulfuric acid, then cutting them into strips to introduce them into the reactor, which produced experimentally 0.049 moles of hydrogen per gramme of aluminium. This hydrogen was then used in a PEM-type fuel cell. The oxygen for the fuel-cell operation was obtained by water electrolysis energized by photovoltaic cells. The fuel cell worked with efficiencies of up 10.14%, and achieved a cell voltage of 150 mV.
A portable generator of 2050 mL capacity has been described by Fan et al. [70], charged with Al-Bi-NaCl, in which the aluminium and the bismuth were in powder form (13 microns) mixed with sodium chloride particles. The mixtures originally evaluated were Al with 10 wt% Bi and 1, 3, 5, or 10 wt% NaCl, where the composition Al-10wt.%Bi–5wt.% NaClgave the best hydrogen yield (1063 mL/g Al). Later experiments examined the addition of zinc, when the highest rate of hydrogen production (1026 mL/g Al) was obtained with the mixture Al-10 wt.%Bi-1 wt.%Zn-2 wt.%NaCl. The authors propose this generator as suitable for use with hydrogen fuel cells.
4.3. Power plants
Vlaskin et al. [71] designed a co-generation power plant in which they used aluminium powders with mean particle sizes of up to 70 µm as the main fuel and water as the main oxidizing agent. The plant can function autonomously (i.e. without connection to the electrical net), without ceasing production of hydrogen, electrical energy, and heat. One of the key components of the pilot plant is water-aluminium in a high pressure reactor projected for hydrogen production at a rate of 10 nm3 h-1. The hydrogen formed flows through a condenser and a dehumidifier with a dew point of -25 C, and enters then a 16-kW hydrogen-air fuel cell. Using 1 kg of aluminium the experimental plant produces 1 kWh of electrical energy and 5 – 7 kWh of heat. Total efficiency of the power plant is 72%, and electrical efficiency is 12%. The electrical efficiency of power plants based on the aluminium-water reaction can be raised by developing devices which use vapour-hydrogen at high temperature to produce electrical energy. They reported that the cost of electrical-energy production in power plants fuelled by aluminium is comparable to the energy costs involved in power generation via the traditional liquid hydrocarbons, while energy generation based on aluminium is a more ecological option.
Rosenband and Gany [72] carried out a parametric study on the aluminium-water method, using a special type of aluminium powder activated by a thermo-chemical process involving a small proportion of a lithium-based activator [73]. The experiments showed a rapid, sustained self-starting reaction between aluminium and water, proceeding even at room temperature, with hydrogen yields of virtually 100% under appropriate conditions. The method demonstrates a safe and compact method of hydrogen storage (11 wt%, based on aluminium). They propose that possible applications would be in fuel cells, as well as in land and sea traffic. The rate of the reaction is independent of the type of water (distilled water, tap water, seawater). The apparent activation energy of the process is about 16.5 kcal/mol.
Silva et al. [74] studied the recycling of aluminium for green energy production, producing high-purity hydrogen gas by the reaction between aluminium and sodium hydroxide at different molar ratios. The results showed acceptable hydrogen yields of sufficient purity for use in PEM fuel cells for electricity generation. A test with 100 aluminium cans reacting with caustic soda showed that hydrogen production would be possible with a scale-up to 5 kWh in few hours. This work is environmentally friendly and shows that green energy can be produced from aluminium residues at low cost. The hydrogen was easily liberated through a spontaneous chemical reaction, and at relatively low cost, through contact of aluminium from discarded cans with aqueous sodium hydroxide solution. They obtained hydrogen of high purity, which they used in a commercial fuel cell to produce electricity. The hydrogen was produced from a recyclable material, without input of energy and without any additional release of contaminants to the air. They also successfully used the by-product obtained, NaAl(OH)4, to produce an aluminium hydroxide gel to treat water contaminated with arsenic.
Zhuk et al. [75] investigated the generation of electricity using low-cost aluminium, and found that suppressing parasitic corrosion while at the same time maintaining the electrochemical activity of the metal anode is one of the main problems affecting the energy efficiency of aluminium-air batteries. The need to employ aluminium alloys or high-purity aluminium causes a significant increase in the cost of the anode, and therefore in the total cost of the energy produced in the aluminium-air battery; this limits possible applications for this type of power source. They stated that the process of parasitic corrosion is itself a possible method of hydrogen production. Hydrogen produced in this manner in an aluminium-air battery can be used in a fuel cell or burnt to produce heat. Different anode materials would be suitable, such as commercial aluminium, aluminium alloys, or secondary aluminium, which are much cheaper than special alloys for aluminium anodes or high-purity aluminium. Their work consisted mainly in a comparison of the cost of energy production with commercial aluminium alloys, high-purity aluminium, and a special Al-In anode alloy, as anode materials for an aluminium-air battery and for the combined production of electrical energy and hydrogen.
Davoodi et al. [76] tested a microscopic device, based on the principles of scanning electrochemical microscopy (SECM), for collecting electric energy off the surface of an aluminum alloy, AA3003, immersed in 0.01 M aqueous sodium chloride. Using a nanometer-scale atomic-force microscope (AFM), the probe would gather the electrochemical current on the aluminium surface, searching for the regions of highest current density. Their results are interesting from a mechanistic point of view, as they document a large variation in local current densities (from 0.45 pA μm-2 for matrix regions to 14.2 pA μm-2 for trenches at intermetallic particles); they probably do not hold out realistic prospects for using this method in an economic sense for energy production.
According to Namba et al. [77] the process of remelting of scrap aluminium produces a slag which contains not only metal oxide, but also other by-products. He reported that in Japan 0.35 million tons of this dross are produced yearly. It is remelted to recover aluminium metal with a concentration of between 10 and several dozen percent by weight. Hiraki and Akiyama [78] proposed a novel system to treat aluminium residues, such as this slag. They evaluated from the point of view of the life cycle the total exergy loss (EXL) in comparison to the EXLs attendant on the co-production of 1 kg of hydrogen at 30 MPa and 26 kg of aluminium hydroxide. The exergy flow diagram shows that the exergy of aluminium residues containing only 15% of the metal by weight is still large, while the exergy of pure aluminium hydroxide is relatively small. The exergy of the proposed system (150.9 MJ) is inferior by 55% compared to the conventional system (337.7 MJ), in which the gas compressor and the production of aluminium hydroxide consume significantly more exergy. The results also show that the exergy analysis should be applied to the life-cycle assessment (LCA) as a critical consideration for practical use, additional to the conventional LCA on the emission of carbon dioxide. When this concentration becomes smaller than 20% by weight due to the remelting, the slag is chemically treated as an inocuous substance by methods such as high-temperature fusion in the electric arc, at a cost of US$200-300 per tonne.
5. Patents on reactors for the aluminum-water reaction
Houser [79] developed an invention on heating systems, and more specifically a device in which the chemical oxidation-reduction reactions would proceed producing heat, but without flame formation, in contrast to most heating systems. The system has a housing whose lower part holds the liquid reagent, e.g. NaOH solution. The solid reactant, e.g. aluminium metal, is immersed in the solution to produce heat and gaseous product, e.g. hydrogen. The position of the container within the deposit is regulated to control the extent of immersion, and the solid reagent inside the container can react with the liquid, producing heat. The hydrogen gas produced rises to the top of the conical cover and exits via a topside conduit to be washed with water and then transferred to storage or used directly via combustion. The water bath insulates the interior of the system, thus precluding combustion of the hydrogen in the system. The sodium aluminate produced in the reaction forms a mud, which is diverted to the drain by an inclined conical wall in the lower part of the housing. To start the system functioning, the lower part of the housing is filled with the solution and the container is raised above the level of the solution. To activate the heating system, the solution is first ohmically heated by an electrical resistance to about 140 C for total efficiency.
Houser [80] describes another gas generator which utilizes spherical pieces of a solid reactive material in contact with a second, liquid reagent. The spheres are moved through the reaction chamber via inclined channels with holes, which could be made e.g. from screen mesh tubing. The liquid reagent is sprayed from dispersion nozzles onto the spheres which move upward via the channels. The solid residues are removed from the spheres through the rolling action of the spheres against the channel walls and washed away by gravity. The liquid reagent is again conducted to a sump, whence it is pumped through a filter to remove the waste product of the reaction; it then is returned to the nozzles in the reaction chamber. The concentration of the liquid reagent is regulated through a sensor in the sump, which controls the addition of concentrated make-up solution. The temperature of the liquid reagent is also controlled by a sensor in the sump or a thermostatic valve in the sediments filter, allowing the liquid to flow through an indirect heat exchanger. The gas generated is delivered from the reaction chamber by its own pressure. Not surprisingly, the preferred embodiment of the invention is the production of hydrogen from aluminium spheres and sodium hydroxide solution.
Andersen and Andersen [81] built a prototype device to produce hydrogen by making aluminium react with water in the presence of sodium hydroxide at between 0.26 M and 19 M. The reaction takes place with effervescence at the metal surface; at the same time, a precipitate collects at the bottom of the container. The zone of effervescence is kept separate from the zone where the precipitate collects. This reduces the possible hindrance of the hydrogen-generating reaction by the precipitate. Satisfactory results are obtained with sodium hydroxide concentrations between 1.2 and 19 M and at temperatures from 4 C to 170 C, with best performance seen at NaOH values between 5 and 10 M and solution temperatures around 75 C.
Andersen and Andersen [82] also constructed another prototype which produces heat and hydrogen gas, all at ambient temperature. Here, aqueous NaOH (18 wt%) half-fills an expandable container which adjusts to the momentary pressure and temperature of the reaction by expanding and contracting, thus controlling the level of immersion of a fuel cartridge containing aluminium filings or shavings or aluminium foil, to manage the intensity and duration of the reaction. The upper part of the container is built from flexible material and joined to the support of the fuel cartridge, so that, as the hydrogen is produced, the internal pressure in the container increases, moving the upper lid and thus lifting the aluminum out of the aqueous sodium hydroxide, thereby stopping the chemical reaction. As the hydrogen is consumed, e.g. by combustion, the internal pressure in the container drops, and the aluminum again gets in contact with the lye, and hydrogen production restarts. This cycle repeats itself until the aluminium is used up.
Troczynski [83] described a hydrogen-generating system based on hydrolysis of a composite aluminium material, at a pH close to neutral, to supply hydrogen to fuel cells or other devices. The process of use involves: (a) Supply of water to the composite material in the reactor vessel to produce the hydrogen (b) Passage of the hydrogen formed from the reactor to a buffer vessel, and (c) liberation of the hydrogen from the buffer vessel to the fuel cell, at a second, lower, pressure which is compatible with the fuel cell. Several reactor vessels and several buffer vessels are monitored by pressure sensors and connected by processor-controlled valves to assure a continuous supply of hydrogen to the fuel cell.
Fullerton [84] developed a recyclable hydrogen generator which uses aluminium, an alkali hydroxide, and water, connected to a user, which could be an internal-combustion engine, a turbine, or a fuel cell. The hydrogen generator safely supplies the hydrogen demand at atmospheric pressure, and it can be stored anywhere at low cost, as it is safe and inert.
6. Conclusions
Interest in hydrogen as an energy carrier is based on considerations of the finite nature of our hydrocarbon resources and of the worldwide deleterious effects of the carbon dioxide emitted during hydrocarbon-based energy production. In this context, the aluminium-water reaction shows interesting possibilities as an energy-providing small or mid-scale reaction. In contrast to gasoline-air based systems, which benefit from the ubiquitous presence of air, the aluminium-water reaction requires that the latter be specifically supplied or brought along; however, the ready availability of water at most places minimizes the importance of this consideration.
An attractive feature of the aluminium-water reaction as a way to produce hydrogen gas on demand is its essential simplicity. Obviously, in its most basic form, the reaction is fundamentally hampered by passivation of the metal, but this can be overcome by the use of strongly alkaline conditions. However, the corrosiveness of such conditions is a distinct drawback; for this reason, extensive research has centred in recent years on means of maintaining an active metal surface in aqueous conditions at neutral or near-neutral pH, e.g. by the use of aluminium alloys. Research in these aspects is likely to remain important in the immediate future.
Large-scale application of the aluminium-water reaction appears less promising and is unlikely to replace to any significant extent the more established modalities, e.g. energy storage in battery banks.
\n',keywords:null,chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/40232.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/40232.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/40232",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/40232",totalDownloads:9609,totalViews:541,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:9,totalAltmetricsMentions:1,impactScore:3,impactScorePercentile:89,impactScoreQuartile:4,hasAltmetrics:1,dateSubmitted:"December 31st 2011",dateReviewed:"April 23rd 2012",datePrePublished:null,datePublished:"October 17th 2012",dateFinished:"October 17th 2012",readingETA:"0",abstract:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/40232",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/40232",book:{id:"2795",slug:"hydrogen-energy-challenges-and-perspectives"},signatures:"J.M. Olivares-Ramírez, Á. Marroquín de Jesús, O. Jiménez-Sandoval and R.C. Pless",authors:[{id:"149465",title:"Dr.",name:"Reynaldo C.",middleName:null,surname:"Pless",fullName:"Reynaldo C. Pless",slug:"reynaldo-c.-pless",email:"rcpless@yahoo.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"150137",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan Manuel",middleName:null,surname:"Olivares-Ramírez",fullName:"Juan Manuel Olivares-Ramírez",slug:"juan-manuel-olivares-ramirez",email:"jmolivar01@yahoo.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"150138",title:"Dr.",name:"Ángel",middleName:null,surname:"Marroquín de Jesús",fullName:"Ángel Marroquín de Jesús",slug:"angel-marroquin-de-jesus",email:"a_marroquin2003@yahoo.com.mx",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"150140",title:"Dr.",name:"Omar",middleName:null,surname:"Jiménez-Sandoval",fullName:"Omar Jiménez-Sandoval",slug:"omar-jimenez-sandoval",email:"ojimenez@qro.cinvestav.mx",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Overview",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"2.1. Hydrogen production.",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"2.2. Aluminium production",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5",title:"3. Performance of the aluminium-water reaction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_6",title:"4. Applications of the aluminium–water reaction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"4.1. Thermal energy",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7_2",title:"4.2. Fuel cells",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8_2",title:"4.3. Power plants",level:"2"},{id:"sec_10",title:"5. Patents on reactors for the aluminum-water reaction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_11",title:"6. Conclusions",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'BauenA.\n\t\t\t\t\t2006\n\t\t\t\t\tFuture energy sources and systems-Acting on climate change and energy security. Journal of Power Sources. 157\n\t\t\t\t\t893901 .'},{id:"B2",body:'LiuL.LuA.LuZ.ZhangP.\n\t\t\t\t\t2006\n\t\t\t\t\tEffect of material flows on energy intensity in process industries. LiuL.LuA.LuZ.ZhangP. 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E.\n\t\t\t\t\t1995\n\t\t\t\t\tModeling the synthesis of aluminum particles by evaporation-condensation in an aerosol flow reactor. NanoStructured Materials. 5\n\t\t\t\t\t755767 .'},{id:"B62",body:'ChenL.SongW. L.GuoL. G.XieC. S.\n\t\t\t\t\t2009\n\t\t\t\t\tThermal property and microstructure of Al nanopowders produced by two evaporation routes. Transactions of the Nonferrous Metals Society of China. 19\n\t\t\t\t\t187191 .'},{id:"B63",body:'ShafirovichE.DiakovV.VarmaA.\n\t\t\t\t\t2007\n\t\t\t\t\tCombustion-assisted hydrolysis of sodium borohydride for hydrogen generation. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy. 32\n\t\t\t\t\t207211 .'},{id:"B64",body:'Olivares-RamírezJ. M.CastellanosR. H.Marroquín deJesús. Á.Borja-ArcoE.PlessR. C.\n\t\t\t\t\t2008\n\t\t\t\t\tDesign and development of a refrigeration system energized with hydrogen produced from scrap aluminum. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy. 33\n\t\t\t\t\t26202626 .'},{id:"B65",body:'KunduA.JangJ. H.GilJ. H.JungC. R.LeeH. R.KimS. H.KuB.OhY. S.\n\t\t\t\t\t2007 Micro-fuel cells-Current development and applications. Journal of Power Sources. 170\n\t\t\t\t\t6778 .'},{id:"B66",body:'JungC. R.KunduA.KuB.GilJ. H.LeeH. R.JangJ. H.\n\t\t\t\t\t2008\n\t\t\t\t\tHydrogen from aluminium in a flow reactor for fuel cell applications. Journal of Power Sources. 175\n\t\t\t\t\t490494 .'},{id:"B67",body:'ShkolnikovE.VlaskinM.IljukhinA.ZhukA.SheindlinA.\n\t\t\t\t\t2008 2 W power source based on air-hydrogen polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cells and water-aluminum hydrogen micro-generator. Journal of Power Sources. 185\n\t\t\t\t\t967972 .'},{id:"B68",body:'Wang ED, Shi PF, Du CY, Wang XR.\n\t\t\t\t\t2008\n\t\t\t\t\tA mini-type hydrogen generator from aluminum for proton exchange membrane fuel cells. Journal of Power Sources. 181\n\t\t\t\t\t144148 .'},{id:"B69",body:'SilvaMartínez. S.AlbañilSánchez. L.ÁlvarezGallegos.AASebastianP. J.\n\t\t\t\t\t2007\n\t\t\t\t\tCoupling a PEM fuel cell and the hydrogen generation from aluminum waste cans. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy. 32\n\t\t\t\t\t31593162 .'},{id:"B70",body:'FanM. Q.SunL. X.XuF.\n\t\t\t\t\t2010\n\t\t\t\t\tExperiment assessment of hydrogen production from activated aluminum alloys in portable generator for fuel cell applications. Energy. 35\n\t\t\t\t\t29222926 .'},{id:"B71",body:'Vlaskin MS, Shkolnikov EI, Bersh AV, Zhuk AZ, Lisicyn AV, Sorokovikov AI, Pankina YV.\n\t\t\t\t\t2011 An experimental aluminum-fueled power plant. Journal of Power Sources. 196: 8828-8835:\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B72",body:'RosenbandV.GanyA.\n\t\t\t\t\t2010\n\t\t\t\t\tApplication of activated aluminum powder for generation of hydrogen from water. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy. 35\n\t\t\t\t\t1089810904 .'},{id:"B73",body:'RosenbandV.GanyA.\n\t\t\t\t\t2010 Composition and methods for hydrogen generation. U. S. Patent Application US2010/0173225A1.'},{id:"B74",body:'SilvaMartínez. S.LópezBenites. W.ÁlvarezGallegos.AASebastiánP. J.\n\t\t\t\t\t2005\n\t\t\t\t\tRecycling of aluminum to produce green energy. Solar Energy Materials & Solar Cells. 88\n\t\t\t\t\t237243 .'},{id:"B75",body:'Zhuk AZ, Sheindlin AE, Kleymenov BV, Shkolnikov EI, Lopatin MY.\n\t\t\t\t\t2006\n\t\t\t\t\tUse of low-cost aluminum in electric energy production. Journal of Power Sources. 157\n\t\t\t\t\t921926 .'},{id:"B76",body:'DavoodiA.PanJ.LeygrafC.ParviziR.\n\t\t\t\t\t2011\n\t\t\t\t\tMinuscule device for hydrogen generation/electrical energy collection system on aluminum alloy surface. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy. 36\n\t\t\t\t\t28552859 .'},{id:"B77",body:'NambaM.Ohnishi\n\t\t\t\t\t2003\n\t\t\t\t\tAppropriate disposal and recycling of aluminum dross. 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United States Patent Application US 2007/0207085 A1.'},{id:"B84",body:'FullertonL. W.inventor\n\t\t\t\t\t2009 Oct. 8) Aluminum-alkali hydroxide recyclable hydrogen generator. United States Patent Application US 2009/0252671 A1.'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"J.M. Olivares-Ramírez",address:null,affiliation:'
Universidad Tecnológica de San Juan del Río, San Juan del Río, Querétaro,, México
'},{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Á. Marroquín de Jesús",address:null,affiliation:'
Universidad Tecnológica de San Juan del Río, San Juan del Río, Querétaro,, México
Centro de Investigación en Ciencia Aplicada y Tecnología Avanzada del IPN, Unidad Querétaro,, México
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1. Introduction
Biochar (biomass-derived char) is a versatile renewable source and is gaining popularity due to its diverse raw material sources, high porosity, large surface area, surface functional groups, and high treatment efficacy for a variety of contaminants [1]. Biochar is produced from three types of materials (plant residue, sewage sludge, and animal litter) that are pyrolyzed with little or no oxygen (typically below 1000°C) [2]. Biochar production not only deals with waste, but also benefit from waste, for example, pyrolysis of sewage sludge can reduce pollutants and turn it into a valuable resource [3]. Therefore, it is a great way to make biochar out of solid waste. Because of its unique properties, biochar has sparked widespread concern about its potential for use in the environment [4]. As indicated by the increase in the number of published publications regarding biochar in the last 10 years, it has gotten a lot of attention (Figure 1). Biochar\'s main technique for removing contaminants and remediating the environment is sorption. And, biochar\'s sorption capacity is directly related to its physiochemical features, such as surface area, pore size distribution, functional groups, and cation exchange capacity, which vary depending on the preparation conditions [4]. Like, biochar produced at high temperatures has a larger surface area and carbon content than biochar produced at lower temperatures, due to the rising micro-pore volume caused by the elimination of volatile organic molecules at high temperatures [4]. The yields of biochar, on the other hand, decreases as the temperature goes up [6]. Therefore, in terms of biochar yields and adsorption capacity, an ideal synthesis method is required. To increase its physiochemical characteristics, biochar can further be modified with different chemicals like acids, alkalis, oxidizing agents, and ions for various environmental processes [7]. Due to its own properties such as large surface area, recalcitrance, and catalysis, biochar has been widely used in environmental applications such as soil remediation, carbon sequestration, water treatment, and wastewater treatment. In addition, biochar\'s application for energy and as an agricultural amendment is not a new concept. Biochar has also found its application in climate change mitigation and as a renewable energy source [8]. Biochar\'s use in engineering applications has received far less attention, despite the fact that economic estimates for biochar production for direct agricultural use have been poor for some time [9]. To that aim, a summary of our current understanding of biochar\'s potential for use in a variety of environmental remediation applications, as well as emerging obstacles and prospects for biochar usage in environmental remediation, is discussed below.
Figure 1.
The number of articles published in recent 10 years. (Source: [5]).
2. Biochar mechanisms for contaminants removal
Biochar\'s function mostly refers to its ability to uptake (e.g., sorption) other substances. The sorption of biochar can be divided into two categories, chemical sorption and physical sorption. Moreover, in term of biochar’s interaction with other substances, there are three types of interactions: sorption, catalysis, and redox as shown in Figure 2. Sorption is a major environmental process that has a major impact on pollutant biogeochemistry. In sorption, the surface properties of biochar, which includes surface functional groups (carboxyl, carbonyl, phenolic–OH, ester, aliphatic, aromatic, hydroxyl, amino, and azyl groups), surface charges, and free radicals, are important for the behaviour of the interface between biochar and organic and inorganic pollutants, as it provides important sites for sorption and catalytic degradation of pollutants. These functional groups can form hydrogen bonds with other substances, As a result, Biochar can adsorb a variety of pollutants, including organic compounds, metals, nutrients, gases, and microbes [11, 12]. Moreover, the removal of some contaminants are also achieved by partitioning, electrostatic interaction, and pore-filling between biochar and pollutants and depends largely on biochar and pollutant characteristics [5]. Biochar also aids in the transformation of abiotic contaminants through various methods such as free radicals mediated transformation. Free radicals on the surface of biochar can react with chemicals like hydrogen peroxide and persulfate and promote the breakdown of organic pollutants [13]. Apart from that, biochar surfaces contain a variety of catalytic sites, such as quinone and phenolic functional groups, as well as persistent free radicals (PFRs), they enable biochar-mediated pollutants transformation [14]. For example, surface functional groups like quinones, convert sulphide into polysulfides, which accelerates the breakdown of azo dyes by increasing electron transport [14]. PFRs on the surface of biochar have a high reactivity and act as a catalyst in pollutant breakdown [13]. Also, the dissolved fractions in biochar, which are primarily composed of aliphatic and aromatic with quinone-like structures, has been tested and found to enhance the photochemical transformation of many organic pollutants by generating reactive intermediates or reactive oxygen species (ROS) [15]. Surface redox active moieties are the main contributors to the redox of biochar even though there are only a handful of relevant reports in publication so far. The surface redox-active moieties in biochar can directly react with pollutants via non-radical pathways, as well as activate some oxidants to form reactive radicals like OH and SO4. For example, OH generated from the activation of H2O2 in biochar reduces about 20% of p-nitrophenol (PNP); however, about 80% of PNP is degraded by directly interacting with reactive sites, most likely the hydroquinone in biochar. Therefore, biochar not only enhances the degradation or transformation of pollutants by facilitating the transfer of electrons as a catalyst, but it can also directly react with pollutants, which will have a significant influence on the environmental behaviour of contaminant [16]. Apart from that, In terms of element composition, the major elements that make up the matrix of biochar are C, H, O, and N, while other elements like Si, P, and S have varying mass percentages in different biochars and play a special or even major role in sorption of various other specific pollutants. For example the sorption of Pb and Al on biochar is attributed to coprecipitation with P and Si in the biochar as Pb5 (PO4)3 (OH) and KAlSi3O8, respectively. An overview of metal ion precipitation and coprecipitation is shown in Figure 2. Ion exchange is another crucial phenomenon in the sorption of some heavy metals by biochar [11]. Furthermore, in biochar, there are two different phases: organic and inorganic. By raising pyrolysis temperatures, which results in increased surface area, pore volume, and aromaticity, sorption mechanisms evolved from partitioning-dominant to adsorption-dominant, and sorption components developed from polar-selective to porosity-selective [4, 17]. Furthermore, due to the movement of the organic components from aliphatic to aromatic, the sorption rate shows a transitional process: from fast to slow, then back to fast. In terms of inorganic components, it was discovered that ash has a catalytic effect on the formation of biochar with more orderly graphitic structures during the pyrolysis process; additionally, deashing after pyrolysis increases hydrophobic sorption sites, favouring the sorption of hydrophobic organic contaminants [10]. Therefore, the surface structure, functional groups and surface area and mechanisms of these functional groups are observed in the removal of pollutants.
Figure 2.
Biochar remediation mechanisms. (Source: [10]).
3. Environmental remediation by biochar
3.1 Soil remediation and amelioration
Biochar can be used to clean up soil pollution caused by organic contaminants and heavy metals. Soil remediation using biochar is mostly accomplished by sorption and the mechanisms involved are surface complexation, hydrogen binding, electrostatic attractions, acid-base interactions, and π–π interactions as shown in Figure 3. For example, biochar produced from Carya tomentosa (a tree in the Juglandaceae or walnut family) and Pecan (Carya illinoinensis) (the tree is cultivated for its seed in the southern United States) can adsorb Clomazone and Bispyribac sodium (herbicides used in agriculture) in soil, and effectively reduce the leaching of clomazone and bispyribac sodium. Similarly, sawdust-derived biochar and wheat straw-derived biochar, on adding to the soil, significant reduces the polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) [13]. Table 1 shows how adding biochar to soil can help remove several forms of organic contaminants. However, there are several factors such as the types of feedstock, the applied dose, the targeted pollutants, and their concentrations all affect the removal of organic pollutants in soil by biochar. Biochar has the potential to absorb heavy metal ions as well in soil. The heavy metal adsorption mechanism on biochar includes surface complexation, precipitation, cation exchange, chemical reduction, and electrostatic attraction [29]. For example, the adsorption of Pb, Cd, Cr, Cu, and Zn by sesame straw-derived biochar demonstrates varied adsorption capacities for each among them. Pb absorption is the highest in biochar among the metals. Furthermore, when the metals are present together, Cd adsorbed on by sesame biochar is easily replaced by other metal ions. And water hyacinth-derived biochar can adsorb around 90% of As (V) whereas rice straw-derived biochar is able to adsorb Zn2+ [30, 31]. Adsorption of antibiotics like sulfamethazine on biochar increases and subsequently decreases with pH, which affects the surface charge of both biochar and sulfamethazine, and the sorption processes evolve from electron donor–acceptor interaction to negative charge-assisted H-bond. And, metal ion adsorption occurs on the biochar surface\'s proton-active carboxyl and phenolic hydroxyl functional groups, and adsorption increased with pH in the range of pH 7. Apart from that, ion exchange and cation bonding are also found responsible for the sorption of K+ and Cd2+ by [32]. The types of feedstock and experimental conditions have a big impact on the removal efficiencies. A number of parameters affect the adsorption capacity of biochar, including pH, surface functional groups, porosity, surface charge, and mineral composition. Therefore, when biochar is used as a remediation method, optimization of various parameters should be done based on the targeted organic contaminants. Table 2 summarizes the removal of heavy metals from soil by biochar. Tables show how different biochars remove organic pollutants and heavy metals at varying rates. As shown in the Table 2, the types of biochar used and heavy metals are so different, it is difficult to compare them [46, 47]. Because different biochars have distinct physiochemical properties, they have varying adsorption capacities for inorganic and organic contaminants. As a result, selecting the right feedstock is more significant for removing impurities than adjusting the pyrolysis temperature or changing the surface characteristics of biochar [19]. Additionally, modification of biochar is another option for increasing the removal capability of heavy metals. Apart from the removal of organic contaminants and heavy metal from soil, biochar can neutralize acidic soil, boost cation exchange capacity, and improve soil fertility, for example, the acidity of soil can be enhanced by 2 units after 1 month of treatment with soy bean stover-derived biochar and oak-derived biochar. Moreover, the cation exchange capacity can be increased significantly with 5% biochar. As a result, it aided maize growth and with 3% biochar [13]. The addition of biochar made from bamboo also enhances maize production and growth [8]. The addition of biochar to soil improves soil fertility due to the following reasons: (1) increased water retention capacity (2) increased soil aggregate stability; (3) reduction of soil compaction; and (4) decreased soil bulk density and increased porosity. The aforementioned factors may encourage root growth, boosting crop growth and yields even more. However, based on varied soil and feedstock, the most important reason for improving soil fertility needs to be investigated further.
Figure 3.
Biochar mechanisms in soil for contaminants removal. (Source: [18]).
The process of storing carbon in soil organic matter and thereby removing carbon dioxide from the atmosphere is known as carbon sequestration. As part of attempts to establish climate resilient agriculture practices, the idea of using biochar to trap carbon in the soil has gotten a lot of attention in recent years. Biochar (biological charcoal) is a carbon sink that absorbs carbon from the atmosphere and stores it on agricultural grounds. Biochar is biologically inert, allowing it to retain fixed carbon in the soil for years to millennia while also absorbing net carbon from the atmosphere [20]. In addition, agriculture fixes 30 gigatons of carbon per year, but 30 gigatons of carbon return to the atmosphere as the plants die, resulting in no net change. When Biochar is combined with compost, soil, and plants, it recovers and stores a significant amount of carbon in the ground, resulting in a continuous and significant reduction in atmospheric greenhouse gas (GHG) levels. In recent years, climate change has sparked an increased interest in lowering carbon dioxide emissions into the atmosphere. Soil, being a major carbon sink, plays a critical role in the global carbon cycle, which has a direct impact on climate change. Carbon sequestration has offered as a strategy to reduce carbon dioxide emissions. Biochar has a great resistance to biodegradation due to its extremely condensed aromatic structure. As a result, biochar is thought to have a positive impact on soil carbon sequestration. Many investigations have been carried out to determine the impact of biochar on soil for carbon sequestration. However, due to the variability in carbon dioxide emissions, no consistent result can be presented. For example, adding carbon from fire to soil increased soil organic carbon turnover. However, adding biochar made of wood sawdust to soil inhibited carbon mineralization, resulting in more carbon sequestration. The mineralization of soil organic matter after the addition of biochar is shown to be higher in low-fertility soils than in high-fertility soils [21]. Carbon mineralization is also higher in soils with low organic carbon concentration than in soils with high organic carbon content. Also, the application of biochar to soil has found an increase in the rate of organic matter decomposition. This so-called "priming effect" affects carbon sequestration efforts since increased microbial activity might lead to breakdown rates exceeding carbon input rates. While the exact mechanism causing this impact has yet to be determined, it could be due to the increase of microbial activity as bacteria consume the carbon and nitrogen in biochar. However, the carbon in biochar can be separated into two types: liable and recalcitrant carbon. When biochar is introduced to the soil, soil microbes may quickly consume available carbon, resulting in an increase in carbon mineralization at first. This explains why adding biochar to soil accelerates carbon mineralization. Moreover, recalcitrant carbon content in biochar is significantly higher than labile carbon concentration. In soil, recalcitrant carbon can persist for a long time. As a result, the carbon input generated by biochar is more than the carbon outflow induced by relevant carbon mineralization. And, shorter pyrolysis times and higher pyrolysis temperatures, according to recent research [4], result in more recalcitrant biochar (i.e., it persists for longer periods in the soil). However, these pyrolysis conditions yields less biochar per unit feedstock, there are trade-offs. The effect of biochar addition on carbon sequestration is largely unknown in general. The priming impact varies depending on the feedstock and pyrolysis conditions, suggesting that the relationship between biochar\'s effect and feedstock type must be investigated further. The inherent properties of biochar, as determined by feedstock and pyrolysis conditions, interact with environmental factors like precipitation and temperature to determine how long biochar carbon is held in the soil. Soil texture, as is typically the case, plays an important influence in the stability of biochar carbon. Biochar interacts with soil particles to stabilize itself in the soil.
However, numerous uncertainties remain about the efficiency of biochar in carbon sequestration. It is also crucial to investigate the link between pyrolysis conditions and biochar\'s carbon sequestration ability. While biochar contains a lot of carbon, it is unclear how long that carbon will stay in the soil after it has been applied. In terms of boosting soil carbon reserves and combating climate change, biochar remains a hot topic. Many uncertainties remain, however, before definitive conclusions can be drawn about what conditions allow biochar to contribute positively to soil carbon sequestration.
3.3 In organic solid waste composting
The constant increase in solid waste seems to have a negative impact on human society\'s long-term development, which has raised numerous concerns. Organic waste accounts for around half of all solid waste generated. The ability to effectively treat organic solid waste is critical for successful solid waste disposal. Composting has received a lot of attention as a waste treatment method because of its benefits, such as low cost. Composting is a biological process that takes place. Organic matter from raw materials is exposed to biological breakdown during the process. Biochar has a direct influence on microbes, which has an impact on composting. Many researches have been carried out to see how biochar affects the composting of organic waste. The following are the effects of biochar on microorganisms during the composition of organic solid waste: (1) providing a habitat for microorganisms; (2) providing ideal growing conditions for microorganisms; (3) enriching the microbial diversity. It is documented that biochar addition accelerated the decomposition of organic solid waste due to the favorable effect of biochar addition on composting. Table 3 shows the impact of adding biochar to the composting process. In general, adding biochar to compost has a good impact on the process. The priming effect, on the other hand, can be overlooked in low-fertility, alkaline, temperate soil. The type of soil affects the performance of biochar in compositing [22]. Furthermore, the types and doses of biochar, as well as the soil types, have a significant impact on the composting of organic solid waste. As a result, a biochar application strategy should be developed depending on the characteristics of organic solid waste composting and soil. Furthermore, it was discovered that bacterial consortiums combined with biochar can stimulate microbial activity to accelerate degradation, increase bacterial community richness, and change the specific selection of bacteria, providing a method for effectively improving microbial activity and enhancing organic solid waste degradation.
Increase microbial number and activity while having no influence on the amount of copper available.
Table 3.
Impact of adding biochar to the composting process.
3.4 Decontamination of water and wastewater
Many studies have demonstrated that biochar may adsorb contaminants from water and wastewater, including both organic and inorganic pollutants. Antibiotics, for example, are becoming common organic contaminants in the environment. Sludge-derived biochar has been shown to be a cost-effective and reusable adsorbent for the elimination of antibacterial drugs. Table 4 shows how biochar can remove organic pollutants from water via adsorption [68, 69].
The adsorption of pollutants by biochar in water depends on the physiochemical characteristics of targeted pollutants and the types of biochar. For example, the sawdust-derived biochar can remove entirely 20.3 mg/l of sulfamethoxazole while wood-derived biochar demonstrates substantially lower removal effectiveness of sulfamethoxazole (20–30%). For biochar obtained from organic farm, it demonstrates the lowest removal effectiveness of sulfamethoxazole (<6%) [23]. Varying pyrolysis temperatures led in different tetracycline removal efficiencies for biochar generated with rice husk [24]. The removal efficiency of tetracycline ranged from 26% to 60% when the pyrolysis temperature was 800°C and the initial concentration of tetracycline was 200 mg/l. When the pyrolysis temperature was 500°C and the initial tetracycline concentration was 5 mg/l, the removal efficiency was around 90%. It is therefore, established that pyrolysis temperature had important effect on the adsorption capacity of biochar. Other parameters such as pyrolysis time, in addition to pyrolysis temperature, can influence the physiochemical characteristics of biochar, which in turn affects the adsorption capacity of biochar. Heavy metal contamination is a major problem that requires immediate attention. Heavy metals can be removed from the aquatic environment using adsorption as well. Biochar\'s ability to remove heavy metal ions is listed in Table 5 [80]. The removal of heavy metals by biochar is dependent on the types of heavy metals and the types of feedstock, similar to the removal of organic pollutants by biochar. Biochar has a lower removal capacity for Cd2+ and As5+ than other heavy metals like Pb2+ and Zn2+ among the major heavy metals [25]. Biochar produced from corn straw, for example, had a different Cu2+ adsorption capability like 0.1 g/l of biochar can remove 1 mM of Cu2+ when the pyrolysis temperature is set at 800°C. And, when the pyrolysis temperature is set to 400°C, 20 g/l biochar can remove 20 mg/l Cu2+ [26]. Similarly, biochar produced from water hyacinths shows different adsorption capacities for Cd2+ and Pb2+, demonstrating that biochar adsorption capability varies depending on the targeted heavy metals. Zhang et al. [27] discovered that biochar prepared at high temperatures was effective in removing Cr (VI). A recent study found that sludge-derived biochar may successfully remove ammonium by monolayer chemical adsorption [59], implying that competition adsorption occurred when biochar was utilised as adsorbents for the removal of heavy metals and organic pollutants in the presence of ammonium. It should be highlighted that the adsorption capacity of the functional groups-modified biochar is clearly improved by the functional groups. The amino-modified biochar, for example, significantly increases the adsorption of Cu (II) due to strong complexation [60]. Moreover, biochar can enrich microorganisms, which can aid in the removal of organic matter, in addition to adsorption. [48] discovered that the proportion of Archaea was significantly greater in the presence of fruitwood-derived biochar, which relieved the stress of ammonia and acids on the microbes, raising microbial activity even more. Lu et al. [35] discovered a similar phenomenon as well. When using biochar for water and wastewater treatment, it\'s important to keep in mind that it can be recycled and reused. Based on the foregoing findings, biochar performs well in batch experiments in removing the contaminants of concern. However, various contaminants coexist in water and wastewater. Competitive adsorption may occur, resulting in results that differ from those obtained in the laboratory. In addition, the adsorption of contaminants by biochar may be affected by actual flow conditions. As a result, more research should be done in the lab to imitate the real-world condition and study the efficacy of biochar in the removal of contaminants.
Biochar is a good building material for insulating buildings and managing humidity because of its low thermal conductivity and capacity to absorb water. Biochar, together with cement mortar clay and lime, can be used with sand in a 1: 1 ratio. As a result, the plaster made using this technology has excellent insulation and breathing capabilities, allowing it to sustain humidity levels of 45–70% in both summer and winter. This prevents dry air, which can cause respiratory problems and allergies, as well as moisture caused by air condensing on the outer walls, which can lead to mould growth [27].
4. Future research
The capacity to carefully adjust the structure and chemistry of biochar at nanoscale (nm) scales allows certain aspects of the biochar to be altered to target certain environmental engineering solutions, comparable to the proposed "designer biochar" for agricultural uses. It is crucial to remember, however, that once in the field; biochar characteristics do not remain constant over time. Even at ambient temperatures, ageing, oxidation, and microbial degradation can modify surface functional groups and chemistry, affecting sorption characteristics. The list of biochar\'s potential engineering applications is continually growing. Due to its unique magnetic properties, magnetic biochar opens the door to facilitating removal of various contaminants from soil or other media. This broadens the scope of biochar\'s possible use in environmental remediation.
5. Environmental concern of biochar
Along with the widespread use of biochar, it may have some disadvantages which may lead to harmful impact on the environment. When using bio-char in the environment, one of the most crucial aspects to consider is stability. The carbon structure makes up the majority of biochar. Biochar stability refers to the stability of the carbon structure in general. Aromaticity and the degree of aromatic condensation in biochar are markers of its carbon structure. Biochar stability must be considered because different biochars have varying physiochemical properties. Due to the instability of biochar, Huang et al. [28] observed the potential dissolution of organic matter from biochar in the complexation of heavy metals, implying that dissolved organic matter from biochar can be discovered in solution. Furthermore, the aromaticity, stability, and resistivity of the dissolved organic matter may be high. When biochar is used in the treatment of water and wastewater, the carbon content of the water body may rise due to the release of carbon from the biochar. Furthermore, biochar, particularly sludge-derived biochar, includes heavy metals, which may leach out during the water and wastewater treatment process, resulting in heavy metal contamination. When biochar is used as a catalyst support, the catalyst\'s stability tends to deteriorate after a few uses. One reason for the lower catalyst stability could be charcoal structural degradation. As a result, biochar stability is also linked to water and wastewater treatment quality. In conclusion, the stability of biochar has a significant impact on its environmental applicability. As a result, more research is needed in the future to determine the stability of biochar. Because pyrolysis conditions can change carbon content and structure however, research into the relationship between biochar stability and pyrolysis conditions is important. Biochar\'s possible toxicity on microorganisms should be considered in addition to its stability. Biochar increases the enzymatic activities of soil microorganisms at low doses, according to Gong et al. [75], demonstrating that low doses of biochar had no toxicity on the bacteria. Dong et al. [79] shown that Fe3O4-modified bamboo biochar has a low cytotoxicity potential. In contrast, high doses of tobacco stem-derived biochar exhibited cytotoxic and genotoxic effects in epithelial cells through promoting ROS production. As previously stated, biochar has a wide range of physical and chemical properties. More research into the potential toxicity of biochar to the environment is needed to support its effective application. Fish, algae, water fleas, and luminous bacteria can all be used to conduct toxicity tests.
6. Conclusions and remarks
This chapter provided an overview of biochar application and its interaction with other substances, focusing on its use in environmental remediation. Firstly, the raw material especially waste materials used for biochar production offers a treatment option for wastes that contributes to environmental sustainability. Furthermore, biochar\'s practical applicability is aided by its low-cost feedstock and simple preparation technique. Biochar has the ability to remediate, improve soil, and mitigate climate change, all of which contribute to environmental sustainability. However, the primary explanation for the increase in soil fertility remained unknown, and the work on the impact of biochar on carbon sequestration needs to be conducted and understood. Composting organic waste using biochar can help promote biological decomposition of organic waste. However, different doses of biochar were required for various organic wastes and biochar kinds. As a result, a biochar application strategy should be developed depending on the characteristics of organic solid waste composting and soil. Biochar can be employed as absorbents in the decontamination of water and wastewater, but its adsorption capacity and stability must be improved. Biochar can activate persulfate, which can be used to remove hazardous organic pollutants from water and wastewater, however the relationship between biochar structure and persulfate activation needs to be studied further to figure out how it works. In conclusion, biochar has a bright future in improving environmental sustainability. The majority of bio-char research is currently being done in laboratories. Biochar\'s environmental impact has yet to be fully understood. Furthermore, the real world is more complex than the laboratory, resulting in ambiguity about biochar\'s environmental impact. More in situ tests are needed to determine the true impact of biochar on the environment, such as environmental microorganisms, before it is used on a broad basis. Furthermore, the preparation conditions of biochar for industrial use must be enhanced depending on the various environmental reasons.
\n',keywords:"biochar, biochar properties, biochar reactivity, environmental remediation",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/82494.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/82494.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/82494",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/82494",totalDownloads:2,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:"May 7th 2022",dateReviewed:"May 16th 2022",datePrePublished:"July 2nd 2022",datePublished:null,dateFinished:"July 2nd 2022",readingETA:"0",abstract:"The environment is deteriorating rapidly, and it is essential to restore it as soon as possible. Biochar is a carbon-rich pyrolysis result of various organic waste feedstocks that has generated widespread attention due to its wide range of applications for removing pollutants and restoring the environment. Biochar is a recalcitrant, stable organic carbon molecule formed when biomass is heated to temperatures ranging from 300°C to 1000°C under low (ideally zero) oxygen concentrations. The raw organic feedstocks include agricultural waste, forestry waste, sewage sludge, wood chips, manure, and municipal solid waste, etc. Pyrolysis, gasification, and hydrothermal carbonization are the most frequent processes for producing biochar due to their moderate operating conditions. Slow pyrolysis is the most often used method among them. Biochar has been utilised for soil remediation and enhancement, carbon sequestration, organic solid waste composting, water and wastewater decontamination, catalyst and activator, electrode materials, and electrode modification and has significant potential in a range of engineering applications, some of which are still unclear and under investigation due to its highly varied and adjustable surface chemistry. The goal of this chapter is to look into the prospective applications of biochar as a material for environmental remediation.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/82494",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/82494",signatures:"Dinesh Chandola and Smita Rana",book:{id:"11537",type:"book",title:"Biochar - Productive Technologies, Properties and Application",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Biochar - Productive Technologies, Properties and Application",slug:null,publishedDate:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Mattia Bartoli, Dr. Mauro Giorcelli and Prof. Alberto Tagliaferro",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11537.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:null,isbn:"978-1-80356-252-0",printIsbn:"978-1-80356-251-3",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80356-253-7",isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"188999",title:"Dr.",name:"Mattia",middleName:null,surname:"Bartoli",slug:"mattia-bartoli",fullName:"Mattia Bartoli"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:null,sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Biochar mechanisms for contaminants removal",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Environmental remediation by biochar",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"3.1 Soil remediation and amelioration",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"3.2 Carbon sequestration",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"3.3 In organic solid waste composting",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"3.4 Decontamination of water and wastewater",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7_2",title:"3.5 Building sector",level:"2"},{id:"sec_9",title:"4. Future research",level:"1"},{id:"sec_10",title:"5. Environmental concern of biochar",level:"1"},{id:"sec_11",title:"6. Conclusions and remarks",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Hashem MA, Hasan M, Momen MA, Payel S, Nur-A-Tomal MS. Water hyacinth biochar for trivalent chromium adsorption from tannery wastewater. Environmental and Sustainability Indicators. 2020;5:100022. 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Awasthi et al., “Emerging applications of biochar: Improving pig manure composting and attenuation of heavy metal mobility in mature compost,” Journal of Hazardous Materials, vol. 389, p. 122116, May 2020, DOI: 10.1016/J.JHAZMAT.2020.122116.'},{id:"B48",body:'Luo X, Liu G, Xia Y, Chen L, Jiang Z. Use of biochar-compost to improve properties and productivity of the degraded coastal soil in the Yellow River Delta, China. Journal of Soils and Sediments. 2017;17:780-789. DOI: 10.1007/s11368-016-1361-1'},{id:"B49",body:'Liang J et al. Changes in heavy metal mobility and availability from contaminated wetland soil remediated with combined biochar-compost. Chemosphere. 2017;181:281-288. DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2017.04.081'},{id:"B50",body:'Agegnehu G, Nelson PN, Bird MI. The effects of biochar, compost and their mixture and nitrogen fertilizer on yield and nitrogen use ef fi ciency of barley grown on a Nitisol in the highlands of Ethiopia. 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Synthesis of magnetic biochar from pine sawdust via oxidative hydrolysis of FeCl2 for the removal sulfamethoxazole from aqueous solution. Journal of Hazardous Materials. 2017;321:868-878. DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2016.10.006'},{id:"B62",body:'A. G. Karunanayake et al., “Rapid removal of salicylic acid, 4-nitroaniline, benzoic acid and phthalic acid from wastewater using magnetized fast pyrolysis biochar from waste Douglas fir,” Chemical Engineering Journal, Jul. 2017;319:75-88. DOI: 10.1016/J.CEJ.2017.02.116.'},{id:"B63",body:'Tan G, Sun W, Xu Y, Wang H, Xu N. Sorption of mercury (II) and atrazine by biochar, modified biochars and biochar based activated carbon in aqueous solution. Bioresource Technology. 2016;211:727-735. DOI: 10.1016/j.biortech.2016.03.147'},{id:"B64",body:'Shimabuku KK, Kearns JP, Martinez JE, Mahoney RB, Moreno-Vasquez L, Summers RS. Biochar sorbents for sulfamethoxazole removal from surface water, stormwater, and wastewater effluent. Water Research. 2016;96:236-245. DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2016.03.049'},{id:"B65",body:'Jing XR, Wang YY, Liu WJ, Wang YK, Jiang H. Enhanced adsorption performance of tetracycline in aqueous solutions by methanol-modified biochar. Chemical Engineering Journal. 2014;248:168-174. DOI: 10.1016/j.cej.2014.03.006'},{id:"B66",body:'Ahmad M et al. Production and use of biochar from buffalo-weed (Ambrosia trifida L.) for trichloroethylene removal from water. Journal of Chemical Technology & Biotechnology. 2014;89(1):150-157. DOI: 10.1002/jctb.4157'},{id:"B67",body:'HuoLiang K, Jiao H, YanZheng G, HuiFang W, XueZhu Z. Cosorption of phenanthrene and mercury(II) from aqueous solution by soybean stalk-based biochar. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry. 2011;59(22):12116-12123'},{id:"B68",body:'A. Rasheed, S. Sana, S. Kashif, Z. Umer, and M. Khatoon, “To evaluate the efficiency of char and biochar for waste water treatment,” Journal of Waste Recycling, 2017;2(2):7. [Online]. Available: http://www.imedpub.com/resources-recycling-and-waste-management/.'},{id:"B69",body:'Chen X et al. Adsorption of copper and zinc by biochars produced from pyrolysis of hardwood and corn straw in aqueous solution. Bioresource Technology. 2011;102(19):8877-8884. DOI: 10.1016/j.biortech.2011.06.078'},{id:"B70",body:'Yu W, Lian F, Cui G, Liu Z. N-doping effectively enhances the adsorption capacity of biochar for heavy metal ions from aqueous solution. Chemosphere. 2018;193:8-16. DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2017.10.134'},{id:"B71",body:'Ruthiraan M, Abdullah EC, Mubarak NM, Noraini MN. A promising route of magnetic based materials for removal of cadmium and methylene blue from waste water. Journal of Environmental Chemical Engineering. 2017;5(2):1447-1455. DOI: 10.1016/j.jece.2017.02.038'},{id:"B72",body:'Chi T, Zuo J, Liu F. Performance and mechanism for cadmium and lead adsorption from water and soil by corn straw biochar. Frontiers of Environmental Science & Engineering. 2017;11(2):1-8. DOI: 10.1007/s11783-017-0921-y'},{id:"B73",body:'Zhang T et al. Efficient removal of lead from solution by celery-derived biochars rich in alkaline minerals. Bioresource Technology. 2017;235:185-192. DOI: 10.1016/j.biortech.2017.03.109'},{id:"B74",body:'Baltrenaite JKE. Biochar as adsorbent for removal of heavy metal ions [cadmium (II), copper (II), lead (II), zinc (II)] from aqueous phase. International Journal of Environmental Science and Technology. 2016;13:471-482. DOI: 10.1007/s13762-015-0873-3'},{id:"B75",body:'Online VA et al. Competitive removal of Cd (II) and Pb (II) by biochars produced from water hyacinths: Performance and mechanism. RSC Advances. 2018;6:5223-5232. DOI: 10.1039/C5RA26248H'},{id:"B76",body:'Hoon S, Jung H, Ryu C, Park Y. Removal of copper (II) in aqueous solution using pyrolytic biochars derived from red macroalga Porphyra tenera. Journal of Industrial and Engineering Chemistry. 2016;36:314-319. DOI: 10.1016/j.jiec.2016.02.021'},{id:"B77",body:'Bogusz A, Oleszczuk P, Dobrowolski R. Application of laboratory prepared and commercially available biochars to adsorption of cadmium, copper and zinc ions from water. Bioresource Technology. 2015;196:540-549. DOI: 10.1016/j.biortech.2015.08.006'},{id:"B78",body:'Wang W, Li M, Zeng Q. Adsorption of chromium (VI) by strong alkaline anion exchange fiber in a fixed-bed column: Experiments and models fitting and evaluating. Separation and Purification Technology. 2015;149(5):16-23. DOI: 10.1016/j.seppur.2015.05.022'},{id:"B79",body:'Wang S et al. Removal of arsenic by magnetic biochar prepared from pinewood and natural hematite. Bioresource Technology. 2015;175:391-395. DOI: 10.1016/j.biortech.2014.10.104'},{id:"B80",body:'Schmidt H. Novel uses of biochar. In: USBI North American Biochar Symposium. 2013'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Dinesh Chandola",address:"chandola.dinesh@gmail.com",affiliation:'
Centre for Land and Water Resource Management (CLWRM), GB Pant National Institute of Himalayan Environment (GBPNIHE), India
Centre for Land and Water Resource Management (CLWRM), GB Pant National Institute of Himalayan Environment (GBPNIHE), India
'}],corrections:null},book:{id:"11537",type:"book",title:"Biochar - Productive Technologies, Properties and Application",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Biochar - Productive Technologies, Properties and Application",slug:null,publishedDate:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Mattia Bartoli, Dr. Mauro Giorcelli and Prof. Alberto Tagliaferro",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11537.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:null,isbn:"978-1-80356-252-0",printIsbn:"978-1-80356-251-3",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80356-253-7",isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"188999",title:"Dr.",name:"Mattia",middleName:null,surname:"Bartoli",slug:"mattia-bartoli",fullName:"Mattia Bartoli"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}},profile:{item:{id:"150524",title:"Dr.",name:"Marek",middleName:null,surname:"Penhaker",email:"marek.penhaker@vsb.cz",fullName:"Marek Penhaker",slug:"marek-penhaker",position:null,biography:"Marek Penhaker received his MSci degree in Measurement and Control in Biomedicine and his Ph.D. degree in Technical Cybernetics from VŠB – Technical University of Ostrava, Czech Republic. Since October 2000 he has been working as an assistant professor at VŠB – TU Ostrava in the field of biosignal measurement, transmission and processing. Throughout his career he has published more than 100 original research articles including over 30 peer reviewed journal papers and has authored and coauthored more than ten books. His current research interests are focused on sensing, data processing algorithms, instruments for diagnosis and therapy of health corresponding with telemedicine and personal health care.",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/150524/images/system/150524.jpg",totalCites:0,totalChapterViews:"0",outsideEditionCount:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",personalWebsiteURL:null,twitterURL:null,linkedinURL:null,institution:null},booksEdited:[],chaptersAuthored:[],collaborators:[]},generic:{page:{slug:"WIS-cost",title:"What Does It Cost?",intro:"
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European Commission
\n\t
Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation
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Wellcome Trust
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National Institute of Health (NIH)
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Research Councils United Kingdom (RCUK)
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Foundation for Science and Technology (FCT)
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Chinese Academy of Sciences
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Natural Science Foundation of China (NSFC)
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German Research Foundation (DFG)
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Max Planck Institute
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Australian Research Council (ARC)
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Perez-Marin"},{id:"89533",title:"Mr.",name:"Guillermo",middleName:null,surname:"Vizuete",slug:"guillermo-vizuete",fullName:"Guillermo Vizuete"},{id:"89535",title:"Mrs.",name:"Laura",middleName:null,surname:"Molina",slug:"laura-molina",fullName:"Laura Molina"}]},{id:"28686",doi:"10.5772/30251",title:"Protozoan Diseases in Farm Ruminants",slug:"protozoan-diseases-in-farm-ruminants",totalDownloads:26421,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:10,abstract:null,book:{id:"1667",slug:"a-bird-s-eye-view-of-veterinary-medicine",title:"A Bird's-Eye View of Veterinary Medicine",fullTitle:"A Bird's-Eye View of Veterinary Medicine"},signatures:"Sima Sahinduran",authors:[{id:"81603",title:"Prof.",name:"Sima",middleName:null,surname:"Sahinduran",slug:"sima-sahinduran",fullName:"Sima Sahinduran"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"28674",title:"Atresia Ani in Dogs and Cats",slug:"atresia-ani-in-dogs-and-cats",totalDownloads:15458,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:null,book:{id:"1667",slug:"a-bird-s-eye-view-of-veterinary-medicine",title:"A Bird's-Eye View of Veterinary Medicine",fullTitle:"A Bird's-Eye View of Veterinary Medicine"},signatures:"Lysimachos G. 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Perez-Marin, Laura Molina Moreno and Guillermo Vizuete Calero",authors:[{id:"25632",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos C.",middleName:null,surname:"Perez-Marin",slug:"carlos-c.-perez-marin",fullName:"Carlos C. Perez-Marin"},{id:"89533",title:"Mr.",name:"Guillermo",middleName:null,surname:"Vizuete",slug:"guillermo-vizuete",fullName:"Guillermo Vizuete"},{id:"89535",title:"Mrs.",name:"Laura",middleName:null,surname:"Molina",slug:"laura-molina",fullName:"Laura Molina"}]},{id:"68610",title:"Owl Beliefs in Kyrgyzstan and Some Comparison with Kazakhstan, Mongolia and Turkmenistan",slug:"owl-beliefs-in-kyrgyzstan-and-some-comparison-with-kazakhstan-mongolia-and-turkmenistan",totalDownloads:944,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"So far the Central Asian owl beliefs have not been well studied. As I have had opportunities to live and visit some countries regularly since 2009, it became possible to study owl beliefs mainly in Kyrgyzstan but also comparing some findings with Kazakhstan, Mongolia and Turkmenistan. In Kyrgyzstan, 124 persons were interviewed in 2010: 82 males and 42 females. Age of respondents varied from 12 to over 60 and all lived in the capital area of the country. Half of the respondents listed owls as wise and 43% just as a bird, and nobody saw the owl as a bird bringing bad luck. On the contrary, 34% believed that owls are helpful and bring good luck. Kazakhstan shares a Central Asian veneration of owls. Eurasian eagle owl feathers are used as precious amulets protecting children and livestock from evil spirits. The main reason why so many Mongolian people hold the owl to be sacred could be the history that the owl once saved the life of Genghis Khan, king of kings and supreme Khan of all the Mongols and Kalmyks in Tartary Empire. For the Turkmens, the little owl is a sacred bird, killing of which would be a great sin.",book:{id:"8793",slug:"owls",title:"Owls",fullTitle:"Owls"},signatures:"Heimo Mikkola",authors:[{id:"144330",title:"Dr.",name:"Heimo",middleName:"Juhani",surname:"Mikkola",slug:"heimo-mikkola",fullName:"Heimo Mikkola"}]},{id:"67550",title:"Strategies of Owl Reproduction",slug:"strategies-of-owl-reproduction",totalDownloads:953,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Sexual reproduction is important to owls because it affords them the opportunity to transfer genes from parents to the offspring. Owls are usually monogamous, and the same mates may pair for breeding purposes for several years, although variations exist from one species to another. Food availability or prey abundance is an important factor that determines reproduction and the upbringing of young ones for owls. Although some species usually engage in breeding during the springs, breeding and raising of chicks usually coincide with the availability of food. Other factors that play significant roles in determining breeding among owls include predation risk, agricultural activities, favourable weather, suitable mate and disease, among others.",book:{id:"8793",slug:"owls",title:"Owls",fullTitle:"Owls"},signatures:"Isaac Oluseun Adejumo",authors:[{id:"276527",title:"Dr.",name:"Isaac Oluseun",middleName:null,surname:"Adejumo",slug:"isaac-oluseun-adejumo",fullName:"Isaac Oluseun Adejumo"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"1381",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:89,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:104,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:32,numberOfPublishedChapters:318,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:141,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:113,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:106,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:5,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:15,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. 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Much of biochemistry is devoted to enzymes, proteins that catalyze chemical reactions, enzyme structures, mechanisms of action and their roles within cells. Biochemistry also studies small signaling molecules, coenzymes, inhibitors, vitamins, and hormones, which play roles in life processes. Biochemical experimentation, besides coopting classical chemistry methods, e.g., chromatography, adopted new techniques, e.g., X-ray diffraction, electron microscopy, NMR, radioisotopes, and developed sophisticated microbial genetic tools, e.g., auxotroph mutants and their revertants, fermentation, etc. More recently, biochemistry embraced the ‘big data’ omics systems. Initial biochemical studies have been exclusively analytic: dissecting, purifying, and examining individual components of a biological system; in the apt words of Efraim Racker (1913 –1991), “Don’t waste clean thinking on dirty enzymes.” Today, however, biochemistry is becoming more agglomerative and comprehensive, setting out to integrate and describe entirely particular biological systems. The ‘big data’ metabolomics can define the complement of small molecules, e.g., in a soil or biofilm sample; proteomics can distinguish all the comprising proteins, e.g., serum; metagenomics can identify all the genes in a complex environment, e.g., the bovine rumen. 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Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. He has published more than 100 peer-reviewed research articles and graduated numerous Ph.D. and postdoctoral students.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"New York University Langone Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:4,paginationItems:[{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/14.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"165627",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosa María",middleName:null,surname:"Martínez-Espinosa",slug:"rosa-maria-martinez-espinosa",fullName:"Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/165627/images/system/165627.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa has been a Spanish Full Professor since 2020 (Biochemistry and Molecular Biology) and is currently Vice-President of International Relations and Cooperation development and leader of the research group 'Applied Biochemistry” (University of Alicante, Spain). Other positions she has held at the university include Vice-Dean of Master Programs, Vice-Dean of the Degree in Biology and Vice-Dean for Mobility and Enterprise and Engagement at the Faculty of Science (University of Alicante). She received her Bachelor in Biology in 1998 (University of Alicante) and her PhD in 2003 (Biochemistry, University of Alicante). She undertook post-doctoral research at the University of East Anglia (Norwich, U.K. 2004-2005; 2007-2008).\nHer multidisciplinary research focuses on investigating archaea and their potential applications in biotechnology. She has an H-index of 21. She has authored one patent and has published more than 70 indexed papers and around 60 book chapters.\nShe has contributed to more than 150 national and international meetings during the last 15 years. Her research interests include archaea metabolism, enzymes purification and characterization, gene regulation, carotenoids and bioplastics production, antioxidant\ncompounds, waste water treatments, and brines bioremediation.\nRosa María’s other roles include editorial board member for several journals related\nto biochemistry, reviewer for more than 60 journals (biochemistry, molecular biology, biotechnology, chemistry and microbiology) and president of several organizing committees in international meetings related to the N-cycle or respiratory processes.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"441442",title:"Dr.",name:"Şükrü",middleName:null,surname:"Beydemir",slug:"sukru-beydemir",fullName:"Şükrü Beydemir",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003GsUoIQAV/Profile_Picture_1634557147521",biography:"Dr. Şükrü Beydemir obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 1995 from Yüzüncü Yıl University, MSc in Biochemistry in 1998, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2002 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He performed post-doctoral studies at Max-Planck Institute, Germany, and University of Florence, Italy in addition to making several scientific visits abroad. He currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Anadolu University, Turkey. Dr. Beydemir has published over a hundred scientific papers spanning protein biochemistry, enzymology and medicinal chemistry, reviews, book chapters and presented several conferences to scientists worldwide. He has received numerous publication awards from various international scientific councils. He serves in the Editorial Board of several international journals. Dr. Beydemir is also Rector of Bilecik Şeyh Edebali University, Turkey.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Anadolu University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorTwo:{id:"13652",title:"Prof.",name:"Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Ekinci",slug:"deniz-ekinci",fullName:"Deniz Ekinci",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYLT1QAO/Profile_Picture_1634557223079",biography:"Dr. Deniz Ekinci obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 2004, MSc in Biochemistry in 2006, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2009 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He studied at Stetson University, USA, in 2007-2008 and at the Max Planck Institute of Molecular Cell Biology and Genetics, Germany, in 2009-2010. Dr. Ekinci currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Agriculture and is the Head of the Enzyme and Microbial Biotechnology Division, Ondokuz Mayıs University, Turkey. He is a member of the Turkish Biochemical Society, American Chemical Society, and German Genetics society. Dr. Ekinci published around ninety scientific papers, reviews and book chapters, and presented several conferences to scientists. He has received numerous publication awards from several scientific councils. Dr. Ekinci serves as the Editor in Chief of four international books and is involved in the Editorial Board of several international journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ondokuz Mayıs University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorThree:null},{id:"17",title:"Metabolism",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/17.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"138626",title:"Dr.",name:"Yannis",middleName:null,surname:"Karamanos",slug:"yannis-karamanos",fullName:"Yannis Karamanos",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002g6Jv2QAE/Profile_Picture_1629356660984",biography:"Yannis Karamanos, born in Greece in 1953, completed his pre-graduate studies at the Université Pierre et Marie Curie, Paris, then his Masters and Doctoral degree at the Université de Lille (1983). He was associate professor at the University of Limoges (1987) before becoming full professor of biochemistry at the Université d’Artois (1996). He worked on the structure-function relationships of glycoconjugates and his main project was the investigations on the biological roles of the de-N-glycosylation enzymes (Endo-N-acetyl-β-D-glucosaminidase and peptide-N4-(N-acetyl-β-glucosaminyl) asparagine amidase). From 2002 he contributes to the understanding of the Blood-brain barrier functioning using proteomics approaches. He has published more than 70 papers. His teaching areas are energy metabolism and regulation, integration and organ specialization and metabolic adaptation.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Artois University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"France"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"18",title:"Proteomics",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/18.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"200689",title:"Prof.",name:"Paolo",middleName:null,surname:"Iadarola",slug:"paolo-iadarola",fullName:"Paolo Iadarola",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSCl8QAG/Profile_Picture_1623568118342",biography:"Paolo Iadarola graduated with a degree in Chemistry from the University of Pavia (Italy) in July 1972. He then worked as an Assistant Professor at the Faculty of Science of the same University until 1984. In 1985, Prof. Iadarola became Associate Professor at the Department of Biology and Biotechnologies of the University of Pavia and retired in October 2017. Since then, he has been working as an Adjunct Professor in the same Department at the University of Pavia. His research activity during the first years was primarily focused on the purification and structural characterization of enzymes from animal and plant sources. During this period, Prof. Iadarola familiarized himself with the conventional techniques used in column chromatography, spectrophotometry, manual Edman degradation, and electrophoresis). Since 1995, he has been working on: i) the determination in biological fluids (serum, urine, bronchoalveolar lavage, sputum) of proteolytic activities involved in the degradation processes of connective tissue matrix, and ii) on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. In this context, he has developed and validated new methodologies (e.g., Capillary Electrophoresis coupled to Laser-Induced Fluorescence, CE-LIF) whose application enabled him to determine both the amounts of biochemical markers (Desmosines) in urine/serum of patients affected by Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (Human Neutrophil Elastase, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in sputa of these patients. More recently, Prof. Iadarola was involved in developing techniques such as two-dimensional electrophoresis coupled to liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry (2DE-LC/MS) for the proteomic analysis of biological fluids aimed at the identification of potential biomarkers of different lung diseases. He is the author of about 150 publications (According to Scopus: H-Index: 23; Total citations: 1568- According to WOS: H-Index: 20; Total Citations: 1296) of peer-reviewed international journals. 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She gained considerable experience in developing and validating new methodologies whose applications allowed her to determine both the amount of biomarkers (Desmosine and Isodesmosine) in the urine of patients affected by COPD, and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (HNE, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in the sputa of these patients. Simona Viglio was also involved in research dealing with the supplementation of amino acids in patients with brain injury and chronic heart failure. She is presently engaged in the development of 2-DE and LC-MS techniques for the study of proteomics in biological fluids. The aim of this research is the identification of potential biomarkers of lung diseases. 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Thus proteomics, an area of research that detects all protein forms expressed in an organism, including splice isoforms and post-translational modifications, is more suitable than genomics for a comprehensive understanding of the biochemical processes that govern life. The most common proteomics applications are currently in the clinical field for the identification, in a variety of biological matrices, of biomarkers for diagnosis and therapeutic intervention of disorders. From the comparison of proteomic profiles of control and disease or different physiological states, which may emerge, changes in protein expression can provide new insights into the roles played by some proteins in human pathologies. Understanding how proteins function and interact with each other is another goal of proteomics that makes this approach even more intriguing. Specialized technology and expertise are required to assess the proteome of any biological sample. 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