Metrological characteristics of textile substrate.
\r\n\t
",isbn:"978-1-83968-924-6",printIsbn:"978-1-83968-923-9",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83968-925-3",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ea4ec0d6ee01b88e264178886e3210ed",bookSignature:"Dr. Hiran Wimal Amarasekera",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9500.jpg",keywords:"Bone Tumors, Oncology, Childhood Tumors, Cancer, Risk Factors, Modern Management, Benign Lesions, Tumor-Like Conditions, Immunology, Histochemistry, Cell Oncology, Tumor Markers",numberOfDownloads:389,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:1,numberOfDimensionsCitations:1,numberOfTotalCitations:2,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"September 28th 2020",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"October 26th 2020",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"December 25th 2020",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"March 15th 2021",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"May 14th 2021",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"4 months",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:4,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Consultant Orthopaedic Surgeon from Sri Lanka currently working in University Hospitals of Coventry and Warwickshire, UK, trained at the National Hospital of Sri Lanka, at the Oldchurch Hospital in Essex UK and The Avenue Hospital Melbourne, Australia and University Hospitals of Coventry and Warwickshire, UK, obtained the FRCS from Royal College of Surgeons of Edinburgh, Scotland.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"67634",title:"Dr.",name:"Hiran",middleName:"Wimal",surname:"Amarasekera",slug:"hiran-amarasekera",fullName:"Hiran Amarasekera",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/67634/images/system/67634.jpg",biography:"Hiran Amarasekera is a Consultant Orthopaedic Surgeon from Sri Lanka currently working in University Hospitals of Coventry and Warwickshire, the UK as a hip preservation fellow. \r\nHis special interests include young adult hip and knee problems, sports injuries, Hip and knee arthroplasty, and complex arthroscopic procedures. \r\nHe completed the MBBS from Kasturba medical college Manipal, India and did his postgraduate in Trauma and Orthopaedics at the Post-graduate Institute of the Medicine University of Colombo obtained the MS. \r\nHe was initially trained at the National Hospital of Sri Lanka and then completed the further training at the Oldchurch Hospital in Essex UK and The Avenue Hospital Melbourne, Australia and University Hospitals of Coventry and Warwickshire, UK.\r\nHe obtained the FRCS from Royal College of Surgeons of Edinburgh in 2003 and was elected a fellow of Sri Lanka College of surgeons (FCSSL) 2012. \r\nHe has a keen interest in academia and research. 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Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"878",title:"Phytochemicals",subtitle:"A Global Perspective of Their Role in Nutrition and Health",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ec77671f63975ef2d16192897deb6835",slug:"phytochemicals-a-global-perspective-of-their-role-in-nutrition-and-health",bookSignature:"Venketeshwer Rao",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/878.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"82663",title:"Dr.",name:"Venketeshwer",surname:"Rao",slug:"venketeshwer-rao",fullName:"Venketeshwer Rao"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"50864",title:"Development Trends in Electronics Printed: Intelligent Textiles Produced with the Use of Printing Techniques on Textile Substrates",doi:"10.5772/62962",slug:"development-trends-in-electronics-printed-intelligent-textiles-produced-with-the-use-of-printing-tec",body:'\nIntelligent textiles, also called active, interactive, and adaptive, become more and more popular, both in scientific area as well as in the companies producing highly specialized clothing and also consumers. Market analysis has shown that there is a strong interest in new textronic materials (smart textiles, e‐textiles). The usage of smart textiles brings many possibilities of monitoring the reactions of the human body onto many incentives and factors, as well as their usage as decorations in the public space [1–5].
\nIntelligent materials have enabled the design and elaboration of a new generation of clothing with integrated sensors and built‐in electrodes. The use of biopotential fiber sensors (BFS) allowed miniaturization of ECG sensors. It also granted elimination of the conductive gels, and therefore, the use of new receiving elements was possible. Typical fiber sensor, the registrant biopotential, also acts as a receiver, with electrodes and wire that are connected to the patient. Smart vests have been already used in a limited extent in health monitoring, which enables screening all daily activities. Moreover, they are simple to use and are not causing discomfort while wearing [6]. Fabrics with interleaved weft and knitwear with conductive yarn are widely used. Thus, prepared sensory detectors are sensitive to formability and are used in such areas of life as public safety, police, fire service, medical services and automotive industry [7–9].
\nCurrently, intensive studies are carried out on widening the functions of clothing. Additional functions would consist of warning man about possible danger, monitoring the man\'s body motoric activity (position, kinematics of body parts) and physiological activities (skin temperature, respiration rate, pulse oximetry, electrocardiogram, electromyogram) [10–12]. In order to provide above functions, it is proposed to use fibrous structures, such as mono‐ and multi‐filaments, or knitted and woven fabrics as elements integrated with clothing, the so‐called electronic textiles (e‐Textiles). Such type of fibrous structures, under the influence of stimuli, for example mechanical load, electric field, magnetic field, temperature, irradiation, chemical vapors, shows reversing changes in their properties: shape memory [13–16], piezoresistive [17–21], chemo‐resistive [22–24], piezo‐electrical [25–27], electro‐chromic [28, 29], electro‐luminescent [30–32] properties, etc. The last decade witnessed the development of e‐Textiles prototypes based on functional textile materials: Modular Autonomous Recorder System for measurement of autonomic nervous system activity [33], Clothes for Tele‐Assistance in Medicine [34], wearable health care system [35], life shirt (smart shirt for continuous ambulatory monitoring) [36]. A wide review of knowledge and developments in the field of e‐Textiles, constructions, materials used and developmental trends has been presented in papers published by Rossi\'s team [19, 37, 38] and monographs [10, 11].
\nThe monitoring of man\'s body movement activity is often performed with the use of fibrous materials as sensors of strains. The best results are obtained in the case of fibrous structures which have both elastic memory (e.g. elastomeric fibers) and piezoresistive properties. The elastic memory of elastomeric fibers is determined by their exceptionally high reversing deformability. However, elastomeric fibers being electro‐insulating from their nature show the piezoresistive effect that is obtained only after a preliminary modification consisting in imparting electro‐conductive properties. This modification is made by applying electro‐conductive coatings (doped polypyrrole, polyaniline, polyacetylene), inorganic compounds (silver salts), or mass‐doping with electro‐conductive particles, for example carbon.
\nThe fibrous structures based on elastomers are often modified with polypyrrole due to its stable physical properties (high resistances to thermal, atmospheric and chemical media) and relatively simple deposition process on the substrate surface [39–41]. Elastomer‐polypyrrole systems are used as strain sensors 1D (bandages placed directly on knee or elbow joints) or 2D (shirts worn near body that monitor body movements, local changes in torso, arm etc.). In the second case, the stimuli of sensor integrated with clothing have a multi‐directional character; hence, the sensoric properties of the sensor material will be strongly dependent on the direction of load and material structure. There are few studies that consider the effect of both factors on the properties of piezoresistive sensors. Increasingly popular are thick electrochemical sensors, ampherometric, and biosensors made by film printing and ink‐jet printing using ink from carbon‐derived content, ferrocyanide, by which one can assess the impact of deformation of clothing and monitor physiological functions. The future activities of such sensors will focus on the human body, as well as other health care systems; they will monitor not only soldiers but also other services that require this form of monitoring [15, 19]. In order to print on the textiles, various specific substances are used, for example dyes, various types of polymers, silver, carbon nanotubes, graphite or graphene. These components can also provide other established functions, for example anti‐static or antibacterial [9, 42, 43]. Printed electronics produced so far primarily for use as the components of devices (computers, tablets, phones, etc.) currently take an advantage in the textile industry because of the prints on fibrous materials that can act as sensors or electrodes for electrical stimulation of muscles in the components of new functionalized garments [9, 42–46]. In published works, electrical conductivity was successfully given to materials by textile printing method [47, 48], but existing solutions are still being developed. The authors in their works concentrated their attention on new areas of research, conferring properties of electrically conductive textiles using printing techniques for monitoring, for example the rhythm of breathing. The major reason to start this kind of investigation was the need for developing reliable, handy health monitoring systems [5, 7, 9]. Non‐invasive or minimally invasive physiological monitoring devices are also of great importance for defense purposes and applications for athletes. The integration of sensors and biosensors directly with clothing should be beneficial in the development of health care and monitoring systems of soldiers, as well as other civil servants. The integration of electronics with clothing opens up many possibilities in various fields [9, 42, 43]. The authors used the functional water dispersion of carbon nanotubes AquaCyl as a carrier that was adapted in the Department of Material and Commodity Sciences and Textile Metrology Lodz University of Technology for forming electrically conductive pathways by film printing method. It was assumed that the resulting electrically conductive paths are susceptible to deformation. Modification of the water dispersion of nanotubes was supposed to result in a composition being bi‐functional print—electrically and bacteriostatic, which is extremely important in applications of sensors in medical materials, in contact with the human body. In the present study, attention was focused on assigning specific functionality textiles printing techniques using carbon nanotubes, graphene and polypyrrole. Characteristic properties of the electrically conductive materials, such as thermal conductivity, electrical conductivity and resistance to chemicals, cause that they are widely used in nanotechnology.
\nTaking into account the preparation of a textile strain sensor, textiles with high elasticity and reversibility of deformations were used. Such conditions are fulfilled by warp knitted fabrics of the Weftloc type. The elastic structure of Weftloc fabrics is formed by a system of elastomeric yarns (Figure 1) introduced in the mutually perpendicular directions by the three‐needle bar, thanks to which the fabric is characterized by 2D deformability.
\nWeftloc PE warp knitted fabric.
Textile substrate | \nSurface weight, | \nThickness | \nSurface electric resistivity ρS | \nRaw material composition | \n
---|---|---|---|---|
\n | g/m2 | \nmm | \nΩm/m | \n\n |
knitted fabric Weftloc L (LIBA) | \n304 | \n0.73 ± 0.01 | \n1.8 × 1013 | \nPA6 ‐61% Elastan ‐ 39% | \n
knitted fabric Weftloc PE (PEN ELASTIC) | \n245 | \n0.52 ± 0.01 | \n6.2 × 1012 | \nPA6 ‐64% Lycra ‐ 36% | \n
cotton fabric | \n206 | \n0.41 ± 0.01 | \n8.7 × 1011 | \nCotton‐100% | \n
Metrological characteristics of textile substrate.
Two Weftloc knitted fabrics with a similar content of elastomeric yarns of different type of elastomer were used, having various surface weights and morphological structures (Table 1). Knitted fabrics also contained polyamide yarn that imparts a soft handle and comfort of fabrics in contact with skin. This type of bi‐component knitted fabric is exploited in corset‐making to make classic lingerie elements fitting to the body, sports and rehabilitation goods.
\nIn addition, cotton fabric twill was also used (Table 1) as a reference of the sensitive material for chemical stimulus.
\nAs a base for printing conductive work were used:\n
water dispersion of carbon nanotubes trade name AquaCyl (AQ0101) and AquaCyl (AQ0301) from Nanocyl,
polypyrrole in the form of a water dispersion of nanoparticles prepared in the process of polymerization of pyrrole doped, Sigma‐Aldrich,
flakes of graphene in the form of a dry powder from company Graphene‐Supermarket.
Above materials are a well‐established in the group of nanomaterials used in consumer printing electronics. The issue of its application is open in order to provide its toxicological safety, in permanent connection with the substrate and ensure the extreme sensitivity of the test stimuli in their minimum content sensory element.
\nThe electrical properties of materials in the study were used by a team of the Department of Materials, Commodity and Textile Metrology Technical University of Lodz [7, 9, 42, 43, 47] to create a conductive printing on transparencies and printing techniques of textile materials.
\nAquaCyl 0101 AQ dispersion comprises from 0.5 to 1.5% MWCNT series Nanocyl®7000 characterized by a purity of approximately 90% with the average diameter of nanotubes 9.5 nm, and the average length of up to approx. 1.5 μm. It is characterized by surface tension approximately 57 N/m, the viscosity of 36 cP and a pH of 7. These parameters were determined in the temperature 25°C. Additionally dispersion comprises a dispersant in an amount of 0.1–3% [7, 9].
\nPolypyrrole in the form of a water dispersion of nanoparticles produced in the doped polymerization of pyrrole. Pyrrole is a heterocyclic aromatic compound of the empirical formula C4H5N, having a 98% degree of purity. Its density is determined in temperature 25°C, was 0.967 g/mL, and the molecular weight of 67.09 g/mol. Pyrrole applied at the beginning was distilled under reduced pressure.
\nGraphene flakes in dry powder form under the trade name MO‐1, a multilayer graphene flakes having a thickness of 5–30 nm in size with a 5–25 μm [43]. As auxiliaries to modify the water dispersions used: DBSA (C12H25C6H4SO3H) solution 70 wt% in isopropanol (analytically pure from Sigma Aldrich) and Ebecryl 2002 (Aliphatic urethane acrylate from Cytec, water compatible, UV curable system) and Esacure DP250 (water dispersion of photoinitiators from Lamberti SPA).
\nThe obtained printing paste having the sensory properties based on graphene and carbon nanotubes was introduced to the dispersion AquaCyl AQ0301, 3% by weight of flakes of graphene MO‐1. This kind of compiled printing composition was placed in an ultrasonic bath for 15 min. Then, the so‐prepared printing composition as well as the dispersion of AquaCyl AQ0101, auxiliary agents in the form of aliphatic urethane acrylate (Ebecryl 2002), and the photoinitiator (Esacure DP250) were added and stirred for 30 min using a magnetic stirrer.
\nThe polypyrrole layer was formed chemically by the in situ polymerization of pyrrole in an aqueous solution of ferric chloride, in which the sample to be coated was immersed. A molar ratio of pyrrole and ferric chloride was 1:2.5. The polymerization was performed at the temperature of 4°C for 2 h. The acidic character of the process medium was maintained by means of an addition of HCl solution. The samples were taken out after 2 h, rinsed repeatedly with distilled water and dried in a desiccator at room temperature.
\nKnitted fabrics and elastomeric weft yarns used in knitted fabrics were modified under the above given conditions.
\nThe resistance properties of textile substrate were tested before and after coating with electro‐conductive polypyrrole, carbon nanotube and graphene. The surface resistance of fabric samples was measured with the use of a two‐electrode system and stabilized voltage sources (type 4218 from RTF and type 55121 from Unitra) and a Keithley\'s electrometer, type 610C. Samples with a width of 2.5 cm were tested under a constant load of 400 kPa, with the inter‐electrode distance being 1 cm. The uncoated samples were tested under a voltage of 500 V in a Faraday cage. In case of the samples coated with polypyrrole, carbon nanotube and graphene their current‐voltage characteristics were determined within the voltage range from 1 to 20 V, increasing the voltage from smaller to higher values.
Changes in the electric resistance of samples were examined simultaneously with sample load using Instron machine, recording the elongation of samples as a function of load F(λ). The changes in load as a result of changing resistance had a dynamic character, which required an automated measuring system.
\nA sample in the form of a strap, cut out in the assumed direction, was fixed in Instron clamps set up within a distance of 50 mm. The sample in clamps were equipped with elastic electro‐conductive electrodes from 3M (R < 1Ω), which provided two‐sided contact with the sample. The electrodes were isolated from the clamp surfaces with a polyester film. Similarly, the samples of elastomeric yarns were fixed.
\nThe electrodes were connected to a multimeter, type Metex KN DMM M‐3890DT, coupled with a computer (Figure 2). Results in the form of R = f(t) files were sent to computer through USB by means of Metex software.
\nSchematic diagram of the measurement stand for testing the electric resistance of knitted fabrics and elastomeric yarn.
The examination of the resistance behavior of samples consisted of recording the changes in resistance in the process of sample loading and relaxing and examining the repeatability of resistance under the given load and a constant frequency of loading.
\nThe resistance sensitivity of the system was calculated according to the formula:
\nwhere Ss—strain sensitivity, ΔR = Rmax - R0, Rmax—the value of resistance at the point where the sample is loaded with the maximal force F, R0—initial value of resistance, εelast—relative elastic strain, %.
\nSensory tests for the presence of solvent vapor were performed in a laboratory measuring system [49]. The equipment allows measurements of the humidity and temperature of the atmosphere prevailing in the system as well as creation and introduction of a system measuring liquid vapor at a given concentration (Figure 3). The measurement technique is described in [43].
\nMeasuring system for investigating the vapor textile sensors: (1) gaseous chamber with the volume of 0.024 m3, (2) pump, (3) measurement chamber, (4) measuring electrodes, (5) Keithley multimeter, (6) computer, (7) system ensuring proper humidity of the environment, (8) thermometer [49].
The structure and surface of the tested samples were observed using two microscopic techniques. The morphological structure of yarn and fabrics was examined by the optical microscopy, observing the deformation of fabric structure under the influence of loads. The reflected light microscope coupled with the camera and image analysis system “Lucia” was used for morphological evaluation of tested fabrics.
\nThe surfaces of fibers and knitted fabrics were observed by scanning electron microscopy (SEM), using a JSM‐520 LV microscope from Jeol (Japan). The technique of specimen preparation is described in paper [50].
\nFigure 4A–F shows the results of the PPy deposition on the multifilaments forming knitted fabrics, and on knitted fabrics, Figure 4G–I shows the results of the deposition of carbon nanotubes, and Figure 4J–L shows the results of the deposition of graphene with carbon nanotubes. The cross‐section and longitudinal view of Lycra multifilament (Figure 4B, C) indicate a strong integration of elastomeric filaments in yarn, which are locally stuck together and deformed at interlacements. In the in situ polymerization of pyrrole, PPy layers on both surfaces of the knitted fabrics were formed with the average thickness of 68 nm on Weftloc PE fabric and 192 nm on Weftloc L fabric. The combination of PPy with the fiber surface in Weftloc knitted fabrics is durable and resistant to washing what was confirmed by appropriate tests. The formed PPy layer consists of PPy micro‐spheres with a grain diameter of approximately 1 μm (Figure 4D, E). Figure 4B, C indicates a limited penetration across the micro‐spheres in the elastomeric multifilament.
\nAnalysis of microscopic images also allowed for determination of the average thickness of the applied layers of ink compositions on fabric, using an image analyzer Luccia. Microscopic examination showed that the thickness of the layer applied to the textile printing technique film contained within 18.5–20.0 μ (Figure 4H, K). Moreover, analysis of microscopic images shows that the ink compositions are applied in a uniform manner on the textile substrate. Not observed, the resulting thickening of a significant size.
\nSEM and optical microscopy images of: (A–F) PPy coating on Lycra and PA6 yarns and Weftloc PE knitted fabric, (G–I) AquaCyl AQ3001 + cross‐linking compound printed on fabric, (J–L) AquaCyl AQ3001 + 3% GNPs + cross‐linking compound printed on fabric, (M–N) Polypyrrole + cross‐linking compound printed on fabric.
The samples of Weftloc knitted fabrics coated with PPy show conductive properties in the electrostatic field. The PPy layer has created conditions for the percolation flow of charge carriers reducing the fabric resistance by about eight orders of magnitude from TrΩ (Table 1) to kΩ. The current intensity of the surface conductivity increases proportionally to voltage (Figure 5). The above linear behavior with high correlation coefficients (R2 ∼ 1) has been found for all knitted fabric samples under conditions of directed action of electric field (in the direction of wales ρS = 158 ± 20 Ωm/m, courses ρS = 170 ± 15 Ωm/m and diagonally ρS = 160 ± 30Ωm/m). One can state that in the mechanically unloaded condition, PPy layers show isotropic electric conductivity.
\nCharacteristics of I surface = f(U) of Weftloc PE fabric (diagonal field direction to wales).
Weftloc knitted fabrics are characterized by a high content of elastomeric yarn that imparts elastic memory to the material. In order to present the full picture of electro‐mechanical properties, both fabrics and elastomeric yarns of these fabrics were tested (100% Lycra and 100% Elastan).
\nThe yarns are characterized by a high degree of elasticity that does not significantly depend on the load value within the range of loads used (up to 0.4 N). However, the relative elastic and total strains strongly increase during load increase (Figure 6 shows the results for Lycra yarn).
\nThe PPy coating deposited on the fiber surface insignificantly decreases the tensile strength and breaking strain of yarn (Table 2). No significant effect of PPy on the degree of yarn elasticity was found (Table 2; Figure 6).
\nType of indicator | \nLycra yarn | \n|
---|---|---|
\n | without PPy | \nwith PPy | \n
Degree of elasticity Selast., % | \n93.6 ± 1.0 | \n94.32 ± 0.9 | \n
Elastic strain łelast., % | \n160.6 ± 4.7 | \n159.1 ± 7.1 | \n
Total strain łtotal, % | \n171.3 ± 4.6 | \n166.0 ± 8.9 | \n
Breaking strain łbreak, % | \n574.2 | \n469.3 | \n
Tensile force at break F, N | \n0.85 | \n0.58 | \n
Effect of PPy on mechanical behavior of Lycra yarn in Weftloc PE (P = 0.4 N).
Effect of load on mechanical parameters of Lycra yarn (A) before and (B) after coating with PPy.
The tensile strength of Weftloc knitted fabrics was tested using forces directed along wales, courses and diagonally. The strength of knitted fabrics without the elastomeric yarn worked‐in along courses was also tested to find out how it affects the directional strength at break (Table 3). The removal of the course yarn decreases the directional strength and strain at break. One can assume that the mechanical stability is determined to a large extent by the stitch structure of knitted fabrics.
\nType of knitted fabrics | \nDirection of force | \nBreaking force, N | \nBreaking strain, % | \n
---|---|---|---|
Weftloc L | \nWales | \n240.0 ± 2.0 | \n450.0 ± 3.0 | \n
Diagonal | \n135.0 ± 1.2 | \n482.0 ± 2.5 | \n|
Courses | \n122.5 ± 1.0 | \n607.6 ± 2.6 | \n|
Courses, without weft | \n113.1 ± 1.0 | \n535.7 ± 9.0 | \n|
Weftloc PE | \nWales | \n161.8 ± 4.0 | \n400.0 ± 1.0 | \n
Diagonal | \n114.0 ± 1.0 | \n434.5 ± 1.0 | \n|
Courses | \n160.1 ± 4.0 | \n558.1 ± 20.0 | \n|
Courses, without weft | \n116.6 ± 3.0 | \n500.1 ± 8.0 | \n
Strength parameters of Weftloc knitted fabrics before coating with PPy.
Under the conditions of directional loading, knitted fabrics show the anisotropy of strength and strain (Table 3; Figure 7). The maximal mechanical parameters are obtained during the course‐wise loading. The directional strain of Weftloc PE fabric is, in each case, higher than that of Weftloc L fabric.
\nDirectional strain of Weftloc fabrics coated with PPy (loading rate: 50 mm/min).
Weftloc knitted fabrics containing Lycra elastomeric fibers in PEN ELASTIC fabrics are characterized by a higher contribution of elastic strains in comparison with LIBA knitted fabric. The values of elastic strains created during diagonal loading are shown in Figure 8. The deposited PPy layer has decreased the elastic strain within the whole load range (0.4–5.0 N).
\nEffect of PPy on the elastic strain of Weftloc knitted fabrics in the diagonal direction (loading rate: 200 mm/min).
In order to assess the repeatability of electromechanical behavior of elastomeric yarns, their temporal changes in electric resistance during axial mono‐ and multi‐cyclic tension at a constant rate of load increase in each cycle were examined. Figure 9A shows resistance response, R/R0, (instantaneous values of resistance R of the yarn being loaded in relation to the initial resistance R0) during the single cycle of tensioning. The resistance increases linearly during the linear load build‐up (and the strain proportional to it); after yarn relaxation the resistance returns nonlinearly to the initial condition. The delay in resistance return of the yarn under relaxation indicates processes of stress relaxation in the elastomer. The strain sensitivity Ss of Lycra yarn is at a level of 200. The yarn resistance changes during load build‐up are characterized by good repeatability and a high degree of correlation between resistance and strain, which was confirmed also in the multi‐cyclic yarn loading (Figure 9B).
\nResistance responses of Lycra weft yarn tensioned axially, tensioning rate 50 mm/min, load 8cN. (A) Single loading cycle, (B) multiple loading cycles.
Weftloc PE fabric—images during straining and the accompanying changes of fabric surface resistance in loading time (loads: 0.4; 1; 2 and 5 N; loading rate 50 mm/min).
The knitted fabrics coated with PPy and directionally strained (Figures 7 and 8) show an increase in electric resistance with increasing strain. The value and character of resistance changes depend on the value of load and its build‐up rate and direction (resistance anisotropy). In Table 4, exemplary resistance responses of PEN ELASTIC knitted fabric loaded in the direction of weft at a loading rate of 50 mm/min are listed. In Table 4, A–D show relative changes in the electric resistance of a knitted fabric loaded in four single cycles followed by a dozen or so cycles succeeding with a higher frequency. In cases A–D, maximal loads were use: 0.4, 1, 2 and 5 N, respectively. The diagrams confirm the repeatability of resistance changes during sample loading in both single and multiple cycles. The resistance increases with increasing sample load. For low loads, the process is of a linear character, while for higher loads, after exceeding about 0.8 N the resistance is decreased (“saddle point”), which may indicate disturbances of charge carrier flow on percolation paths formed by polypyrrole. This effect was found for three loading directions in both knitted fabrics (in the direction of knitting, perpendicular and diagonal directions). This effect is reversible. To illustrate this phenomenon, microscopic simulations of tensioning Weftloc PE loaded in the weft direction at a load rate of 50 mm/min were performed. (Table 4A–D). The images show that with the increase in load the distances between wales increase and multifilaments relocate in the knitted fabric loops, which results in the resistance change of mutual contact and consequently in reduced resistance of the knitted fabric. Xue et al. [51] previously indicated the importance of the resistance of fiber contact in knitted fabric loops for the electromechanical properties of knitted fabrics. As far as woven fabrics are concerned, these authors believe that a higher influence on the electromechanical behavior is exerted by the crimp of the weave and density of the fabric. The appearance of the “saddle” phenomenon in the electromechanical response of Weftloc fabrics limits the range of linear behavior of the sensor based on these fabrics.
\nEffect of tensioning rate on the strain sensitivity (Ss) of Weftloc knitted fabrics during loading in the direction of: (A) courses, (B) diagonal, (C) wales.
Based on the resistance responses and corresponding strains of Weftloc fabrics loaded successively in three directions: along wales, courses and diagonally, the strain sensitivity (Ss) of these fabrics were calculated. The results of Ss of electro‐conductive knitted fabrics are shown in Figure 10A–C. The comparison of the behavior of Weftloc fabrics indicates beneficial parameters of the sensor based on Weftloc PE. This fabric, with a similar content of elastomeric yarn and wale density, is characterized by a slightly higher course density (Table 2). As far as the metrological parameters are concerned, Weftloc PE is characterized by lower surface weight and thickness, but higher elastic strain in comparison with Weftloc L. The differences in fabric physical parameters have brought different conditions of the PPy micro‐sphere diffusion on the fiber surface and in the fabric structure. On Weftloc PE fabric, a thinner PPy layer is formed. During the loading of this fabric, with its higher strain, one could observe considerably greater changes in resistance in comparison with Weftloc L fabric, which resulted in a higher strain sensitivity.
\nThe sensitivity of both Weftloc fabrics has an anisotropic character. One can assume that it results from the anisotropy of fabric strainability as well as from the anisotropy of the contact resistance of fibers deformed in fabric loops.
\n\nThe strain sensitivity of Weftloc knitted fabrics increases with the increasing tensioning rate. This behavior results from the fabric strainability and the changes in PPy layer resistance with shortening the loading time, that is increasing the tensioning rate. For both knitted fabrics, it was observed that the increase in load build‐up rate was accompanied by twofold reactions: increase in the fabric strainability or unchanged values. The clear increase in the fabric sensitivity with increasing loading rate (Figure 10) allows one to state that changes in resistance have a predominant influence of the phenomenon. It has been previously found that the fiber electric resistance considerably increases with increasing rate of loading in the process of drawing PA6 fibers coated with PPy [27].
\nBased on the results obtained, one can conclude that beneficial operating conditions of the sensor based on Weftloc knitted fabrics can be obtained at higher load build‐up rates and short relaxation times. From among the knitted fabrics tested, Weftloc PE shows optimal piezoresistive properties and the best strain sensitivity in the diagonal direction.
\nThe samples of fabrics coated with conductive ink compositions exhibit the electrostatic conductive properties. The conductive layers have created conditions for the percolation flow of charge carriers reducing the fabric resistance by about 10 orders of magnitude from TrΩ (Table 1) to Ω for ink compositions based on carbon nanotubes and graphene, and approximately six orders of magnitude for the ink compositions based on polypyrrole.
\nThe Table 5 summarizes the results of the electrical conductivity of the printed textile substrates [7, 9, 43].
\nComposition of ink | \nType substrate | \nSurface electrical resistivity [Ωm/m] (RH = 25%, t = 23°C) | \n|
---|---|---|---|
Before the washing | \nAfter the washing (25 cycles) | \n||
AquaCyl AQ3001 + cross‐linking compound | \ncotton fabric | \n12.0 | \n129.0 | \n
AquaCyl AQ3001 + 3% GNPs + cross‐linking compound | \ncotton fabric | \n4.7 | \n79.0 | \n
Polypyrrole + cross‐linking compound | \ncotton fabric | \n6.6 × 105 | \n8.8 × 106 | \n
Commercial AquaCyl character shows worse electrical conductivity than the prints obtained with addition of graphene. The composition of the print based on polypyrrole results in the weakest conductivity.
\nIn the course of the experiment, there was no significant effect observed on grapheme‐based ink properties taking in account the amount of added graphene, uniformity of obtained paste before and after printing.
\nIt has been found that the presence of auxiliary agents in the form of aliphatic urethane acrylate and the photoinitiator has no effect on the properties of the conductive ink compositions tested, but significantly improves the durability of prints.
\nTable 6 and Figure 11A–C summarize the results of testing the functionality of the textile resulting in a film printing technology.
\nAs an indicator of quantitative sensory properties assumed as the relative resistance changes, Rrel expressing the relative changes in electrical resistance in the surface of the printed fabrics induced chemical stimulus of a given type, calculated in accordance with the formula (2).
\nwhere Rrel—relative resistance
\nR0—initial value of resistance
\nR—final value of resistance.
\nComposition of ink | \nConcentration, ppm | \nRelative resistance, % | \n||
---|---|---|---|---|
Acetone | \nMethanol | \nToluene | \n||
AquaCyl AQ3001 + cross‐linking compound | \n200 | \n15 | \n50 | \n13 | \n
300 | \n19 | \n57 | \n18 | \n|
400 | \n27 | \n68 | \n25 | \n|
AquaCyl AQ3001 + 3% GNPs + cross‐linking compound | \n200 | \n27 | \n78 | \n23 | \n
300 | \n31 | \n86 | \n29 | \n|
400 | \n36 | \n123 | \n34 | \n|
Polypyrrole + cross‐linking compound | \n200 | \n15 | \n38 | \n6 | \n
300 | \n19 | \n41 | \n9 | \n|
400 | \n21 | \n47 | \n11 | \n
Results of Rrel of liquid vapor to prints obtained from compositions based on graphene and carbon nanotubes on a textile substrate [43].
Analyzing the test results summarized in Table 6 and Figure 11, it can be seen that the addition of 3% graphene improves the sensitivity of the reaction liquid to vapor tested. It was also observed that the superior sensory stimuli properties are characterized by the chemical compositions of the sample printed based on carbon nanotubes. The increased concentration of tested liquid vapors has a significant impact on the response sensitivity of printed textile substrates. Research on sensory sensitivity to the chemical stimuli indicates that printed textiles retain sensitivity to cyclical impact, which is presented at Figure 12. Essential, however, is the relaxation time of the sample on exposure to vapors of organic liquids.
\n\nThe test results of sensory sensitivity of the printed textile substrates, compositions based on polypyrrole on the chemical stimuli in the form of liquid indicates that the sensory response to polar liquids is stronger than non‐polar liquids. This is probably related to the presence in the structure of polypyrrole‐conjugated bonds that markedly enhanced its polarity.
\n\nThe examinations show that the change of vapor concentrations varies proportionally to the sensory properties. This phenomenon allows the use of so‐printed textiles as sensors measuring the changes in concentrations of the relevant vapors in the surrounding they are located in.
\nThe obtained results indicate the potential possibility of using printing methods designed to production of the textile sensors that will be used as components of protective technical clothing, that is fire services and mining industry.
\nSummary of the sensory properties of the presence of vapor (a) acetone, (b) methanol, (c) toluene.
Features of the sensory properties the presence of: (a) the vapor of acetone with a concentration of 200 ppm, (b) methanol vapor at a concentration of 300 ppm.
Two Weftloc knitted fabrics from LIBA and PEN ELASTIC companies have been selected as potential strain transducers. These fabrics are characterized by similar raw material composition and content: elastomeric fibers and PA6 fibers, while the existing differences concern the type of elastomeric fibers, surface weight of fabrics, their thickness and structure filling degree. The properties of both fabrics are atypical due to the elastomeric yarn introduced additionally in the course direction, which imparts a high strainability 2D to the fabrics. The surface of fabrics has been chemically coated with a layer of electro‐conductive polypyrrole. Thus, Weftloc knitted fabrics as highly strainable and electro‐conductive materials can be used as piezoresistive sensors. The electro‐mechanical tests of Weftloc fabrics prove their high strain sensitivity. The reaction of the fabrics as piezoresistive sensors is of an anisotropic character. For the sake of the construction of strain sensor, it is particularly beneficial to load the piezoresistive element in the diagonal direction in relation to knitting direction. The piezoresistive effects recorded are repeatable during loading Weftloc fabrics in both single and multiple cycles. They have a linear character to a specified limit for the given fabric. Weftloc PE which characterizes specific structure and content of elastomeric yarns has shown a better performance as a piezoresistive sensor.
\nThe studies support the use of ink compositions for modification of textile substrates, as sensors for mechanical and chemical stimulus. By using printing methods for modifying the surface of textiles can be inexpensive and fast way to create RTDs.
\nTextile sensors presented in the paper have potential application in health care, in the area endangered of chemical explosions, military and sporting applications.
\nThe authors would like to thank Henryk Wrzosek for SEM investigations of samples.
\nRisk is defined in terms of uncertain events which may have positive or negative effect on the project objectives. Risks include circumstances or situations, the existence or occurrence of which, in all reasonable foresight, results in an adverse impact on any aspect of the implementation of the project. Various definitions of risks are presented in Table 1.
Sl. no | Source | Definition |
---|---|---|
1 | Project Management Institute [10] | An uncertain event or a condition that if it occurs has a positive or negative effect on project objectives |
2 | Institute of Risk Management [7] | The combination of a probability of an event and its consequences |
3 | Association of Project Management Body of Knowledge [1] | Project Risk is an uncertain event or condition, that, if it occurs, has a positive/negative effect on project objectives. A risk has a cause and if it occurs, a consequence. |
4 | British Standard BS IEC 62198:2001 | Combination of probability of an event occurring and its consequences on project objectives |
5 | A probability or threat of damage, injury, liability, loss, or any other negative occurrence that is caused by external or internal vulnerabilities and that may be avoided through preemptive action. | |
6 | Fundamentals of Risk Management [9] | “A chance or possibility of danger, loss, injury or other adverse consequences” and the definition of risk is “exposed to danger.” However, taking risk can also result in positive outcome. A third possibility is risk related to uncertainty of outcome. |
7 | Adams [8] | Risk is the probability “that a particular adverse event occurs during a stated period of time, or results from a particular challenge.” |
8 | Philosophy of Risk [3] | Risk has been interpreted as Risk = hazard × exposure where Hazard is defined as the way in which a thing or situation can cause harm and exposure as the extent to which the likely recipient of the harm can be influenced by the hazard |
Definitions of risk.
Classification and definition of risks is furnished in Table 2.
Risk | Definitions |
---|---|
Pure risk | A risk which has chance of loss or no loss. Example. A building may get affected by fire or not. These are best covered by insurance |
Speculative risk | Involves chance of gain/loss. Example. A builder may take a risk by promoting a new venture depending upon the prevailing conditions in the vicinity of proposed project, but it may bring him gain/loss. |
Fundamental risk | These are external to a project and which, if they materialise, would be on a large scale and cannot be prevented. These risks are associated with major natural, economic, political or social changes and generate large scale losses. Examples are: Floods, earthquakes, fluctuation of exchange rates, etc. This risk may or may not be insurable. |
Particular risk | These are project specific risks and are identified within the parameters of a project and can be controlled during the implementation of a project, e.g. quality risks, safety risks, legal risks, etc. |
Classification of risks and their definitions.
Source: Project Risk Management, D Van Well-Stam et al., Kogan Page Publications, 2003.
Risk management is a planned and a structured process aimed at helping the project team make the right decision at the right time to identify, classify, quantify the risks and then to manage and control them. The aim is to ensure the best value for the project in terms of cost, time and quality by balancing the input to manage the risks with the benefits from such act. It is just a cost benefit analysis.
Risk management is a continuous process which is to be implemented in any project from inception to completion. However, in order to realise its full potential, risk management should be implemented at the earliest stage of a project, i.e. feasibility design and construction. Risk is an uncertain event or condition that, if occurs, has a positive or negative effect on a project’s objectives. Components of risk are the probability of the occurrence of an event and the impact of the occurrence of that event. There are many sources of uncertainty in construction projects, which include the performance of construction parties, resources availability, contractual relations, etc. because of which, construction projects face problems that cause delay in the project completion time. Success of a project is measured by its ability to get completed within the budgeted cost and time. These goals are interrelated where each parameter has an impact when other parameters get affected. An accurate cost estimating and scheduling should be performed in order to meet the overall budget and time deadline of a project. As such, risk management becomes an integral part of construction management which intends to identify and manage potential and unforeseen risks during the period of implementation of the project; hence, the necessity of risk management [5].
Definitions of risk management are presented in Table 3.
Sl. no | Definition of risk management |
---|---|
1 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Risk_management Risk Management is the identification, evaluation, and prioritization of risks followed by coordinated and an economical application of resources to minimise, monitor, and control the probability or impact of unfortunate events [6] or to maximize the realization of opportunities. |
2 | Nadeem Ehsan et al., 2012 Risk Management in a project involves the identification of influencing factors which could have negative impact on the the cost, schedule and quality objectives of the project and quantification of impact of potential risk and implementation of mitigation measures to minimise the potential impact of risk |
3 | Bahamid et al., 2017 Risk Management is defined as organized and comprehensive method tailored towards “ organizing”, “identifying” and “responding” to risk factors in order to achieve project goals. |
4 | www.stakeholdermap.com/risk/risk-management-construction Risk Management in construction consists of planning, monitoring and implemeting the measures needed to prevent exposure to risk. To do this, it is necessary to identify the hazards, assess the extent of risks, provision of measures to control the risks and to manage residual risk |
5 | www.vp-projects.kau.edu.sa Risk management is a systematic method of identifying, analysing, treating and monitoring the risks that are all involved in any activity/ process and is a systematic method that minimises the risks which may be an impediment to attainment of objectives |
6 | Cleden [4] Risk is exposure to the consequences of uncertainty. In a project context, it is the chance of something happening that will have an impact upon objectives. It includes the possibility of loss or gain, or variation from a desired or planned outcome, as a consequence of the uncertainty associated with following a particular course of action. Risk thus has two elements: the likelihood or probability of something happening, and the consequences or impacts if it does. |
7 | Project Risk Management, D Vanwell-Stam, Kogan Page India publications, 2004 The entire set of activities and measures that are aimed at dealing with risks in order to maintain control over a project |
8 | www.gpmfirst.com/risk.management-construction Risk Management is a means of dealing with uncertainty – identifying sources of uncertainty and the risks associated with them, and then managing those risks such that negative outcomes are minimized (or avoided altogether), and any positive outcomes are capitalised upon. |
9 | Risk Management in Construction Projects by NICMAR [2] Risk Management is the planned and structured process of bringing the project team make the right decisions at the right time by identifying, classifying and quantifying the risks and then for managing and controlling them, |
10 | Dr Patrick et al., 2006 retrieved from feaweb.aub.edu.lb Risk Management is “a systematic way of looking at areas of risk and consciously determining how each should be treated. It is a management tool that aims at identifying sources of risk and uncertainty, determining their impact, and developing appropriate management responses” |
11 | http://economictimes.indiatimes.com/definition/risk-management Risk Management refers to the practice of identifying potential risks in advance, analysing them and taking precautionary steps to reduce/curb the risk. |
Definitions of risk management.
Construction projects are extremely complex and fraught with uncertainty. Risk and uncertainty can potentially have damaging consequences for the construction projects. Hence, risk analysis and risk management has come to be a major feature of the project management in construction projects. Construction projects are unique, inherently complex, dynamic and risks emanate from multiple sources. The interests of individuals and organisations who are actively involved in a construction project may be positively or negatively affected depending upon the course which a project takes from concept to completion. Multiple stakeholders with varied experience and skills have different expectations and interests in the project which creates problems for smooth execution of the project. Risk management is a concept which many construction companies have never thought of, despite the fact that, the risks can be better controlled if they are identified in the first instance and a well-structured mitigation mechanism is in place. Risk management helps the key project participants namely the client, contractor/developer, consultant and supplier to meet their commitments and to minimise negative impacts on construction project performance in relation to cost, time and quality objectives. Success of a construction project is associated with three aspects of time, cost and quality outcomes.
Successful commissioning of any project, necessarily calls for sound planning on various fronts and getting the project executed in a competent manner. An organisation executing a project would have to reckon with the various risks to which the project may be exposed to and these have to be managed effectively. The construction industry, being vulnerable is potentially more prone to risks and uncertainties than any other industry. The process of taking a project from the conceptual stage to its final completion and putting into operation is quite complex and entails painstaking process at every stage. Construction industry is highly fragmented in that each of its participants—designers, constructors, planners, suppliers, etc. can be highly skilled in their own area and yet there is no clear perspective as to how all the players can come on the same platform for achieving the objectives.
Construction industry is also dependent on quality of its people rather than technology. The increasing technological complexity and more complex interdependencies and perpetual shortage of resources namely materials, equipment, technical/supervisory staff, finance, etc. calls for a comprehensive risk management framework which will insulate the risks of the participants to a great extent.
Given the nature of the construction sector, risk management is an extremely important process. It is most widely used in such of those projects where susceptibility to risks is very high and is characterised by planning, monitoring and controlling the risks in a more structured and formal manner. The most efficient method of identifying the risks is to study a project of similar size which was executed in the recent past which gives an insight into the failure/success of the project. In order to be sure that the project objectives are met, the portfolio of risks associated with all stakeholders should be considered across the project life cycle (PLC). In later stages, risk management when applied systemically helps to control those critical elements which can negatively impact project performance. Keeping track of identified threats will result in early warnings to the project manager if any of the objectives, time, cost or quality, are not being met. There are a plethora of risks which are to be identified in the construction industry and which can be faced in each construction project at any point of time regardless of its size and scope. Frequent change in scope is one of the major risks in any construction project. If revised scope or design is implemented, it can have effect in the form of additional resources of time and cost. Early project completion may be as troublesome as delays in a schedule. Completing too early which may be a result of insufficient planning or design problems can lead to a low quality of final product and increased overall cost. Thus it is important to keep a balance in the concept of time–cost-quality trade-off, which more widely is becoming an important issue for the construction sector. Risks may vary depending on the project scope, types and are to be treated accordingly.
Risk management process is shown in Figure 1.
Risk management process.
Risk identification, the first step in the risk management process is usually informal and is performed in various ways, depending on the organisation and the project team. Identification of risks relies mostly on past experience and study of similar executed projects. This being a preliminary stage, a combination of tools and techniques may be used to identify the risks in any project. Here are many methods that fit specific types of challenges and projects especially at identification stage. Risks and threats may be difficult to eliminate, but when they have been identified, it becomes easy to take actions and have control over them. Risk management will be more effective if the source of the risks have been identified and allocated before any problems occur. The main purpose of risk management is that the stakeholders should prepare for potential problems that can occur unexpectedly during the course of a project. Risk management will not only facilitate anticipating problems in advance, but also preparing oneself for the potential problems that may occur unexpectedly. Handling potential threats is not only a way to minimise the losses within a project, but also a way to transform risks into opportunities which can lead to economic and financial profitability. The purpose of identifying risks is to obtain a list of risks which has got the potential to have a cascading effect on the progress of project and different techniques are applied for managing/mitigating the same. In order to find all potential risks which might impact a specific project, different techniques are applied. The project team should use a method they are familiar with so that the exercise will be effective. Effective identification of risks is the first step to a successful risk management.
Parameter | Methodology |
---|---|
Documentation reviews | A structured review of project documentation, study of history of execution of similar projects and quality of plans as well as the consistency between those plans and project requirements/ assumptions would be an indicator of risks in the project |
Information gathering techniques |
|
Identification of risks: tools and techniques.
Tools and techniques for risk identification are presented in Table 4.
Various risks that confront a construction industry are not limited to and include financial, economical, political, legal environmental, technical, contractual, planning/scheduling, design, quality operational labour, stakeholder safety and security, logistics and construction.
Risk assessment is the second stage in the risk management process where collated data is analysed for potential risks. Risk assessment is described as short listing of risks starting from low impact highest impact on the project, out of all threats mentioned in the identification phase. Risk assessment consists of qualitative risk assessment and qualitative risk assessment.
This involves registration of identified risks in a formal manner. A risk register is used for formalising this process which is not limited to the following
Classification and reference
Description of the risk
Relationship of the risk to other risks
Potential impact
Likelihood of occurrence
Risk response/mitigation strategy
Allocation of risks to stakeholders.
Classification is an aid to identifying the source of risk. Examples are furnished below (Table 5).
Risk | Classification |
---|---|
Environmental | Site conditions, health and safety issues at site |
Contractual | Client, contractor, sub-contractor, etc. |
Design | Planning permission, preliminary and detailed design, etc. |
Classification of risk and its reference.
Referencing refers to unique reference number given for each of the identified risks.
This involves giving a brief description of the risk. The description must be unique in order to avoid confusion with similar risks in the risk management process.
In any project, it is extremely rare that any activity is independent of activities which occurs concurrently or consequentially and this will always be the case for risks also for successful implementation of risk management,
Impact of risk on a project is measured in terms of cost and quality. Since this assessment is done at an early stage of the project, information may not be available to accurately predict the impact of risk on the project. At this stage, the risk is classified suitably and accordingly high impact risks are to be given more fundamental consideration than that of medium/low/negligible risks by ranking the impact of risks on a scale of 1 (low) to 10 (high).
Based on intuition and experience, the likelihood of occurrence (P) of risks and its impact (I) is to be given on a suitable scale ex. 1–10 (1 refers to low probability and 10 refers to high probability). The risk factor for each of the identified risks is calculated by the formula RF = P + I – (P*I) (where the values of P and I are brought on a scale of 0–1 by dividing the values with 10).
This action is taken to reduce, eradicate or to avoid the identified risks. The most common among the risk mitigation methods are risk avoidance, risk transfer, risk reduction and risk sharing. Based on the competency in handling the risks, the identified risks are allocated to respective stakeholders who will be responsible for addressing those risks.
This risk assessment is normally taken for such of those risks which are classified are high/critical/unmanageable as per the qualitative risk assessment. The purpose of this assessment is to find the amount of contingency to be inserted in the estimate for the risks undergoing this assessment so that in case the risks occur, there would be sufficient budgeted amount to overcome the extra expenditure.
Quantitative methods need a lot of analysis to be performed. This analysis should be weighed against the effort and outcomes from the chosen method. Complex and larger projects require more in depth analysis as compared to projects which are small in size. The purpose of carrying out quantitative analysis is to estimate the impact of a risk in a project in terms of scope, time, cost and quality. The suitability of this analysis is more for medium and large projects as these projects have more complex risks as compared to smaller projects.
The detailed quantitative assessment of risk is the one which is identified as risk analysis. In undertaking quantitative assessment, the potential impact of risks in terms of time, cost and quality is quantified. While preparing the estimate, it is generally split into two distinct elements, namely (1) base estimate of those items which are known and a degree of certainty exists and (2) contingency allowance for all uncertain elements of a project. Historically, contingencies have been calculated on a rule of thumb basis varying from 5 to 10% on risk-free base estimate. By adopting risk management approach, contingencies are set up to reflect realistically the risks that are inherent in the project. When used correctly, contingency allowances ensure that expenditure against risks is controlled. The methods for quantitative risk assessment are described below.
The Monte Carlo method is based on statistics which are used in a simulation to assess the risks. This is a statistical technique whereby randomly generated data is used within predetermined parameters and produce realistic project outcomes. The overall project outcome is predicted by randomly simulating a combination of values for each risk and repeating the calculation a number of times and all outcomes are recorded. After completing the simulations required, the average is drawn from all of the outcomes, which will constitute the forecast for the risk. It is important to realise that parameters and appropriate distribution within which the random data is simulated is itself a series of subjective inputs. Accurate and realistic project outcomes will not be generated if inaccurate parameters are set. Different scenarios are generated by simulation are used for forecasting, estimations and risk analysis. Data from already executed projects is normally collected for simulation purpose. The data for variables is presented in terms of pessimistic, most likely and optimistic scenarios depending upon the risks encountered, i.e. pessimistic value means lot of risks and optimistic value means least risks. The result from this method is a probability of a risk to occur is often expressed as percentage. The most common way of performing the Monte Carlo simulation is to use the program Risk Simulator Palisade Software, where more efficient simulations can be performed.
This is a method used to demonstrate the variable impact on the whole caused by a change in one or more element or risk. It is used to test the robustness of choices made where rankings have been established, particularly when those rankings are considered to be marginal. It can identify the point where variation in one parameter will affect decision making. A typical method for carrying out sensitivity analysis is by use of a spider diagram which shows the areas in the project which are the most critical and sensitive The higher the level of uncertainty a specific risk has, the more sensitive it is concerning the objectives. In other words, the risk events which are the most critical to the project are the most sensitive and appropriate action needs to be taken (Heldman, 2005). Disadvantage with this analysis is that the variables are considered separately, which means that there is no connection between them (Perry, 1986 and Smith et al.. 2006). The method requires a project model in order to be analysed with computer software. According to Smith et al. (2006), the project stands to be benefited if the analysis is carried out in the initial phases of a project in order to focus on critical areas during the execution of the project.
Decision tree analysis is commonly used when there is sequence of interrelated possible courses of action and future outcomes in terms of time and cost. This method of analysis is commonly used when certain risks have an exceptionally high impact on the two main project objectives, i.e. time and cost. Where probabilities and values of potential outcomes are known or can be estimated, they are used for quantification to provide a more informed basis for decision making. Each decision process expected value (EV) which forms the basis for decision making process. A sample problem on decision tree is given in Table 6.
Method | Design time (months) | Construction period in months and probabilities | Total time (construction period + design time) (months) |
---|---|---|---|
Construction management | 2 | 15 (0.6) = 9 18(0.4) = 7.2 Total 16.2 months | 18.2 |
Design and construct | 3 | 12(0.3) = 3.6 Total = 13.8 months 14(0.5) = 7 16(0.2) = 3.2 | 16.8 |
Traditional method | 8 | 10(0.3) = 3 12(0.7) = 8.4 Total 11.4 months | 19.4 |
Problem on decision tree.
This can be depicted in the form of decision trees and the expected value (EV) in terms of time for each of the three scenarios is furnished. The least of this i.e. construction management will be preferred since it consumes less time.
Multiple estimating using risk analysis (MERA) attempts to provide a range of estimates. These are presented as risk free base estimate, average risk estimate (ARE) and maximum likely risk estimate (MLRE). ARE is the sum of risk free base estimate and average risk allowance and MLRE is the sum of ARE and maximum risk allowance.
MERA attempts to finds a level i.e. the estimate that has a 50% chance of being successful. This is known as average risk estimate (ARE) which is found out by multiplying the average allowance with average probability of occurrence. Maximum risk allowance is found out by multiplying the maximum allowance with maximum probability of occurrence of that risk. This is added to ARE to get MLRE which is the estimate that has 90% chance of not being exceeded.
The output of quantitative risk assessment is presented in Table 7.
Parameter | Outputs |
---|---|
Probabilistic Analysis of project | Estimates are made of potential project schedule and cost outcomes listing the possible completion dates and costs with their confidence levels. This output is described as cumulative distribution and also risk tolerances for permitting quantification of cost and time contingency reserves. Contingency reserves bring the risk of overshooting stated project objectives to acceptable levels to the organisation |
Prioritised list of quantified risks | This list includes risks that pose the greatest threat or present the greatest opportunity in a project. These risks also have the greatest impact on cost contingency |
Trends in quantitative risk analysis results | As the risk analysis is repeated, a trend becomes apparent that leads to conclusions affecting risk responses, Historical information on project’s schedule, cost, quality and performance reflects new insights gained through quantitative process. This takes the form of quantitative risk analysis report. |
Quantitative risk assessment: outputs.
The risk response will be in the form of mitigation by adopting necessary strategies in respect of positive and negative risks which is furnished below (Tables 8–10).
Risk mitigation strategy | Description |
---|---|
Risk avoidance | Risk avoidance involves changing the project management plan to eliminate the threat entirely. The project manager may isolate the project objectives that are in jeopardy. Examples: (a) Extending the schedule of an activity; (b) Changing the strategy or reducing the scope of work; (c) Changes in clauses of contract regarding abnormal price rise of any material or dealing with extra quantum of work. |
Risk transfer | Risk transfer requires shifting some or all of the negative impact of a threat along with ownership of the response to a third party. Examples are
|
Risk reduction | Risk reduction implies reduction in the probability and consequence of an adverse risk event to be within acceptable threshold limits. Conducting detailed tests or choosing a more stable supplier are some examples. Risk reduction is adopted where the resultant increase in costs is less than the potential loss that could be caused by the risk being mitigated. Examples are:
|
Risk acceptance | This strategy is adopted when it is not possible to eliminate all risks from a project. This strategy indicated that the project team had decided not to change the project management plan or is unable to identify any other suitable response strategy. This requires no action except to document the strategy leaving the project team to deal with risks as they occur |
Strategies for mitigating negative risks.
Risk mitigation strategy | Description |
---|---|
Exploit | This strategy is selected for risks with positive impacts where the organisation wishes to ensure that the opportunity is realised. This strategy seeks to eliminate the uncertainty associated with a particular risk by ensuring that the opportunity is exploited. Examples are assigning the most talented resources of the organisation to the project to reduce the time for completion or providing at a lower cost than originally planned |
Share | Sharing a positive risk involves allocating some or all of the ownership of the opportunity to a third party capable of capturing the opportunity for the benefit of the project. Risk sharing, joint ventures, etc. are examples of this strategy |
Enhance | This strategy is used to enhance the positive impact of an opportunity. Identifying and maximising key drivers of risks may increase their probability of occurrence. Examples are adding more resources to an activity for completing it before scheduled time |
Accept | Accepting an opportunity means willing to take advantage if it comes along, but not pursuing it actively. |
Contingent response strategies | Some responses are designed for implementation only if certain events occur. It is appropriate for the project team to prepare a contingency response plan that will be executed under certain predefined conditions if there will be sufficient warning to implement the plan |
Expert judgement | Expert judgement is from knowledgeable individuals pertaining to the actions to be taken on a specific and a defined risk. |
Risk mitigation strategies for positive risks/opportunities.
Source: Project Risk Management, Van Well Stam et al. 2008.
Sl. No | Contents |
---|---|
1 | Identified risk. Their descriptions, areas of project affected, their causes and how they affect project objectives |
2 | Risk owners and assigned responsibilities |
3 | Prioritised list of project risks based on the outputs from quantitative analysis reports |
4 | Agreed upon response strategies and specific actions taken to implement the strategy |
5 | Triggers, symptoms and warning signs of risks occurrence |
6 | Fallback plans as a reaction to a risk that has occurred and primary response proved to be inadequate |
7 | Contingency reserves to be calculated based on quantitative risk analysis of the project and the threshold risk of the organisation. |
Contents of risk response: outputs.
Inputs to monitoring and controlling of risks are presented in Table 11.
Tools and Techniques for monitoring and controlling risks are furnished in Table 12.
Parameter | Inputs |
---|---|
Risk register | The key inputs to risk register includes identified risks and owners of risk, agreed upon risk responses, specific actions to be implemented, symptoms/warning signs of any risk, residual/secondary risks, list of low priority risks and contingency measures in terms of time/cost |
Risk management plan | The risk management plan should contain risk tolerances, assignment of manpower including bearer of risk, time and other resources to project risk management |
Work performance information | Work performance information related to various performance results is to be quantified in terms of deliverable status, schedule progress and costs incurred. |
Performance reports | Performance reports will be analysed for variance analysis, earned value data and forecasting the likely date of completion of project |
Parameter | Explanation |
---|---|
Risk reassessment | Monitoring and controlling of risks will result in identification of new risks, reassessment of current risks and closing of risks that are not a threat to project. Project risk assessment is to be performed regularly. The frequency and depth of assessment depends on how the project progresses relative to the objectives. |
Risk audits | The purpose of risk audits is to examine and document the effectiveness of risk responses in dealing with identified risks and their root causes as well as effectiveness of the risk management process meetings. A separate risk audit meeting may be held or it may be included in routine project review meetings. |
Earned value analysis | Variance analysis is done by comparing the planned results with actual. Trends in execution of a project are reviewed using performance information and based on earned value analysis, deviation from cost and schedule targets is determined which may indicate potential impact of threat/opportunities. |
Technical performance measurement | This measures technical accomplishments during project execution and will help in forecasting degree of success in achieving the project scope and it may expose the degree of technical risk faced by the project |
Reserve analysis | This compares the amount of contingency reserves available at any time to the amount of risk remaining in the project to determine whether the reserves are adequate |
Status meetings | Project risk management should be an agenda item at all status review meetings. The amount of time for any item will depend on risks that have been identified, their priority and difficulty of response. Frequent discussions about risk make it more likely that concerned stakeholders will identify risks and opportunities. |
To maximise the efficiency of risk management, the risk management process should be continuously developed during the entire project.
The benefits from risk management finally go to the stakeholders involved. A clear understanding and awareness of potential risks in the project contributes to better management of risks by suitable mitigation techniques. Another benefit of working with risk management is increased level of control over the whole project and more efficient problem solving processes which can be supported on a more genuine basis
Risk management when conducted effectively, reduce sudden surprises. The advantage with risk management is that the stakeholders are aware as to the risk that they have to bear among all the risks that have been identified in a project and can prepare themselves accordingly, should any eventuality occur. No doubt, this formal exercise may translate into extra cost for an activity, but if taken in holistic manner, the benefits will far outweigh the costs. This has another advantage in that there is no passing of buck as risks are either shared/retained or transferred depending upon the ability of the stakeholder to handle the risk. The three approaches to risk management are normally risk natural firm which does not invest much in risk management but is still aware of important risk, risk averse firm where no investments are made and the last one is risk seeker wherein the organisation is prepared to face all risks and is often called gambler. The outcome of the objectives of project naturally depends upon the path adopted by the firms in their approach to risk management.
The fact that there are manifold risks which can be identified in any construction project is explained by their size and complexity. Bigger the project is, the larger the number of potential risks that may be faced.
Occurrence of risk is stimulated by several factors. Most often the risks faced in any project are financial, environmental (surrounding location of project and overall regulations), time, design and quality. The technology used for construction and the internal environment also contributes to risk which can have substantial bearing on the outcome of a project.
Risks are directly proportional to complexity of a project. Bigger and more complex a project is, the more resources are required to complete it. In spite of identifying all potential risks, there might be more potential threats. Therefore, the project team should not solely focus on management of those identified risks but also be alert for any new potential risks which may arise during execution.
Risk management is a tool for managing risks in a project and a project manager should be prepared for managing uncertainties not included in a risk management plan.
Effective management of risky project demands rapid and realistic predictions of alternative courses of action and positive decision making and requires flexible attitudes and procedures.
Perception of severity and frequency of occurrence of risk is to be done in tandem between the stakeholders. This will eliminate lot of unnecessary correspondence as well as misunderstanding and friction between the stakeholders
Insurance is just one aspect of risk mitigation and it cannot absorb all the risks. Insurance is project specific and it should be taken as per the needs of client/contractor. Other ways of risk mitigation needs to be explored.
Adoption of good project management practices like proper planning and implementation, willingness of stake holders to share the risks in the project is essential for success of a project
Executing a complex project requires meticulous planning, i.e. planning to the smallest details, and this can be achieved through concerted dedication from the concerned stakeholders.
Risks are to be thoroughly studied and understood before bidding for the project.
Special care should be taken regarding the seasonal variation of labourers, so that the construction activities does not get delayed due to shortfall in manpower resources during execution, which can have adverse effects on cost and time
Proper risk allocation techniques should be framed between the stakeholders so that in the event of occurrence of a risk, this will eliminate doubts as to which stakeholder should address the risk
Given its complexity, risk management is a very important process in construction projects. It is most widely used in those projects which exhibits high level of uncertainty. Formal planning, assessment and monitoring/control process characterises risk management in such projects.
Risk management procedures should be initiated in the early stages of the project where planning and contracting of work, together with the preliminary capital budget are being chalked out. In later stages, Risk management applied systemically, helps to control those critical elements which can have negative impact on project performance.
Keeping track of identified threats, will result in early warnings to the project manager if any of the objectives, time, cost or quality, is being met or not.
Risks in complex construction projects can be mitigated by entering into various agreements like execution, operation/maintenance, etc.
Proper risk strategy formulation and research is necessary based on real life experiences so that identification of potential risks and providing solutions can produce effective and efficient risk strategies to overcome impacts of risk events.
Risk identification is the first step in the risk management process. It means that the identification of risks which is informal relies mostly on past experience of similar executed projects and that of advice from experts. There are a good number of methods for identifying the risks in a project and a combination of methods may be used for identification of risks in a project.
Handling potential threats is not only a way to minimise losses within the project, but also a way to transform risks into opportunities, which can lead to economical profitability and finally, .it is suggested that if risks are given due care at all stages of the project, stakeholders will be showered with manifold benefits subsequent to commissioning of project
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