Bone cells, their function, and locations [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7].
\\n\\n
These books synthesize perspectives of renowned scientists from the world’s most prestigious institutions - from Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute in Japan to Stanford University in the United States, including Columbia University (US), University of Sidney (AU), University of Miami (USA), Cardiff University (UK), and many others.
\\n\\nThis collaboration embodied the true essence of Open Access by simplifying the approach to OA publishing for Academic editors and authors who contributed their research and allowed the new research to be made available free and open to anyone anywhere in the world.
\\n\\nTo celebrate the 50 books published, we have gathered them at one location - just one click away, so that you can easily browse the subjects of your interest, download the content directly, share it or read online.
\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:null},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched formed a partnership to support researchers working in engineering sciences by enabling an easier approach to publishing Open Access content. Using the Knowledge Unlatched crowdfunding model to raise the publishing costs through libraries around the world, Open Access Publishing Fee (OAPF) was not required from the authors.
\n\nInitially, the partnership supported engineering research, but it soon grew to include physical and life sciences, attracting more researchers to the advantages of Open Access publishing.
\n\n\n\nThese books synthesize perspectives of renowned scientists from the world’s most prestigious institutions - from Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute in Japan to Stanford University in the United States, including Columbia University (US), University of Sidney (AU), University of Miami (USA), Cardiff University (UK), and many others.
\n\nThis collaboration embodied the true essence of Open Access by simplifying the approach to OA publishing for Academic editors and authors who contributed their research and allowed the new research to be made available free and open to anyone anywhere in the world.
\n\nTo celebrate the 50 books published, we have gathered them at one location - just one click away, so that you can easily browse the subjects of your interest, download the content directly, share it or read online.
\n\n\n\n\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"9791",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Multiple Myeloma",title:"Multiple Myeloma",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"This book deals with the diagnosis and treatment of multiple myeloma. Multiple myeloma is a plasma cell disorder, the prognosis of which has dramatically improved in the last years thanks to new immunomodulatory drugs, proteasome inhibitors, and monoclonal antibodies, in relapsed/refractory disease and a diagnosis. Chapters cover such topics as prognostic and predictive factors in newly diagnosed multiple myeloma, treatment approaches, antibody therapies, and three-dimensional (3D) models mimicking multiple myeloma bone marrow–microenvironment interactions.",isbn:"978-1-83968-621-4",printIsbn:"978-1-83968-620-7",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83968-622-1",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.87599",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"multiple-myeloma",numberOfPages:126,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"91ae15c94c1c8b771c959a4cee4ed8ba",bookSignature:"Ota Fuchs",publishedDate:"July 28th 2021",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9791.jpg",numberOfDownloads:1611,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:0,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:0,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"August 31st 2020",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"December 9th 2020",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"February 7th 2021",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"April 28th 2021",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"June 27th 2021",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"36468",title:"Dr.",name:"Ota",middleName:null,surname:"Fuchs",slug:"ota-fuchs",fullName:"Ota Fuchs",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/36468/images/system/36468.jpeg",biography:"Ota Fuchs graduated from the Chemical Technological University, Prague, Czech Republic, in 1971. He obtained his Ph.D. in Biochemistry from the Faculty of Natural Sciences, Charles University, Prague, in 1981. He is employed as a Senior Scientist at the Institute of Hematology and Blood Transfusion, Prague. He undertook as visiting scientist short-term affiliations at the Beatson Institute for Cancer Research, Glasgow, UK; Institute of Experimental Medicine of the Russian Academy of Medical Sciences in St Peterburg, Russia; and Lady Davis Institute for Medical Research, Jewish General Hospital, Montreal, Canada. Dr. Fuchs was the principal investigator of five projects of the Internal Grant Agency of the Ministry of Health of the Czech Republic and one grant project of the Grant Agency of Czech Republic.",institutionString:"Institute of Hematology and Blood Transfusion",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"6",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"4",institution:null}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"1082",title:"Hemato-Oncology",slug:"medicine-oncology-hemato-oncology"}],chapters:[{id:"75812",title:"Introductory Chapter: Oral Selinexor, a Selective Inhibitor of Nuclear Export in the Treatment of Patients with Multiple Myeloma Refractory to Proteasome Inhibitors, Immunomodulatory Agents and Monoclonal Antibodies",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.96945",slug:"introductory-chapter-oral-selinexor-a-selective-inhibitor-of-nuclear-export-in-the-treatment-of-pati",totalDownloads:140,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Ota Fuchs",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/75812",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/75812",authors:[{id:"36468",title:"Dr.",name:"Ota",surname:"Fuchs",slug:"ota-fuchs",fullName:"Ota Fuchs"}],corrections:null},{id:"74998",title:"Prognostic and Predictive Factors in Newly Diagnosed Multiple Myeloma Patients with Early Mortality with Prediction Matrix and Three and Five-Year Overall Survival",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.95819",slug:"prognostic-and-predictive-factors-in-newly-diagnosed-multiple-myeloma-patients-with-early-mortality-",totalDownloads:298,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Survival rates for newly diagnosed multiple myeloma have increased to a remarkable 8–12 years. Novel agents, autologous stem cell transplantation, monoclonal antibodies, improvements in supportive care and attention to minimal residual disease negative all have aided this remarkable journey. With these treatments we are identifying tools to achieve complete remissions. Prognostic factors have an important role in selecting proper patient approaches for trial designs. Prognostic and predictive clinical biomarkers have shaped staging and treatment selections for newly diagnosed multiple myeloma. Here we review the Early Mortality Prediction Matrix to identify those at risk of an early death (<6 months) incorporating both disease biology with patient fitness. We also review current standards of care for multiple myeloma and provide a three and five-year overall survival prediction matrix. We review benefits for MRD negativity and Next-Gen Sequencing. These tools will help clinicians improve upon reducing early mortality in newly diagnosed multiple myeloma patients and provide further framework for improving survival by assessing clinical, biologic and individual multiple myeloma patients.",signatures:"Howard R. Terebelo and Leo Reap",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/74998",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/74998",authors:[{id:"330963",title:"Dr.",name:"Howard R.",surname:"Terebelo",slug:"howard-r.-terebelo",fullName:"Howard R. Terebelo"},{id:"330964",title:"Dr.",name:"Leo",surname:"Reap",slug:"leo-reap",fullName:"Leo Reap"}],corrections:null},{id:"76632",title:"Treatment Approaches of Multiple Myeloma",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.97390",slug:"treatment-approaches-of-multiple-myeloma",totalDownloads:251,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Multiple Myeloma (MM) is the most common malignant neoplasm of plasma cells that accumulate in bone marrow, leading to bone destruction and marrow failure. Clinical investigation of MM requires the evaluation of bone marrow for plasma cell infiltration, and detection and quantification of monoclonal protein in the serum or urine, and evidence for end-organ damage (i.e., hypercalcemia, renal insufficiency, anemia, or bone lesions). The overall goal of treatment of MM is to improve survival. The treatment landscape and clinical outcome of MM have changed in the last two decades, with an improved median survival of 8–10 years. Management of MM involves induction, consolidation, and maintenance therapy. Currently, Autologous stem cell transplant (ASCT) is considered as the standard care of treatment for newly diagnosed fit MM patients. Multiple combinations of proteasome inhibitors (PIs) and immunomodulatory drugs (IMIDs) such as Thalidomide, lenalidomide, and pomalidomide have been under evaluation in ASCT-eligible and ineligible settings, and studies are still ongoing. For patients with ASCT-eligible newly diagnosed MM, induction therapy with triple drugs should contain an IMiD, a PI, and a corticosteroid, usually lenalidomide-bortezomib-dexamethasone. For ASCT-ineligible patients on lenalidomide with dexamethasone (Rd), with addition of bortezomib or daratumumab can be considered.",signatures:"Minyahil Alebachew Woldu, Atalay Mulu Fentie and Tamrat Assefa Tadesse",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/76632",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/76632",authors:[{id:"340969",title:"MSc.",name:"Tamrat",surname:"Assefa Tadesse",slug:"tamrat-assefa-tadesse",fullName:"Tamrat Assefa Tadesse"},{id:"341687",title:"MSc.",name:"Atalay Mulu",surname:"Fentie",slug:"atalay-mulu-fentie",fullName:"Atalay Mulu Fentie"},{id:"345496",title:"Mr.",name:"Minyahil Alebachew",surname:"Woldu",slug:"minyahil-alebachew-woldu",fullName:"Minyahil Alebachew Woldu"}],corrections:null},{id:"77271",title:"Antibody Therapies for Multiple Myeloma",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.98656",slug:"antibody-therapies-for-multiple-myeloma",totalDownloads:166,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Multiple Myeloma (MM) is characterized by the abberant proliferation and expansion of plasma cells in the Bone marrow. Despite the broad use of proteasome inhibitors and IMiDs, Multiple Myeloma remains an incurable disease. The introduction of Monoclonal antibodies, along with bi-specific antibodies and check point inhibitors, has significantly enhanced the armamentarium of available therapeutic options in the relapsed setting. The incorporation of the above-mentioned novel agents in triplet or quadruplet therapeutic regimens has led to significant prolongation of overall survival (OS) and progression free survival (PFS), without adding significant toxicity. Anti-CD38 monoclonal antibodies has become the cornerstone of antimyeloma therapy in both the newly diagnosed and relapsed setting.",signatures:"Nikolaos Kanellias, Maria Gavriatopoulou and Evangelos Terpos",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/77271",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/77271",authors:[{id:"52484",title:"Prof.",name:"Evangelos",surname:"Terpos",slug:"evangelos-terpos",fullName:"Evangelos Terpos"},{id:"332827",title:"M.D.",name:"Nikolaos",surname:"Kanellias",slug:"nikolaos-kanellias",fullName:"Nikolaos Kanellias"},{id:"419708",title:"Prof.",name:"Maria",surname:"Gavriatopoulou",slug:"maria-gavriatopoulou",fullName:"Maria Gavriatopoulou"}],corrections:null},{id:"74833",title:"The Modern Age of Monoclonal Antibodies: The Revolution of Daratumumab",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.95406",slug:"the-modern-age-of-monoclonal-antibodies-the-revolution-of-daratumumab",totalDownloads:226,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"CD38 is a transmembrane glycoprotein expressed on the surface of different cell lines with several functions (receptor, adhesion molecule, ectoenzyme). Based on its high expression in multiple myeloma cells, CD38 is one of the main molecules used in the target therapy age. Daratumumab is the first fully human monoclonal antibody tested in clinical trials, showing efficacy in relapsed/refractory multiple myeloma patients, especially in combination with immunomodulants and/or proteasome inhibitors. The synergic effect concerns multiple myeloma cells as well as the microenvironment (NK cells, macrophage, regulatory B/T cells and CD8+ effector cells). Therefore, the anti-multiple myeloma activity of Daratumumab greatly depends on the immune system: this is the reason why several ongoing clinical trial are testing its efficacy in the naïve patients, with a more effective immune system.",signatures:"Gianfranco Lapietra, Francesca Fazio and Maria Teresa Petrucci",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/74833",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/74833",authors:[{id:"74109",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria Teresa",surname:"Petrucci",slug:"maria-teresa-petrucci",fullName:"Maria Teresa Petrucci"},{id:"331554",title:"Dr.",name:"Gianfranco",surname:"Lapietra",slug:"gianfranco-lapietra",fullName:"Gianfranco Lapietra"},{id:"331555",title:"Dr.",name:"Francesca",surname:"Fazio",slug:"francesca-fazio",fullName:"Francesca Fazio"}],corrections:null},{id:"74929",title:"Pleural Effusion Secondary to Multiple Myeloma: Is Daratumumab an Effective Treatment? A Case Report",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.95659",slug:"pleural-effusion-secondary-to-multiple-myeloma-is-daratumumab-an-effective-treatment-a-case-report",totalDownloads:225,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Extramedullary (EM) plasmacytoma disease is an aggressive presentation at diagnosis and relapse for multiple myeloma (MM) patients. EM plasmacytoma is divided into two groups: the first group comprises tumors that extend directly from osteolytic bone lesions, while the second results from plasmacytoma infiltration into soft tissues, with no relation to the bone. Despite new therapies and monoclonal antibodies, the survival for patients with EM plasmacytoma is poor. The involvement of pleural effusion is uncommon in multiple myeloma.",signatures:"Giulia Palazzo, Lara Aprile, Giacomo Cecere, Vito Pier Gagliardi, Alessandro Maggi, Antonella Prudenzano and Patrizio Mazza",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/74929",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/74929",authors:[{id:"330157",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Giulia",surname:"Palazzo",slug:"giulia-palazzo",fullName:"Giulia Palazzo"}],corrections:null},{id:"74539",title:"3D Models of Surrogate Multiple Myeloma Bone Marrow Microenvironments: Insights on Disease Pathophysiology and Patient-Specific Response to Drugs",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.95333",slug:"3d-models-of-surrogate-multiple-myeloma-bone-marrow-microenvironments-insights-on-disease-pathophysi",totalDownloads:305,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Multiple Myeloma (MM) develops almost exclusively within the Bone Marrow (BM), highlighting the critical role of the microenvironment in conditioning disease progression and resistance to drugs. Indeed, while the therapeutic armamentarium for MM has significantly improved over the past 20 years, the disease remains ultimately incurable. This failure may depend on the high phenotypic and genetic heterogeneity of MM, but also on the paucity and inadequacy of two-dimensional (2D) conventional preclinical models in reproducing MM within the BM. In the present paper, we provide a brief updated overview on MM BM microenvironment. We then discuss newly developed preclinical models mimicking MM/microenvironment interactions, including three-dimensional (3D), gel-based, in vitro models and a novel ex vivo system of isolated tumor and stromal cells cultured in bioreactor. Potential applications of each model, relative to investigation of MM pathogenic mechanisms and prediction of the best drug/combination for each individual patient will be also evaluated.",signatures:"Marina Ferrarini, Magda Marcatti, Fabio Ciceri and Elisabetta Ferrero",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/74539",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/74539",authors:[{id:"161213",title:"Dr.",name:"Elisabetta",surname:"Ferrero",slug:"elisabetta-ferrero",fullName:"Elisabetta Ferrero"},{id:"167159",title:"Dr.",name:"Marina",surname:"Ferrarini",slug:"marina-ferrarini",fullName:"Marina Ferrarini"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"5276",title:"Myelodysplastic Syndromes",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"31dbb51d4215f4c5ed2069686e46ec2b",slug:"myelodysplastic-syndromes",bookSignature:"Ota Fuchs",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5276.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"36468",title:"Dr.",name:"Ota",surname:"Fuchs",slug:"ota-fuchs",fullName:"Ota Fuchs"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8798",title:"Cells of the Immune System",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"4e8acf20a4e80bc7c97cb34d1672e53d",slug:"cells-of-the-immune-system",bookSignature:"Ota Fuchs and Seyyed Shamsadin Athari",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8798.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"36468",title:"Dr.",name:"Ota",surname:"Fuchs",slug:"ota-fuchs",fullName:"Ota Fuchs"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7138",title:"Recent Developments in Myelodysplastic Syndromes",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f25aae5d062706d31025b1b21bb1d072",slug:"recent-developments-in-myelodysplastic-syndromes",bookSignature:"Ota Fuchs",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7138.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"36468",title:"Dr.",name:"Ota",surname:"Fuchs",slug:"ota-fuchs",fullName:"Ota Fuchs"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"209",title:"Cancer Stem Cells",subtitle:"The Cutting Edge",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"464a7be74679b09faeb4aef72c3cd3a6",slug:"cancer-stem-cells-the-cutting-edge",bookSignature:"Stanley Shostak",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/209.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"28104",title:"Prof.",name:"Stanley",surname:"Shostak",slug:"stanley-shostak",fullName:"Stanley Shostak"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"50",title:"Cancer Stem Cells",subtitle:"Theories and Practice",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"3407f8f3a110b5e2b9e11628c3dcfb18",slug:"cancer-stem-cells-theories-and-practice",bookSignature:"Stanley Shostak",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/50.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"28104",title:"Prof.",name:"Stanley",surname:"Shostak",slug:"stanley-shostak",fullName:"Stanley Shostak"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"826",title:"Tumor Angiogenesis",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"b7623895df0aba62ffdeed2e9588df06",slug:"tumor-angiogenesis",bookSignature:"Sophia Ran",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/826.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"79980",title:"Dr.",name:"Sophia",surname:"Ran",slug:"sophia-ran",fullName:"Sophia Ran"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"737",title:"Myeloid Leukemia",subtitle:"Basic Mechanisms of Leukemogenesis",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6fc5c91128d07fcd5de3cf04211c6750",slug:"myeloid-leukemia-basic-mechanisms-of-leukemogenesis",bookSignature:"Steffen Koschmieder and Utz Krug",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/737.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"72872",title:"Dr",name:"Steffen",surname:"Koschmieder",slug:"steffen-koschmieder",fullName:"Steffen Koschmieder"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"539",title:"Novel Aspects in Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"dfef11575616931bbc329551f943115f",slug:"novel-aspects-in-acute-lymphoblastic-leukemia",bookSignature:"Stefan Faderl",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/539.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"64603",title:"Dr.",name:"Stefan",surname:"Faderl",slug:"stefan-faderl",fullName:"Stefan Faderl"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3292",title:"Clinical Epidemiology of Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia",subtitle:"From the Molecules to the Clinic",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"096a7b5fba63e475141912ac41b802b5",slug:"clinical-epidemiology-of-acute-lymphoblastic-leukemia-from-the-molecules-to-the-clinic",bookSignature:"Juan Manuel Mejia-Arangure",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3292.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"31782",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan Manuel",surname:"Mejia-Arangure",slug:"juan-manuel-mejia-arangure",fullName:"Juan Manuel Mejia-Arangure"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"318",title:"Acute Leukemia",subtitle:"The Scientist's Perspective and Challenge",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"7e697a80aa41aec2dd86a911ddcd7be9",slug:"acute-leukemia-the-scientist-s-perspective-and-challenge",bookSignature:"Mariastefania Antica",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/318.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"36211",title:"Prof.",name:"Mariastefania",surname:"Antica",slug:"mariastefania-antica",fullName:"Mariastefania Antica"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],ofsBooks:[]},correction:{item:{id:"74443",slug:"corrigendum-to-fruit-flies-diptera-tephritoidea-biology-host-plants-natural-enemies-and-the-implicat",title:"Corrigendum to: Fruit Flies (Diptera: Tephritoidea): Biology, Host Plants, Natural Enemies, and the Implications to Their Natural Control",doi:null,correctionPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/74443.pdf",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/74443",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/74443",totalDownloads:null,totalCrossrefCites:null,bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/74443",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/74443",chapter:{id:"29609",slug:"fruit-flies-diptera-tephritoidea-biology-host-plants-natural-enemies-and-the-implications-to-their-n",signatures:"M. A. Uchoa",dateSubmitted:"March 31st 2011",dateReviewed:"September 21st 2011",datePrePublished:null,datePublished:"February 24th 2012",book:{id:"874",title:"Integrated Pest Management and Pest Control",subtitle:"Current and Future Tactics",fullTitle:"Integrated Pest Management and Pest Control - Current and Future Tactics",slug:"integrated-pest-management-and-pest-control-current-and-future-tactics",publishedDate:"February 24th 2012",bookSignature:"Marcelo L. Larramendy and Sonia Soloneski",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/874.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"14863",title:"Dr.",name:"Sonia",middleName:null,surname:"Soloneski",slug:"sonia-soloneski",fullName:"Sonia Soloneski"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"87919",title:"Dr.",name:"Manoel",middleName:null,surname:"Uchoa",fullName:"Manoel Uchoa",slug:"manoel-uchoa",email:"uchoa.manoel@gmail.com",position:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal da Grande Dourados",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}}]}},chapter:{id:"29609",slug:"fruit-flies-diptera-tephritoidea-biology-host-plants-natural-enemies-and-the-implications-to-their-n",signatures:"M. A. 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Bone is living tissue that is the hardest among other connective tissues in the body, consists of 50% water. The solid part remainder consisting of various minerals, especially 76% of calcium salt and 33% of cellular material. Bone has vascular tissue and cellular activity products, especially during growth which is very dependent on the blood supply as basic source and hormones that greatly regulate this growth process. Bone-forming cells, osteoblasts, osteoclast play an important role in determining bone growth, thickness of the cortical layer and structural arrangement of the lamellae.
Bone continues to change its internal structure to reach the functional needs and these changes occur through the activity of osteoclasts and osteoblasts. The bone seen from its development can be divided into two processes: first is the intramembranous ossification in which bones form directly in the form of primitive mesenchymal connective tissue, such as the mandible, maxilla and skull bones. Second is the endochondral ossification in which bone tissue replaces a preexisting hyaline cartilage, for example during skull base formation. The same formative cells form two types of bone formation and the final structure is not much different.
Bone growth depends on genetic and environmental factors, including hormonal effects, diet and mechanical factors. The growth rate is not always the same in all parts, for example, faster in the proximal end than the distal humerus because the internal pattern of the spongiosum depends on the direction of bone pressure. The direction of bone formation in the epiphysis plane is determined by the direction and distribution of the pressure line. Increased thickness or width of the bone is caused by deposition of new bone in the form of circumferential lamellae under the periosteum. If bone growth continues, the lamella will be embedded behind the new bone surface and be replaced by the haversian canal system.
Bone is a tissue in which the extracellular matrix has been hardened to accommodate a supporting function. The fundamental components of bone, like all connective tissues, are cells and matrix. Although bone cells compose a small amount of the bone volume, they are crucial to the function of bones. Four types of cells are found within bone tissue: osteoblasts, osteocytes, osteogenic cells, and osteoclasts. They each unique functions and are derived from two different cell lines (Figure 1 and Table 1) [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7].
Osteoblast synthesizes the bone matrix and are responsible for its mineralization. They are derived from osteoprogenitor cells, a mesenchymal stem cell line.
Osteocytes are inactive osteoblasts that have become trapped within the bone they have formed.
Osteoclasts break down bone matrix through phagocytosis. Predictably, they ruffled border, and the space between the osteoblast and the bone is known as Howship’s lacuna.
Development of bone precursor cells. Bone precursor cells are divided into developmental stages, which are 1. mesenchymal stem cell, 2. pre-osteoblast, 3. osteoblast, and 4. mature osteocytes, and 5. osteoclast.
The balance between osteoblast and osteoclast activity governs bone turnover and ensures that bone is neither overproduced nor overdegraded. These cells build up and break down bone matrix, which is composed of:
Osteoid, which is the unmineralized matrix composed of type I collagen and gylcosaminoglycans (GAGs).
Calcium hydroxyapatite, a calcium salt crystal that give bone its strength and rigidity.
Bone is divided into two types that are different structurally and functionally. Most bones of the body consist of both types of bone tissue (Figure 2) [1, 2, 8, 9]:
Compact bone, or cortical bone, mainly serves a mechanical function. This is the area of bone to which ligaments and tendons attach. It is thick and dense.
Trabecular bone, also known as cancellous bone or spongy bone, mainly serves a metabolic function. This type of bone is located between layers of compact bone and is thin porous. Location within the trabeculae is the bone marrow.
Structure of a long bone.
Long bones are composed of both cortical and cancellous bone tissue. They consist of several areas (Figure 3) [3, 4]:
The epiphysis is located at the end of the long bone and is the parts of the bone that participate in joint surfaces.
The diaphysis is the shaft of the bone and has walls of cortical bone and an underlying network of trabecular bone.
The epiphyseal growth plate lies at the interface between the shaft and the epiphysis and is the region in which cartilage proliferates to cause the elongation of the bone.
The metaphysis is the area in which the shaft of the bone joins the epiphyseal growth plate.
Bone macrostructure. (a) Growing long bone showing epiphyses, epiphyseal plates, metaphysis and diaphysis. (b) Mature long bone showing epiphyseal lines.
Different areas of the bone are covered by different tissue [4]:
The epiphysis is lined by a layer of articular cartilage, a specialized form of hyaline cartilage, which serves as protection against friction in the joints.
The outside of the diaphysis is lined by periosteum, a fibrous external layer onto which muscles, ligaments, and tendons attach.
The inside of the diaphysis, at the border between the cortical and cancellous bone and lining the trabeculae, is lined by endosteum.
Compact bone is organized as parallel columns, known as Haversian systems, which run lengthwise down the axis of long bones. These columns are composed of lamellae, concentric rings of bone, surrounding a central channel, or Haversian canal, that contains the nerves, blood vessels, and lymphatic system of the bone. The parallel Haversian canals are connected to one another by the perpendicular Volkmann’s canals.
The lamellae of the Haversian systems are created by osteoblasts. As these cells secrete matrix, they become trapped in spaces called lacunae and become known as osteocytes. Osteocytes communicate with the Haversian canal through cytoplasmic extensions that run through canaliculi, small interconnecting canals (Figure 4) [1, 2, 8, 9]:
Bone microstructure. Compact and spongy bone structures.
The layers of a long bone, beginning at the external surface, are therefore:
Periosteal surface of compact bone
Outer circumferential lamellae
Compact bone (Haversian systems)
Inner circumferential lamellae
Endosteal surface of compact bone
Trabecular bone
Bone development begins with the replacement of collagenous mesenchymal tissue by bone. This results in the formation of woven bone, a primitive form of bone with randomly organized collagen fibers that is further remodeled into mature lamellar bone, which possesses regular parallel rings of collagen. Lamellar bone is then constantly remodeled by osteoclasts and osteoblasts. Based on the development of bone formation can be divided into two parts, called endochondral and intramembranous bone formation/ossification [1, 2, 3, 8].
During intramembranous bone formation, the connective tissue membrane of undifferentiated mesenchymal cells changes into bone and matrix bone cells [10]. In the craniofacial cartilage bones, intramembranous ossification originates from nerve crest cells. The earliest evidence of intramembranous bone formation of the skull occurs in the mandible during the sixth prenatal week. In the eighth week, reinforcement center appears in the calvarial and facial areas in areas where there is a mild stress strength [11].
Intramembranous bone formation is found in the growth of the skull and is also found in the sphenoid and mandible even though it consists of endochondral elements, where the endochondral and intramembranous growth process occurs in the same bone. The basis for either bone formation or bone resorption is the same, regardless of the type of membrane involved.
Sometimes according to where the formation of bone tissue is classified as “periosteal” or “endosteal”. Periosteal bone always originates from intramembranous, but endosteal bone can originate from intramembranous as well as endochondral ossification, depending on the location and the way it is formed [3, 12].
The statement below is the stage of intramembrane bone formation (Figure 5) [3, 4, 11, 12]:
An ossification center appears in the fibrous connective tissue membrane. Mesenchymal cells in the embryonic skeleton gather together and begin to differentiate into specialized cells. Some of these cells differentiate into capillaries, while others will become osteogenic cells and osteoblasts, then forming an ossification center.
Bone matrix (osteoid) is secreted within the fibrous membrane. Osteoblasts produce osteoid tissue, by means of differentiating osteoblasts from the ectomesenchyme condensation center and producing bone fibrous matrix (osteoid). Then osteoid is mineralized within a few days and trapped osteoblast become osteocytes.
Woven bone and periosteum form. The encapsulation of cells and blood vessels occur. When osteoid deposition by osteoblasts continues, the encased cells develop into osteocytes. Accumulating osteoid is laid down between embryonic blood vessels, which form a random network (instead of lamellae) of trabecular. Vascularized mesenchyme condenses on external face of the woven bone and becomes the periosteum.
Production of osteoid tissue by membrane cells: osteocytes lose their ability to contribute directly to an increase in bone size, but osteoblasts on the periosteum surface produce more osteoid tissue that thickens the tissue layer on the existing bone surface (for example, appositional bone growth). Formation of a woven bone collar that is later replaced by mature lamellar bone. Spongy bone (diploe), consisting of distinct trabeculae, persists internally and its vascular tissue becomes red marrow.
Osteoid calcification: The occurrence of bone matrix mineralization makes bones relatively impermeable to nutrients and metabolic waste. Trapped blood vessels function to supply nutrients to osteocytes as well as bone tissue and eliminate waste products.
The formation of an essential membrane of bone which includes a membrane outside the bone called the bone endosteum. Bone endosteum is very important for bone survival. Disruption of the membrane or its vascular tissue can cause bone cell death and bone loss. Bones are very sensitive to pressure. The calcified bones are hard and relatively inflexible.
The stage of intramembranous ossification. The following stages are (a) Mesenchymal cells group into clusters, and ossification centers form. (b) Secreted osteoid traps osteoblasts, which then become osteocytes. (c) Trabecular matrix and periosteum form. (d) Compact bone develops superficial to the trabecular bone, and crowded blood vessels condense into red marrow.
The matrix or intercellular substance of the bone becomes calcified and becomes a bone in the end. Bone tissue that is found in the periosteum, endosteum, suture, and periodontal membrane (ligaments) is an example of intramembranous bone formation [3, 13].
Intramembranous bone formation occurs in two types of bone: bundle bone and lamellar bone. The bone bundle develops directly in connective tissue that has not been calcified. Osteoblasts, which are differentiated from the mesenchyme, secrete an intercellular substance containing collagen fibrils. This osteoid matrix calcifies by precipitating apatite crystals. Primary ossification centers only show minimal bone calcification density. The apatite crystal deposits are mostly irregular and structured like nets that are contained in the medullary and cortical regions. Mineralization occurs very quickly (several tens of thousands of millimeters per day) and can occur simultaneously in large areas. These apatite deposits increase with time. Bone tissue is only considered mature when the crystalized area is arranged in the same direction as collagen fibrils.
Bone tissue is divided into two, called the outer cortical and medullary regions, these two areas are destroyed by the resorption process; which goes along with further bone formation. The surrounding connective tissue will differentiate into the periosteum. The lining in the periosteum is rich in cells, has osteogenic function and contributes to the formation of thick bones as in the endosteum.
In adults, the bundle bone is usually only formed during rapid bone remodeling. This is reinforced by the presence of lamellar bone. Unlike bundle bone formation, lamellar bone development occurs only in mineralized matrix (e.g., cartilage that has calcified or bundle bone spicules). The nets in the bone bundle are filled to strengthen the lamellar bone, until compact bone is formed. Osteoblasts appear in the mineralized matrix, which then form a circle with intercellular matter surrounding the central vessels in several layers (Haversian system). Lamella bone is formed from 0.7 to 1.5 microns per day. The network is formed from complex fiber arrangements, responsible for its mechanical properties. The arrangement of apatites in the concentric layer of fibrils finally meets functional requirements. Lamellar bone depends on ongoing deposition and resorption which can be influenced by environmental factors, one of this which is orthodontic treatment.
Intramembranous bone formation from desmocranium (suture and periosteum) is mediated by mesenchymal skeletogenetic structures and is achieved through bone deposition and resorption [8]. This development is almost entirely controlled through local epigenetic factors and local environmental factors (i.e. by muscle strength, external local pressure, brain, eyes, tongue, nerves, and indirectly by endochondral ossification). Genetic factors only have a nonspecific morphogenetic effect on intramembranous bone formation and only determine external limits and increase the number of growth periods. Anomaly disorder (especially genetically produced) can affect endochondral bone formation, so local epigenetic factors and local environmental factors, including steps of orthodontic therapy, can directly affect intramembranous bone formation [3, 11].
During endochondral ossification, the tissue that will become bone is firstly formed from cartilage, separated from the joint and epiphysis, surrounded by perichondrium which then forms the periosteum [11]. Based on the location of mineralization, it can be divided into: Perichondral Ossification and Endochondral Ossification. Both types of ossification play an essential role in the formation of long bones where only endochondral ossification takes place in short bones. Perichondral ossification begins in the perichondrium. Mesenchymal cells from the tissue differentiate into osteoblasts, which surround bony diaphyseal before endochondral ossification, indirectly affect its direction [3, 8, 12]. Cartilage is transformed into bone is craniofacial bone that forms at the eigth prenatal week. Only bone on the cranial base and part of the skull bone derived from endochondral bone formation. Regarding to differentiate endochondral bone formation from chondrogenesis and intramembranous bone formation, five sequences of bone formation steps were determined [3].
The statements below are the stages of endochondral bone formation (Figure 6) [4, 12]:
Mesenchymal cells group to form a shape template of the future bone.
Mesenchymal cells differentiate into chondrocytes (cartilage cells).
Hypertrophy of chondrocytes and calcified matrix with calcified central cartilage primordium matrix formed. Chondrocytes show hypertrophic changes and calcification from the cartilage matrix continues.
Entry of blood vessels and connective tissue cells. The nutrient artery supplies the perichondrium, breaks through the nutrient foramen at the mid-region and stimulates the osteoprogenitor cells in the perichondrium to produce osteoblasts, which changes the perichondrium to the periosteum and starts the formation of ossification centers.
The periosteum continues its development and the division of cells (chondrocytes) continues as well, thereby increasing matrix production (this helps produce more length of bone).
The perichondrial membrane surrounds the surface and develops new chondroblasts.
Chondroblasts produce growth in width (appositional growth).
Cells at the center of the cartilage lyse (break apart) triggers calcification.
The stage of endochondral ossification. The following stages are: (a) Mesenchymal cells differentiate into chondrocytes. (b) The cartilage model of the future bony skeleton and the perichondrium form. (c) Capillaries penetrate cartilage. Perichondrium transforms into periosteum. Periosteal collar develops. Primary ossification center develops. (d) Cartilage and chondrocytes continue to grow at ends of the bone. (e) Secondary ossification centers develop. (f) Cartilage remains at epiphyseal (growth) plate and at joint surface as articular cartilage.
During endochondral bone formation, mesenchymal tissue firstly differentiates into cartilage tissue. Endochondral bone formation is morphogenetic adaptation (normal organ development) which produces continuous bone in certain areas that are prominently stressed. Therefore, this endochondral bone formation can be found in the bones associated with joint movements and some parts of the skull base. In hypertrophic cartilage cells, the matrix calcifies and the cells undergo degeneration. In cranial synchondrosis, there is proliferation in the formation of bones on both sides of the bone plate, this is distinguished by the formation of long bone epiphyses which only occurs on one side only [2, 14].
As the cartilage grows, capillaries penetrate it. This penetration initiates the transformation of the perichondrium into the bone-producing periosteum. Here, the osteoblasts form a periosteal collar of compact bone around the cartilage of the diaphysis. By the second or third month of fetal life, bone cell development and ossification ramps up and creates the
While these deep changes occur, chondrocytes and cartilage continue to grow at the ends of the bone (the future epiphyses), which increase the bone length and at the same time bone also replaces cartilage in the diaphysis. By the time the fetal skeleton is fully formed, cartilage only remains at the joint surface as articular cartilage and between the diaphysis and epiphysis as the epiphyseal plate, the latter of which is responsible for the longitudinal growth of bones. After birth, this same sequence of events (matrix mineralization, death of chondrocytes, invasion of blood vessels from the periosteum, and seeding with osteogenic cells that become osteoblasts) occur in the epiphyseal regions, and each of these centers of activity is referred to as a
There are four important things about cartilage in endochondral bone formation:
Cartilage has a rigid and firm structure, but not usually calcified nature, giving three basic functions of growth (a) its flexibility can support an appropriate network structure (nose), (b) pressure tolerance in a particular place where compression occurs, (c) the location of growth in conjunction with enlarging bone (synchondrosis of the skull base and condyle cartilage).
Cartilage grows in two adjacent places (by the activity of the chondrogenic membrane) and grows in the tissues (chondrocyte cell division and the addition of its intercellular matrix).
Bone tissue is not the same as cartilage in terms of its tension adaptation and cannot grow directly in areas of high compression because its growth depends on the vascularization of bone formation covering the membrane.
Cartilage growth arises where linear growth is required toward the pressure direction, which allows the bone to lengthen to the area of strength and has not yet grown elsewhere by membrane ossification in conjunction with all periosteal and endosteal surfaces.
Membrane disorders or vascular supply problem of these essential membranes can directly result in bone cell death and ultimately bone damage. Calcified bones are generally hard and relatively inflexible and sensitive to pressure [12].
Cranial synchondrosis (e.g., spheno ethmoidal and spheno occipital growth) and endochondral ossification are further determined by chondrogenesis. Chondrogenesis is mainly influenced by genetic factors, similar to facial mesenchymal growth during initial embryogenesis to the differentiation phase of cartilage and cranial bone tissue.
This process is only slightly affected by local epigenetic and environmental factors. This can explain the fact that the cranial base is more resistant to deformation than desmocranium. Local epigenetic and environmental factors cannot trigger or inhibit the amount of cartilage formation. Both of these have little effect on the shape and direction of endochondral ossification. This has been analyzed especially during mandibular condyle growth.
Local epigenetics and environmental factors only affect the shape and direction of cartilage formation during endochondral ossification Considering the fact that condyle cartilage is a secondary cartilage, it is assumed that local factors provide a greater influence on the growth of mandibular condyle.
Chondrogenesis is the process by which cartilage is formed from condensed mesenchyme tissue, which differentiates into chondrocytes and begins secreting the molecules that form the extracellular matrix [5, 14].
The statement below is five steps of chondrogenesis [8, 14]:
Chondroblasts produce a matrix: the extracellular matrix produced by cartilage cells, which is firm but flexible and capable of providing a rigid support.
Cells become embed in a matrix: when the chondroblast changes to be completely embed in its own matrix material, cartilage cells turn into chondrocytes. The new chondroblasts are distinguished from the membrane surface (perichondrium), this will result in the addition of cartilage size (cartilage can increase in size through apposition growth).
Chondrocytes enlarge, divide and produce a matrix. Cell growth continues and produces a matrix, which causes an increase in the size of cartilage mass from within. Growth that causes size increase from the inside is called interstitial growth.
The matrix remains uncalcified: cartilage matrix is rich of chondroitin sulfate which is associated with non-collagen proteins. Nutrition and metabolic waste are discharged directly through the soft matrix to and from the cell. Therefore, blood vessels aren’t needed in cartilage.
The membrane covers the surface but is not essential: cartilage has a closed membrane vascularization called perichondrium, but cartilage can exist without any of these. This property makes cartilage able to grow and adapt where it needs pressure (in the joints), so that cartilage can receive pressure.
Endochondral ossification begins with characteristic changes in cartilage bone cells (hypertrophic cartilage) and the environment of the intercellular matrix (calcium laying), the formation which is called as primary spongiosa. Blood vessels and mesenchymal tissues then penetrate into this area from the perichondrium. The binding tissue cells then differentiate into osteoblasts and cells. Chondroblasts erode cartilage in a cave-like pattern (cavity). The remnants of mineralized cartilage the central part of laying the lamellar bone layer.
The osteoid layer is deposited on the calcified spicules remaining from the cartilage and then mineralized to form spongiosa bone, with fine reticular structures that resemble nets that possess cartilage fragments between the spicular bones. Spongy bones can turn into compact bones by filling empty cavities. Both endochondral and perichondral bone growth both take place toward epiphyses and joints. In the bone lengthening process during endochondral ossification depends on the growth of epiphyseal cartilage. When the epiphyseal line has been closed, the bone will not increase in length. Unlike bone, cartilage bone growth is based on apposition and interstitial growth. In areas where cartilage bone is covered by bone, various variations of zone characteristics, based on the developmental stages of each individual, can differentiate which then continuously merge with each other during the conversion process. Environmental influences (co: mechanism of orthopedic functional tools) have a strong effect on condylar cartilage because the bone is located more superficially [5].
Cartilage bone height development occurs during the third month of intra uterine life. Cartilage plate extends from the nasal bone capsule posteriorly to the foramen magnum at the base of the skull. It should be noted that cartilages which close to avascular tissue have internal cells obtained from the diffusion process from the outermost layer. This means that the cartilage must be flatter. In the early stages of development, the size of a very small embryo can form a chondroskeleton easily in which the further growth preparation occurs without internal blood supply [1].
During the fourth month in the uterus, the development of vascular elements to various points of the chondrocranium (and other parts of the early cartilage skeleton) becomes an ossification center, where the cartilage changes into an ossification center, and bone forms around the cartilage. Cartilage continues to grow rapidly but it is replaced by bone, resulting in the rapid increase of bone amount. Finally, the old chondrocranium amount will decrease in the area of cartilage and large portions of bone, assumed to be typical in ethmoid, sphenoid, and basioccipital bones. The cartilage growth in relation to skeletal bone is similar as the growth of the limbs [1, 3].
Longitudinal bone growth is accompanied by remodeling which includes appositional growth to thicken the bone. This process consists of bone formation and reabsorption. Bone growth stops around the age of 21 for males and the age of 18 for females when the epiphyses and diaphysis have fused (epiphyseal plate closure).
Normal bone growth is dependent on proper dietary intake of protein, minerals and vitamins. A deficiency of vitamin D prevents calcium absorption from the GI tract resulting in rickets (children) or osteomalacia (adults). Osteoid is produced but calcium salts are not deposited, so bones soften and weaken.
At the length of the long bones, the reinforcement plane appears in the middle and at the end of the bone, finally produces the central axis that is called the diaphysis and the bony cap at the end of the bone is called the epiphysis. Between epiphyses and diaphysis is a calcified area that is not calcified called the epiphyseal plate. Epiphyseal plate of the long bone cartilage is a major center for growth, and in fact, this cartilage is responsible for almost all the long growths of the bones. This is a layer of hyaline cartilage where ossification occurs in immature bones. On the epiphyseal side of the epiphyseal plate, the cartilage is formed. On the diaphyseal side, cartilage is ossified, and the diaphysis then grows in length. The epiphyseal plate is composed of five zones of cells and activity [3, 4].
Near the outer end of each epiphyseal plate is the active zone dividing the cartilage cells. Some of them, pushed toward diaphysis with proliferative activity, develop hypertrophy, secrete an extracellular matrix, and finally the matrix begins to fill with minerals and then is quickly replaced by bone. As long as cartilage cells multiply growth will continue. Finally, toward the end of the normal growth period, the rate of maturation exceeds the proliferation level, the latter of the cartilage is replaced by bone, and the epiphyseal plate disappears. At that time, bone growth is complete, except for surface changes in thickness, which can be produced by the periosteum [4]. Bones continue to grow in length until early adulthood. The lengthening is stopped in the end of adolescence which chondrocytes stop mitosis and plate thins out and replaced by bone, then diaphysis and epiphyses fuse to be one bone (Figure 7). The rate of growth is controlled by hormones. When the chondrocytes in the epiphyseal plate cease their proliferation and bone replaces the cartilage, longitudinal growth stops. All that remains of the epiphyseal plate is the epiphyseal line. Epiphyseal plate closure will occur in 18-year old females or 21-year old males.
Oppositional bone growth and remodeling. The epiphyseal plate is responsible for longitudinal bone growth.
The cartilage found in the epiphyseal gap has a defined hierarchical structure, directly beneath the secondary ossification center of the epiphysis. By close examination of the epiphyseal plate, it appears to be divided into five zones (starting from the epiphysis side) (Figure 8) [4]:
The resting zone: it contains hyaline cartilage with few chondrocytes, which means no morphological changes in the cells.
The proliferative zone: chondrocytes with a higher number of cells divide rapidly and form columns of stacked cells parallel to the long axis of the bone.
The hypertrophic cartilage zone: it contains large chondrocytes with cells increasing in volume and modifying the matrix, effectively elongating bone whose cytoplasm has accumulated glycogen. The resorbed matrix is reduced to thin septa between the chondrocytes.
The calcified cartilage zone: chondrocytes undergo apoptosis, the thin septa of cartilage matrix become calcified.
The ossification zone: endochondral bone tissue appears. Blood capillaries and osteoprogenitor cells (from the periosteum) invade the cavities left by the chondrocytes. The osteoprogenitor cells form osteoblasts, which deposit bone matrix over the three-dimensional calcified cartilage matrix.
Epiphyseal plate growth. Five zones of epiphyseal growth plate includes: 1. resting zone, 2. proliferation zone, 3. hypertrophic cartilage zone, 4. calcified cartilage zone, and 5. ossification zone.
When bones are increasing in length, they are also increasing in diameter; diameter growth can continue even after longitudinal growth stops. This is called appositional growth. The bone is absorbed on the endosteal surface and added to the periosteal surface. Osteoblasts and osteoclasts play an essential role in appositional bone growth where osteoblasts secrete a bone matrix to the external bone surface from diaphysis, while osteoclasts on the diaphysis endosteal surface remove bone from the internal surface of diaphysis. The more bone around the medullary cavity is destroyed, the more yellow marrow moves into empty space and fills space. Osteoclasts resorb the old bone lining the medullary cavity, while osteoblasts through intramembrane ossification produce new bone tissue beneath the periosteum. Periosteum on the bone surface also plays an important role in increasing thickness and in reshaping the external contour. The erosion of old bone along the medullary cavity and new bone deposition under the periosteum not only increases the diameter of the diaphysis but also increases the diameter of the medullary cavity. This process is called modeling (Figure 9) [3, 4, 15].
Appositional bone growth. Bone deposit by osteoblast as bone resorption by osteoclast.
Recent research reported that bone microstructure is also the principle of bone function, which regulates its mechanical function. Bone tissue function influenced by many factors, such as hormones, growth factors, and mechanical loading. The microstructure of bone tissue is distribution and alignment of biological apatite (BAp) crystallites. This is determined by the direction of bone cell behavior, for example cell migration and cell regulation. Ozasa et al. found that artificial control the direction of mesenchymal stem cell (MSCs) migration and osteoblast alignment can reconstruct bone microstructure, which guide an appropriate bone formation during bone remodeling and regeneration [16].
Bone development begins with the replacement of collagenous mesenchymal tissue by bone. Generally, bone is formed by endochondral or intramembranous ossification. Intramembranous ossification is essential in the bone such as skull, facial bones, and pelvis which MSCs directly differentiate to osteoblasts. While, endochondral ossification plays an important role in most bones in the human skeleton, including long, short, and irregular bones, which MSCs firstly experience to condensate and then differentiate into chondrocytes to form the cartilage growth plate and the growth plate is then gradually replaced by new bone tissue [3, 8, 12].
MSC migration and differentiation are two important physiological processes in bone formation. MSCs migration raise as an essential step of bone formation because MSCs initially need to migrate to the bone surface and then contribute in bone formation process, although MSCs differentiation into osteogenic cells is also crucial. MSC migration during bone formation has attracted more attention. Some studies show that MSC migration to the bone surface is crucial for bone formation [17]. Bone marrow and periosteum are the main sources of MSCs that participate in bone formation [18].
In the intramembranous ossification, MSCs undergo proliferation and differentiation along the osteoblastic lineage to form bone directly without first forming cartilage. MSC and preosteoblast migration is involved in this process and are mediated by plentiful factors in vivo and in vitro. MSCs initially differentiate into preosteoblasts which proliferate near the bone surface and secrete ALP. Then they become mature osteoblasts and then form osteocytes which embedded in an extracellular matrix (ECM). Other factors also regulate the intramembranous ossification of MSCs such as Runx2, special AT-rich sequence binding protein 2 (SATB 2), and Osterix as well as pathways, like the wnt/β-catenin pathway and bone morphogenetic protein (BMP) pathway [17, 19].
In the endochondral ossification, MSCs are first condensed to initiate cartilage model formation. The process is mediated by BMPs through phosphorylating and activating receptor SMADs to transduce signals. During condensation, the central part of MSCs differentiates into chondrocytes and secretes cartilage matrix. While, other cells in the periphery, form the perichondrium that continues expressing type I collagen and other important factors, such as proteoglycans and ALP. Chondrocytes undergo rapid proliferation. Chondrocytes in the center become maturation, accompanied with an invasion of hypertrophic cartilage by the vasculature, followed by differentiation of osteoblasts within the perichondrium and marrow cavity. The inner perichondrium cells differentiate into osteoblasts, which secrete bone matrix to form the bone collar after vascularization in the hypertrophic cartilage. Many factors that regulate endochondral ossification are growth factors (GFs), transforming growth factor-β (TGF-β), Sry-related high-mobility group box 9 (Sox9) and Cell-to-cell interaction [17, 19].
Osteogenesis/ossification is the process in which new layers of bone tissue are placed by osteoblasts.
During bone formation, woven bone (haphazard arrangement of collagen fibers) is remodeled into lamellar bones (parallel bundles of collagen in a layer known as lamellae)
Periosteum is a connective tissue layer on the outer surface of the bone; the endosteum is a thin layer (generally only one layer of cell) that coats all the internal surfaces of the bone
Major cell of bone include: osteoblasts (from osteoprogenitor cells, forming osteoid that allow matrix mineralization to occur), osteocytes (from osteoblasts; closed to lacunae and retaining the matrix) and osteoclasts (from hemopoietic lineages; locally erodes matrix during bone formation and remodeling.
The process of bone formation occurs through two basic mechanisms:
Intramembranous bone formation occurs when bone forms inside the mesenchymal membrane. Bone tissue is directly laid on primitive connective tissue referred to mesenchyma without intermediate cartilage involvement. It forms bone of the skull and jaw; especially only occurs during development as well as the fracture repair.
Endochondral bone formation occurs when hyaline cartilage is used as a precursor to bone formation, then bone replaces hyaline cartilage, forms and grows all other bones, occurs during development and throughout life.
During interstitial epiphyseal growth (elongation of the bone), the growth plate with zonal organization of endochondral ossification, allows bone to lengthen without epiphyseal growth plates enlarging zones include:
Zone of resting.
Zone of proliferation.
Zone of hypertrophy.
Zone of calcification.
Zone of ossification and resorption.
During appositional growth, osteoclasts resorb old bone that lines the medullary cavity, while osteoblasts, via intramembranous ossification, produce new bone tissue beneath the periosteum.
Mesenchymal stem cell migration and differentiation are two important physiological processes in bone formation.
The author is grateful to Zahrona Kusuma Dewi for assistance with preparation of the manuscript.
The authors declare that there is no conflict of interests regarding the publication of this paper.
alkaline phosphatase biological apatite bone morphogenetic protein extracellular matrix growth factors mesenchymal stem cells runt-related transcription factor 2 special AT-rich sequence binding protein 2 sry-related high-mobility group box 9 transforming growth factor-β
Likewise, we consider a set of functions
which define a Hilbert basis of square integrable functions [1]. Likewise, for each
Then the convergence of the series will be understood to be convergence in norm. Likewise, a representation of
Here
As has been said in different signal treatments, one of fundamental problems in electronics is obtaining a sufficiently clean signal in the different processes of communication, perception, and management of the signals in different continuous and discrete domains. For example, in signal processing in accelerometers for gait analysis, where actually is necessary to implement a good programming in real time for drones or other devices of vehicles, even human body parts with accelerations process in fault detections for design of low power pacemakers and also in ultrawideband in wireless [3]; the cleaning of signal is fundamental.
The wavelet transforms as transformation should allow only changes in time extension, but not shape. This could be affected by choosing suitable basis functions that allow for this. For example, in numerical analysis, we can consider the scale factor
where such discrete wavelets can be used through the discrete wavelet transform version:
whose continuous (or analogic) is the standard wavelet transform:
where
For example, the wavelet transform of Shannon function can be very useful to creation of windows
Likewise, the transition for “classical” wavelet transform (with some modifications accepted) to quantum wavelet transform can be approached by factoring the classical operators for the transformation into direct sums, direct products, and dot products of unitary matrices. Likewise, the permutation matrices play a vital role [5].
A fundamental property of the wavelet transform and the signal resolution problem can be discussed and explored simultaneously in time and frequency domains starting from the wavelet spectra:
where
The Fourier transforms of the wavelets are referred to as the wavelet transform filters. The impulse response of the wavelet transform filter
Likewise, we can have direct applications of the STFT, to samples in real time of the complex processes, which require a speed compute of data through direct relation between machine and real-time domains in the measured and perception of the phenomena. Likewise, the STFT is performed on a computer using the fast Fourier transform (FFT), so both variables are discrete and quantized.
Secondly the Morlet transform is a Gabor transform consisting of a wavelet composed of a complex exponential (carrier) multiplied by a Gaussian window (envelope). This wavelet is closely related to human perception, both hearing [2] and vision. Then the functions related with these bio-sensorial perceptions use
Let
be a linear basis of signals space in
We define the space of nilpotent classes on
where
where
Therefore,
As a special note, we have as a particular example an LTI system
Likewise, the result to
Let
Then we have
Now
where such injection implies the result.
A study realized in signal and systems analysis on a linear system can be approximated in the time-frequency domain due to the composition of an analysis filter-bank, a transfer matrix (sub-band model) and a synthesis filter-bank, which is a method known as sub-band technique.
In the varying case, time-frequency representations of LTV systems have connection with the Gabor expansion of signals through the corresponding integral equation. Then we will have an integral equation with Gabor function. For example, a work realized in that sense is the creation of 3D Gabor frame based in spatial spectral integral equation designed to solve the scattering from dielectric objects embedded in a multilayer medium. Likewise, this is based on the Gabor frame, as a new set of basic functions (belonging to a basis) [10] together with a set of equidistant Dirac-delta test functions.
Let DFT be the isomorphism of the discrete signals:
where the explicit rule for any
Then in each component of the space
where the DS-TFT satisfies in short-time interval. In each component, we have:
which exists FFT∼
More details of the demonstration can be consulted in [11].
In this introductory chapter, the various and several advantages of the wavelet transform and its properties on the signal and system analysis have been shown, considering different specialized window functions and the wavelet function basis. Likewise, wavelet analysis is known for its successful approach to solving the problem of signal analysis in both the time domain and frequency domain. Also, the analysis of the nonstationary signal generated by physical phenomena has a great challenge for various conversion techniques. In several studies, it has been shown that the transformation techniques such as Fourier transform and short Fourier transform fail to analyze nonstationary signals. But wavelet transform methods may be able to efficiently analyze both stable and unstable signals. All this the author develops with precision and accuracy. In the Gabor transform, the resolution analysis considers the uncertainty principles on nilpotent Lie groups and their corresponding algebras, which were established in the propositions given through spectral analysis given in the classes
I thank Eng. Rene Rivera-Roldán, Director of Electronics Engineering Program, for the support of hours for the investigation to carry out this work.
STFT | Short-Time Fourier Transform |
FFT | Fast Fourier Transform |
DFT | Discrete Fourier Transform |
LTV | Linear-Time Varying System |
DS−TFT | Discrete Short-Time Fourier Transform |
wt | Basic wavelet |
Wω | Fourier transform of the basic wavelet wt |
ψjk | Dyadic and dilations of the wavelets |
xn | Discrete signal. In the proposition 2.1, is a discrete Gabor function |
EK | Discrete signal space. This space is a Hilbert space on the discrete domain K. Its orthogonal decomposing is EK=E1⊕…⊕En. In the case of wavelets, the components Ejj=12…n are dyadic translations and dilations of wavelet wk |
DWT | Discrete Wavelet Transform |
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Research suggests that physical activity levels of individuals with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) are lower than typically developing and developed peers. Despite evidence for PA decreasing negative behaviors and promoting positive behaviors, individuals with ASD may be less motivated and less likely to participate. Individuals with ASD may be more likely to be overweight or obese than their typically developing counterparts as a result of decreased activity levels. Conflicting findings regarding PA levels in individuals with ASD have been reported. Given mixed evidence, further inquiry is warranted. The present chapter provides a review of literature pertaining to PA in individuals with ASD. Four databases were searched. Predetermined search terms and inclusion/exclusion criteria were clearly outlined to identify relevant articles which were then critically appraised. This research provides a greater understanding of the status of PA participation of individuals with ASD.",book:{id:"5498",slug:"autism-paradigms-recent-research-and-clinical-applications",title:"Autism",fullTitle:"Autism - Paradigms, Recent Research and Clinical Applications"},signatures:"Sara M. Scharoun, Kristen T. Wright, Jennifer E. Robertson-Wilson,\nPaula C. Fletcher and Pamela J. Bryden",authors:[{id:"190972",title:"Dr.",name:"Pamela",middleName:null,surname:"Bryden",slug:"pamela-bryden",fullName:"Pamela Bryden"}]},{id:"52787",doi:"10.5772/65906",title:"The Clinical Gestalts of Autism: Over 40 years of Clinical Experience with Autism",slug:"the-clinical-gestalts-of-autism-over-40-years-of-clinical-experience-with-autism",totalDownloads:1731,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:8,abstract:"The clinical gestalts of autism are very broad and much more heterogeneous than people realise. DSM V [1] gives a more narrow and condensed description of what autism is in the twentieth century. DSM focuses on problems with socioemotional reciprocity, non-verbal communication and difficult interpersonal relationships, restricted, repetitive patterns of behaviour, early onset and functional impairment. First, I want to flesh out the autism spectrum disorder gestalts as it presents to experienced clinical practitioners. It is the opposite of the “tick box” approach to diagnosis so common today. It focuses on the phenomena as they would have been focused on in the late nineteenth and early twentieth century, an approach that has faded into the background in the late twentieth and early twenty-first century. It is critical at this point of the twenty-first century that we re-engage with phenomenology and with the clinical gestalt of psychiatric conditions which show a great deal of overlap with much mixed phenomenology. We will start by examining social relations in autism spectrum disorders. Clearly, this is central to autism.",book:{id:"5498",slug:"autism-paradigms-recent-research-and-clinical-applications",title:"Autism",fullTitle:"Autism - Paradigms, Recent Research and Clinical Applications"},signatures:"Michael Fitzgerald",authors:[{id:"191313",title:"Dr.",name:"Michael",middleName:null,surname:"Fitzgerald",slug:"michael-fitzgerald",fullName:"Michael Fitzgerald"}]},{id:"52976",doi:"10.5772/66201",title:"Family Quality of Life in Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASD)",slug:"family-quality-of-life-in-autism-spectrum-disorders-asd-",totalDownloads:1804,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:7,abstract:"In latest years the concept of quality of life (QoL) has been acknowledged as an important outcome in psychiatric pathology fields. Most researchers consider that social indicators and the perception of personal wellbeing also, should be considered when measuring the quality of life. Our purpose was to investigate the QoLof the families of children with autism spectrum disorders (ASD) and to determine whether in this population, the potential mediators (irrational cognitions, negative automatic thoughts, coping strategies) relate significantly with the emotional distress reported. We also aimed to assess the parents’ irrational cognitions and negative automatic thoughts as mediators in the relationship between the overall assessment of family QoLand their emotional distress. We found significant correlations between the emotional distress reported by the parents and their automatic negative thoughts, irrational cognitions, and different coping strategies. The relationship between the overall assessment of family QoLand the parents’ emotional distress was partially explained by their negative automatic thoughts and irrational cognitions. In this view, the specialised services should include also interventions for the parents of children with developmental disorders (ASD, ADHD) in order to improve their overall assessment of familyQoL.",book:{id:"5498",slug:"autism-paradigms-recent-research-and-clinical-applications",title:"Autism",fullTitle:"Autism - Paradigms, Recent Research and Clinical Applications"},signatures:"Elena Predescu and Roxana Şipoş",authors:[{id:"191660",title:"Dr.",name:"Elena",middleName:null,surname:"Predescu",slug:"elena-predescu",fullName:"Elena Predescu"},{id:"191661",title:"Dr.",name:"Roxana",middleName:null,surname:"Sipos",slug:"roxana-sipos",fullName:"Roxana Sipos"}]},{id:"54644",doi:"10.5772/67624",title:"Impact of Infant Feeding Methods on the Development of Autism Spectrum Disorder",slug:"impact-of-infant-feeding-methods-on-the-development-of-autism-spectrum-disorder",totalDownloads:2111,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:"There is strong and convincing evidence that infant’s sensory stimulation, which is associated with breastfeeding, contributes significantly to the infant’s neurodevelopment. Our study compared the prevalence of autism spectrum disorder (ASD) in children who were breastfed, given breast milk through a bottle (breast-milk fed), or formula-fed. We reported significant association of ASD in children who were formula-fed from birth or weaned early from the breast. The statistical data revealed that increasing the duration of breastfeeding resulted in a decrease in prevalence of ASD. The odds ratio of a child not having autism was 0.27, 0.93, and 6.67 for breastfeeding for less than 6, 6–12, or longer than 12 months, respectively. There is significant evidence that this association is mediated by the ingredients of the breast milk and infant’s endogenous oxytocin. Oxytocin is a neurotransmitter and neuromodulator and we postulate that oxytocin may increase neuroplasticity, synaptic connections, and alter ASD genes’ expression. Animal experiments and imaging studies demonstrate the central role of oxytocin in maternal love and bonding. Currently, there are no specific treatments for patients diagnosed with autism; therefore, it is imperative to identify the risk factors that contribute to the development of ASD. In this communication, we demonstrate that lack of breastfeeding is highly associated with ASD development in children with genetic susceptibility.",book:{id:"5498",slug:"autism-paradigms-recent-research-and-clinical-applications",title:"Autism",fullTitle:"Autism - Paradigms, Recent Research and Clinical Applications"},signatures:"Touraj Shafai, Monika Mustafa, Jeffrey Mulari and Antonio Curtis",authors:[{id:"192429",title:"M.D.",name:"Touraj",middleName:null,surname:"Shafai",slug:"touraj-shafai",fullName:"Touraj Shafai"}]},{id:"52521",doi:"10.5772/65409",title:"A Different Point of View: The Neurodiversity Approach to Autism and Work",slug:"a-different-point-of-view-the-neurodiversity-approach-to-autism-and-work",totalDownloads:2066,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:"With this chapter, we want to open up the debate whether neurodiversity might be the next step of diversity. The term neurodiversity was first established in the online autism community in the 1990s and has since spread both off‐ and online. It describes the idea that, throughout the human population, different brain developments and structures exist. Neuronal variances such as Autism are therefore not to be seen as disorders but as variations different from the neurotypical brain. Instead of being considered ill and cure‐worthy, neurodiverse people should be included and integrated into society. In our current research, we follow the neurodiversity approach and focus on the subject of autism in the work context. We found that certain strengths and abilities are most prominent in autistic people (such as logical reasoning, visual perception) and that autistic people are able to find different effective solutions to overcome the barriers detaining them from entering the job market. Furthermore, while many autistic individuals are employed in regular competitive jobs, more focus on autism‐specific job environments is needed. These findings lead us to the conclusion that autistic individuals have potential that is beneficial for society.",book:{id:"5498",slug:"autism-paradigms-recent-research-and-clinical-applications",title:"Autism",fullTitle:"Autism - Paradigms, Recent Research and Clinical Applications"},signatures:"Timo Lorenz, Nomi Reznik and Kathrin Heinitz",authors:[{id:"190954",title:"Dr.",name:"Timo",middleName:null,surname:"Lorenz",slug:"timo-lorenz",fullName:"Timo Lorenz"},{id:"195124",title:"Ms.",name:"Nomi",middleName:null,surname:"Reznik",slug:"nomi-reznik",fullName:"Nomi Reznik"},{id:"195125",title:"Prof.",name:"Kathrin",middleName:null,surname:"Heinitz",slug:"kathrin-heinitz",fullName:"Kathrin Heinitz"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"52480",title:"Mindfulness and Autism Spectrum Disorder",slug:"mindfulness-and-autism-spectrum-disorder",totalDownloads:2404,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"The use of mindfulness interventions for individuals with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a relatively new research area, which has followed a more established body of research investigating the efficacy of mindfulness interventions for parents of children with ASD. Given the chronic stress levels experienced by parents and high anxiety and stress levels in individuals with ASD, such research is well justified. The utility of mindfulness in clinical practice for individuals with ASD and their parents will be discussed. This chapter aims to evaluate the research literature, identify important limitations, and propose crucial directions for future research. Acknowledgment of the impact of attitudes, social bias, and a generational shift that may be accelerating the salience of mindfulness is discussed. The author aims to emphasize the importance of high-quality future research with robust methodological designs to clearly identify the potential role for mindfulness in this population. Despite having a solid foundation of preliminary findings, it is important that researchers refine current procedures and evaluation of mindfulness interventions for individuals with ASD and their parents while carefully selecting measures that are not solely self-report or parent report.",book:{id:"5498",slug:"autism-paradigms-recent-research-and-clinical-applications",title:"Autism",fullTitle:"Autism - Paradigms, Recent Research and Clinical Applications"},signatures:"Renee L. Cachia",authors:[{id:"190422",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Renee",middleName:null,surname:"Cachia",slug:"renee-cachia",fullName:"Renee Cachia"}]},{id:"53550",title:"Physical Activity in Individuals with Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASD): A Review",slug:"physical-activity-in-individuals-with-autism-spectrum-disorders-asd-a-review",totalDownloads:2222,totalCrossrefCites:8,totalDimensionsCites:14,abstract:"Current recommendations indicate that children and youth ages 5–17 should participate in 60 min and adults in 150 min of moderate-to-vigorous physical activity daily. Research suggests that physical activity levels of individuals with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) are lower than typically developing and developed peers. Despite evidence for PA decreasing negative behaviors and promoting positive behaviors, individuals with ASD may be less motivated and less likely to participate. Individuals with ASD may be more likely to be overweight or obese than their typically developing counterparts as a result of decreased activity levels. Conflicting findings regarding PA levels in individuals with ASD have been reported. Given mixed evidence, further inquiry is warranted. The present chapter provides a review of literature pertaining to PA in individuals with ASD. Four databases were searched. Predetermined search terms and inclusion/exclusion criteria were clearly outlined to identify relevant articles which were then critically appraised. This research provides a greater understanding of the status of PA participation of individuals with ASD.",book:{id:"5498",slug:"autism-paradigms-recent-research-and-clinical-applications",title:"Autism",fullTitle:"Autism - Paradigms, Recent Research and Clinical Applications"},signatures:"Sara M. Scharoun, Kristen T. Wright, Jennifer E. Robertson-Wilson,\nPaula C. Fletcher and Pamela J. Bryden",authors:[{id:"190972",title:"Dr.",name:"Pamela",middleName:null,surname:"Bryden",slug:"pamela-bryden",fullName:"Pamela Bryden"}]},{id:"53617",title:"The Genetic and Epigenetic Basis Involved in the Pathophysiology of ASD: Therapeutic Implications",slug:"the-genetic-and-epigenetic-basis-involved-in-the-pathophysiology-of-asd-therapeutic-implications",totalDownloads:1802,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"The prevalence of autism has increased in an exponential way in the past few years. Many monogenetic mutations as well as copy number variants and single nucleotide polymorphisms have been associated with autism spectrum disorders (ASD), a large proportion of which occur in genes associated with synaptogenesis and synaptic function. However, the increase in appearance of genetic alterations does not explain the etiology of an elevated number of ASD cases. Recent research is now focusing on the role of environmental/epigenetic factors, which by themselves and/or in combination with classical genetic factors, may be the root cause of a large number of ASDs. In this chapter we review the current literature regarding the epigenetic changes involved in ASD, including their possible mechanisms of action such as oxidative stress, altered fatty acid metabolism, mitochondrial dysfunction, DNA methylation and histone methylation (via the one‐carbon metabolism cycle), histone variants, and ATP‐dependent chromatin remodeling. We discuss possible new biochemical markers related to autism as well as new lines of research for therapeutic targets.",book:{id:"5498",slug:"autism-paradigms-recent-research-and-clinical-applications",title:"Autism",fullTitle:"Autism - Paradigms, Recent Research and Clinical Applications"},signatures:"Maria Carmen Carrascosa-Romero and Carlos De Cabo-De La Vega",authors:[{id:"61718",title:"Dr.",name:"María Carmen",middleName:null,surname:"Carrascosa-Romero",slug:"maria-carmen-carrascosa-romero",fullName:"María Carmen Carrascosa-Romero"},{id:"61719",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"De Cabo De La Vega",slug:"carlos-de-cabo-de-la-vega",fullName:"Carlos De Cabo De La Vega"}]},{id:"54098",title:"Sex Bias in Autism",slug:"sex-bias-in-autism",totalDownloads:1430,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"Autism is a neurodevelopmental disorder with unknown exact etiology. Interestingly, it affects males more than females in a striking ratio (4:1), respectively. 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Singh",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329385/images/system/329385.png",institutionString:"Punjab Technical University",institution:{name:"Punjab Technical University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"8018",title:"Extracellular Matrix",subtitle:"Developments and Therapeutics",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8018.jpg",slug:"extracellular-matrix-developments-and-therapeutics",publishedDate:"October 27th 2021",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Rama Sashank Madhurapantula, Joseph Orgel P.R.O. and Zvi Loewy",hash:"c85e82851e80b40282ff9be99ddf2046",volumeInSeries:23,fullTitle:"Extracellular Matrix - Developments and Therapeutics",editors:[{id:"212416",title:"Dr.",name:"Rama Sashank",middleName:null,surname:"Madhurapantula",slug:"rama-sashank-madhurapantula",fullName:"Rama Sashank Madhurapantula",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/212416/images/system/212416.jpg",institutionString:"Illinois Institute of Technology",institution:{name:"Illinois Institute of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"9759",title:"Vitamin E in Health and Disease",subtitle:"Interactions, Diseases and Health Aspects",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9759.jpg",slug:"vitamin-e-in-health-and-disease-interactions-diseases-and-health-aspects",publishedDate:"October 6th 2021",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Pınar Erkekoglu and Júlia Scherer Santos",hash:"6c3ddcc13626110de289b57f2516ac8f",volumeInSeries:22,fullTitle:"Vitamin E in Health and Disease - Interactions, Diseases and Health Aspects",editors:[{id:"109978",title:"Prof.",name:"Pınar",middleName:null,surname:"Erkekoğlu",slug:"pinar-erkekoglu",fullName:"Pınar Erkekoğlu",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/109978/images/system/109978.jpg",institutionString:"Hacettepe University",institution:{name:"Hacettepe University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null}]},subseriesFiltersForPublishedBooks:[{group:"subseries",caption:"Proteomics",value:18,count:4},{group:"subseries",caption:"Metabolism",value:17,count:6},{group:"subseries",caption:"Cell and Molecular Biology",value:14,count:9},{group:"subseries",caption:"Chemical Biology",value:15,count:13}],publicationYearFilters:[{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2022",value:2022,count:8},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2021",value:2021,count:7},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2020",value:2020,count:12},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2019",value:2019,count:3},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2018",value:2018,count:2}],authors:{paginationCount:250,paginationItems:[{id:"274452",title:"Dr.",name:"Yousif",middleName:"Mohamed",surname:"Abdallah",slug:"yousif-abdallah",fullName:"Yousif Abdallah",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/274452/images/8324_n.jpg",biography:"I certainly enjoyed my experience in Radiotherapy and Nuclear Medicine, particularly it has been in different institutions and hospitals with different Medical Cultures and allocated resources. Radiotherapy and Nuclear Medicine Technology has always been my aspiration and my life. As years passed I accumulated a tremendous amount of skills and knowledge in Radiotherapy and Nuclear Medicine, Conventional Radiology, Radiation Protection, Bioinformatics Technology, PACS, Image processing, clinically and lecturing that will enable me to provide a valuable service to the community as a Researcher and Consultant in this field. My method of translating this into day to day in clinical practice is non-exhaustible and my habit of exchanging knowledge and expertise with others in those fields is the code and secret of success.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Majmaah University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"313277",title:"Dr.",name:"Bartłomiej",middleName:null,surname:"Płaczek",slug:"bartlomiej-placzek",fullName:"Bartłomiej Płaczek",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/313277/images/system/313277.jpg",biography:"Bartłomiej Płaczek, MSc (2002), Ph.D. (2005), Habilitation (2016), is a professor at the University of Silesia, Institute of Computer Science, Poland, and an expert from the National Centre for Research and Development. His research interests include sensor networks, smart sensors, intelligent systems, and image processing with applications in healthcare and medicine. He is the author or co-author of more than seventy papers in peer-reviewed journals and conferences as well as the co-author of several books. He serves as a reviewer for many scientific journals, international conferences, and research foundations. Since 2010, Dr. Placzek has been a reviewer of grants and projects (including EU projects) in the field of information technologies.",institutionString:"University of Silesia",institution:{name:"University of Silesia",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"35000",title:"Prof.",name:"Ulrich H.P",middleName:"H.P.",surname:"Fischer",slug:"ulrich-h.p-fischer",fullName:"Ulrich H.P Fischer",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/35000/images/3052_n.jpg",biography:"Academic and Professional Background\nUlrich H. P. has Diploma and PhD degrees in Physics from the Free University Berlin, Germany. He has been working on research positions in the Heinrich-Hertz-Institute in Germany. Several international research projects has been performed with European partners from France, Netherlands, Norway and the UK. He is currently Professor of Communications Systems at the Harz University of Applied Sciences, Germany.\n\nPublications and Publishing\nHe has edited one book, a special interest book about ‘Optoelectronic Packaging’ (VDE, Berlin, Germany), and has published over 100 papers and is owner of several international patents for WDM over POF key elements.\n\nKey Research and Consulting Interests\nUlrich’s research activity has always been related to Spectroscopy and Optical Communications Technology. Specific current interests include the validation of complex instruments, and the application of VR technology to the development and testing of measurement systems. He has been reviewer for several publications of the Optical Society of America\\'s including Photonics Technology Letters and Applied Optics.\n\nPersonal Interests\nThese include motor cycling in a very relaxed manner and performing martial arts.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Charité",country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"341622",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Eduardo",middleName:null,surname:"Rojas Alvarez",slug:"eduardo-rojas-alvarez",fullName:"Eduardo Rojas Alvarez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/341622/images/15892_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Cuenca",country:{name:"Ecuador"}}},{id:"215610",title:"Prof.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Sarfraz",slug:"muhammad-sarfraz",fullName:"Muhammad Sarfraz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/215610/images/system/215610.jpeg",biography:"Muhammad Sarfraz is a professor in the Department of Information Science, Kuwait University. His research interests include computer graphics, computer vision, image processing, machine learning, pattern recognition, soft computing, data science, intelligent systems, information technology, and information systems. Prof. Sarfraz has been a keynote/invited speaker on various platforms around the globe. He has advised various students for their MSc and Ph.D. theses. He has published more than 400 publications as books, journal articles, and conference papers. He is a member of various professional societies and a chair and member of the International Advisory Committees and Organizing Committees of various international conferences. Prof. Sarfraz is also an editor-in-chief and editor of various international journals.",institutionString:"Kuwait University",institution:{name:"Kuwait University",country:{name:"Kuwait"}}},{id:"32650",title:"Prof.",name:"Lukas",middleName:"Willem",surname:"Snyman",slug:"lukas-snyman",fullName:"Lukas Snyman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/32650/images/4136_n.jpg",biography:"Lukas Willem Snyman received his basic education at primary and high schools in South Africa, Eastern Cape. He enrolled at today's Nelson Metropolitan University and graduated from this university with a BSc in Physics and Mathematics, B.Sc Honors in Physics, MSc in Semiconductor Physics, and a Ph.D. in Semiconductor Physics in 1987. After his studies, he chose an academic career and devoted his energy to the teaching of physics to first, second, and third-year students. After positions as a lecturer at the University of Port Elizabeth, he accepted a position as Associate Professor at the University of Pretoria, South Africa.\r\n\r\nIn 1992, he motivates the concept of 'television and computer-based education” as means to reach large student numbers with only the best of teaching expertise and publishes an article on the concept in the SA Journal of Higher Education of 1993 (and later in 2003). The University of Pretoria subsequently approved a series of test projects on the concept with outreach to Mamelodi and Eerste Rust in 1993. In 1994, the University established a 'Unit for Telematic Education ' as a support section for multiple faculties at the University of Pretoria. In subsequent years, the concept of 'telematic education” subsequently becomes well established in academic circles in South Africa, grew in popularity, and is adopted by many universities and colleges throughout South Africa as a medium of enhancing education and training, as a method to reaching out to far out communities, and as a means to enhance study from the home environment.\r\n\r\nProfessor Snyman in subsequent years pursued research in semiconductor physics, semiconductor devices, microelectronics, and optoelectronics.\r\n\r\nIn 2000 he joined the TUT as a full professor. Here served for a period as head of the Department of Electronic Engineering. Here he makes contributions to solar energy development, microwave and optoelectronic device development, silicon photonics, as well as contributions to new mobile telecommunication systems and network planning in SA.\r\n\r\nCurrently, he teaches electronics and telecommunications at the TUT to audiences ranging from first-year students to Ph.D. level.\r\n\r\nFor his research in the field of 'Silicon Photonics” since 1990, he has published (as author and co-author) about thirty internationally reviewed articles in scientific journals, contributed to more than forty international conferences, about 25 South African provisional patents (as inventor and co-inventor), 8 PCT international patent applications until now. Of these, two USA patents applications, two European Patents, two Korean patents, and ten SA patents have been granted. A further 4 USA patents, 5 European patents, 3 Korean patents, 3 Chinese patents, and 3 Japanese patents are currently under consideration.\r\n\r\nRecently he has also published an extensive scholarly chapter in an internet open access book on 'Integrating Microphotonic Systems and MOEMS into standard Silicon CMOS Integrated circuitry”.\r\n\r\nFurthermore, Professor Snyman recently steered a new initiative at the TUT by introducing a 'Laboratory for Innovative Electronic Systems ' at the Department of Electrical Engineering. The model of this laboratory or center is to primarily combine outputs as achieved by high-level research with lower-level system development and entrepreneurship in a technical university environment. Students are allocated to projects at different levels with PhDs and Master students allocated to the generation of new knowledge and new technologies, while students at the diploma and Baccalaureus level are allocated to electronic systems development with a direct and a near application for application in industry or the commercial and public sectors in South Africa.\r\n\r\nProfessor Snyman received the WIRSAM Award of 1983 and the WIRSAM Award in 1985 in South Africa for best research papers by a young scientist at two international conferences on electron microscopy in South Africa. He subsequently received the SA Microelectronics Award for the best dissertation emanating from studies executed at a South African university in the field of Physics and Microelectronics in South Africa in 1987. In October of 2011, Professor Snyman received the prestigious Institutional Award for 'Innovator of the Year” for 2010 at the Tshwane University of Technology, South Africa. This award was based on the number of patents recognized and granted by local and international institutions as well as for his contributions concerning innovation at the TUT.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of South Africa",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"317279",title:"Mr.",name:"Ali",middleName:"Usama",surname:"Syed",slug:"ali-syed",fullName:"Ali Syed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/317279/images/16024_n.png",biography:"A creative, talented, and innovative young professional who is dedicated, well organized, and capable research fellow with two years of experience in graduate-level research, published in engineering journals and book, with related expertise in Bio-robotics, equally passionate about the aesthetics of the mechanical and electronic system, obtained expertise in the use of MS Office, MATLAB, SolidWorks, LabVIEW, Proteus, Fusion 360, having a grasp on python, C++ and assembly language, possess proven ability in acquiring research grants, previous appointments with social and educational societies with experience in administration, current affiliations with IEEE and Web of Science, a confident presenter at conferences and teacher in classrooms, able to explain complex information to audiences of all levels.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Air University",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"75526",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Zihni Onur",middleName:null,surname:"Uygun",slug:"zihni-onur-uygun",fullName:"Zihni Onur Uygun",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/75526/images/12_n.jpg",biography:"My undergraduate education and my Master of Science educations at Ege University and at Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University have given me a firm foundation in Biochemistry, Analytical Chemistry, Biosensors, Bioelectronics, Physical Chemistry and Medicine. After obtaining my degree as a MSc in analytical chemistry, I started working as a research assistant in Ege University Medical Faculty in 2014. In parallel, I enrolled to the MSc program at the Department of Medical Biochemistry at Ege University to gain deeper knowledge on medical and biochemical sciences as well as clinical chemistry in 2014. In my PhD I deeply researched on biosensors and bioelectronics and finished in 2020. Now I have eleven SCI-Expanded Index published papers, 6 international book chapters, referee assignments for different SCIE journals, one international patent pending, several international awards, projects and bursaries. In parallel to my research assistant position at Ege University Medical Faculty, Department of Medical Biochemistry, in April 2016, I also founded a Start-Up Company (Denosens Biotechnology LTD) by the support of The Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey. Currently, I am also working as a CEO in Denosens Biotechnology. The main purposes of the company, which carries out R&D as a research center, are to develop new generation biosensors and sensors for both point-of-care diagnostics; such as glucose, lactate, cholesterol and cancer biomarker detections. My specific experimental and instrumental skills are Biochemistry, Biosensor, Analytical Chemistry, Electrochemistry, Mobile phone based point-of-care diagnostic device, POCTs and Patient interface designs, HPLC, Tandem Mass Spectrometry, Spectrophotometry, ELISA.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ege University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"267434",title:"Dr.",name:"Rohit",middleName:null,surname:"Raja",slug:"rohit-raja",fullName:"Rohit Raja",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/267434/images/system/267434.jpg",biography:"Dr. Rohit Raja received Ph.D. in Computer Science and Engineering from Dr. CVRAMAN University in 2016. His main research interest includes Face recognition and Identification, Digital Image Processing, Signal Processing, and Networking. Presently he is working as Associate Professor in IT Department, Guru Ghasidas Vishwavidyalaya (A Central University), Bilaspur (CG), India. He has authored several Journal and Conference Papers. He has good Academics & Research experience in various areas of CSE and IT. He has filed and successfully published 27 Patents. He has received many time invitations to be a Guest at IEEE Conferences. He has published 100 research papers in various International/National Journals (including IEEE, Springer, etc.) and Proceedings of the reputed International/ National Conferences (including Springer and IEEE). He has been nominated to the board of editors/reviewers of many peer-reviewed and refereed Journals (including IEEE, Springer).",institutionString:"Guru Ghasidas Vishwavidyalaya",institution:{name:"Guru Ghasidas Vishwavidyalaya",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"246502",title:"Dr.",name:"Jaya T.",middleName:"T",surname:"Varkey",slug:"jaya-t.-varkey",fullName:"Jaya T. Varkey",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/246502/images/11160_n.jpg",biography:"Jaya T. Varkey, PhD, graduated with a degree in Chemistry from Cochin University of Science and Technology, Kerala, India. She obtained a PhD in Chemistry from the School of Chemical Sciences, Mahatma Gandhi University, Kerala, India, and completed a post-doctoral fellowship at the University of Minnesota, USA. She is a research guide at Mahatma Gandhi University and Associate Professor in Chemistry, St. Teresa’s College, Kochi, Kerala, India.\nDr. Varkey received a National Young Scientist award from the Indian Science Congress (1995), a UGC Research award (2016–2018), an Indian National Science Academy (INSA) Visiting Scientist award (2018–2019), and a Best Innovative Faculty award from the All India Association for Christian Higher Education (AIACHE) (2019). She Hashas received the Sr. Mary Cecil prize for best research paper three times. She was also awarded a start-up to develop a tea bag water filter. \nDr. Varkey has published two international books and twenty-seven international journal publications. She is an editorial board member for five international journals.",institutionString:"St. Teresa’s College",institution:null},{id:"250668",title:"Dr.",name:"Ali",middleName:null,surname:"Nabipour Chakoli",slug:"ali-nabipour-chakoli",fullName:"Ali Nabipour Chakoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/250668/images/system/250668.jpg",biography:"Academic Qualification:\r\n•\tPhD in Materials Physics and Chemistry, From: Sep. 2006, to: Sep. 2010, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Harbin Institute of Technology, Thesis: Structure and Shape Memory Effect of Functionalized MWCNTs/poly (L-lactide-co-ε-caprolactone) Nanocomposites. Supervisor: Prof. Wei Cai,\r\n•\tM.Sc in Applied Physics, From: 1996, to: 1998, Faculty of Physics & Nuclear Science, Amirkabir Uni. of Technology, Tehran, Iran, Thesis: Determination of Boron in Micro alloy Steels with solid state nuclear track detectors by neutron induced auto radiography, Supervisors: Dr. M. Hosseini Ashrafi and Dr. A. Hosseini.\r\n•\tB.Sc. in Applied Physics, From: 1991, to: 1996, Faculty of Physics & Nuclear Science, Amirkabir Uni. of Technology, Tehran, Iran, Thesis: Design of shielding for Am-Be neutron sources for In Vivo neutron activation analysis, Supervisor: Dr. M. Hosseini Ashrafi.\r\n\r\nResearch Experiences:\r\n1.\tNanomaterials, Carbon Nanotubes, Graphene: Synthesis, Functionalization and Characterization,\r\n2.\tMWCNTs/Polymer Composites: Fabrication and Characterization, \r\n3.\tShape Memory Polymers, Biodegradable Polymers, ORC, Collagen,\r\n4.\tMaterials Analysis and Characterizations: TEM, SEM, XPS, FT-IR, Raman, DSC, DMA, TGA, XRD, GPC, Fluoroscopy, \r\n5.\tInteraction of Radiation with Mater, Nuclear Safety and Security, NDT(RT),\r\n6.\tRadiation Detectors, Calibration (SSDL),\r\n7.\tCompleted IAEA e-learning Courses:\r\nNuclear Security (15 Modules),\r\nNuclear Safety:\r\nTSA 2: Regulatory Protection in Occupational Exposure,\r\nTips & Tricks: Radiation Protection in Radiography,\r\nSafety and Quality in Radiotherapy,\r\nCourse on Sealed Radioactive Sources,\r\nCourse on Fundamentals of Environmental Remediation,\r\nCourse on Planning for Environmental Remediation,\r\nKnowledge Management Orientation Course,\r\nFood Irradiation - Technology, Applications and Good Practices,\r\nEmployment:\r\nFrom 2010 to now: Academic staff, Nuclear Science and Technology Research Institute, Kargar Shomali, Tehran, Iran, P.O. Box: 14395-836.\r\nFrom 1997 to 2006: Expert of Materials Analysis and Characterization. Research Center of Agriculture and Medicine. Rajaeeshahr, Karaj, Iran, P. O. Box: 31585-498.",institutionString:"Atomic Energy Organization of Iran",institution:{name:"Atomic Energy Organization of Iran",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"248279",title:"Dr.",name:"Monika",middleName:"Elzbieta",surname:"Machoy",slug:"monika-machoy",fullName:"Monika Machoy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/248279/images/system/248279.jpeg",biography:"Monika Elżbieta Machoy, MD, graduated with distinction from the Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry at the Pomeranian Medical University in 2009, defended her PhD thesis with summa cum laude in 2016 and is currently employed as a researcher at the Department of Orthodontics of the Pomeranian Medical University. She expanded her professional knowledge during a one-year scholarship program at the Ernst Moritz Arndt University in Greifswald, Germany and during a three-year internship at the Technical University in Dresden, Germany. She has been a speaker at numerous orthodontic conferences, among others, American Association of Orthodontics, European Orthodontic Symposium and numerous conferences of the Polish Orthodontic Society. She conducts research focusing on the effect of orthodontic treatment on dental and periodontal tissues and the causes of pain in orthodontic patients.",institutionString:"Pomeranian Medical University",institution:{name:"Pomeranian Medical University",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"252743",title:"Prof.",name:"Aswini",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Kar",slug:"aswini-kar",fullName:"Aswini Kar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252743/images/10381_n.jpg",biography:"uploaded in cv",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"KIIT University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"204256",title:"Dr.",name:"Anil",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Kumar Sahu",slug:"anil-kumar-sahu",fullName:"Anil Kumar Sahu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204256/images/14201_n.jpg",biography:"I have nearly 11 years of research and teaching experience. I have done my master degree from University Institute of Pharmacy, Pt. Ravi Shankar Shukla University, Raipur, Chhattisgarh India. I have published 16 review and research articles in international and national journals and published 4 chapters in IntechOpen, the world’s leading publisher of Open access books. I have presented many papers at national and international conferences. I have received research award from Indian Drug Manufacturers Association in year 2015. My research interest extends from novel lymphatic drug delivery systems, oral delivery system for herbal bioactive to formulation optimization.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Chhattisgarh Swami Vivekanand Technical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"253468",title:"Dr.",name:"Mariusz",middleName:null,surname:"Marzec",slug:"mariusz-marzec",fullName:"Mariusz Marzec",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/253468/images/system/253468.png",biography:"An assistant professor at Department of Biomedical Computer Systems, at Institute of Computer Science, Silesian University in Katowice. Scientific interests: computer analysis and processing of images, biomedical images, databases and programming languages. He is an author and co-author of scientific publications covering analysis and processing of biomedical images and development of database systems.",institutionString:"University of Silesia",institution:null},{id:"212432",title:"Prof.",name:"Hadi",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammadi",slug:"hadi-mohammadi",fullName:"Hadi Mohammadi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/212432/images/system/212432.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Hadi Mohammadi is a biomedical engineer with hands-on experience in the design and development of many engineering structures and medical devices through various projects that he has been involved in over the past twenty years. Dr. Mohammadi received his BSc. and MSc. degrees in Mechanical Engineering from Sharif University of Technology, Tehran, Iran, and his PhD. degree in Biomedical Engineering (biomaterials) from the University of Western Ontario. He was a postdoctoral trainee for almost four years at University of Calgary and Harvard Medical School. He is an industry innovator having created the technology to produce lifelike synthetic platforms that can be used for the simulation of almost all cardiovascular reconstructive surgeries. He’s been heavily involved in the design and development of cardiovascular devices and technology for the past 10 years. He is currently an Assistant Professor with the University of British Colombia, Canada.",institutionString:"University of British Columbia",institution:{name:"University of British Columbia",country:{name:"Canada"}}},{id:"254463",title:"Prof.",name:"Haisheng",middleName:null,surname:"Yang",slug:"haisheng-yang",fullName:"Haisheng Yang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/254463/images/system/254463.jpeg",biography:"Haisheng Yang, Ph.D., Professor and Director of the Department of Biomedical Engineering, College of Life Science and Bioengineering, Beijing University of Technology. He received his Ph.D. degree in Mechanics/Biomechanics from Harbin Institute of Technology (jointly with University of California, Berkeley). Afterwards, he worked as a Postdoctoral Research Associate in the Purdue Musculoskeletal Biology and Mechanics Lab at the Department of Basic Medical Sciences, Purdue University, USA. He also conducted research in the Research Centre of Shriners Hospitals for Children-Canada at McGill University, Canada. Dr. Yang has over 10 years research experience in orthopaedic biomechanics and mechanobiology of bone adaptation and regeneration. He earned an award from Beijing Overseas Talents Aggregation program in 2017 and serves as Beijing Distinguished Professor.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Beijing University of Technology",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"89721",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:"Cuneyt",surname:"Ozmen",slug:"mehmet-ozmen",fullName:"Mehmet Ozmen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/89721/images/7289_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Gazi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"243698",title:"M.D.",name:"Xiaogang",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"xiaogang-wang",fullName:"Xiaogang Wang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243698/images/system/243698.png",biography:"Dr. Xiaogang Wang, a faculty member of Shanxi Eye Hospital specializing in the treatment of cataract and retinal disease and a tutor for postgraduate students of Shanxi Medical University, worked in the COOL Lab as an international visiting scholar under the supervision of Dr. David Huang and Yali Jia from October 2012 through November 2013. Dr. Wang earned an MD from Shanxi Medical University and a Ph.D. from Shanghai Jiao Tong University. Dr. Wang was awarded two research project grants focused on multimodal optical coherence tomography imaging and deep learning in cataract and retinal disease, from the National Natural Science Foundation of China. He has published around 30 peer-reviewed journal papers and four book chapters and co-edited one book.",institutionString:"Shanxi Eye Hospital",institution:{name:"Shanxi Eye Hospital",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"242893",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Joaquim",middleName:null,surname:"De Moura",slug:"joaquim-de-moura",fullName:"Joaquim De Moura",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/242893/images/7133_n.jpg",biography:"Joaquim de Moura received his degree in Computer Engineering in 2014 from the University of A Coruña (Spain). In 2016, he received his M.Sc degree in Computer Engineering from the same university. He is currently pursuing his Ph.D degree in Computer Science in a collaborative project between ophthalmology centers in Galicia and the University of A Coruña. His research interests include computer vision, machine learning algorithms and analysis and medical imaging processing of various kinds.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of A Coruña",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"294334",title:"B.Sc.",name:"Marc",middleName:null,surname:"Bruggeman",slug:"marc-bruggeman",fullName:"Marc Bruggeman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/294334/images/8242_n.jpg",biography:"Chemical engineer graduate, with a passion for material science and specific interest in polymers - their near infinite applications intrigue me. \n\nI plan to continue my scientific career in the field of polymeric biomaterials as I am fascinated by intelligent, bioactive and biomimetic materials for use in both consumer and medical applications.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"255757",title:"Dr.",name:"Igor",middleName:"Victorovich",surname:"Lakhno",slug:"igor-lakhno",fullName:"Igor Lakhno",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/255757/images/system/255757.jpg",biography:"Igor Victorovich Lakhno was born in 1971 in Kharkiv (Ukraine). \nMD – 1994, Kharkiv National Medical Univesity.\nOb&Gyn; – 1997, master courses in Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education.\nPh.D. – 1999, Kharkiv National Medical Univesity.\nDSC – 2019, PL Shupik National Academy of Postgraduate Education \nProfessor – 2021, Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology of VN Karazin Kharkiv National University\nHead of Department – 2021, Department of Perinatology, Obstetrics and gynecology of Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education\nIgor Lakhno has been graduated from international training courses on reproductive medicine and family planning held at Debrecen University (Hungary) in 1997. Since 1998 Lakhno Igor has worked as an associate professor in the department of obstetrics and gynecology of VN Karazin National University and an associate professor of the perinatology, obstetrics, and gynecology department of Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education. Since June 2019 he’s been a professor in the department of obstetrics and gynecology of VN Karazin National University and a professor of the perinatology, obstetrics, and gynecology department. He’s affiliated with Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education as a Head of Department from November 2021. Igor Lakhno has participated in several international projects on fetal non-invasive electrocardiography (with Dr. J. A. Behar (Technion), Prof. D. Hoyer (Jena University), and José Alejandro Díaz Méndez (National Institute of Astrophysics, Optics, and Electronics, Mexico). He’s an author of about 200 printed works and there are 31 of them in Scopus or Web of Science databases. Igor Lakhno is a member of the Editorial Board of Reproductive Health of Woman, Emergency Medicine, and Technology Transfer Innovative Solutions in Medicine (Estonia). He is a medical Editor of “Z turbotoyu pro zhinku”. Igor Lakhno is a reviewer of the Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology (Taylor and Francis), British Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology (Wiley), Informatics in Medicine Unlocked (Elsevier), The Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology Research (Wiley), Endocrine, Metabolic & Immune Disorders-Drug Targets (Bentham Open), The Open Biomedical Engineering Journal (Bentham Open), etc. He’s defended a dissertation for a DSc degree “Pre-eclampsia: prediction, prevention, and treatment”. Three years ago Igor Lakhno has participated in a training course on innovative technologies in medical education at Lublin Medical University (Poland). Lakhno Igor has participated as a speaker in several international conferences and congresses (International Conference on Biological Oscillations April 10th-14th 2016, Lancaster, UK, The 9th conference of the European Study Group on Cardiovascular Oscillations). His main scientific interests: are obstetrics, women’s health, fetal medicine, and cardiovascular medicine. \nIgor Lakhno is a consultant at Kharkiv municipal perinatal center. He’s graduated from training courses on endoscopy in gynecology. He has 28 years of practical experience in the field.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"244950",title:"Dr.",name:"Salvatore",middleName:null,surname:"Di Lauro",slug:"salvatore-di-lauro",fullName:"Salvatore Di Lauro",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0030O00002bSF1HQAW/ProfilePicture%202021-12-20%2014%3A54%3A14.482",biography:"Name:\n\tSALVATORE DI LAURO\nAddress:\n\tHospital Clínico Universitario Valladolid\nAvda Ramón y Cajal 3\n47005, Valladolid\nSpain\nPhone number: \nFax\nE-mail:\n\t+34 983420000 ext 292\n+34 983420084\nsadilauro@live.it\nDate and place of Birth:\nID Number\nMedical Licence \nLanguages\t09-05-1985. Villaricca (Italy)\n\nY1281863H\n474707061\nItalian (native language)\nSpanish (read, written, spoken)\nEnglish (read, written, spoken)\nPortuguese (read, spoken)\nFrench (read)\n\t\t\nCurrent position (title and company)\tDate (Year)\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl. National Health System.\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Instituto Oftalmologico Recoletas. Red Hospitalaria Recoletas. Private practise.\t2017-today\n\n2019-today\n\t\n\t\nEducation (High school, university and postgraduate training > 3 months)\tDate (Year)\nDegree in Medicine and Surgery. University of Neaples 'Federico II”\nResident in Opthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid\nMaster in Vitreo-Retina. IOBA. University of Valladolid\nFellow of the European Board of Ophthalmology. Paris\nMaster in Research in Ophthalmology. University of Valladolid\t2003-2009\n2012-2016\n2016-2017\n2016\n2012-2013\n\t\nEmployments (company and positions)\tDate (Year)\nResident in Ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl.\nFellow in Vitreo-Retina. IOBA. University of Valladolid\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl. National Health System.\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Instituto Oftalmologico Recoletas. Red Hospitalaria Recoletas. \n\t2012-2016\n2016-2017\n2017-today\n\n2019-Today\n\n\n\t\nClinical Research Experience (tasks and role)\tDate (Year)\nAssociated investigator\n\n' FIS PI20/00740: DESARROLLO DE UNA CALCULADORA DE RIESGO DE\nAPARICION DE RETINOPATIA DIABETICA BASADA EN TECNICAS DE IMAGEN MULTIMODAL EN PACIENTES DIABETICOS TIPO 1. Grant by: Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovacion \n\n' (BIO/VA23/14) Estudio clínico multicéntrico y prospectivo para validar dos\nbiomarcadores ubicados en los genes p53 y MDM2 en la predicción de los resultados funcionales de la cirugía del desprendimiento de retina regmatógeno. Grant by: Gerencia Regional de Salud de la Junta de Castilla y León.\n' Estudio multicéntrico, aleatorizado, con enmascaramiento doble, en 2 grupos\nparalelos y de 52 semanas de duración para comparar la eficacia, seguridad e inmunogenicidad de SOK583A1 respecto a Eylea® en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad' (CSOK583A12301; N.EUDRA: 2019-004838-41; FASE III). Grant by Hexal AG\n\n' Estudio de fase III, aleatorizado, doble ciego, con grupos paralelos, multicéntrico para comparar la eficacia y la seguridad de QL1205 frente a Lucentis® en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad. (EUDRACT: 2018-004486-13). Grant by Qilu Pharmaceutical Co\n\n' Estudio NEUTON: Ensayo clinico en fase IV para evaluar la eficacia de aflibercept en pacientes Naive con Edema MacUlar secundario a Oclusion de Vena CenTral de la Retina (OVCR) en regimen de tratamientO iNdividualizado Treat and Extend (TAE)”, (2014-000975-21). Grant by Fundacion Retinaplus\n\n' Evaluación de la seguridad y bioactividad de anillos de tensión capsular en conejo. Proyecto Procusens. Grant by AJL, S.A.\n\n'Estudio epidemiológico, prospectivo, multicéntrico y abierto\\npara valorar la frecuencia de la conjuntivitis adenovírica diagnosticada mediante el test AdenoPlus®\\nTest en pacientes enfermos de conjuntivitis aguda”\\n. National, multicenter study. Grant by: NICOX.\n\nEuropean multicentric trial: 'Evaluation of clinical outcomes following the use of Systane Hydration in patients with dry eye”. Study Phase 4. Grant by: Alcon Labs'\n\nVLPs Injection and Activation in a Rabbit Model of Uveal Melanoma. Grant by Aura Bioscience\n\nUpdating and characterization of a rabbit model of uveal melanoma. Grant by Aura Bioscience\n\nEnsayo clínico en fase IV para evaluar las variantes genéticas de la vía del VEGF como biomarcadores de eficacia del tratamiento con aflibercept en pacientes con degeneración macular asociada a la edad (DMAE) neovascular. Estudio BIOIMAGE. IMO-AFLI-2013-01\n\nEstudio In-Eye:Ensayo clínico en fase IV, abierto, aleatorizado, de 2 brazos,\nmulticçentrico y de 12 meses de duración, para evaluar la eficacia y seguridad de un régimen de PRN flexible individualizado de 'esperar y extender' versus un régimen PRN según criterios de estabilización mediante evaluaciones mensuales de inyecciones intravítreas de ranibizumab 0,5 mg en pacientes naive con neovascularización coriodea secunaria a la degeneración macular relacionada con la edad. CP: CRFB002AES03T\n\nTREND: Estudio Fase IIIb multicéntrico, randomizado, de 12 meses de\nseguimiento con evaluador de la agudeza visual enmascarado, para evaluar la eficacia y la seguridad de ranibizumab 0.5mg en un régimen de tratar y extender comparado con un régimen mensual, en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad. CP: CRFB002A2411 Código Eudra CT:\n2013-002626-23\n\n\n\nPublications\t\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n2015-16\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n2014\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n2014\n\nJose Carlos Pastor; Jimena Rojas; Salvador Pastor-Idoate; Salvatore Di Lauro; Lucia Gonzalez-Buendia; Santiago Delgado-Tirado. Proliferative vitreoretinopathy: A new concept of disease pathogenesis and practical\nconsequences. Progress in Retinal and Eye Research. 51, pp. 125 - 155. 03/2016. DOI: 10.1016/j.preteyeres.2015.07.005\n\n\nLabrador-Velandia S; Alonso-Alonso ML; Di Lauro S; García-Gutierrez MT; Srivastava GK; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I. Mesenchymal stem cells provide paracrine neuroprotective resources that delay degeneration of co-cultured organotypic neuroretinal cultures.Experimental Eye Research. 185, 17/05/2019. DOI: 10.1016/j.exer.2019.05.011\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro; Maria Teresa Garcia Gutierrez; Ivan Fernandez Bueno. Quantification of pigment epithelium-derived factor (PEDF) in an ex vivo coculture of retinal pigment epithelium cells and neuroretina.\nJournal of Allbiosolution. 2019. ISSN 2605-3535\n\nSonia Labrador Velandia; Salvatore Di Lauro; Alonso-Alonso ML; Tabera Bartolomé S; Srivastava GK; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I. Biocompatibility of intravitreal injection of human mesenchymal stem cells in immunocompetent rabbits. Graefe's archive for clinical and experimental ophthalmology. 256 - 1, pp. 125 - 134. 01/2018. DOI: 10.1007/s00417-017-3842-3\n\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro, David Rodriguez-Crespo, Manuel J Gayoso, Maria T Garcia-Gutierrez, J Carlos Pastor, Girish K Srivastava, Ivan Fernandez-Bueno. A novel coculture model of porcine central neuroretina explants and retinal pigment epithelium cells. Molecular Vision. 2016 - 22, pp. 243 - 253. 01/2016.\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro. Classifications for Proliferative Vitreoretinopathy ({PVR}): An Analysis of Their Use in Publications over the Last 15 Years. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2016, pp. 1 - 6. 01/2016. DOI: 10.1155/2016/7807596\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro; Rosa Maria Coco; Rosa Maria Sanabria; Enrique Rodriguez de la Rua; Jose Carlos Pastor. Loss of Visual Acuity after Successful Surgery for Macula-On Rhegmatogenous Retinal Detachment in a Prospective Multicentre Study. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2015:821864, 2015. DOI: 10.1155/2015/821864\n\nIvan Fernandez-Bueno; Salvatore Di Lauro; Ivan Alvarez; Jose Carlos Lopez; Maria Teresa Garcia-Gutierrez; Itziar Fernandez; Eva Larra; Jose Carlos Pastor. Safety and Biocompatibility of a New High-Density Polyethylene-Based\nSpherical Integrated Porous Orbital Implant: An Experimental Study in Rabbits. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2015:904096, 2015. DOI: 10.1155/2015/904096\n\nPastor JC; Pastor-Idoate S; Rodríguez-Hernandez I; Rojas J; Fernandez I; Gonzalez-Buendia L; Di Lauro S; Gonzalez-Sarmiento R. Genetics of PVR and RD. Ophthalmologica. 232 - Suppl 1, pp. 28 - 29. 2014\n\nRodriguez-Crespo D; Di Lauro S; Singh AK; Garcia-Gutierrez MT; Garrosa M; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I; Srivastava GK. Triple-layered mixed co-culture model of RPE cells with neuroretina for evaluating the neuroprotective effects of adipose-MSCs. Cell Tissue Res. 358 - 3, pp. 705 - 716. 2014.\nDOI: 10.1007/s00441-014-1987-5\n\nCarlo De Werra; Salvatore Condurro; Salvatore Tramontano; Mario Perone; Ivana Donzelli; Salvatore Di Lauro; Massimo Di Giuseppe; Rosa Di Micco; Annalisa Pascariello; Antonio Pastore; Giorgio Diamantis; Giuseppe Galloro. Hydatid disease of the liver: thirty years of surgical experience.Chirurgia italiana. 59 - 5, pp. 611 - 636.\n(Italia): 2007. ISSN 0009-4773\n\nChapters in books\n\t\n' Salvador Pastor Idoate; Salvatore Di Lauro; Jose Carlos Pastor Jimeno. PVR: Pathogenesis, Histopathology and Classification. Proliferative Vitreoretinopathy with Small Gauge Vitrectomy. Springer, 2018. ISBN 978-3-319-78445-8\nDOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-78446-5_2. \n\n' Salvatore Di Lauro; Maria Isabel Lopez Galvez. Quistes vítreos en una mujer joven. Problemas diagnósticos en patología retinocoroidea. Sociedad Española de Retina-Vitreo. 2018.\n\n' Salvatore Di Lauro; Salvador Pastor Idoate; Jose Carlos Pastor Jimeno. iOCT in PVR management. OCT Applications in Opthalmology. pp. 1 - 8. INTECH, 2018. DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.78774.\n\n' Rosa Coco Martin; Salvatore Di Lauro; Salvador Pastor Idoate; Jose Carlos Pastor. amponadores, manipuladores y tinciones en la cirugía del traumatismo ocular.Trauma Ocular. Ponencia de la SEO 2018..\n\n' LOPEZ GALVEZ; DI LAURO; CRESPO. OCT angiografia y complicaciones retinianas de la diabetes. PONENCIA SEO 2021, CAPITULO 20. (España): 2021.\n\n' Múltiples desprendimientos neurosensoriales bilaterales en paciente joven. Enfermedades Degenerativas De Retina Y Coroides. SERV 04/2016. \n' González-Buendía L; Di Lauro S; Pastor-Idoate S; Pastor Jimeno JC. Vitreorretinopatía proliferante (VRP) e inflamación: LA INFLAMACIÓN in «INMUNOMODULADORES Y ANTIINFLAMATORIOS: MÁS ALLÁ DE LOS CORTICOIDES. RELACION DE PONENCIAS DE LA SOCIEDAD ESPAÑOLA DE OFTALMOLOGIA. 10/2014.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"265335",title:"Mr.",name:"Stefan",middleName:"Radnev",surname:"Stefanov",slug:"stefan-stefanov",fullName:"Stefan Stefanov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/265335/images/7562_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"7227",title:"Dr.",name:"Hiroaki",middleName:null,surname:"Matsui",slug:"hiroaki-matsui",fullName:"Hiroaki Matsui",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Tokyo",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"318905",title:"Prof.",name:"Elvis",middleName:"Kwason",surname:"Tiburu",slug:"elvis-tiburu",fullName:"Elvis Tiburu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Ghana",country:{name:"Ghana"}}},{id:"336193",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdullah",middleName:null,surname:"Alamoudi",slug:"abdullah-alamoudi",fullName:"Abdullah Alamoudi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Majmaah University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"318657",title:"MSc.",name:"Isabell",middleName:null,surname:"Steuding",slug:"isabell-steuding",fullName:"Isabell Steuding",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Harz University of Applied Sciences",country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"318656",title:"BSc.",name:"Peter",middleName:null,surname:"Kußmann",slug:"peter-kussmann",fullName:"Peter Kußmann",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Harz University of Applied Sciences",country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"338222",title:"Mrs.",name:"María José",middleName:null,surname:"Lucía Mudas",slug:"maria-jose-lucia-mudas",fullName:"María José Lucía Mudas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Carlos III University of Madrid",country:{name:"Spain"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"23",type:"subseries",title:"Computational Neuroscience",keywords:"Single-Neuron Modeling, Sensory Processing, Motor Control, Memory and Synaptic Pasticity, Attention, Identification, Categorization, Discrimination, Learning, Development, Axonal Patterning and Guidance, Neural Architecture, Behaviours and Dynamics of Networks, Cognition and the Neuroscientific Basis of Consciousness",scope:"Computational neuroscience focuses on biologically realistic abstractions and models validated and solved through computational simulations to understand principles for the development, structure, physiology, and ability of the nervous system. This topic is dedicated to biologically plausible descriptions and computational models - at various abstraction levels - of neurons and neural systems. This includes, but is not limited to: single-neuron modeling, sensory processing, motor control, memory, and synaptic plasticity, attention, identification, categorization, discrimination, learning, development, axonal patterning, guidance, neural architecture, behaviors, and dynamics of networks, cognition and the neuroscientific basis of consciousness. Particularly interesting are models of various types of more compound functions and abilities, various and more general fundamental principles (e.g., regarding architecture, organization, learning, development, etc.) found at various spatial and temporal levels.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/23.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!1,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11419,editor:{id:"14004",title:"Dr.",name:"Magnus",middleName:null,surname:"Johnsson",slug:"magnus-johnsson",fullName:"Magnus Johnsson",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/14004/images/system/14004.png",biography:"Dr Magnus Johnsson is a cross-disciplinary scientist, lecturer, scientific editor and AI/machine learning consultant from Sweden. \n\nHe is currently at Malmö University in Sweden, but also held positions at Lund University in Sweden and at Moscow Engineering Physics Institute. \nHe holds editorial positions at several international scientific journals and has served as a scientific editor for books and special journal issues. \nHis research interests are wide and include, but are not limited to, autonomous systems, computer modeling, artificial neural networks, artificial intelligence, cognitive neuroscience, cognitive robotics, cognitive architectures, cognitive aids and the philosophy of mind. \n\nDr. Johnsson has experience from working in the industry and he has a keen interest in the application of neural networks and artificial intelligence to fields like industry, finance, and medicine. \n\nWeb page: www.magnusjohnsson.se",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Malmö University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Sweden"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,series:{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",issn:"2633-1403"},editorialBoard:[{id:"13818",title:"Dr.",name:"Asim",middleName:null,surname:"Bhatti",slug:"asim-bhatti",fullName:"Asim Bhatti",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/13818/images/system/13818.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Deakin University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Australia"}}},{id:"151889",title:"Dr.",name:"Joao Luis Garcia",middleName:null,surname:"Rosa",slug:"joao-luis-garcia-rosa",fullName:"Joao Luis Garcia Rosa",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/151889/images/4861_n.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Sao Paulo",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"103779",title:"Prof.",name:"Yalcin",middleName:null,surname:"Isler",slug:"yalcin-isler",fullName:"Yalcin Isler",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRyQ8QAK/Profile_Picture_1628834958734",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Izmir Kâtip Çelebi University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}}]},onlineFirstChapters:{paginationCount:14,paginationItems:[{id:"82103",title:"The Role of Endoplasmic Reticulum Stress and Its Regulation in the Progression of Neurological and Infectious Diseases",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105543",signatures:"Mary Dover, Michael Kishek, Miranda Eddins, Naneeta Desar, Ketema Paul and Milan Fiala",slug:"the-role-of-endoplasmic-reticulum-stress-and-its-regulation-in-the-progression-of-neurological-and-i",totalDownloads:6,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Updates on Endoplasmic Reticulum",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11674.jpg",subseries:{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology"}}},{id:"80954",title:"Ion Channels and Neurodegenerative Disease Aging Related",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103074",signatures:"Marika Cordaro, Salvatore Cuzzocrea and Rosanna Di Paola",slug:"ion-channels-and-neurodegenerative-disease-aging-related",totalDownloads:6,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Ion Channels - From Basic Properties to Medical Treatment",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10838.jpg",subseries:{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology"}}},{id:"81647",title:"Diabetes and Epigenetics",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104653",signatures:"Rasha A. 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