",isbn:"978-1-80356-963-5",printIsbn:"978-1-80356-962-8",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80356-964-2",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"8eeb7ab232fa8d5c723b61e0da251857",bookSignature:"Dr. Soumen Dhara and Dr. Gorachand Dutta",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11513.jpg",keywords:"Fabrication Technologies, Applications, Characterizations, Case Studies, Various Gas Sensors, Improvement of Lifestyle, Societal Benefit, Bio-Sensors, Bioreceptor Molecules, Integration, Packaging, Lab-on-Chip",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"April 8th 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"June 17th 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"August 16th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"November 4th 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"January 3rd 2023",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"23 days",secondStepPassed:!1,areRegistrationsClosed:!1,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:2,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"A pioneering researcher in nanowire heterostructures and laser spectroscopy, recipient of JSPS (Govt. of Japan) and NPDF (Govt. of India) fellowships, and member of MRS(USA), MRS(India), IPA(India).",coeditorOneBiosketch:"Assistant Professor with the School of Medical Science and Technology, Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur with research interests that include the design and characterization of portable biosensors, biodevices, and sensor interfaces for miniaturized systems and biomedical applications for point-of-care testing.",coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"196334",title:"Dr.",name:"Soumen",middleName:null,surname:"Dhara",slug:"soumen-dhara",fullName:"Soumen Dhara",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/196334/images/system/196334.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Dhara received his Ph. D in Physics in 2012 from Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati, India. Presently, he is associated with the Faculty of Science, Sri Sri University, India as an Assistant Professor in Physics. Prior to joining the current\naffiliation, he was a postdoctoral fellow at different renowned institutions, Kobe University Japan, S. N. Bose National Centre for Basic Sciences, India and Cardiff University, United Kingdom. He was awarded prestigious JSPS postdoctoral fellowship based on his research contribution on semiconducting nanowires. He has published more than 32 research articles including 1 review article in high profile international journals and 3 book chapters to his credit. 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His research interests include the design and characterization of portable\r\nbiosensors, biodevices and sensor interfaces for miniaturized systems and biomedical applications for point-of-care testing. He received his Ph.D in Biosensor and Electrochemistry from Pusan National University, South Korea,\r\nwhere he developed different class of electrochemical sensors and studied the electrochemical properties of gold, platinum, and palladium based metal electrodes. He completed his Post-doctoral fellowships in the Department of\r\nMechanical Engineering, Michigan State University, USA and Department of Electronic and Electrical Engineering at University of Bath, UK. 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1. Introduction
The most of modern commercial optoelectronic devices such as Laser diodes, solar cells, light-emitting diodes (LEDs), and nonlinear optical devices are built on the basis of traditional inorganic semiconductors. However, a lot of progress has been made in producing devices based on organic electronic materials, in recent decades [1], but the current development prospects of organic materials are mostly limited in their scope to relatively low-performance areas. Low mobility of charge carriers in molecular materials, can be mentioned as one of import reason for this topic. Strong chemical interaction between organic molecules and metal electrodes can destroy the injection of charge carriers into the organic molecules [2].
A qualitatively different way of using organic electronic compounds can be via exploiting resonant interactions in organic-inorganic hybrid structures [3–5]. Within the same hybrid structure, one could combine high conductivity of the inorganic semiconductor component with the strong light-matter interaction of the organic component. However, this properties classified them as named organic-inorganic hybrid materials with large exciton binding energy (about several hundreds of meV) because of large dielectric confinement. These layered organic-inorganic perovskites with the general formula (RNH3)2MX4 (R= CnH2n+1; M= Pb or Sn; X= halogen), can be regarded as semiconductor/insulator multiple quantum well systems consisting of lead halide semiconductor layers sandwiched between organic ammonium insulator layers [6–10]. Lead halide is well known as typical ionic crystals with a large exciton binding energy (a few tens of meV) [11]. Further, the organic layer has a larger band gap and lower dielectric constant than those of the inorganic layer. Therefore, the exciton binding energy is considerably amplified due to the quantum and dielectric confinement effects [12]. As a result, stable excitons are observed even at room temperature. Thus, the appropriate properties of both the organic and the inorganic materials can exploited to overcome their limitations when used separately. The lead halide based organic-inorganic perovskites have potential applications in nonlinear optical devices [13,14] and novel luminescent devices [15,16]. Organometallic halide perovskites have recently emerged as a promising material for high-efficiency nanostructured devices [17]. Over the past several months, we have witnessed an unanticipated breakthrough and rapid progress in the field of developing photovoltaics, with the realization of highly efficient solar cells based on organometallic trihalide perovskite absorbers [18–21].
Simplified schematic representation of the crystal structure of the organic-inorganic hybrids as shown in Figure 1. The two-dimensional inorganic layers and an organic ammonium layer are stacked alternately. These layers is comprised of a two-dimensional sheet of [MX6-4] octahedra which are connected at the four corners with halide ions on the plane.
Figure 1.
Schematic structure of the organic-inorganic hybrid crystal
As shown in Figure 2, the six halogen ions X- surrounded M2+, forming an octahedral [MX6-4] cluster. The inorganic layer has thickness of a few atomic layers. The –NH3+ ends of the cations bind to the anion layers of [MX6-4] in a specific orientation determined by hydrogen bonding with both equatorial and axial halide ions. A multi-layer structure is organized by neutralizing [MX6-4] with alkylammonium ions [24].
Figure 2.
Schematic of the cluster structure of the organic-inorganic hybrid []
Also Perovskites Material use as solar cell in last few years as show in Figure 3. The reasons for make them as one of best candidate for photovoltaics is explain below:
Appropriate Material properties of high efficiency photovoltaics
High coefficient of optical absorption
Excellent charge carrier transportation
Promising device parameters
Stability for maintain more than 80% of its initial efficiency after 500 hours.
Lower manufacturing costs because of directly deposition from solution
Figure 3.
Best research cell efficiencies of all type of solar cells (NREL)
2. Synthesis of inorganic–organic solar cells materials
The synthesis of perovskites is the main and important procedure among perovskites study. Compared with the common semiconductors, the fabrication of perovskites samples is relatively easy. Because the crystals of perovskites molecules can form spontaneously via self-assembly process and they need neither intricate equipment nor confined environment condition but can be synthesized and deposited simply by soft chemical methods at room temperature. Generally there are two steps for synthesis: synthesis of ammonium salts and preparation of perovskites solution.
In the first step, for the perovskites that are mainly in form of (R-NH3)2MX4, the as-prepared amines transform to ammonium salts by reacting the amines with halogen acid. This neutralization reaction where the salts are generate is described in formula 1:
R-NH2+HX→R-NH2.HXE1
\n\t\t\t
The halogen acids used to produce corresponding ammonium salts are HI 57 wt%, HBr 48 wt% or HCl 37 wt% aqueous solution. After several days of drying in desiccator, the salts are dry. These dry ammonium salts are used to prepare perovskites solution. In this step, R-NH2.HX ammonium salt is mixed with lead halide PbX2 in stoichiometric amount in mole, and dissolved in solvent. This is a coordination reaction and it can be described by the chemical formula: 2:
2R-NH2.HX+MX2→R-NH32MX4E2
\n\t\t\t
The solution is then put under agitation or in ultrasonic bath until the solutes are totally dissolved and the solution appears limpid. From the perovskites solution, 2D crystals can be obtained by evaporation of solvent by self-organization process. The solvent containing R-NH2.HX and MX2 is first spin-coated on the substrate. 2D layered perovskites crystals are then obtained upon solvent evaporation. In the absorption spectra of 2D layered perovskites crystals, a sharp peak appears at room temperature, which is characteristic of the formation of 2D layered perovskites crystal structure [25].
Another method to synthesis of perovskites is two-step based on the layer-by-layer technique. For example, thin films of microcrystalline (C8H17NH3)2PbBr4 are prepared by the two-step growth process by Kitazawa et.al as follows: (1) precipitation of nanometer-sized PbBr2 particles on substrates by vapor deposition and then (2) growth of (C8H17NH3)2PbBr4 films by exposing PbBr2 particles to C8H17NH3Br vapor. A simple vacuum chamber is used as a deposition apparatus with about 8×10-6 Torr as Background pressure. This chamber is attached to a vacuum system, two-independent thermal evaporation sources, a shutter and a substrate holder. The thermal evaporation source consists of a quartz cell coiled with a tantalum wire. First of all, PbBr2 particles are deposited on Si (100) substrates by vapor deposition. Next, PbBr2 particles are exposed to C8H17NH3Br vapor for growing of (C8H17NH3)2PbBr4 films. Exposure time is varied from 0 to 600 s. The substrate temperature is kept at room temperature during deposition. Thin films of microcrystalline that prepared by the two-step growth process and their optical properties are dependent on the exposure time [12].
Perovskites in form of luminescent nanoparticles are another remarkable kind of crystals which has attracted excessive attention recently. Between bulk materials and atomic or molecular structures, the nanoparticles show very specific properties with potential applications in various fields such as sensing or LEDs. Nanoparticles often have specific optical properties as they are small enough to confine their electrons and produce quantum effects. Thus, the fabrication method which chooses the size of nanoparticles is very vital. For the first time Audebert et al. have realized luminescent nanoparticles by a spray-drying method. In brief, the ammonium salts and PbBr2 or PbI2 semiconductors are firstly dissolved in DMF solvent and used for the nanoparticles spray drying. The experimental spray drier is composed of an aerosol generator and an evaporation chamber which is settled in an oven maintaining at 250 °C. (Figure 4)
Figure 4.
Schematic of the spray-drying method to preparation of organic-inorganic perovskite nanoparticles [25].
Droplets with initial mean diameter of 0.35 µm are carried by dry air from the aerosol generator to the evaporation chamber. Dried particles are collected onto a 0.2 µm cutoff Teflon filter and are stored at ambient temperature [25]. Transmission electron microscopy measurements show that these particles are spherical and their sizes are of the order of 50 to 500 nm.
2.1. Deposition techniques of inorganic–organic solar cells materials
The deposition technique is a quite important issue for perovskites studies, because many investigations and possible usages of organic-inorganic perovskite hybrids rely on the accessibility of simple and accurate thin film deposition method. But deposition of perovskite materials is often challenging because of the different chemical and physical property of the inorganic and organic portions [26]. For example, organic materials trend to be soluble in various solvents than inorganic section, this is causing chemical precursor solution preparation techniques (e.g., spin coating and dip coating) usually infeasible. For those reasons where the organic-inorganic hybrid is soluble, solution techniques are sometimes not suitable because of adverse wetting characteristics of some substrates, make deposition inhomogeneous. With respect to vacuum evaporation methods, the gradual heating of organic-inorganic compounds typically results in the decomposition or dissociation of the organic component at a lower temperature or rapidly than that needed for evaporation of the metal halide component. Despite these evident difficulties, organic-inorganic perovskites represent a number of significant opportunities for thin film deposition or crystal growth of organic-inorganic hybrid perovskites, such as two-step dipping technique, spin coating, stamping, Langmuir-Blodgett (LB), two source thermal evaporation, solution evaporation and so on, which make possible the applications of perovskites as organic-inorganic electronic or photonic devices [27,28]. This section will offered a selected compilation of recent progress in this topic, demonstrating that a number of simple and effective methods can be utilized for the deposition of this considerable class of materials.
2.2. Spin-coating technique
Spin-coating is a very convenient technique widely applied to uniform thin film deposition. As it is shown in Figure 5, an amount of solution is dropped on the substrate which is fixed on the spin-coater, and then it is rotated at high speed in order to spread the fluid by centrifugal force. It can be considered as a special case of solution crystal growth, which allows the formation of highly oriented layered perovskites on a substrate, while the solvent is evaporating off. On the other hand, Spin-coating enables deposition of hybrid perovskites on various substrates, including glass, plastic, quartz, silicon and sapphire. Selection of the substrate, the solvent, the concentration of the hybrid in the solvent, the substrate temperature, and the spin speed are relevant parameters for this technique. In some cases, the wetting properties of the solution on the chosen substrate improved by pretreating the substrate surface with a suitable adhesion agent. In addition, post deposition low-temperature annealing (T < 250oC) of the hybrid films is sometimes employed to improve crystallinity and phase purity. Mitzi et al. (2001b) comparing with the traditional deposition technique for inorganic semiconductors, spin-coating method doesn’t require cumbersome equipment while it gives high-quality films in quite short time (several minutes) in room environment.
Figure 5.
Schematic of the spin-coating process
Actually, in order to realize a layer with the desired thickness, can modify the concentration of perovskites solution and keep the other spin-coating parameters (spin speed, acceleration and spin duration) fixed. Generally, homogeneous 2D layered perovskites films with a thickness from 10 nm to 100 nm can be obtained by carefully selecting the parameters: less concentrated solutions give thinner layers. The choice of the solvent is important because we need to consider the solubility for both the organic ammonium and the inorganic lead halide. Dimethylformamide (DMF) or Dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO) are good solvents in which the perovskites usually have very high solubility. Some other solvents such as acetone, or acetonitrile can also be used. But solubility of perovskites in them is relatively poor (less than 5 wt%), and it takes too long to completely dissolve the solutes.
With the help of a profilemeter or an Atomic force microscopy to measure the layer thickness, can draw a calibration curve (thickness as a function of concentration) and adjust the concentration of solution in order to produce the desired thickness. The spin-coated 2D layered perovskites films are very reproducible, and therefore they are appropriate to be deposited on devices.
2.3. Two-step dip-coating
In a sequential deposition procedure, a metal halide film is first deposited by vacuum evaporation or spin-coated from solution. Subsequently this film is transformed into the perovskite by dipped into a solution including the organic cation. Proper selection of solvent for the dipping solution is important. So that the organic salt is soluble in it, but the starting metal halide and the final organic-inorganic perovskite are not soluble.
In this case, the organic cations in solution intercalate into and rapidly react with the metal halide on the substrate and form a crystalline film of the desired hybrid, as it is described in Figure 6.
Figure 6.
Schematic representation of the two-step dipping technique. In (a), a film of the metal halide is deposited onto a substrate using vacuum evaporation. The metal halide film is then (b) dipped into a solution containing the organic cation. The resulting film after dipping has the characteristic room temperature photoluminescence spectrum.
For the perovskite family, (R-NH3)2 (CH3NH3) n-1 MnI3n+1 (R = butyl or phenethyl; M = Pb or Sn; n = 1 or 2), toluene/2-propanol mixture is a suitable solvent for the organic salt. The dipping times are relatively short: several seconds to several minutes, depending on the system. For example, a film of (C4H9NH3)2PbI4 was composed of a vacuum deposited film of PbI2 (See figure 6 (a)) by dipping it into a butylammonium iodide solution, the reaction time was 1-3 min, which depends the PbI2 film thickness (200-300 nm). After dip-coating, the films were instantly immersed in a rinse solution of the same solvent ratio as the initial dipping solution without organic salt and dried in vacuum. Two-step dip-processing is a convenient method which can be used for a variety of organics and inorganics, even if they have incompatible solubility characteristics [26].
2.4. Thermal evaporation technique
The thermal evaporation method was firstly used by M. Era et al in 1997. They performed the dual-source vapor deposition by using lead iodide PbI2 and organic ammonium iodide RNH3I, in particular, the 2-phenylethylammonium iodide C6H5C2H4NH3I.
As it is shown in Figure 7 organic and inorganic source were co-evaporated and deposited on fused quartz substrates. The pressure of evaporation chamber was about 10-6 Torr. In the preparation, the substrates were allowed to stand at room temperature. The spectrum of the vacuum deposited film corresponds well to those of single crystal and spin-coated films of the layered perovskite. Appearance of the strong exciton absorption and sharp exciton emission proves that the layered perovskite structure is organized in the vacuum deposited film [17].
Figure 7.
Schematic representation of the two-step dipping technique.
The benefits of this technique are that it is possible to precisely control the thickness and smoothness of the thin-film surfaces. However, this method has some disadvantage. It is often difficult to balance the organic and inorganic rates, an important criterion for achieving the correct compositions of the resulting perovskite films. Because each organic component easily contaminates the inside of the evaporation equipment is expected to limit the preparation of various perovskites using different organic components. In addition, in some cases, the organic salt might not be thermally stable up to the temperatures required for evaporation, making this approach impracticable for a certain number of systems.
Furthermore, another method was developed to deposit perovskites thin films by using a single evaporation source. Mitzi et al. (1999). The apparatus for this single source thermal ablation (SSTA) technique consists of a vacuum chamber, with an electrical feed-through to a thin tantalum sheet heater, as shown in Figure 8.
Figure 8.
Schematic cross section of a single source thermal ablation chamber
Crystals, powder, or a concentrated solution of starting charge is placed on the heater. A suspension of insoluble powders in a quick-drying solvent are placed on the heater, because this enables the powder to be in better physical and thermal contact with, as well as more evenly dispersed across, the sheet. Under a suitable vacuum condition, the sheet temperature reaches approximately 1000 oC in 1-2 second, the entire starting charge ablates from the heater surface well before it incandesces. After ablation, the inorganic and organic parts reassemble on the substrates to produce optically clear films of the chosen product.
The key point to this procedure is that the ablation is quick enough for the inorganic and organic compounds to evaporate from the source at basically the same time and before the organic portion has had an opportunity to decompose. In many instances (particularly with comparatively simple organic cations), the as-deposited films are crystalline and single phase at room temperature [26].
As show in Figure 9 Mingzhen Liu et al. compare the X-ray diffraction pattern of films of CH3NH3PbI3-xClx both vapour-deposited and solution-cast onto compact TiO2-coated FTO-coated glass. The main diffraction peaks, assigned to the 110, 220 and 330 peaks at 14.12 °, 28.44 ° and, respectively, 43.23°, are in same positions for both methods of films preparation, demonstrating that both techniques have produced the same organic-inorganic perovskite with an orthorhombic crystal structure [17]. Remarkably, focusing on the region of the (110) diffraction peak at 14.12 °, there is only a small peak at 12.65 ° (the (001) diffraction peak for PbI2) and no observable peak at 15.68 ° (the (110) diffraction peak for CH3NH3PbCl3), indicating a high level of phase purity.
Figure 9.
X-ray diffraction spectra of a solution-processed perovskite film (blue) and vapour deposited perovskite film (red) [17].
Figure 10 shows high-resolution scanning electron micrographs of CH3NH3PbI3 perovskite film spin-cast on a glass/ITO/PEDOT:PSS substrate by Jun-Yuan Jeng et al. The crystal sizes in the cluster-domain regions of the perovskite are around 100–150 nm in CH3NH3PbI3 perovskite film from butyrolactone solution and around 150–200nm in DMF solution [29].
Figure 10.
High-resolution scanning electron micrographs of CH3NH3PbI3 perovskite film from (a) butyrolactone solution and (b) DMF solution [29].
Sanjun Zhang et al. performs atomic force microscopy (AFM) measurements for each spin-coated (R-(CH2)nNH3)2PbX4 in order to examine the ability of the molecules to self-organize and define the surface roughness. Several examples of the obtained images are given in Figure 11.With the phenyl based semiconductor (2-phenylethanamine lead iodide), it was possible to cover the whole surface of the glass substrate; however, this was not the case for Cyclohexylmethanamine lead iodide, Myrtanylamine lead iodide and Cyclohexanamine lead bromide. It is clear that the surface roughness of the 2D phenyl-based is lower than that of the others [30].
Figure 11.
AFM images of 2D organic–inorganic semiconductor films: (a) 2-phenylethanamine lead iodide, (b) Cyclohexylmethanamine lead iodide, (c) Myrtanylamine lead iodide and (d) Cyclohexanamine lead bromide. The scales are 20 µm × 20 µm. Color coding of height is shown in the bar [30].
3. Electronic and optical properties of inorganic–organic solar cells materials
In the present decade organic-inorganic halide perovskite solar cells has been the most significant development in the field of photovoltaics for best bet at satisfying the need for high efficiencies while allowing for low cost manufacturing solutions. Since the first reports of stable solid state solar cells based on CH3NH3PbI3 perovskite in middle of 2012, the power conversion efficiencies of the hybrid solar cells have already exceeded 17%, surpassing every other solar cells produced by solution-processing methods. The wide range of efficient perovskite solar cell device design indicated point towards a considerable semiconducting material with excellent electrical and optical properties. Early pioneering research [31] in organic-inorganic halides field has clearly shown that this hybrid materials are good candidates for low dimensional electronic systems with tunable properties, permitting for the development of newer perovskite materials for solar cells in addition to CH3NH3PbI3. This section focuses on the recent progresses (i.e., up to Feb 2014) in the area of perovskite solar cells as well as their electronic, optical properties and the dynamics of charge carriers [32]. We first review the electronic properties of this class of hybrid perovskites, followed by its progress as a solar cell material. Due to the rapid pace of research in this area, this section does not aim to be comprehensive but will highlight key work and findings.
Initial studies on the electronic band structures of organic-inorganic (3-D and low-dimensional) perovskites can be traced to the works as below, in 1996 koutselas and his team using band structure calculations by a semi-empirical method based on the extended Huckel theory and an ab-initio approach based on the Hartree-Fock theory [33]. Then T. Umebayashi et. al. using ultraviolet photoelectron spectroscopy and first principles density functional theory (DFT) band calculations for the room temperature cubic phase [34] and Chang team using first principles pseudopotential calculations in 2004 [35]. As shown in Figure 12 DFT calculations for the three dimensional CH3NH3PbI3 crystal shown that the maxima of valence band consist of the Pb 6p - I 5p σ-anti-bonding orbital, while the minima of conduction band contains Pb 6p –I 5s σ anti-bonding and Pb 6p - I 5p π anti-bonding orbitals [34].
Figure 12.
Bonding diagram of (a) [PbI6]4- cluster (0-D), (b) CH3NH3PbI3 (3-D) and (b) (C4H9NH3)2PbI4 (2-D) at the top of the valence band and the bottom of the conduction band [34].
In line with respect to perovskite solar cells, interests in the DFT studies of 3D perovskites began renewed in earnest with the work of E. Mosconi together with F. De Angelis and their collaborators [37]. They calculated the band structure for CH3NH3PbX3 (cubic phase) and the mixed halide CH3NH3PbI2X (tetragonal phase) (X = Cl, Br and I) with the surrounding CH3NH3+, which were ignored in the earlier studies. Nevertheless, the organic component had little influence to the bandgap energy, of which is mainly determined by the [PbI4]6- network. In addition, the authors highlight that their calculated bandgaps (by ignoring spin-orbit coupling (SOC)) are in good agreement with the experimental results. These findings are consistent with those in the later works by T. Baikie et. al.[37] and Y. Wang et. al. [38].
Figure 13 show the absorption spectra of the perovskite quantum well structures. Sharp resonance are due to the exciton state associated with the inorganic layers. So, by replacing different metal cations or halides in organic framework, the positions of the resonance can be manipulated[33, 39]. Room-temperature UV–vis absorption spectra for thin films of (C4H9NH3)2PbX4 with (a) X = Cl, (b) X= Br, (c) X = I are shown by Mitzi et. al. as shown in Figure 13. In each spectrum, the arrow demonstrates the position of the exciton absorption peak. The corresponding photoluminescence (PL) spectrum (λex = 370 nm) is shown by the dashed curve in figure 13-c. A stokes shift of about 15nm between peaks of the absorption and emission peaks for the excitonic transition is notable.
Figure 13.
Room-temperature UV–vis absorption spectra for thin films of (C4H9NH3)2PbX4 with (a) X= Cl, (b) X= Br, (c) X = I [39].
Because of the two-dimensionality of the inorganic structure, coupled with the dielectric modulation between the organic and inorganic layers, the strong binding energy of the excitons arise, which enables the optical features to be observed at room temperature. Also strong photoluminescence, nonlinear optical effects and tunable polariton absorption arise from the large exciton binding energy and oscillator strength [39].
The excitonic absorption and light emission closely relate to the different metal halide in 2D perovskite. For instance, the absorption and photoluminescence of (C5H4CH2NH3)2PbX4 varied with substitution of different halogens. As show in Figure 14, the light emissions change by green to blue and blue to ultraviolet when X= I → Br → Cl [40]. The small FWHM of the peaks and very small Stokes shift between the UV-vis absorption and PL emission spectra are the signature of exciton.
Figure 14.
Optical absorption of (a, b, c) and photoluminescence (a´, b´, c´) spectra for (C5H4CH2NH3)2PbI4 (a, a´), (C5H4CH2NH3)2PbBr4 (b, b´) and (C5H4CH2NH3)2PbCl4 (c,c´)
The noticeable feature of the exciton state in this system is the extremely large binding energy. For example, the binding energy in (C6H5–C2H4NH3)2PbI4 are 220 meV. For comparison, the exciton state in bulk PbI2 has a binding energy of only 30 meV. According to the other studies the larger binding energy is due to the unusual alternating organic–inorganic layered structure and the effect of dielectric confinement. The screening of carriers in organic layer is small due to lower dielectric constant of the inert organic molecules. Also lower dielectric constant of organic layer lead to enhancement of the coulomb interaction between electron and hole (higher exciton binding energy) [40].
As already pointed out in a lot of published works it is interesting to compare the luminescence and absorption properties of the organic–inorganic compounds. As revealed, extensive studies of the excitonic properties of lead halide based organic–inorganic materials (R–NH3)2PbX4 have been performed. The measured absorption and photoluminescence wavelengths of (R–NH3)2PbI4 and (R–NH3)2PbBr4 reported in the literature are summarized in Table 1. Using different organic chains (e.g. simple saturated organic chains and unsaturated chains including aromatic rings and delocalized p electrons) demonstrate enhancement of the photoluminescence and the binding energy of excitons. For the saturated alkylammonium chains organic layers, the length of organic chain and the width of the PbI4 wells does not affect the excitonic properties. This is due to the small difference between the dielectric constants of the inorganic and organic layers which leads to a rather weak impact of the dielectric confinement (see, for instance, the work of Ishihara et al. on (CnH2n+1NH3)PbI4 with n = 4, 6, 8,..., 12). In contrast, when the organic chains consist of aromatic rings and delocalized p electrons, the binding energy of exciton is low because of the difference between the organic and inorganic dielectric constants (dielectric confinement effect) and the luminescence peak shows red shift [41-44]. This dependence of the saturated/unsaturated nature of the organic chains is summarized in Table 1.
Comparison of the absorption and photoluminescence peak wavelengths and the exciton binding energy of (NH3(CH2)6NH3)PbBr4 with those of the homologous bromide and iodide compounds as shown in Table 1. It is clear that the exciton binding energy of compounds (I) and (II) containing saturated organic chains are almost the same (about 180 meV). On the other hand, compounds (III) and (IV) containing unsaturated organic chains, exhibit much lower exciton bending energy. The homologous iodide compound (V) with the same (saturated) organic chain as (NH3(CH2)6NH3)PbBr4 shows strong photoluminescence at room temperature. The efficient emitted photoluminescence is observable by naked eyes
Absorption, photoluminescence wavelengths and Stokes shifts of some reported compounds.
4. Photovoltaic effect in inorganic–organic perovskite solar cells
Solar power is the one of the world\'s most abundant energy resource and daily input of this energy to the earth\'s surface is enough to cover our energy needs, but efficient and cost-effective ways of converting it to electricity, have remained as one of the scientist’s challenges.
Photovoltaic cells are the most promising device for directly converting the photons to electricity and it has been extensively studied in the past 50 years using various combinations of inorganic semiconductors or organic sensitizers. For photovoltaic energy to become competitive with fossil fuels and to capture a worthy place at energy markets, it is necessary to reduce the total cost of solar energy conversion by increasing their power conversion efficiencies or by reducing the cost of photovoltaic cells.
Today there is a lot of material used in photovoltaic structure and installed around the world. The photovoltaic market is currently dominated by crystalline Si solar cells with efficiencies close to 20% that known as First Generation of Solar Cells. This generation that have more than 150 micrometer thick, have the highest efficiency in all type of Solar cells that manufactured, but take a lot of energy to produce and therefore the cost of manufacturing is too high.
As cost-effective devices, thin film solar cell those containing a few micrometers of inorganic materials that known as second generation can be introduced. With a thin photovoltaic film, optical management is an important key for harvesting light while ensuring high efficiency. Thin film solar cell often limit light-harvesting ability because of their materials low absorption coefficients and narrow absorption bands. At least, these flexible cells have lower material costs, but they are also less efficient.
Alternative “third generation” technologies such as dye sensitized solar cells, organic photovoltaics and quantum dot solar cells in both electrochemical and solid-state structures, assure low cost solar power because of low cost fabrication methods based on solution-processing techniques such as blade coating, screen printing and spraying, but high bandgap light absorption by these types has not allowed high performance in quantum conversion and photovoltaic generation.
The first observation of photocurrents in oxide perovskite material can date back to 1956 [1] that have been widely studied. David B. Mitzi in 1990 used organometal halide perovskites in LED [2] and thin-film field-effect transistors [3] and demonstrated its high efficiency as light emitters. Given that we know the good light emitter is a good light absorber, perovskites materials because of their light absorption efficiently over a broad spectrum is convenient option as photovoltaic materials.
Also, because perovskite can directly deposited from solution, manufacturing costs is lower than another type of solar cells. But it should be noted that manufacturing cost could rise due to encapsulation process. Therefore, perovskites could resolve the solar cell industry by matching the output of silicon cells at a lower price than that of thin film, because of their low-cost materials and manufacturing process.
For first time in 2009, perovskites were used as solar cell [4]. As show in Figure 15 this device are built upon the architectural basis for DSSCs and achieved 3.8% efficiencies in a liquid electrolyte configuration where the absorber was regarded as a QDs deposited on tio2. The efficiency was further improved to 6.5% but the enormous drawback to this types, regardless of their low efficiency, were had dissolution of liquid electrolyte away the perovskite that cause short stability for device.
Figure 15.
Schematic of first perovskites solar cell
Introducing of Solid Hole Transporting Layer (HTL) by Nam-Gyu Park and Gratzel [5], and replace liquid electrolyte by it, solve this problem in 2012 and rose the efficiency to 9%. (Figure 16)
Figure 16.
Nam-Gyu Park and Gratzel perovskites solar cell
In the late 2012s, research topics towards to materials engineering and switch structure by manufacturing methods to increase the Efficiency of these type of solar cells. Henry Snaith [6] in Oxford University Switched TiO2 to an insulating Aluminum oxide scaffold in Gratzel perovskites solar cell that show in Figure 17. This switch, surprisingly increase efficiency to 10.9%.
Figure 17.
Switching TiO2 to an Al2O3 in Gratzel perovskites solar cell
On the other hand, Snaith and coworkers [17] demonstrated efficient planar solar cells of CH3NH3PbI3-xClx formed by dual source evaporation of PbCl2 and CH3NH3I. The film was evaporated on a compact TiO2 layer (as an electron transport layer) and then a Spiro-OMeTAD layer (as a hole transport layer) was spin coated over it (Figure 18). The evaporated films containing crystalline structures on the length scale of hundreds of nanometers are enormously uniform [32].
Figure 18.
Schematic of Snaith hybrid perovskite solar cell
Finally they reported 15.4% efficiency for their device and another research in this area, reported the difference efficiency by using different material for example Pbl2 that Graetzel and Bolink [7] used (device efficiency was 12.04 %) or difference evaporation method for example as show in Figure 19 employs both solution based deposition and vapor phase transformation by Graetzel [21] and coworkers, that report 12.1 % efficiency for their device.
Figure 19.
Gratzel sticks with the TiO2 structure and tinkered with the deposition step.
These deposition techniques had two important drawbacks: first challenging for large-scale industrial production and second is that the all-solution process results in decreased film quality, and the vacuum process requires expensive equipment and uses a great deal of energy. Yang Yang [16] from UCLA university present new method named “Vapor-assisted solution process” that organic material infiltrates the inorganic matter and forms a compact perovskite film. These films is significantly more uniform than the films produced by the wet technique (Figure 20).
Figure 20.
Vapor-assisted solution process
In conjunction with these exciting device-centric advancements, fundamental studies into the photoexcited species and their photogeneration and recombination dynamics in perovskites also began in earnest.
At least one of the remaining question is “Is the Solar Cell Excitonic?” Perovskite solar cell had similar diffusion lengths for electron and hole that average is about 100 to 300 nm [8] that put these cells in conventional solar cell class. On other hand either indicate similar mobilities for both holes and electrons [9] and this classify these cells in excitonic solar cell group (Figure 21).
Figure 21.
Schematic of conventional and excitonic solar cell
Accordingly, due to the common properties of these types of solar cells, between Conventional and excitonic solar cell, researchers cannot exactly determine whether the photoexcited species are excitons or free charges.
5. Conclusion
In this section we have presented the synthesis and characterization of organic-inorganic hybrid perovskite. Hybrid organic-inorganic materials represent an alternative to present materials as they guarantee improved optical and electronic properties by combining organic and inorganic components together. The unusual features and versatile characteristics of hybrid organic-inorganic perovskites open up promising applications in many fields such as electronics, optics, optoelectronics, mechanics, environment, medicine and biology. The application of these materials in the solar cells as a novel class of low-cost materials for high efficiency hybrid semiconductor photovoltaic cells has been explained in more detail.
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Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Synthesis of inorganic–organic solar cells materials",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"2.1. Deposition techniques of inorganic–organic solar cells materials",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"2.2. Spin-coating technique",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"2.3. Two-step dip-coating",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"2.4. Thermal evaporation technique",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7",title:"3. Electronic and optical properties of inorganic–organic solar cells materials",level:"1"},{id:"sec_8",title:"4. Photovoltaic effect in inorganic–organic perovskite solar cells",level:"1"},{id:"sec_9",title:"5. Conclusion",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Agranovich V, Gartstein Y N, Litinskaya M. Hybrid Resonant Organic-Inorganic Nanostructures for Optoelectronic Applications. Chemical Reviews 2011; 111 5179–5214.'},{id:"B2",body:'Pope M, Kalmann H, Magnante P. 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Research Institute of Applied Physics and Astronomy (RIAPA), University of Tabriz, Iran
Research Institute of Applied Physics and Astronomy (RIAPA), University of Tabriz, Iran
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1. Introduction
National accounting standards have historically been developed by each nation or by a cluster of nations for the entities that reside within their accounting judiciaries [1, 2]. These standards are typically designed to meet specific national needs [3]. However, in the past few decades, there has been a global trend of international harmonization of accounting standards, with many countries having either partially or completely replaced their national accounting standards with the International Financial Reporting Standards (IFRS) [4, 5]. As profiled by the International Accounting Standards Board (IASB) in 2019, over 140 jurisdictions in all major regions in the world (Figure 1) have either required or permitted IFRS usage for their domestic publicly accountable entities [6]. Such a massive adoption of a single set of accounting standards worldwide may represent the most significant accounting regulatory change in recent years [7].
Figure 1.
IFRS adoption by region. Source: IFRS Foundation 2019.
The IFRS can be defined as a single set of accounting standards that are intended to be consistently and globally applied—that is, to be used by developed, transitional, and emerging economies alike [8]. The IFRS are intended to provide investors and other users of financial statements with the ability to compare the financial performance of publicly listed companies on a like-for-like basis with the companies’ international peers. Conceptually speaking, adopting a single set of global accounting standards is undeniably appealing. In theory, global standards would remove the barriers that hinder investors when comparing the accounting information of companies from different nations, while simultaneously reducing the transaction costs for firms [9, 10, 11]. Empirical studies have confirmed that IFRS adoption has (to a certain degree) increased the compatibility of financial statements across national borders, and that the IFRS have achieved many of the goals they were intended to reach [1, 7, 12, 13].
However, despite the economic benefits of the IFRS and their apparent support by the great majority of countries, research has shown that national IFRS adoptions are difficult and problematic [14, 15, 16]. One major issue is that countries do not adopt IFRS to the same extent. Nobes and Zeff [17] show that some countries adopt the IFRS as issued by the IASB, while others claim that their own national GAAP are “based on” or “similar to” the IFRS—when, in fact, large differences remain. According to an extensive report compiled by Deloitte [18], it is also common for countries to claim that they have “adopted” the IFRS while choosing to deviate or not to include certain provisions from the IFRS as issued by the IASB. In addition, despite the great number of countries that have adopted IFRS, the three largest economies in the world—the United States, China, and Japan—have not yet fully accepted the IFRS into their national reporting standards, even for listed companies [6].
Thus, it is debatable whether international accounting harmonization is indeed as successful as it seems to be [19]; in fact, it may be just a veneer over continued national differences [15, 20]. Users of financial information should be aware that IFRS do not necessarily carry the same implications throughout the world [16], despite the IASB’s intentions. Some scholars warn that, if the IFRS are not adopted to the same extent around the world, the central purpose of international standards will be compromised, as foreign investors will be unable to be confident when reading financial statements [15, 17]. Uneven IFRS adoption could even be harmful to investors who believe that accounting standards have been converged worldwide—when, in fact, financial reporting differences continue to exist across national borders while being covered under the façade of the IFRS.
1.1 The IFRS adoption process
IFRS adoption is a complex and multi-level governance process (Figure 2) [2, 21]. After being promulgated by the IASB, IFRS adoption occurs at both the de jure level (e.g., recognizing the IFRS as part of a nation’s law) and the de facto level (e.g., annual and quarterly reporting by the nation’s entities). That is, a country may choose to adopt the IFRS as issued by the IASB, include it as part of its mandatory regulations [22], and require some or all of the entities within its jurisdiction to comply with the IFRS. On the other hand, when allowed by national regulation, firms may also choose to adopt IFRS before the country’s official IFRS adoption [10]. These two level of adoption are interrelated, although differences must be acknowledged [23]. National accounting standard-setters are likely to take domestic firms’ needs into consideration when deciding whether or not to adopt IFRS. By the same token, firms need to comply with the national requirements to either mandatorily adopt or voluntarily adopt IFRS. Figure 2 depicts the multi-level diffusion and adoption of IFRS.
Figure 2.
Multi-tier IFRS adoption.
It is important to recognize that firm-level IFRS adoption is conditional on countries’ decisions to allow or mandate IFRS in an adoption process [23]. Many countries first voluntarily adopt IFRS at the national level, and then write the standards into the local GAAP, which then become mandatory at the firm level. It has been shown that countries have adopted IFRS unevenly [18], so differences in countries’ IFRS adoptions already exist at the national level before trickling down to the firm level [5, 24, 25]. As most domestically listed firms must comply with the national GAAP or regulations, instead of directly complying with IFRS, they may have no choice but to deviate from the IFRS, as issued by the IASB [7, 26, 27, 28].
1.2 Some key terms
Financial accounting research is often loaded with special concepts, both technical and theoretical, that bear specific meanings that either clarify for or further confuse readers. This issue is manifested in international accounting due to the scope of diversity in accounting traditions. Some of the important concepts in this field have been unclearly used or defined. Many employ these concepts, but few define them. In addition, certain concepts are often treated as interchangeable, even though they do not represent precisely the same thing. This is perhaps inevitable for a subject as complex as IFRS. Nevertheless, to better understand international accounting harmonization, it is necessary to clarify these embedded meanings, since different usages may tilt discussions in somewhat different directions. It is also important to note that there is no strict “right” or “wrong” definitions of these terms, as important and evolving concepts can hardly be expected to have clear-cut definitions. Rather, the purpose of the effort is to note blurred or unclear definitions and introduce some clarity to the extent that has been identified in IFRS literature.
1.2.1 International accounting system
A dichotomy exists in the accounting literature in regard to what is meant by the term “international accounting system” and how it should be approached. One approach defines “accounting system” at the national level. For example, Gray [29] states that a country’s accounting system constitutes various national characteristics, such as the structure and development of capital markets, legal requirements, professional accounting standards, and tax law. Similarly, Doupnik and Salter [30] believe that the international accounting system resides in national legislature. By contrast, other authors regard an accounting system as a firm-level practice. For instance, Nobes [31] defines an accounting system as “a set of practices used in a published annual report.” Commenting on the difference in the two approaches, Nobes [31] argues that, although there is a formal set of rules or systems at the legislature level, companies sometimes choose to depart from these rules. According to Nobes, the advantage of using the firm-level definition, although it is admittedly narrow, is that this definition can actually have wider empirical implications.
1.2.2 De jure harmonization versus de facto harmonization
An important conceptual distinction must be understood between the de jure and de facto harmonization. De jure harmonization of international accounting standards involves the formal harmonization of regulations at the country level, while de facto harmonization refers to the material harmonization of the financial reporting practices performed at the firm level [22]. In the accounting literature, both Tay and Parker [32] and Canibano and Mora [33] refer to de jure harmonization as the harmonization of accounting regulations and to de facto harmonization as the increase in comparability that arises from greater conformity in practice. Qu and Zhang [22] argue that de jure harmonization is the basis for achieving de facto harmonization. In fact, de jure harmonization can but does not necessarily lead to de facto harmonization, if the standards allow for more options for companies [33]. Nevertheless, de facto accounting harmonization cannot be achieved without first achieving de jure accounting harmonization [33]. The decision to adopt IFRS can be made both at the de jure level (if the IFRS are mandated to be followed as nation-wide reporting standards) and at the de facto level (if the IFRS are one of the reporting standards firms are allowed to choose from) [34].
1.2.3 Convergence versus adoption
The terms “convergence” and “adoption” have recently come into use as nations attempt to narrow the gap between their national accounting standards and the IFRS. It is important to note that convergence is not equivalent to adoption [5, 15]. The differences between these two concepts have set off a great deal of debate within the field of international accounting research. Nobes [35] argues that, in order to be called adoption, relevant entities must state that their financial statements are in full compliance with the IFRS as issued by the IASB. Thus, at the country level, “adoption” should mean that the national set of accounting standards is directly replaced by the IFRS as issued by the IASB. This position is taken by the Member States of the EU, which have fully applied the IFRS since 2005. By comparison, “convergence” is the gradual mechanism of changing local accounting standards into IFRS. Although it does not mean full adoption, convergence can indicate only a minimal difference between a nation’s standards and the IFRS [36]. According to the IASB’s position, convergence will not, by definition, lead to a common set of global standards. Nevertheless, convergence has been and will likely remain a useful process to facilitate adoption by narrowing differences. Thus, convergence should be a means of making the transition to the full adoption of IFRS standards, and not an end in itself [37]. By the same token, Zeff and Nobes [38] emphasize that convergence is a dynamic process of consistency with IFRS in accounting principles and substance, which is neither a direct adoption of IFRS nor a word-for-word translation of IFRS. Rather, convergence is the act of moving towards uniformity. Zeff and Nobes use China and Venezuela as examples of countries that use the IFRS as a starting point for drafting national standards, but then diverge significantly from the IFRS as issued by the IASB. Some countries that have “converged” with the IFRS are nonetheless counted by the IFRS Foundation and by others as adopters of the IFRS, which—according to Zeff and Nobes [38]—is misleading.
In the same vein, Ball [15] notes that convergence is “the process of narrowing the differences between IFRS and the accounting standards of countries that retain their own standards.” Convergence is a modified version of adoption in which multiple sets of rules or practices are the same [5]. Therefore, the relation between convergence and adoption is not dichotomous. These two concepts represent the subtleties of the development and diffusion of IFRS at various stages. Following this logic, Nobes [35] states that the word “convergence” is more correct when applied to the joint program of the IASB and the United States’ Financial Accounting Standards Board (FASB), because both have changed particular standards to match each other’s, and the IASB and FASB have run many joint projects. In the case of other countries, however, convergence with the IFRS is a euphemism for the piecemeal adoption of IFRS [35].
1.2.4 Standardization versus harmonization
Standardization and harmonization are often used interchangeably in IFRS studies. However, the difference between them should not be ignored [39]. Standardization implies a movement towards uniformity, whereas harmonization is a movement away from total diversity [32]. In the context of International Accounting Standards (IAS), McLeay et al. [39] suggest that “whilst international standardization implies a movement towards global uniformity, harmonization implies a movement towards similarity in the choice between alternative accounting treatments.” They define international standardization as a process that constrains choice, ultimately resulting in the adoption of the same accounting method by all firms and all countries. International accounting harmonization, on the other hand, is a process that results in a systematic choice between accounting methods across national borders [39]. Such choices are dependent upon the nature of the nation or firm and its operating environment, but are otherwise independent of the location in which the nation or firm happens to be registered [39]. Similarly, Canibano and Mora [33] argue that harmonization is a more realistic and conciliatory approach than standardization, and is also more attainable and less rigid. However, other scholars disagree. For instance, Arnold [40] believes that harmonization is equivalent to standardization. That is, according to Arnold, accounting harmonization equates to the standardization of financial reporting standards, auditing standards, and/or other accounting-related rules and regulations such as licensing and qualification requirements or ethics rules.
2. The history and legitimacy of IFRS
It has been argued that the international harmonization of accounting standards is a result of the economic integration and increasing trading between national borders [41]. In addition, corporate economic scandals have shaken investors’ trust in financial reporting. To regain both inventors’ trust and economic order, it has become necessary to strengthen the comparability and transparency of financial reporting across national borders [8].
2.1 Background of IFRS diffusion: economic integration and global financial crisis
Economic globalization and integration form an important context in which national IFRS adoption has become not only necessary, but also urgent [9, 42]. Economic globalization has created a new common ground for businesses to engage in trade and transactions across national borders [41]. In this new “game,” certain common rules must be understood and followed by all participants to ensure a functional trading place. As the vice chairman of IASB, Ian Mackintosh comments:
It is increasingly difficult to see different and often incompatible national accounting standards as anything other than a legacy of a bygone era. They add cost, complexity and translation risk to companies and investors operating in today’s global marketplace [43].
According to the IASB, about one third of all financial investments in the world are international transactions. It is essential for differences in national accounting standards to be eliminated, or at least understood by all players. Thus, it is necessary for national accounting standard-setters to change their existing national accounting systems in order to facilitate international economic changes, assuming that a growing economy is part of the national plan. Global standards are achievable and an inevitable consequence of continued economic globalization. As stated on the IASB website:
This [globalization] evidence indicates that global standards are both desirable, achievable and inevitable. As economic globalization continues apace, so too will the force of the arguments in favor of IFRS adoption within those remaining jurisdictions [44].
In addition to global economic integration, the accounting scandals in the early 2000s that brought down large multinational corporations (MNCs) such as Enron and Arthur Anderson have increased investors’ awareness of the importance of trustworthy accounting standards. Furthermore, in the summer of 2007, accumulating losses on U.S. subprime mortgages triggered widespread disruption to the global financial system. In less than a year, the situation developed into an international financial crisis and eventually resulted in a global economic downturn that further shook investors’ confidence in the stock market. As stated on the IASB website:
Post-crisis, policymakers are all too aware of how every national capital market in the world, even the largest, functions as little more than a satellite of the global financial system [43, 44].
To reestablish confidence in the soundness of markets and financial institutions, as well as to prevent further crises, the G201 summit in Washington on November 15, 2008, produced a thorough analysis and summary of the root causes of these crises and put forward action plans that included improving the IASB’s governance and supporting the IFRS as the single set of high-quality global accounting standards. Both national and international organizations developed recommendations and resources aimed at promoting the IFRS. The G20 called on the IASB and the Financial Accounting Standards Board (FASB) in the US to improve standards on valuation and provisioning and to achieve a single set of accounting standards. The G20 summit in London in April 2009 further required proactive collaboration from member countries on convergence with the IFRS in order to prevent similar financial crises. In the same year, the G20 formed the special Financial Crisis Advisory Group (FCAG). The FCAG supports the IASB in promoting the IFRS to be the single set of global accounting standards in order to reestablish investors’ confidence in accounting information.
However, the G20 has never required countries to fully adopt the IFRS. Instead, it encourages its members to converge with the IFRS. The IASB does not agree with this position and has expressed on multiple occasions that only full adoption of IFRS, not convergence with IFRS, can ensure global financial stability and prevent similar financial crises. According to the IASB, the G20 and its various committees, while pushing the diffusion of IFRS, have frequently focused on national interests, which can create barriers and impediments to economic growth and jeopardize global financial stability. As the chairman of the IASB remarked:
This inability to deliver compatible outcomes with the FASB clearly demonstrates the inherent instability of convergence as a means to achieve a single set of global accounting standards. For this reason, our Trustees wisely concluded that convergence can never be a substitute for adoption of IFRS. Thankfully, throughout the financial crisis, the momentum towards adoption has continued unabated in many countries [44].
Despite this disagreement from the IASB, the G20—which promoted the IFRS in the past due to the financial crisis—has recently been less enthusiastic. Support for the work of the IASB has been decreasing. For example, in the past, the communiqués had always included a paragraph such as this:
We underline the importance of continuing work on accounting standards convergence in order to enhance the resilience of the financial system. We urge the International Accounting Standards Board and the US Financial Accounting Standards Board to complete by the end of 2013 their work on key outstanding projects for achieving a single set of high-quality accounting standards [45].
However, the newest communiqués issued after the meeting of the G20 in 2014 and thereafter no longer contain a call for converged accounting standards.
2.2 The history and development of the IASB
The formal history of the IASB began with the International Accounting Standards Committee (IASC). In 1973, the IASC was jointly established by professional accounting bodies in Australia, Canada, France, Germany, Japan, Mexico, the Netherlands, the United Kingdom, Ireland, and the United States. Between 1973 and 2001, the IASC issued IAS. The IASC was essentially a structure, rather than a committee in the traditional sense of a group of people. The IASC originally had a goal of “harmonization” by reducing differences between accounting standards in major capital markets. By the 1990s, however, the IASC reshaped its goal into “convergence,” which, according to the organization, is a step above harmonization. The convergence concept is to develop a “single set of high-quality, international accounting standards that would be used in at least all major capital markets.” In 1995, The IASC and the International Organization of Securities Commissions (IOSCO) agreed on what constituted a comprehensive set of core standards. The IASC undertook a project to complete those core standards by 1999. The IOSCO agreed that, if it found these core standards acceptable, it would recommend the endorsement of IASC standards for cross-border capital and listing purposes in all capital markets [46]. In May 2000, the IOSCO completed its assessment and accepted the IASC’s core standards. Members of the IOSCO were encouraged to use the IASC standards to prepare their financial reporting for international offerings and listings, supplemented where necessary to address outstanding substantive issues at a national or regional level, or to use waivers of particular aspects of the IASC standards without requiring further reconciliation under exceptional circumstances [47].
In 1997, after nearly 25 years of existence, the IASC concluded that, in order to continue to bring about convergence between national accounting standards and practices and high-quality global accounting standards, it had to find a better way to perform its role effectively. To do so, the IASC saw a need to change its structure. The standard-setting body was thus renamed as the IASB. Formally, the IASB is a private standard-setting organization based in London. It operates under the IASC Foundation, which is more widely known as the IFRS Foundation. The IASB is primarily funded by fundraising activities, which are the responsibility of the IFRS Foundation. The governance, oversight, and standard-setting processes of the IASB are similar to those of the FASB in the United States. The IASB has 14 board members (including a chair and a vice chair) with a variety of functional backgrounds and from different continents. The currently sitting IASB Chair is Andreas Barckow. The primary purpose of the IASB is to promulgate IFRS. It is committed to the mission of developing a single set of high-quality, understandable, and enforceable global accounting standards and working with national standard-setters to achieve accounting standards convergence. The IASB has inherited 25 standards issued by the IASC, covering various issues. Because the IAS standards were essentially distillations of existing accounting practices used around the world, they often allowed alternative treatments for the same transactions. The IASB decided to undertake a comparability and improvement project to reduce the number of allowable alternatives and make the IFRS standards more prescriptive than descriptive [48].
2.3 The development and adoption of IFRS around the world
Although IFRS have now been accepted by the majority of countries around the world, their initial acceptance by national accounting standard-setters and firms was not as smooth as many might think. The process began in the 1970s, and it took a long time for the IFRS to gain worldwide recognition.
2.3.1 Initial hesitations and uncertainties regarding adoption
Prior to the first major wave of IFRS adoption among the European countries in 2005, there was a great deal of debate about the relevance and feasibility of implementing a single set of accounting standards worldwide. During this time, national and international standard-setters tried to understand how the globalization of the economy had influenced countries’ acceptance of IFRS; they also tried to identify key factors or obstacles that could affect a nation’s capacity for adoption and willingness to adopt. In this process, there were concerns that, even if countries or firms chose or were required to adopt IFRS, they might not be ready and might apply IFRS differently, creating a bigger problem than before. The KPMG issued a survey of 149 accounting professionals showing that there was general concern that uncertainty over the applicability of IFRS among EU companies had delayed the voluntary IFRS adoption of many [49]. Similarly, the Institute of Chartered Accountants in England and Wales (ICAEW) raised concerns regarding the lack of preparation for the introduction of IFRS. The ICAEW conducted a survey among its members asking whether they would, if given the choice, move to IAS. Only over a third of the businesses said that they would be likely to move to IAS. The ICAEW concluded that tardy preparation for IFRS adoption by some firms could cause them to receive qualified audit opinions upon IFRS adoption [50].
Another concern was the feasibility of implementing an Anglo-Saxon accounting model into other social contexts. Some observers have regarded international accounting harmonization as predominantly implying compliance with an Anglo-Saxon accounting model [51], and contend that the international accounting standards agenda of the IASB is a means of imposing an Anglo-American hegemony. Such a contention was somewhat evident in the 1990s, when the staffing complement of the IASB was dominated by Anglo-Americans. For example, even though the ASEAN Federation of Accountants (AFA) had sought a greater level of representation and participation by Asian nations in the deliberations of the IASC, prior to 1995, only Malaysia and Singapore out of the ASEAN AFA member countries had been represented on working committees. Setting aside the achievability of global standardization, Dye and Sunder [52] also question whether having a single global set of accounting standards is even desirable. They argue that there were several benefits in allowing firms to follow either IFRS or the U.S. GAAP, and contend that competitions among standard-setters can help to meet the needs of globalization and increase the efficiency of accounting standards.
2.3.2 Major waves of IFRS adoption around the world
Despite the skepticism in the early stage of IFRS harmonization, during the push for the internationalization of accounting standards, the accounting differences between IFRS and other major national accounting standards, such as the U.S. GAAP, were narrowing [53]. In the late 1990s, some countries began to allow voluntary adoption of IFRS. For example, in 1998, the law §292a HGB was passed in Germany, permitting German listed companies to prepare consolidated accounts in accordance with the IFRS. In the meantime, many major stock exchanges around the world, including the London, Frankfurt, Zurich, Luxembourg, Bangkok, Hong Kong, Amsterdam, Rome, and Kuala Lumpur stock exchanges, began to accept financial statements from foreign listed companies prepared under the IFRS without reconciliation. In the United States, the SEC also began to allow disclosures based on IFRS. As stated by the SEC, the reasons for accepting such standards in the U.S stock changes were as follows:
Our decision to adopt the International Disclosure Standards was based on our conclusion that the standards were of high quality and that their adoption would provide information comparable to the amount and quality of information that U.S. investors receive today [54].
The FASB decided that the need for international standards was strong enough to warrant more focused activity on its part. The then FASB Chairman, Dennis Beresford, expressed his support for “superior international standards” that would gradually replace national standards, and identified new initiatives to get the FASB more directly involved in the drive to improve international standards [55]. The FASB and the IASC began to undertake concurrent projects to improve their earnings per share standards with the specific objective of eliminating the differences between them.
The large listed European companies that chose early voluntary adoption of IFRS did so because they believed that the use of international standards would enable better communication with information users, especially international investors. For example, KPMG [49] reported in a survey that the reasons for European companies to switch from national standards to international standards included (1) the possibility of increasing the availability of capital and lowering its cost; (2) the perceived high quality of the IFRS; and (3) the preferences of institutional investors and analysts.
Then, in the early 2000s, efforts to internationally harmonize accounting standards finally evolved into a broad worldwide convergence effort at the national level. In 2002, the EU adopted legislation requiring all listed companies to prepare their consolidated financial statements using IFRS starting in 2005, which represented the first major capital market to require IFRS. The regulation states that IFRS adoption is intended to achieve “a high degree of transparency and comparability of financial statements and hence an efficient functioning of the (EU) Community capital market and of the Internal Market.” In the same year, the FASB and the IASB embarked on a partnership to improve and converge the U.S. GAAP and international accounting standards. That partnership is described in the Norwalk Agreement, which was issued after the joint meeting. The Norwalk Agreement set out the shared goal of developing compatible, high-quality accounting standards that could be used for both domestic and cross-border financial reporting [56]. Beginning in November 15, 2007, the U.S. SEC allowed the listing of foreign companies using the IFRS on the NYSE without having to first reconcile their financial statements with the U.S. GAAP. In the meantime, several other jurisdictions such as Hong Kong and Australia also chose to adopt IFRS. Japan and China also formed convergence plans with the IASB. In 2007, China achieved major convergence between the Chinese GAAP and the IFRS.
In addition, there was a continuation of the worldwide planning efforts at the international level. For example, in response to the international financial crisis, the G20 summit in Washington on November 15, 2008 produced a profound analysis and summary of the root causes of the crisis and put forward action plans that included improving the IASB’s governance and establishing a single set of high-quality global accounting standards [57]. The G20 summit in London in April 2009 required proactive collaboration from member countries in converging accounting standards [58]. The IMF routinely provided foreign aid to developing countries or countries in financial trouble with the demand that reform be enacted in the public and private sectors. Such demands were often tied to the demand that IFRS accounting standards be adopted. After the few rounds of major waves of IFRS adoption around the world, the success of IFRS convergence is now apparent. According to the recent IASB report, more than 140 jurisdictions have adopted IFRS with very few modifications, and the few jurisdictions that have made modifications are generally regarded as taking temporary steps in their plans to adopt IFRS.
2.3.3 Recent slowdown and increased skepticism
In more recent years, despite the momentum of IFRS adoption by nations, there have been renewed concerns over the success and legitimacy of IFRS. Notwithstanding the claims by the IASB that modifications to the IFRS are rare, some academic research has shown continued major differences among national financial reporting [15, 59, 60, 61]. Of course, as Nobes and Zeff [17] point out, the most obvious limitation to the scope of the mandatory use of IFRS is that the phrase “all the major countries” does not include the world’s three largest economies: the United States, China, and Japan. They argue that, with the great increase in adoptions of IFRS, warnings about the vague claims are even more relevant, because the population of adopters is now much larger yet still shows considerable variety.
In addition, the speed of IFRS adoption has begun to slow down as the initial enthusiasm fades away. The Chinese GAAP, for example, have remained in a convergence but non-adoption status since 2006. The Chinese Ministry of Finance (MOF) originally set 2011 as the target year for the continuing and full convergence program of the ASBE, making 2010–2011 a critical period for China’s convergence. The MOF planned to initiate the overhaul of its ASBE system in 2010 and finish by 2011. All large and medium-sized enterprises would be required to use the revised standards as of 2012 [62]. This goal, as of 2019, remains in the planning stage without further movement. In the United States, in January 2008, participants in an FASB roundtable predicted that it would take about 5 years to complete the full adoption of IFRS by the United States. More than 12 years have passed since then, yet the United States has not only not adopted the IFRS, but also started to actively resist them.
Even if IFRS could achieve global convergence in the short term, observers have questioned whether these benefits are sustainable. By adopting IFRS, a country essentially allows a foreign entity with no local accountability to dictate its reporting laws and thereby control the economic incentives and activities of its people and businesses [63]. The former chairman of the SEC, Cox, points to this concern as a reason why a full-scale adoption of IFRS is unlikely to occur in the United States. He expressed his frustration and the downgrading of his trust in the IFRS in a keynote speech addressing the SEC:
…when I was SEC Chairman, I worked to ensure that the United States was doing everything necessary to make financial information from companies in different countries both comparable and reliable. But that was several years ago. And a great deal has changed since then. Today, I come to bury IFRS, not to praise them [63].
Cox further argued that the full adoption of IFRS by the United States might once have been possible, but is no longer so [63]. Some of the IFRS-adopting economies have also been requiring a national standard-setter to review and, if needed, modify the IFRS before they become the law of the land. This cherry-picking approach may lead each national regulator to adopt certain standards while rejecting others, thereby causing countries to diverge again in their accounting standards in the long run. On the other side, the IASB, which is facing increasing resistance, has emphasized that it remains committed to the long-term goal of the global adoption of IFRS as developed by the IASB, in their entirety and without modification. The IASB believes that convergence may be an appropriate short-term solution for a particular jurisdiction and may facilitate adoption over a transitional period. Convergence, however, should not be a substitute for adoption. Adoption mechanisms may differ among nations and may require a period of time to implement, but they should enable and require relevant entities to state that their financial statements are in full compliance with IFRS as issued by the IASB [64]. As stated on the IASB’s website:
There is a natural temptation for countries (and stakeholders within those countries) to argue against full adoption of IFRSs, to call for convergence of national standards and IFRSs rather than adoption, or to introduce national exceptions to IFRS rules. The temptation to pursue convergence rather than adoption should be resisted. Full adoption of IFRSs must be the end goal…Having once achieved convergence, standards could well diverge again [64].
To summarize, the most important reasons for the speedy and wide diffusion of IFRS are the growing integration of the world’s economy and a series of financial crises. This combination has increased the demand from international investors for better quality and comparability of financial reporting. As a result, the mission of the IASB has evolved over time. After initial hesitation on the part of nations, followed by fast adoption in many parts of the world, IFRS harmonization has begun to slow down in recent years.
3. Chapter summary
This chapter has provided clarifications of some seemingly exchangeable but different terminologies when examining the complex topic of IFRS. The development and diffusion of IFRS have led a winding road characterized by initial doubts, fast adoption and recent slowdown. This chapter brought forward important insights regarding current development on international accounting harmonization by pointing out the trend of massive adoption of IFRS by country and the simultaneous variations that continue to hinder the efforts by the IASB. After 20 years of diffusion around the world, the IFRS have been widely recognized as high-quality accounting standards that can make it possible for financial information to be compared across national borders [8]. However, this success can only be sustained if the IFRS are adopted and applied properly in practice [20, 60].
\n',keywords:"IFRS, national adoption, convergence, divergence",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/81377.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/81377.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/81377",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/81377",totalDownloads:27,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:"January 4th 2022",dateReviewed:"February 14th 2022",datePrePublished:"April 18th 2022",datePublished:null,dateFinished:"April 18th 2022",readingETA:"0",abstract:"In the past few decades, there has been a global trend of international harmonization of accounting standards. The intended goal is to remove the barriers that hinder investors when comparing the accounting information of companies from different nations, while simultaneously reducing the transaction costs for firms. However, research has shown that countries adopt IFRS unequally, ranging from resistance, partial adoption to full adoption. If the IFRS are not adopted to the same extent around the world, the central purpose of international standards can be compromised. This chapter aims to explain some key terms essential in understanding current development in international accounting and lay out the development and progress of IFRS diffusion.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/81377",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/81377",signatures:"Maria Bengtsson",book:{id:"11251",type:"book",title:"Banking and Accounting",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Banking and Accounting",slug:null,publishedDate:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Nizar Mohammad Alsharari",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11251.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:null,isbn:"978-1-80355-772-4",printIsbn:"978-1-80355-771-7",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80355-773-1",isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"231461",title:"Dr.",name:"Nizar",middleName:"Mohammad",surname:"Alsharari",slug:"nizar-alsharari",fullName:"Nizar Alsharari"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:null,sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_1_2",title:"1.1 The IFRS adoption process",level:"2"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"1.2 Some key terms",level:"2"},{id:"sec_2_3",title:"1.2.1 International accounting system",level:"3"},{id:"sec_3_3",title:"1.2.2 De jure harmonization versus de facto harmonization",level:"3"},{id:"sec_4_3",title:"1.2.3 Convergence versus adoption",level:"3"},{id:"sec_5_3",title:"1.2.4 Standardization versus harmonization",level:"3"},{id:"sec_8",title:"2. The history and legitimacy of IFRS",level:"1"},{id:"sec_8_2",title:"2.1 Background of IFRS diffusion: economic integration and global financial crisis",level:"2"},{id:"sec_9_2",title:"2.2 The history and development of the IASB",level:"2"},{id:"sec_10_2",title:"2.3 The development and adoption of IFRS around the world",level:"2"},{id:"sec_10_3",title:"2.3.1 Initial hesitations and uncertainties regarding adoption",level:"3"},{id:"sec_11_3",title:"2.3.2 Major waves of IFRS adoption around the world",level:"3"},{id:"sec_12_3",title:"2.3.3 Recent slowdown and increased skepticism",level:"3"},{id:"sec_15",title:"3. Chapter summary",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Camfferman K, Zeff SA. The challenge of setting standards for a worldwide constituency: Research implications from the IASB’s early history. The European Accounting Review. 2018;27:289-312'},{id:"B2",body:'Judge W, Li S, Pinsker R. 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Institutional Change and Globalization. New Jersey: Princeton University Press; 2004'},{id:"B42",body:'AL-Htaybat K. IFRS adoption in emerging markets: The case of Jordan. Australian Accounting Review. 2018;28:28-47'},{id:"B43",body:'IASB. Ian mackintosh discusses the challenges of global standardisation [Online]. 2014b. Available from: https://www.iasplus.com/en/news/2014/05/mackintosh-speech [Accessed February 15, 2020]'},{id:"B44",body:'IASB. Closing the Accounting Chapter of the Financial Crisis-Speech by Hans Hoogervorst, Chairman of the IASB. New Delhi: IFRS Foundation; 2014a. Available from: https://www.ifrs.org/content/dam/ifrs/news/speeches/2014/hans-hoogervorst-march-2014.pdf [Accessed March 10, 2018]'},{id:"B45",body:'G20. Communiqué of Meeting of G20 Finance Ministers and Central Bank Governors. Moscow; 2013. Available from: http://www.g20.utoronto.ca/2013/2013-0216-finance.html [Accessed February 10, 2020]'},{id:"B46",body:'IOSCO. 1995 Press Release and Work Program. 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Thoughts on Globalization and the Global Financial Crisis-Speech by Graeme Wheeler [Online]. Washington, D.C: The World Bank; 2008. Available from: https://www.worldbank.org/en/news/speech/2008/11/13/thoughts-on-globalization-and-the-global-financial-crisis [Accessed March 10, 2018]'},{id:"B58",body:'IMF. London Summit – Leaders’ Statement. London: The IMF; 2009. Available from: https://www.imf.org/external/np/sec/pr/2009/pdf/g20_040209.pdf [Accessed]'},{id:"B59",body:'Jeanjean T, Stolowy H. Do accounting standards matter? An exploratory analysis of earnings management before and after IFRS adoption. Journal of Accounting and Public Policy. 2008;27:480-494'},{id:"B60",body:'Kvaal E, Nobes C. International Differences in IFRS Policy Choice: A Research Note. Accounting and Business Research. 2010;40(2):173-187'},{id:"B61",body:'Tarca A, Morris RD, Moy M. An investigation of the relationship between use of international accounting standards and source of company finance in G ermany. Abacus. 2013;49:74-98'},{id:"B62",body:'MOF. Chinese Accounting System for Business Enterprises. Beijing, China: Ministry of Finance; 2006'},{id:"B63",body:'Cox C. How America’s participation in international financial reporting standards was lost. In: Keynote Address to the 33rd Annual SEC and Financial Reporting Institute Conference. California: SEC and Financial Reporting Institute; 2014'},{id:"B64",body:'IASB. Speech by Hans Hoogervorst in Beijing: China and IFRS – An Opportunity for Leadership in Global Financial Reporting. IFRS Foundation; 2011 [Accessed March 10, 2018]'}],footnotes:[{id:"fn1",explanation:"The G20 consists of the finance ministers and central banks from 19 countries and the EU."}],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Maria Bengtsson",address:"maria.bengtsson@hkr.se",affiliation:'
Kristianstad University, Sweden
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However, it can only be activated under ultraviolet light irradiation due to its wide bandgap, high recombination, and weak separation efficiency of carriers. Doping is an effective method to extend the light absorption to the visible light region. In this chapter, we will address the importance of doping, different doping modes, preparation method, and photocatalytic mechanism in TiO2 photocatalysts. Thereafter, we will concentrate on Ti3+ self‐doping, nonmetal doping, metal doping, and codoping. Examples of progress can be given for each one of these four doping modes. The influencing factors of preparation method and doping modes on photocatalytic performance (spectrum response, carrier transport, interfacial electron transfer reaction, surface active sites, etc.) are summed up. The main objective is to study the photocatalytic processes, to elucidate the mechanistic models for a better understanding the photocatalytic reactions, and to find a method of enhancing photocatalytic activities.",book:{id:"5139",slug:"semiconductor-photocatalysis-materials-mechanisms-and-applications",title:"Semiconductor Photocatalysis",fullTitle:"Semiconductor Photocatalysis - Materials, Mechanisms and Applications"},signatures:"Fei Huang, Aihua Yan and Hui Zhao",authors:[{id:"178389",title:"Dr.",name:"Fei",middleName:null,surname:"Huang",slug:"fei-huang",fullName:"Fei Huang"},{id:"185126",title:"Dr.",name:"Aihua",middleName:null,surname:"Yan",slug:"aihua-yan",fullName:"Aihua Yan"},{id:"185127",title:"Ms.",name:"Hui",middleName:null,surname:"Zhao",slug:"hui-zhao",fullName:"Hui Zhao"}]},{id:"17184",doi:"10.5772/17039",title:"Polymer Nanocomposites: From Synthesis to Applications",slug:"polymer-nanocomposites-from-synthesis-to-applications",totalDownloads:17294,totalCrossrefCites:31,totalDimensionsCites:68,abstract:null,book:{id:"1045",slug:"nanocomposites-and-polymers-with-analytical-methods",title:"Nanocomposites and Polymers with Analytical Methods",fullTitle:"Nanocomposites and Polymers with Analytical Methods"},signatures:"S. 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We conclude this chapter by expressing personal perspective on the probable challenges and developments of the controllable synthesis of CeO2 nanomaterials for various applications.",book:{id:"5510",slug:"functionalized-nanomaterials",title:"Functionalized Nanomaterials",fullTitle:"Functionalized Nanomaterials"},signatures:"Adnan Younis, Dewei Chu and Sean Li",authors:[{id:"191574",title:"Dr.",name:"Adnan",middleName:null,surname:"Younis",slug:"adnan-younis",fullName:"Adnan Younis"}]},{id:"9725",doi:"10.5772/8508",title:"Biosynthesis and Application of Silver and Gold Nanoparticles",slug:"biosynthesis-and-application-of-silver-and-gold-nanoparticles",totalDownloads:27930,totalCrossrefCites:23,totalDimensionsCites:58,abstract:null,book:{id:"3621",slug:"silver-nanoparticles",title:"Silver Nanoparticles",fullTitle:"Silver Nanoparticles"},signatures:"Zygmunt Sadowski",authors:null},{id:"17194",doi:"10.5772/21694",title:"Properties of Nanofillers in Polymer",slug:"properties-of-nanofillers-in-polymer",totalDownloads:20390,totalCrossrefCites:9,totalDimensionsCites:56,abstract:null,book:{id:"1045",slug:"nanocomposites-and-polymers-with-analytical-methods",title:"Nanocomposites and Polymers with Analytical Methods",fullTitle:"Nanocomposites and Polymers with Analytical Methods"},signatures:"Damien M. Marquis, Éric Guillaume and Carine Chivas-Joly",authors:[{id:"44307",title:"Dr",name:"Damien",middleName:"Michel",surname:"Marquis",slug:"damien-marquis",fullName:"Damien Marquis"},{id:"44317",title:"Prof.",name:"Carine",middleName:null,surname:"Chivas-Joly",slug:"carine-chivas-joly",fullName:"Carine Chivas-Joly"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"71103",title:"Preparation of Nanoparticles",slug:"preparation-of-nanoparticles",totalDownloads:3153,totalCrossrefCites:11,totalDimensionsCites:25,abstract:"Innovative developments of science and engineering have progressed very fast toward the synthesis of nanomaterials to achieve unique properties that are not the same as the properties of the bulk materials. The particle reveals interesting properties at the dimension below 100 nm, mostly from two physical effects. The two physical effects are the quantization of electronic states apparent leading to very sensitive size-dependent effects such as optical and magnetic properties and the high surface-to-volume ratio modifies the thermal, mechanical, and chemical properties of materials. The nanoparticles’ unique physical and chemical properties render them most appropriate for a number of specialist applications.",book:{id:"9109",slug:"engineered-nanomaterials-health-and-safety",title:"Engineered Nanomaterials",fullTitle:"Engineered Nanomaterials - Health and Safety"},signatures:"Takalani Cele",authors:[{id:"305934",title:"Dr.",name:"Takalani",middleName:null,surname:"Cele",slug:"takalani-cele",fullName:"Takalani Cele"}]},{id:"72636",title:"Nanocomposite Materials",slug:"nanocomposite-materials",totalDownloads:2150,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:11,abstract:"Nanocomposites are the heterogeneous/hybrid materials that are produced by the mixtures of polymers with inorganic solids (clays to oxides) at the nanometric scale. Their structures are found to be more complicated than that of microcomposites. They are highly influenced by the structure, composition, interfacial interactions, and components of individual property. Most popularly, nanocomposites are prepared by the process within in situ growth and polymerization of biopolymer and inorganic matrix. With the rapid estimated demand of these striking potentially advanced materials, make them very much useful in various industries ranging from small scale to large to very large manufacturing units. With a great deal to mankind with environmental friendly, these offer advanced technologies in addition to the enhanced business opportunities to several industrial sectors like automobile, construction, electronics and electrical, food packaging, and technology transfer.",book:{id:"10072",slug:"nanotechnology-and-the-environment",title:"Nanotechnology and the Environment",fullTitle:"Nanotechnology and the Environment"},signatures:"Mousumi Sen",authors:[{id:"310218",title:"Dr.",name:"Mousumi",middleName:null,surname:"Sen",slug:"mousumi-sen",fullName:"Mousumi Sen"}]},{id:"38951",title:"Carbon Nanotube Transparent Electrode",slug:"carbon-nanotube-transparent-electrode",totalDownloads:3991,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:5,abstract:null,book:{id:"3077",slug:"syntheses-and-applications-of-carbon-nanotubes-and-their-composites",title:"Syntheses and Applications of Carbon Nanotubes and Their Composites",fullTitle:"Syntheses and Applications of Carbon Nanotubes and Their Composites"},signatures:"Jing Sun and Ranran Wang",authors:[{id:"153508",title:"Prof.",name:"Jing",middleName:null,surname:"Sun",slug:"jing-sun",fullName:"Jing Sun"},{id:"153596",title:"Ms.",name:"Ranran",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"ranran-wang",fullName:"Ranran Wang"}]},{id:"49413",title:"Electrodeposition of Nanostructure Materials",slug:"electrodeposition-of-nanostructure-materials",totalDownloads:3736,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:7,abstract:"We are conducting a multi-disciplinary research work that involves development of nanostructured thin films of semiconductors for different applications. Nanotechnology is widely considered to constitute the basis of the next technological revolution, following on from the first Industrial Revolution, which began around 1750 with the introduction of the steam engine and steelmaking. Nanotechnology is defined as the design, characterization, production, and application of materials, devices and systems by controlling shape and size of the nanoscale. The nanoscale itself is at present considered to cover the range from 1 to 100 nm. All samples prepared in thin film forms and the characterization revealed their nanostructure. The major exploitation of thin films has been in microelectronics, there are numerous and growing applications in communications, optical electronics, coatings of all kinds, and in energy generation. A great many sophisticated analytical instruments and techniques, largely developed to characterize thin films, have already become indispensable in virtually every scientific endeavor irrespective of discipline. Among all these techniques, electrodeposition is the most suitable technique for nanostructured thin films from aqueous solution served as samples under investigation. The electrodeposition of metallic layers from aqueous solution is based on the discharge of metal ions present in the electrolyte at a cathodic surface (the substrate or component.) The metal ions accept an electron from the electrically conducting material at the solid- electrolyte interface and then deposit as metal atoms onto the surface. The electrons necessary for this to occur are either supplied from an externally applied potential source or are surrendered by a reducing agent present in solution (electroless reduction). The metal ions themselves derive either from metal salts added to solution, or by the anodic dissolution of the so-called sacrificial anodes, made of the same metal that is to be deposited at the cathode.",book:{id:"4718",slug:"electroplating-of-nanostructures",title:"Electroplating of Nanostructures",fullTitle:"Electroplating of Nanostructures"},signatures:"Souad A. M. Al-Bat’hi",authors:[{id:"174793",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohamad",middleName:null,surname:"Souad",slug:"mohamad-souad",fullName:"Mohamad Souad"}]},{id:"71346",title:"Application of Nanomaterials in Environmental Improvement",slug:"application-of-nanomaterials-in-environmental-improvement",totalDownloads:1706,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:13,abstract:"In recent years, researchers used many scientific studies to improve modern technologies in the field of reducing the phenomenon of pollution resulting from them. In this chapter, methods to prepare nanomaterials are described, and the main properties such as mechanical, electrical, and optical properties and their relations are determined. The investigation of nanomaterials needed high technologies that depend on a range of nanomaterials from 1 to 100 nm; these are scanning electron microscopy (SEM), transmission electron microscopy (TEM), and X-ray diffractions (XRD). The applications of nanomaterials in environmental improvement are different from one another depending on the type of devices used, for example, solar cells for producing clean energy, nanotechnologies in coatings for building exterior surfaces, and sonochemical decolorization of dyes by the effect of nanocomposite.",book:{id:"10072",slug:"nanotechnology-and-the-environment",title:"Nanotechnology and the Environment",fullTitle:"Nanotechnology and the Environment"},signatures:"Ali Salman Ali",authors:[{id:"313275",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Ali",middleName:null,surname:"Salman",slug:"ali-salman",fullName:"Ali Salman"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"208",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"81438",title:"Research Progress of Ionic Thermoelectric Materials for Energy Harvesting",slug:"research-progress-of-ionic-thermoelectric-materials-for-energy-harvesting",totalDownloads:25,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101771",abstract:"Thermoelectric material is a kind of functional material that can mutually convert heat energy and electric energy. It can convert low-grade heat energy (less than 130°C) into electric energy. Compared with traditional electronic thermoelectric materials, ionic thermoelectric materials have higher performance. The Seebeck coefficient can generate 2–3 orders of magnitude higher ionic thermoelectric potential than electronic thermoelectric materials, so it has good application prospects in small thermoelectric generators and solar power generation. According to the thermoelectric conversion mechanism, ionic thermoelectric materials can be divided into ionic thermoelectric materials based on the Soret effect and thermocouple effect. They are widely used in pyrogen batteries and ionic thermoelectric capacitors. The latest two types of ionic thermoelectric materials are in this article. The research progress is explained, and the problems and challenges of ionic thermoelectric materials and the future development direction are also put forward.",book:{id:"10037",title:"Thermoelectricity - Recent Advances, New Perspectives and Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10037.jpg"},signatures:"Jianwei Zhang, Ying Xiao, Bowei Lei, Gengyuan Liang and Wenshu Zhao"},{id:"77670",title:"Thermoelectric Elements with Negative Temperature Factor of Resistance",slug:"thermoelectric-elements-with-negative-temperature-factor-of-resistance",totalDownloads:72,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.98860",abstract:"The method of manufacturing of ceramic materials on the basis of ferrites of nickel and cobalt by synthesis and sintering in controllable regenerative atmosphere is presented. As the generator of regenerative atmosphere the method of conversion of carbonic gas is offered. Calculation of regenerative atmosphere for simultaneous sintering of ceramic ferrites of nickel and cobalt is carried out. It is offered, methods of the dilated nonequilibrium thermodynamics to view process of distribution of a charge and heat along a thermoelement branch. The model of a thermoelement taking into account various relaxation times of a charge and warmth is constructed.",book:{id:"10037",title:"Thermoelectricity - Recent Advances, New Perspectives and Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10037.jpg"},signatures:"Yuri Bokhan"},{id:"79236",title:"Processing Techniques with Heating Conditions for Multiferroic Systems of BiFeO3, BaTiO3, PbTiO3, CaTiO3 Thin Films",slug:"processing-techniques-with-heating-conditions-for-multiferroic-systems-of-bifeo3-batio3-pbtio3-catio",totalDownloads:96,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101122",abstract:"In this chapter, we have report a list of synthesis methods (including both synthesis steps & heating conditions) used for thin film fabrication of perovskite ABO3 (BiFeO3, BaTiO3, PbTiO3 and CaTiO3) based multiferroics (in both single-phase and composite materials). The processing of high quality multiferroic thin film have some features like epitaxial strain, physical phenomenon at atomic-level, interfacial coupling parameters to enhance device performance. Since these multiferroic thin films have ME properties such as electrical (dielectric, magnetoelectric coefficient & MC) and magnetic (ferromagnetic, magnetic susceptibility etc.) are heat sensitive, i.e. ME response at low as well as higher temperature might to enhance the device performance respect with long range ordering. The magnetoelectric coupling between ferromagnetism and ferroelectricity in multiferroic becomes suitable in the application of spintronics, memory and logic devices, and microelectronic memory or piezoelectric devices. In comparison with bulk multiferroic, the fabrication of multiferroic thin film with different structural geometries on substrate has reducible clamping effect. A brief procedure for multiferroic thin film fabrication in terms of their thermal conditions (temperature for film processing and annealing for crystallization) are described. Each synthesis methods have its own characteristic phenomenon in terms of film thickness, defects formation, crack free film, density, chip size, easier steps and availability etc. been described. A brief study towards phase structure and ME coupling for each multiferroic system of BiFeO3, BaTiO3, PbTiO3 and CaTiO3 is shown.",book:{id:"10037",title:"Thermoelectricity - Recent Advances, New Perspectives and Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10037.jpg"},signatures:"Kuldeep Chand Verma and Manpreet Singh"},{id:"78034",title:"Quantum Physical Interpretation of Thermoelectric Properties of Ruthenate Pyrochlores",slug:"quantum-physical-interpretation-of-thermoelectric-properties-of-ruthenate-pyrochlores",totalDownloads:78,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99260",abstract:"Lead- and lead-yttrium ruthenate pyrochlores were synthesized and investigated for Seebeck coefficients, electrical- and thermal conductivity. Compounds A2B2O6.5+z with 0 ≤ z < 0.5 were defect pyrochlores and p-type conductors. The thermoelectric data were analyzed using quantum physical models to identify scattering mechanisms underlying electrical (σ) and thermal conductivity (κ) and to understand the temperature dependence of the Seebeck effect (S). In the metal-like lead ruthenates with different Pb:Ru ratios, σ (T) and the electronic thermal conductivity κe (T) were governed by ‘electron impurity scattering’, the lattice thermal conductivity κL (T) by the 3-phonon resistive process (Umklapp scattering). In the lead-yttrium ruthenate solid solutions (Pb(2-x)YxRu2O(6.5±z)), a metal–insulator transition occurred at 0.2 moles of yttrium. On the metallic side (<0.2 moles Y) ‘electron impurity scattering’ prevailed. On the semiconductor/insulator side between x = 0.2 and x = 1.0 several mechanisms were equally likely. At x > 1.5 the Mott Variable Range Hopping mechanism was active. S (T) was discussed for Pb-Y-Ru pyrochlores in terms of the effect of minority carrier excitation at lower- and a broadening of the Fermi distribution at higher temperatures. The figures of merit of all of these pyrochlores were still small (≤7.3 × 10−3).",book:{id:"10037",title:"Thermoelectricity - Recent Advances, New Perspectives and Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10037.jpg"},signatures:"Sepideh Akhbarifar"},{id:"77635",title:"Optimization of Thermoelectric Properties Based on Rashba Spin Splitting",slug:"optimization-of-thermoelectric-properties-based-on-rashba-spin-splitting",totalDownloads:125,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.98788",abstract:"In recent years, the application of thermoelectricity has become more and more widespread. Thermoelectric materials provide a simple and environmentally friendly solution for the direct conversion of heat to electricity. The development of higher performance thermoelectric materials and their performance optimization have become more important. Generally, to improve the ZT value, electrical conductivity, Seebeck coefficient and thermal conductivity must be globally optimized as a whole object. However, due to the strong coupling among ZT parameters in many cases, it is very challenging to break the bottleneck of ZT optimization currently. Beyond the traditional optimization methods (such as inducing defects, varying temperature), the Rashba effect is expected to effectively increase the S2σ and decrease the κ, thus enhancing thermoelectric performance, which provides a new strategy to develop new-generation thermoelectric materials. Although the Rashba effect has great potential in enhancing thermoelectric performance, the underlying mechanism of Rashba-type thermoelectric materials needs further research. In addition, how to introduce Rashba spin splitting into current thermoelectric materials is also of great significance to the optimization of thermoelectricity.",book:{id:"10037",title:"Thermoelectricity - Recent Advances, New Perspectives and Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10037.jpg"},signatures:"Zhenzhen Qin"},{id:"75364",title:"Challenges in Improving Performance of Oxide Thermoelectrics Using Defect Engineering",slug:"challenges-in-improving-performance-of-oxide-thermoelectrics-using-defect-engineering",totalDownloads:215,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.96278",abstract:"Oxide thermoelectric materials are considered promising for high-temperature thermoelectric applications in terms of low cost, temperature stability, reversible reaction, and so on. Oxide materials have been intensively studied to suppress the defects and electronic charge carriers for many electronic device applications, but the studies with a high concentration of defects are limited. It desires to improve thermoelectric performance by enhancing its charge transport and lowering its lattice thermal conductivity. For this purpose, here, we modified the stoichiometry of cation and anion vacancies in two different systems to regulate the carrier concentration and explored their thermoelectric properties. Both cation and anion vacancies act as a donor of charge carriers and act as phonon scattering centers, decoupling the electrical conductivity and thermal conductivity.",book:{id:"10037",title:"Thermoelectricity - Recent Advances, New Perspectives and Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10037.jpg"},signatures:"Jamil Ur Rahman, Gul Rahman and Soonil Lee"}],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:6},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:0,limit:8,total:null},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:87,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:98,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:27,numberOfPublishedChapters:288,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:9,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:139,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:0,numberOfUpcomingTopics:2,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:107,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:10,numberOfPublishedChapters:103,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:0,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:11,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",issn:"2632-0983",scope:"Biochemistry, the study of chemical transformations occurring within living organisms, impacts all areas of life sciences, from molecular crystallography and genetics to ecology, medicine, and population biology. Biochemistry examines macromolecules - proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and lipids – and their building blocks, structures, functions, and interactions. Much of biochemistry is devoted to enzymes, proteins that catalyze chemical reactions, enzyme structures, mechanisms of action and their roles within cells. Biochemistry also studies small signaling molecules, coenzymes, inhibitors, vitamins, and hormones, which play roles in life processes. Biochemical experimentation, besides coopting classical chemistry methods, e.g., chromatography, adopted new techniques, e.g., X-ray diffraction, electron microscopy, NMR, radioisotopes, and developed sophisticated microbial genetic tools, e.g., auxotroph mutants and their revertants, fermentation, etc. More recently, biochemistry embraced the ‘big data’ omics systems. Initial biochemical studies have been exclusively analytic: dissecting, purifying, and examining individual components of a biological system; in the apt words of Efraim Racker (1913 –1991), “Don’t waste clean thinking on dirty enzymes.” Today, however, biochemistry is becoming more agglomerative and comprehensive, setting out to integrate and describe entirely particular biological systems. The ‘big data’ metabolomics can define the complement of small molecules, e.g., in a soil or biofilm sample; proteomics can distinguish all the comprising proteins, e.g., serum; metagenomics can identify all the genes in a complex environment, e.g., the bovine rumen. This Biochemistry Series will address the current research on biomolecules and the emerging trends with great promise.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/11.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"May 24th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:27,editor:{id:"31610",title:"Dr.",name:"Miroslav",middleName:null,surname:"Blumenberg",slug:"miroslav-blumenberg",fullName:"Miroslav Blumenberg",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/31610/images/system/31610.jpg",biography:"Miroslav Blumenberg, Ph.D., was born in Subotica and received his BSc in Belgrade, Yugoslavia. He completed his Ph.D. at MIT in Organic Chemistry; he followed up his Ph.D. with two postdoctoral study periods at Stanford University. Since 1983, he has been a faculty member of the RO Perelman Department of Dermatology, NYU School of Medicine, where he is codirector of a training grant in cutaneous biology. Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. He has published more than 100 peer-reviewed research articles and graduated numerous Ph.D. and postdoctoral students.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"New York University Langone Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:3,paginationItems:[{id:"19",title:"Animal Science",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/19.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"259298",title:"Dr.",name:"Edward",middleName:null,surname:"Narayan",slug:"edward-narayan",fullName:"Edward Narayan",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Edward Narayan graduated with Ph.D. degree in Biology from the University of the South Pacific and pioneered non-invasive reproductive and stress endocrinology tools for amphibians - the novel development and validation of non-invasive enzyme immunoassays for the evaluation of reproductive hormonal cycle and stress hormone responses to environmental stressors. \nDr. Narayan leads the Stress Lab (Comparative Physiology and Endocrinology) at the University of Queensland. A dynamic career research platform which is based on the thematic areas of comparative vertebrate physiology, stress endocrinology, reproductive endocrinology, animal health and welfare, and conservation biology. \nEdward has supervised 40 research students and published over 60 peer reviewed research.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Queensland",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Australia"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"20",title:"Animal Nutrition",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/20.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"175967",title:"Dr.",name:"Manuel",middleName:null,surname:"Gonzalez Ronquillo",slug:"manuel-gonzalez-ronquillo",fullName:"Manuel Gonzalez Ronquillo",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/175967/images/system/175967.png",biography:"Dr. Manuel González Ronquillo obtained his doctorate degree from the University of Zaragoza, Spain, in 2001. He is a research professor at the Faculty of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Husbandry, Autonomous University of the State of Mexico. He is also a level-2 researcher. He received a Fulbright-Garcia Robles fellowship for a postdoctoral stay at the US Dairy Forage Research Center, Madison, Wisconsin, USA in 2008–2009. He received grants from Alianza del Pacifico for a stay at the University of Magallanes, Chile, in 2014, and from Consejo Nacional de Ciencia y Tecnología (CONACyT) to work in the Food and Agriculture Organization’s Animal Production and Health Division (AGA), Rome, Italy, in 2014–2015. He has collaborated with researchers from different countries and published ninety-eight journal articles. He teaches various degree courses in zootechnics, sheep production, and agricultural sciences and natural resources.\n\nDr. Ronquillo’s research focuses on the evaluation of sustainable animal diets (StAnD), using native resources of the region, decreasing carbon footprint, and applying meta-analysis and mathematical models for a better understanding of animal production.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma del Estado de México",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"28",title:"Animal Reproductive Biology and Technology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/28.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"177225",title:"Prof.",name:"Rosa Maria Lino Neto",middleName:null,surname:"Pereira",slug:"rosa-maria-lino-neto-pereira",fullName:"Rosa Maria Lino Neto Pereira",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bS9wkQAC/Profile_Picture_1624519982291",biography:"Rosa Maria Lino Neto Pereira (DVM, MsC, PhD and) is currently a researcher at the Genetic Resources and Biotechnology Unit of the National Institute of Agrarian and Veterinarian Research (INIAV, Portugal). She is the head of the Reproduction and Embryology Laboratories and was lecturer of Reproduction and Reproductive Biotechnologies at Veterinary Medicine Faculty. She has over 25 years of experience working in reproductive biology and biotechnology areas with a special emphasis on embryo and gamete cryopreservation, for research and animal genetic resources conservation, leading research projects with several peer-reviewed papers. Rosa Pereira is member of the ERFP-FAO Ex situ Working Group and of the Management Commission of the Portuguese Animal Germplasm Bank.",institutionString:"The National Institute for Agricultural and Veterinary Research. Portugal",institution:null},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null}]},overviewPageOFChapters:{paginationCount:19,paginationItems:[{id:"81793",title:"Canine parvovirus-2: An Emerging Threat to Young Pets",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104846",signatures:"Mithilesh Singh, Rajendran Manikandan, Ujjwal Kumar De, Vishal Chander, Babul Rudra Paul, Saravanan Ramakrishnan and Darshini Maramreddy",slug:"canine-parvovirus-2-an-emerging-threat-to-young-pets",totalDownloads:8,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Recent Advances in Canine Medicine",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11580.jpg",subseries:{id:"19",title:"Animal Science"}}},{id:"81271",title:"The Diversity of Parvovirus Telomeres",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102684",signatures:"Marianne Laugel, Emilie Lecomte, Eduard Ayuso, Oumeya Adjali, Mathieu Mével and Magalie Penaud-Budloo",slug:"the-diversity-of-parvovirus-telomeres",totalDownloads:23,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Recent Advances in Canine Medicine",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11580.jpg",subseries:{id:"19",title:"Animal Science"}}},{id:"79909",title:"Cryopreservation Methods and Frontiers in the Art of Freezing Life in Animal Models",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101750",signatures:"Feda S. Aljaser",slug:"cryopreservation-methods-and-frontiers-in-the-art-of-freezing-life-in-animal-models",totalDownloads:172,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Animal Reproduction",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10664.jpg",subseries:{id:"28",title:"Animal Reproductive Biology and Technology"}}},{id:"79782",title:"Avian Reproduction",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101185",signatures:"Kingsley Omogiade Idahor",slug:"avian-reproduction",totalDownloads:152,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:[{name:"Kingsley O.",surname:"Idahor"}],book:{title:"Animal Reproduction",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10664.jpg",subseries:{id:"28",title:"Animal Reproductive Biology and Technology"}}}]},overviewPagePublishedBooks:{paginationCount:10,paginationItems:[{type:"book",id:"7233",title:"New Insights into Theriogenology",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7233.jpg",slug:"new-insights-into-theriogenology",publishedDate:"December 5th 2018",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Rita Payan-Carreira",hash:"74f4147e3fb214dd050e5edd3aaf53bc",volumeInSeries:1,fullTitle:"New Insights into Theriogenology",editors:[{id:"38652",title:"Prof.",name:"Rita",middleName:null,surname:"Payan-Carreira",slug:"rita-payan-carreira",fullName:"Rita Payan-Carreira",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRiFPQA0/Profile_Picture_1614601496313",biography:"Rita Payan Carreira earned her Veterinary Degree from the Faculty of Veterinary Medicine in Lisbon, Portugal, in 1985. She obtained her Ph.D. in Veterinary Sciences from the University of Trás-os-Montes e Alto Douro, Portugal. After almost 32 years of teaching at the University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro, she recently moved to the University of Évora, Department of Veterinary Medicine, where she teaches in the field of Animal Reproduction and Clinics. Her primary research areas include the molecular markers of the endometrial cycle and the embryo–maternal interaction, including oxidative stress and the reproductive physiology and disorders of sexual development, besides the molecular determinants of male and female fertility. She often supervises students preparing their master's or doctoral theses. She is also a frequent referee for various journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Évora",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"7144",title:"Veterinary Anatomy and Physiology",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7144.jpg",slug:"veterinary-anatomy-and-physiology",publishedDate:"March 13th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Catrin Sian Rutland and Valentina Kubale",hash:"75cdacb570e0e6d15a5f6e69640d87c9",volumeInSeries:2,fullTitle:"Veterinary Anatomy and Physiology",editors:[{id:"202192",title:"Dr.",name:"Catrin",middleName:null,surname:"Rutland",slug:"catrin-rutland",fullName:"Catrin Rutland",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/202192/images/system/202192.png",biography:"Catrin Rutland is an Associate Professor of Anatomy and Developmental Genetics at the University of Nottingham, UK. She obtained a BSc from the University of Derby, England, a master’s degree from Technische Universität München, Germany, and a Ph.D. from the University of Nottingham. She undertook a post-doctoral research fellowship in the School of Medicine before accepting tenure in Veterinary Medicine and Science. Dr. Rutland also obtained an MMedSci (Medical Education) and a Postgraduate Certificate in Higher Education (PGCHE). She is the author of more than sixty peer-reviewed journal articles, twelve books/book chapters, and more than 100 research abstracts in cardiovascular biology and oncology. She is a board member of the European Association of Veterinary Anatomists, Fellow of the Anatomical Society, and Senior Fellow of the Higher Education Academy. Dr. Rutland has also written popular science books for the public. https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2009-4898. www.nottingham.ac.uk/vet/people/catrin.rutland",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Nottingham",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"8524",title:"Lactation in Farm Animals",subtitle:"Biology, Physiological Basis, Nutritional Requirements, and Modelization",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8524.jpg",slug:"lactation-in-farm-animals-biology-physiological-basis-nutritional-requirements-and-modelization",publishedDate:"January 22nd 2020",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Naceur M'Hamdi",hash:"2aa2a9a0ec13040bbf0455e34625504e",volumeInSeries:3,fullTitle:"Lactation in Farm Animals - Biology, Physiological Basis, Nutritional Requirements, and Modelization",editors:[{id:"73376",title:"Dr.",name:"Naceur",middleName:null,surname:"M'Hamdi",slug:"naceur-m'hamdi",fullName:"Naceur M'Hamdi",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/73376/images/system/73376.jpg",biography:"Naceur M’HAMDI is Associate Professor at the National Agronomic Institute of Tunisia, University of Carthage. He is also Member of the Laboratory of genetic, animal and feed resource and member of Animal science Department of INAT. He graduated from Higher School of Agriculture of Mateur, University of Carthage, in 2002 and completed his masters in 2006. Dr. M’HAMDI completed his PhD thesis in Genetic welfare indicators of dairy cattle at Higher Institute of Agronomy of Chott-Meriem, University of Sousse, in 2011. He worked as assistant Professor of Genetic, biostatistics and animal biotechnology at INAT since 2013.",institutionString:null,institution:null}]},{type:"book",id:"8460",title:"Reproductive Biology and Technology in Animals",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8460.jpg",slug:"reproductive-biology-and-technology-in-animals",publishedDate:"April 15th 2020",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Juan Carlos Gardón Poggi and Katy Satué Ambrojo",hash:"32ef5fe73998dd723d308225d756fa1e",volumeInSeries:4,fullTitle:"Reproductive Biology and Technology in Animals",editors:[{id:"251314",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Gardón",slug:"juan-carlos-gardon",fullName:"Juan Carlos Gardón",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/251314/images/system/251314.jpeg",biography:"Juan Carlos Gardón Poggi received University degree from the Faculty of Agrarian Science in Argentina, in 1983. Also he received Masters Degree and PhD from Córdoba University, Spain. He is currently a Professor at the Catholic University of Valencia San Vicente Mártir, at the Department of Medicine and Animal Surgery. He teaches diverse courses in the field of Animal Reproduction and he is the Director of the Veterinary Farm. He also participates in academic postgraduate activities at the Veterinary Faculty of Murcia University, Spain. His research areas include animal physiology, physiology and biotechnology of reproduction either in males or females, the study of gametes under in vitro conditions and the use of ultrasound as a complement to physiological studies and development of applied biotechnologies. 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