\\n\\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\\n\\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"Highly Cited",originalUrl:"/media/original/117"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'IntechOpen is proud to announce that 191 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nThroughout the years, the list has named a total of 261 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\nReleased this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"10774",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Model Organisms in Plant Genetics",title:"Model Organisms in Plant Genetics",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Model plants are required for research when targeted plant species are difficult to study or when research material is unavailable. Importantly, knowledge gained from model plants can be generally translated to other related plant species because many key cellular and molecular processes are conserved and regulated by ‘blueprint’ genes inherited from a common ancestor. Model Organisms in Plant Genetics addresses characteristics of model plants such as Arabidopsis, moss, soybean, maize, and cotton, highlighting their advantages and limitations as well as their importance in studies of plant development, plant genome polyploidization, adaptive selection, evolution, and domestication, as well as their importance in crop improvement.",isbn:"978-1-83969-750-0",printIsbn:"978-1-83969-749-4",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83969-751-7",doi:null,price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"model-organisms-in-plant-genetics",numberOfPages:112,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"f6624b58571ac10c9b636c5d85ec5e54",bookSignature:"Ibrokhim Y. Abdurakhmonov",publishedDate:"June 23rd 2022",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10774.jpg",numberOfDownloads:628,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:2,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:3,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:null,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:5,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"March 26th 2021",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"May 27th 2021",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"July 26th 2021",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"October 14th 2021",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"December 13th 2021",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"213344",title:"Prof.",name:"Ibrokhim Y.",middleName:null,surname:"Abdurakhmonov",slug:"ibrokhim-y.-abdurakhmonov",fullName:"Ibrokhim Y. Abdurakhmonov",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/213344/images/system/213344.jpg",biography:'Ibrokhim Y. Abdurakhmonov received a BS in Biotechnology from the National University, California, in 1997, an MS in Plant Breeding from Texas A&M University in 2001, and a Ph.D. in Molecular Genetics, DSc in Genetics, and a full professorship in Molecular Genetics and Molecular Biotechnology from the Academy of Sciences of Uzbekistan in 2002, 2009, and 2011, respectively. He founded the Center of Genomics and Bioinformatics of Uzbekistan in 2012. He received the 2010 prize from The World Academy of Sciences (TWAS) and \\"ICAC Cotton Researcher of the Year 2013\\" for his outstanding contribution to cotton genomics and biotechnology. He was elected as a fellow to TWAS in 2014 and as a member of the Academy of Sciences of Uzbekistan in 2017. In the same year, he was appointed Minister of Innovative Development of Uzbekistan.',institutionString:"Academy of Sciences of Uzbekistan",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"13",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"13",institution:null}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"311",title:"Plant Genetics",slug:"agronomy-plant-genetics"}],chapters:[{id:"81301",title:"Introductory Chapter: Model Plants for Discovering the Key Biological Processes in Plant Research",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103759",slug:"introductory-chapter-model-plants-for-discovering-the-key-biological-processes-in-plant-research",totalDownloads:1,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Ibrokhim Y. Abdurakhmonov",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/81301",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/81301",authors:[{id:"213344",title:"Prof.",name:"Ibrokhim Y.",surname:"Abdurakhmonov",slug:"ibrokhim-y.-abdurakhmonov",fullName:"Ibrokhim Y. Abdurakhmonov"}],corrections:null},{id:"78295",title:"Overview of Arabidopsis as a Genetics Model System and Its Limitation, Leading to the Development of Emerging Plant Model Systems",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99818",slug:"overview-of-em-arabidopsis-em-as-a-genetics-model-system-and-its-limitation-leading-to-the-developme",totalDownloads:202,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Model plant systems make it easier to perform experiments with them. They help to understand and expand our knowledge about the genetic basis behind different plant process. Also, it is easier to design and perform genetic and genomic experiments using a model plant system. A. thaliana was initially chosen as the model plant system, and remains to this date, one of the most widely studied plant. With the advent of better molecular biology and sequencing tools and to understand the genetic basis for the unique processes in different plant species, there is emergence of several new model systems.",signatures:"Madhabendra Mohon Kar and Ayan Raichaudhuri",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/78295",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/78295",authors:[{id:"414526",title:"Dr.",name:"Ayan",surname:"Raichaudhuri",slug:"ayan-raichaudhuri",fullName:"Ayan Raichaudhuri"},{id:"428285",title:"Mr.",name:"Madhabendra Mohon",surname:"Kar",slug:"madhabendra-mohon-kar",fullName:"Madhabendra Mohon Kar"}],corrections:null},{id:"79173",title:"Mosses: Accessible Systems for Plant Development Studies",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100535",slug:"mosses-accessible-systems-for-plant-development-studies",totalDownloads:140,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Mosses are a cosmopolitan group of land plants, sister to vascular plants, with a high potential for molecular and cell biological research. The species Physcomitrium patens has helped gaining better understanding of the biological processes of the plant cell, and it has become a central system to understand water-to-land plant transition through 2D-to-3D growth transition, regulation of asymmetric cell division, shoot apical cell establishment and maintenance, phyllotaxis and regeneration. P. patens was the first fully sequenced moss in 2008, with the latest annotated release in 2018. It has been shown that many gene functions and networks are conserved in mosses when compared to angiosperms. Importantly, this model organism has a simplified and accessible body structure that facilitates close tracking in time and space with the support of live cell imaging set-ups and multiple reporter lines. This has become possible thanks to its fully established molecular toolkit, with highly efficient PEG-assisted, CRISPR/Cas9 and RNAi transformation and silencing protocols, among others. Here we provide examples on how mosses exhibit advantages over vascular plants to study several processes and their future potential to answer some other outstanding questions in plant cell biology.",signatures:"Jordi Floriach-Clark, Han Tang and Viola Willemsen",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/79173",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/79173",authors:[{id:"420613",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Viola",surname:"Willemsen",slug:"viola-willemsen",fullName:"Viola Willemsen"},{id:"420615",title:"Dr.",name:"Jordi",surname:"Floriach-Clark",slug:"jordi-floriach-clark",fullName:"Jordi Floriach-Clark"},{id:"420616",title:"Dr.",name:"Han",surname:"Tang",slug:"han-tang",fullName:"Han Tang"}],corrections:null},{id:"81949",title:"Maize (Zea mays L.) as a Model System for Plant Genetic, Genomic, and Applied Research",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104658",slug:"maize-em-zea-mays-em-l-as-a-model-system-for-plant-genetic-genomic-and-applied-research",totalDownloads:6,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Maize leads the world’s cereals after wheat and rice in terms of cultivated area, because of its economic importance for the production of both food purposes and raw materials for industry. The maize genus Zea L. belonging to the family of cereals (Poaceae or Graminaceae) includes six species. However, all cultivated maize belongs specifically to Zea mays L. subsp. mays (2n = 2× = 20) is the only cultivated species of the genus Zea L., and the remaining species of this genus are mostly wild herbaceous plants. In addition to meeting the nutritional needs of the world’s population, Zea mays L. is one of the classic model objects of genetic and physiological research, as well as in the field of breeding not only cereals but also other important agricultural plants. Especially, this model object has been used in genetic mapping of loci of quantitative traits and genes associated with economically valuable traits, such as yield, resistance to diseases and pests, grain quality, etc. in cereal crops.",signatures:"Fakhriddin N. Kushanov, Ozod S. Turaev, Oybek A. Muhammadiyev, Ramziddin F. Umarov, Nargiza M. Rakhimova and Noilabonu N. Mamadaliyeva",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/81949",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/81949",authors:[{id:"292067",title:"D.Sc.",name:"Fakhriddin N.",surname:"Kushanov",slug:"fakhriddin-n.-kushanov",fullName:"Fakhriddin N. Kushanov"},{id:"302522",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Ozod",surname:"Turaev",slug:"ozod-turaev",fullName:"Ozod Turaev"},{id:"459772",title:"MSc.",name:"Oybek A.",surname:"Muhammadiyev",slug:"oybek-a.-muhammadiyev",fullName:"Oybek A. Muhammadiyev"},{id:"459841",title:"MSc.",name:"Nargiza M.",surname:"Rakhimova",slug:"nargiza-m.-rakhimova",fullName:"Nargiza M. Rakhimova"},{id:"459842",title:"MSc.",name:"Ramziddin F.",surname:"Umarov",slug:"ramziddin-f.-umarov",fullName:"Ramziddin F. Umarov"},{id:"459843",title:"MSc.",name:"Noilabonu N.",surname:"Mamadaliyeva",slug:"noilabonu-n.-mamadaliyeva",fullName:"Noilabonu N. Mamadaliyeva"}],corrections:null},{id:"77917",title:"Cotton as a Model for Polyploidy and Fiber Development Study",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99568",slug:"cotton-as-a-model-for-polyploidy-and-fiber-development-study",totalDownloads:151,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Cotton is one of the most important crops in the world. The Gossypium genus is represented by 50 species, divided into two levels of ploidy: diploid (2n = 26) and tetraploid (2n = 52). This diversity of Gossypium species provides an ideal model for studying the evolution and domestication of polyploids. In this regard, studies of the origin and evolution of polyploid cotton species are crucial for understanding the ways and mechanisms of gene and genome evolution. In addition, studies of polyploidization of the cotton genome will allow to more accurately determine the localization of QTLs that determine fiber quality. In addition, due to the fact that cotton fibers are single trichomes originating from epidermal cells, they are one of the most favorable model systems for studying the molecular mechanisms of regulation of cell and cell wall elongation, as well as cellulose biosynthesis.",signatures:"Venera S. Kamburova, Ilkhom B. Salakhutdinov, Shukhrat E. Shermatov, Zabardast T. Buriev and Ibrokhim Y. Abdurakhmonov",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/77917",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/77917",authors:[{id:"213344",title:"Prof.",name:"Ibrokhim Y.",surname:"Abdurakhmonov",slug:"ibrokhim-y.-abdurakhmonov",fullName:"Ibrokhim Y. Abdurakhmonov"},{id:"187106",title:"Dr.",name:"Zabardast T.",surname:"Buriev",slug:"zabardast-t.-buriev",fullName:"Zabardast T. Buriev"},{id:"213348",title:"Dr.",name:"Shukhrat E.",surname:"Shermatov",slug:"shukhrat-e.-shermatov",fullName:"Shukhrat E. Shermatov"},{id:"328107",title:"Dr.",name:"Ilkhom B.",surname:"Salakhutdinov",slug:"ilkhom-b.-salakhutdinov",fullName:"Ilkhom B. Salakhutdinov"},{id:"328140",title:"Dr.",name:"Venera S.",surname:"Kamburova",slug:"venera-s.-kamburova",fullName:"Venera S. Kamburova"}],corrections:null},{id:"78282",title:"Soybean as a Model Crop to Study Plant Oil Genes: Mutations in FAD2 Gene Family",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99752",slug:"soybean-as-a-model-crop-to-study-plant-oil-genes-mutations-in-fad2-gene-family",totalDownloads:129,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Plants have numerous fatty acid desaturase (FAD) enzymes regulating the unsaturation of fatty acids, which are encoded by a FAD gene family. The FAD2 genes belong to such family and play a vital role in converting monounsaturated oleic acid to polyunsaturated linoleic acid. Oleic acid has the health benefits for humans, such as reduction in cholesterol level, antioxidation property, and industrial benefits like longer shelf life. The development of genotypes with high oleic acid content in seeds has become one of the primary goals in breeding oilseed plants. The identification and characterization of the FAD2 genes in plants have been an important step to better manipulate gene expression to improve the seed oil quality. The induction of mutations in FAD2 genes to reduce FAD2 enzyme activity has been an integral approach to generate genotypes with high oleic acid. This chapter will describe the FAD2 gene family in the model organism soybean and the correction of mutations in FAD2 genes with the increase of oleic acid content. Leveraging advanced research of FAD2 gene family in soybean promotes the study of FAD2 genes in other legume species, including peanut. The future perspectives and challenges associated with mutations in FAD2 genes will be discussed.",signatures:"Sy M. Traore and Guohao He",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/78282",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/78282",authors:[{id:"420094",title:"Prof.",name:"Guohao",surname:"He",slug:"guohao-he",fullName:"Guohao He"},{id:"428855",title:"Dr.",name:"Sy M.",surname:"Traore",slug:"sy-m.-traore",fullName:"Sy M. Traore"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"880",title:"Plant Breeding",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"00fb30196097697f0e1211ce27ba426d",slug:"plant-breeding",bookSignature:"Ibrokhim Y. Abdurakhmonov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/880.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"213344",title:"Prof.",name:"Ibrokhim Y.",surname:"Abdurakhmonov",slug:"ibrokhim-y.-abdurakhmonov",fullName:"Ibrokhim Y. 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These changes have implications on the management of wildlife resources. Managing Wildlife in a Changing World draws experiences from different parts of the world on status, challenges, and efforts of reversing the current negative trends on wildlife habitats and species in the face of these changes. This book is useful for academicians, researchers, policy makers, conservation practitioners, students, and other interested readers.",isbn:"978-1-83880-976-8",printIsbn:"978-1-83880-975-1",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83880-977-5",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.81141",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"managing-wildlife-in-a-changing-world",numberOfPages:154,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"a27827009edc70af81e12c10aa3e51dd",bookSignature:"Jafari R. 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Although primarily associated with teeth, the field of dentistry is not limited to teeth but includes other aspects of the craniofacial complex including the temporomandibular joint (TMJ) and other supporting, muscular, lymphatic, nervous, vascular, and anatomical structures.
Virtually, every phenomenon in nature; whether biological, geological or mechanical, can be described with the aid of law of physics, in terms of algebraic, differential or integral equations relating various quantities of interest. Finite Element Analysis (FEA) or Finite Element Method (FEM) is a computer-based numerical method to analyze the structure based on the principle of dividing a structure into a finite number of small elements that are connected with each other at the corner points called nodes. For each element, its mechanical behaviour can be written as the function of displacement of the nodes. These nodes when subjected to certain loading conditions results in behaviour of the model similar to the structure it represents. When a computer analysis is performed on this, a system of simultaneous equations can be solved to relate all forces and displacement of the nodes. From this, stress and strain can be established in each element and the whole structure can be evaluated [1].
There were many articles published before on FEA and their uses, this chapter mainly focus on the brief application of FEA in dentistry, apart from the historical perspective, planning of analysis, workflow of FE study, merits, shortcomings, and future of FEA.
The first researcher who developed this technique was Richard Courant, a mathematician with the main goal of minimizing the calculative procedures in gaining absolute solution to bio-mechanical system in early 1940’s. Turner et al
In this stage, the material properties are assigned (Figure 1) [1, 2].
Planning of analysis.
It is specifying the name of the problem. This is optional but very useful, especially if a number of design iterations to be completed on the same base model.
In this, the type of analysis that is going to be used is done. Eg: structural, fluid, thermal or electromagnetic etc.
The model is drawn in 1-D (dimensional), 2-D, or 3-D space in the appropriate units (M, mm, inch etc.).
This may be 1-D, 2-D, or 3-D.
Mesh generation is the process of dividing the analysis continuum into a number of discrete parts or finite elements. The finer the mesh, the better is the result but longer the analysis time.
Material properties (Young’s modulus, Poisson’s ratio, density and if applicable coefficient of expansion, friction, thermal conductivity, damping effect, specific heat etc.) have to be defined in this step. In addition, element properties may need to be set.
Usually, some type of load is applied to the analysis model. The loading may be in the form of a point load, a pressure or a displacement in a stress (displacement) analysis. The loads may be applied to a point, an edge, a surface or even a complete body.
When applying a load to the model, in order to stop accelerating infinitely through the computer’s virtual ether, at least one constraint or boundary condition must be applied. A boundary condition may be specified to act in all directions - axes (x, y, z) or in certain directions only. They can be placed on nodes, key points, areas or on lines.
This part is fully automatic and it can be logically divided into three main parts: the pre-solver, the mathematical engine and the post-solver. The pre-solver reads the model created by the pre-processor and formulates the mathematical representation of the model. The results are returned to the solver and the post-solver is used to calculate strains, stresses, etc., for each node within the component or continuum.
Here the results of the analysis are read and interpreted. They can be presented in the form of a contour plot, a table, deformed shape of the component or the mode shapes and natural frequencies if frequency analysis is involved. Most post-processors provide an animation service, which produces an animation and brings the model to life. All post-processors now include the calculation of stress and strains in any of the x, y or z directions or indeed in a direction at an angle to the co-ordinate axes. The principal stresses and strains may also be plotted or if required the yield stresses and strains according to the main theories of failure.
In brief, the FE is a mathematical method for solving differential equations. It has the ability to solve complex problems that can be represented in differential equation form that occur naturally, in virtually all fields of the physical sciences. Accurate modeling is essential to ensure the relevance of the result for the corresponding FEA. The results solely depend on the model that has been created. Workflow of the entire finite element study is shown in Figure 2.
Workflow of FE analysis.
Oral and maxillofacial radiology is the specialty of dentistry concerned with performance and interpretation of diagnostic imaging used in examining the dental, craniofacial, and adjacent structures. Use of FEA in this specialty helps for proper diagnosis and possibility of knowing iatrogenic effects.
Szücs et al
Oenning et al
Kihara et al
Restorative dentistry refers to the diagnosis and integrated management of diseases of the teeth and their supporting structures and rehabilitation of the dentition for functional and esthetic requirements of an individual. Restorative dentistry. It is a broader term encompasses the dental specialties of endodontics, prosthodontics, and periodontics.
Many newer materials have been developed owing to the increasing interest in the field of esthetic dental restorations. In order to minimize the stress concentration of the restorative materials and to decrease the incidence of restorative failure; physical properties like modulus of elasticity should be near or equal to that of the natural dental tissue. Due to the lack of proper understanding on the biomechanical principles of the materials involved in restorative procedure, lead too many detrimental effects causing a restorative failure. Therefore, in order to know the behaviour of materials and dental tissue, biomechanical studies are very crucial [6, 7].
Goel et al
Rees in 2002 examined the effect of varying position of an occlusal load on the stress contour in the cervical region of a lower second premolar using a 2-D plane strain FEM. A 500 N load was applied vertically to either of the cusp tips or in various positions along the cuspal inclines. He found that, loads applied to the inner aspects of the buccal or the lingual cuspal inclines produced maximum principal stress values of up to 358 MPa, which is exceeding the known failure stresses for enamel [9].
Ausiello et al
Ausiello et al
Magne et al., in 2006 described a rapid method of generating FE models of dental structures and restorations. They evaluated five models: natural tooth, mesial-occlusal (MO), and mesial-occlusal-distal (MOD) cavities, MO, and MOD endodontic access preparations and found a progressive loss of cuspal stiffness in MO to MOD to endodontic access, as there is loss of tooth structure with these type of restorations. The natural tooth and the tooth with the MOD ceramic inlay retained 100% cuspal stiffness [7].
Ichim et al., in 2007 investigated the influence of the elastic modulus (
Asmussen et al., in 2008 analyzed the stresses generated in tooth and restoration by occlusal loading of Class-I and Class-II restorations restored with resin composite; suggested that the occlusal restorations of resin composite should have a high modulus of elasticity in order to reduce the risk of marginal deterioration [12].
Coelho et al
Magne and Oganesyan in 2009 measured cuspal flexure of intact and restored maxillary premolars with MOD porcelain, and composite-inlay restorations and occlusal contacts (in enamel, at restoration margin, or in restorative material). They found a relatively small cuspal deformation in all the models and an increased cusp-stabilizing effect of ceramic inlays compared with composite ones [9].
Composites are the resin restorative materials developed to overcome the disadvantages of amalgam restorations, which are unaesthetic and toxic. Composites are filled resins, exhibit high compressive strength, abrasion resistance, ease of application, and high translucency. FEA has been in use to analyze stresses generated in teeth and restorations. It is a proven useful tool in understanding biomechanics of tooth and the biomimetic approach in restorative dentistry [14].
Lee et al
Choi et al
Jongsma et al
Dental ceramics are in-organic, non-metallic, and brittle restorative materials producing dental prosthesis that are used to replace missing or damaged dental structures which has high compressive strength and low tensile strength. FEM provides a mathematic analysis to predict strength values without the potential for errors in dental ceramics [18].
Tensile stresses tend to be more critical than compressive stresses for ceramic materials. The strength of ceramic restorations is significantly affected by the presence of flaws or other microscopic defects. Tensile stress concentration at cementation surface of the ceramic layer suggested as the predominant factor controlling ceramic failure [6].
Belli et al. in 2005 evaluated the effect of hybrid layer on distribution and amount of stress formed under occlusal loading in a premolar tooth restored with composite or ceramic inlay. They concluded that the hybrid layer has an effect on stress distribution under loading in restored premolar tooth model with composite or ceramic inlay [19].
Rezaei et al
Thompson et al
Matson et al
Endodontology/Endodontics is the branch of dental sciences concerned with the form, function, health, injuries to and the diseases of the dental pulp and periradicular region, and their relationship with systemic health and well-being. Endodontic therapy involves either root canal filling techniques by conventional methods; or endodontic surgery with the use of biocompatible restorative materials, instruments, and techniques performed. The objective of endodontic instrumentation is to produce a tapered continuous preparation that should preserve the anatomy of root canal and maintain a good apical seal and foramen as small as possible, without any deviation from the original canal curvature [23].
During canal instrumentation, pressure is generated against the dentinal walls that may lead to inappropriate canal preparation or microcracks. These microcracks may lead to vertical fracture - one of the cause for tooth loss. During instrumentation, nickel-titanium (NiTi) are the commonly used for shaping the root canal. So, in order to perform well and avoid instrument breakage inside the canal, the material used and the technique performed should be followed meticulously. FEA helps to analyze and predict the treatment outcome [24].
Satappan et al
Hong et al
Subramaniam et al
Kim et al
Lee et al
Belli et al
A considerable amount of tooth structure lost due to caries, endodontic therapy, and placement of previous restorations will compromise the tooth structure to resume its full function to serve satisfactorily. The type of the tooth restoring and the amount of remaining coronal tooth structure are the two factors that influence the choice of technique. The second factor is probably the key important indicator in determining the prognosis a tooth that is restored. If a substantial amount of coronal structure is missing, a cast post and core is indicated [30].
The method of restoring a structurally weakened tooth is post and core system, which is most common and widely used. This system can be categorized into two; custom cast metal posts and cores that are single piece, and a two component design comprising a prefabricated post to which other core materials is subsequently adapted. While fabricating a custom post and core, the difference in the elastic modulus of dentine and post material may be a source for root structure because of stress and debonding of posts due to stress contraction of the cement. Design of the post also effects the stress distribution, which was found as the most common mode of failure. Ferrule preparation creates a positive effect in reducing the stress concentration in an endodontically treated tooth. FEM can be used in various types of materials like carbon, metal, glass fiber, and zirconia ceramic and different configurations of dowel like smooth and serrated on the stress distribution of the teeth [6, 7].
Studies have showed that the increase in elastic modulus of post material cause decrease in the stress in dentin. However, Boschian et al., in 2006 have reported that higher the elastic modulus of post material than dentin can cause a dangerous, non-homogenous stress in root dentin. Also Silva et al., in 2009 reported that the stress distribution is more related to endodontically treated teeth restored with a post than the post’s external configuration. Therefore, whenever the clinician is planning to use a post he has to choose a post material, which has the stiffness similar to dentin. They evaluated the stress distribution in maxillary central incisor, which is endodontically treated and restored with fiberglass and metallic prefabricated posts [7].
Necchi et al
The use of glass fiber dowels showed less stress than the metal, carbon, and ceramic posts which few researchers found. However, there are some differences in the material properties, boundaries and loading conditions. A study by Eraslan et al., in 2009 showed a reduction in VM stress in an endodontically treated tooth restored with all-ceramic post and core than with zirconium oxide ceramic post and fiber post at the dentin wall and within the post [32].
In a study by Zhou et al
For fixation of post and core to the remaining tooth structure cements like zinc-phosphate, glass ionomer, resin-modified glass ionomer, and resin cement are used. The difference in elastic modulus of these cements, post materials and dentin results in stress concentration under function. In 2010, Soares et al., found zinc-phosphate and conventional glass ionomer cement producing high stress concentrations at dentin-cement interface. They also demonstrated that resin cement recorded higher fracture resistance values than other cements, which was in accordance with the study done by Suzuki et al., in 2008 [7].
A systematic review in 2010 by Al-Omiri et al
Al-Omiri et al
The branch of dentistry pertaining to the restoration and maintenance of oral function, comfort, appearance, and health of the patient by the restoration of natural teeth and/or the replacement of missing teeth and craniofacial tissues with artificial substitutes. FEA helps in studying the stress patterns and their distribution between the tooth and the material used in restoring the natural or missing tooth/teeth structure and predicting the favorable outcome with least chance of failure.
Zarone et al
FEA has been extensively used in implant dentistry to predict the biomechanical behaviour of various dental implant designs, as well as the effect of clinical factors for predicting the clinical success. Stress patterns in implant components and surrounding bone are well studied. The achievement of any FE study depends on the accuracy of simulating structures used. They are the material properties of implant and bone, surface characteristics and geometry of the implant and its components, loading method and support conditions, and the biomechanical behaviour of implant-bone interface. The prime difficulty in simulating the living tissues and the responses to the applied load can be successfully achieved with the use of advanced imaging techniques [36].
FEA gives an in-depth idea about the patterns of stress in the implant and more importantly in the peri-implant bone and this helps in the betterment of the implant design and implant insertion techniques. Several studies had been put forward on the effect of material properties of implant, implant number, size (length and diameter), thread profile, and on the quality and quantity of surrounding bone on stress distribution. The stresses of various kinds such as von Mises stress, maximum shear stress, maximum and minimum principal stress are used to assess the mechanical stress on the bone, implant, and bone-implant interface. Amongst, von Mises stress is most frequently and mainly used scalar-valued stress invariant to evaluate the yielding, and or failure behavior of dental materials. While minimum principal stress gives an idea on the compressive stress, maximum principal stress gives on tensile stress. Principal stress is used to study both ductile and brittle properties of a bone [36].
Siegele and Soltesz in 1989 conducted a study using implants of various shapes to evaluate the patterns of stress generation in the jawbone found that different shapes produced different stress patterns and conical implant showed higher stress than screw shaped and cylindrical implants [2].
Mailath et al
Geng et al
Chun et al., in 2002 found that the square thread shape filleted with a small radius was more effective in stress distribution than other dental implants used in the analyses also maximum effective stress decreased not only as screw pitch decreased gradually but also as implant length increased [38].
Himmlova et al
Ding et al., in 2009 conducted a study on immediate loading implants showed that the masticatory force around the implant neck was decreased with increased diameter of an implant. Several studies found higher risk of bone resorption occurring in the implant neck region. By using FEM, authors could able to compare the elastic modulus and deformation with different types of bone, and implant materials which helps clinicians to better understand the process of bone remodeling, and for further improvements in surgical techniques [40].
Eraslan et al., in 2009 evaluated the effects of different implant thread designs on stress distribution characteristics at supporting structures. Four different thread-form configurations for a solid screw implant was prepared with supporting bone structure. V-thread, buttress, reverse buttress, and square thread designs with a 100-N static axial occlusal load applied to occlusal surface of abutment to calculate the stress distribution. They found that the implant thread forms has no effect on von Mises stress distribution in the supporting bone, but produced dissimilar compressive stress intensities in the bone [7].
Dos Santos et al
Demenko et al
The increase risk of mechanical failure can occur with the increase in crown to implant ratio, which was substantiated by many FE studies. A study by Verri et al
FEA is important in predicting the success of implant supported prosthetic rehabilitation of maxillectomy patients. In case of maxillary or partial mandibular resection patients, FE models can be used to simulate the resection areas and biomechanics of maxillary obturator or mandibular partial or implant supported prosthesis can be studied. de Sousa and Mattos in 2014 conducted a study to evaluate the stability and functional stress caused by implanted-supported obturator prostheses in simulated maxillary resections of an edentulous maxilla corresponding to Okay Classes Ib, II, and III, with no surgical reconstruction. They found that the implant-supported obturator prostheses tended to rotate toward the surgical resection site, the region where there is no osseous support. As the osseous support and the numbers of implants and clips diminished, the tensile and compressive stresses in the gingival mucosa and in the cortical bone increased. They concluded that the osseous tensile and compressive stresses resulting from the bar-clip retention system for Okay Classes Ib, II, and III maxillectomy may not be favorable to the survival rate of implants [36].
Oral and maxillofacial surgery is one branch of dentistry, which has always been associated with biomechanics. Trauma surgery, orthognathic surgery, reconstructive surgery are the subdivisions where understanding the mechanism of fractures and its biological response to the biomechanical change are worth knowing for optimal treatment method and outcome [43].
When present technology was not available in the past, cadaveric studies were the only way of information and it is not possible to carry out designing and executing which at present times have ethical issues often challenging to have valid and reliable results. Furthermore, post mortem alterations and the age do not match in a typical facial trauma cadaver. One such example was René Le Fort, a French army surgeon, conducted a series of thorough experiments on the heads of cadavers. His work gave rise to a system of classifying facial fractures, now known as Le Fort types I, II and III [36, 43].
Since the maxillofacial region has vital anatomical structures, intervention in this region needs precise work to be carried out in restoring function and esthetics of the tissues in obtaining predictable and favorable long-term outcomes. In the field of trauma surgery, to identify the craniofacial region that are potential prone to fracture, FEA enables precise mapping of the maxillofacial region to know the biomechanics and stress pattern distribution of trauma that helps in evaluation of patient and optimizing the surgical protocol for treating the fractures [43].
Today, with the help of FEA mechanical properties of facial hard and soft tissues, osteosynthesis materials, implant components for fixing the fractured parts, and various biological and synthetic bone substitutes can be easily generated and determined due to the advancement in the computing and virtual analysis. It allows the testing of various fixation system to prevent the future failure due to its improper selection or inappropriate positioning. It made us possible to know the impact in biomechanical behaviour of testing materials on the biological responses of the bone tested as well as adjacent anatomical structures more accurate, repeatable, time saving, and cost-effective way regardless of their complexity [43].
Isolated orbital floor fracture (IOFF), zygomatic bone fracture are the examples of more complex traumas occurring frequently in contact sports and their pathomechanism were also studied with the aid of FEA. In relatively rare facial traumas like in case of blast or gunshot wounds, FEA helps in exploring, analyzing and determining the mechanism of anatomical structures damaged and ways in reconstructing them. The pathomechanism underlying the type and method of fracture is exceptionally important as it may help in designing the helmets, other protecting devices. Rigid fixation is one of the key element in determining the long-term success for osseointegration. Inappropriate selection of an osteosynthesis component for the biological tissues can cause complication in fusion of bone. Therefore, FEA helps in determining and designing various fixation systems and methods [44, 45].
Osteosynthesis of condylar fracture and fixing the element is a challenging aspect for a maxillofacial surgeon due to its specific anatomy and surgical access. Through FEA, it has become possible for the researchers to find the better way and an exceptionally handy, easy mountable and durable element for optimal stabilizing and fixing the fractured fragments. A new type of “A-shape condylar plate” was designed for all levels of neck fractures and it can be used for stabilization of existed coronoid process fracture. FEA has proved to be a useful tool in investing and thorough evaluation of newer materials and solutions, which are more optimized, durable and light weight components before they can be used in the clinical situations [46].
Bujtár et al
Huempfner-Hierl et al
Murakami et al
Santos et al
Orthodontics is a specialty of dentistry, which deals with the diagnosis, prevention and correction of malpositioned teeth and jaws. It also focuses on determining and modifying the facial growth, known as dentofacial orthopedics. Abnormal alignment of the teeth and jaws is common. In the field of Orthodontics and Dentofacial Orthopedics, FEM has proved to be a reliable and valid procedure in evaluating the applied orthodontic forces.
Tanne et al
Many researchers have developed various FE models in order to understand the interaction between tooth mobility and periodontal ligament. Jones et al., in 2001 validated an FE model and found PDL as the main mediator for orthodontic tooth movement and the material properties of PDL are difficult to quantify [7].
The use of the lingual orthodontic technique has increased over time, as adults dislike the visibility of orthodontic appliances. Sung et al
Cattaneo et al., in 2009 studied on Orthodontic tooth movement (OTM) which occurs when an orthodontic force is applied to the brackets. The modeling and remodeling process of the supporting structures occurs by alteration in the distribution of stress/strain in the periodontium. As per the classical OTM theories, symmetric zones of compression and tension are present in the periodontium. However, they did not consider the complex mechanical properties of the PDL, the morphology of alveolar structures’, and magnitude of the applied force. The authors could not confirm the classical ideal of symmetrical compressive and tensile areas in periodontium as per the OTM scenarios. They found light continuous orthodontics forces will be perceived as intermittent by the periodontium. They expressed that, as the roots and alveolar bone morphology are patient-specific, FEA should not be based on general models [51].
Lingual orthodontics has developed rapidly in recent years; however, research on torque control variance of the maxillary incisors in both lingual and labial orthodontics is still limited. Liang et al
Field et al
Orthognathic surgery also known as corrective jaw surgery or simply jaw surgery is aimed to correct the conditions of jaw and face. They relate to correct the structure, growth modification, disorders of TMJ, sleep apnea, malocclusion problems owing to skeletal disharmonies, or other orthodontic problems that cannot be treated with orthodontic braces. It involves the surgical manipulation of the structures of the facial skeleton in restoring the suitable anatomy and their functional relationship with dentofacial skeletal abnormalities for the patient’s sense of self and well-being. Successful outcome depend on meticulous preoperative planning until finalization of occlusion. Virtual planning promotes a more accurate analysis of dentofacial deformity and preoperative planning with the help of computer-based technique like FEA, an invaluable tool in providing comprehensive patient education. Today’s orthognathic treatment consists of standard orthognathic procedure in correcting jaw deformities like maxillary and mandibular prognathism, open bite, difficulty in chewing and swallowing, TMJ dysfunction pain, excessive wear of the teeth, and receding chins. It includes adjunctive procedures like genioplasty, septorhinoplasty, and lipectomy of the neck to improve hard and soft tissue contours [53].
Chabanas et al
Erkmen et al
For successful outcome in any orthognathic surgeries, selection of an appropriate bridging element is a key determinant, corrective mandibular surgery like bilateral sagittal split osteotomy (BSSO) is not an exception to stabilize the bony segments with different fixing elements and FEA is an important tool [43].
Stróżyk et al
Surgically Assisted Palatal Expansion (SARPE) is an orthognathic surgical procedure that is performed frequently in the patients with narrower maxilla. De Assis et al
A more complex surgery involving correction of deformation of both the jaws simulating the maxillary and mandibular jaw osteotomy using FEA was also executed. Fujii et al
Knoops et al
The FEM technique can also be used in oncosurgeries and reconstructive surgery where an extensive resection is needed and reconstruction of jawbones are done. The crucial parameter form the postoperative point of view is the amount of bone segment removed from the surgical site, which includes size, shape, and location. The aim of reconstructing the bone defect should result in restoration of the integrity, its anatomy and the functionality of stomatognathic system. With the aid of digital technology; modeling, simulation and analysis, it is possible to know and compare the stress levels and distribution on and at the bone-graft interface and predictable behaviour of the reconstructed site to identify the most suitable transplant for a given clinical situation and to find the appropriate bone fusion under favorable conditions in the reconstructed area [43].
Moiduddin et al
Hu et al
PDL is a highly specialized soft connective tissue that is present between the tooth root and the alveolar bone. The primary function is to support the tooth and is the most important component of periodontium. Various studies included and investigated on its biomechanics and stress distribution under normal, masticatory, and traumatic loads. PDL is the crucial aspect in designing as it influences the properties of a 3-D model, though it is difficult in modeling and not a concern for the study. Ignoring the PDL may result in inaccurate values of stress and strain distribution [36].
Tuna et al
Results can be easily interpreted in physical terms as well as it has a strong mathematical base.
Non-homogenous structures also can be dealt by merely assigning different properties to different elements.
It is even possible to vary the properties to different elements and within an element according to the polynomial applied.
It minimizes the requirement for laboratory testing, but not replaces entirely.
Applicable to linear and non-linear as well as solid and fluid structural interactions.
Any problems can be split into smaller number of problems.
It is very easy to simulate any biological condition in pre-operative, intra-operative, and post-operative stages for more accurate and reliable results.
Reproducibility of the results does not affect the physical properties of the materials involved.
It can replace stereo lithographic models for pre-surgical planning.
With FEA, static and dynamic analysis is possible.
It is less time consuming even with the complex structures.
No extensive instrumentation is required.
The study can be repeated as many times as the operator wants.
The systematic generality of finite element procedure makes it a powerful and versatile tool for a wide range of problems.
The solution obtained from FEM can be realistic if and only if the material properties are known precisely [1, 2, 9, 62].
The major drawback is sensitivity of the solution on the geometry of the element such as type, size, number, shape and orientation of element used.
FEM programs yield a large amount of numerical data as results and it is very difficult to separate out the required results from the pile of numbers.
Inability to simulate the biological dynamics of the tooth and its supporting structure accurately. For example, in non-carious cervical lesions, due to the exposure to oral environment the structure of dentin (tertiary or reparative dentin) undergoes variable amount of changes such as attrition, erosion or abrasion, which has formed as a response to stimulus.
Misguided results due to inaccurate data or information or interpretation.
Due to their complex anatomy and lack of complete knowledge about the mechanical behaviour, modeling of human structures are extremely difficult.
The results depend on the personnel involved in the process due to assumptions.
Until well-defined physical properties of enamel, dentin, PDL, cancellous, and cortical bone are available, the progress and the process in the FEA will be limited.
Early FE models had the difficulty in allocating physical characteristics to the different constituent parts of the tooth, as they were considered as isotropic which in real are not [1, 2, 9, 62].
The non-linear simulation and dynamic behaviour of PDL and other soft tissue properties has become an increasingly powerful approach that provides precision and reliability in calculating stress and strain with a wide range of tooth movements.
The transient and residual stresses in dental materials are also included in non-linear FEM calculations also include. Residual stresses in ceramic and metal restorations, contraction stresses in composites, and permanent deformation prediction of materials are some to mention for non-linear application to be applied and investigated.
The phenomena of sliding and friction critically affect the stress and strain created on the contact surfaces between teeth that play a major role in the mechanical behaviour. This non-linear property can be solved by contact analysis depend various factors like region of contact, load, material, and environment that are highly unpredictable. The frictional response depends on the pair of surfaces in contact, temperature, and humidity.
Research is also going on polyhedral meshing and mesh-less (or mesh-free) analysis for reducing the meshing time. Advantages of polyhedral meshing being; less meshing time, high accuracy, and too less number of degrees of freedom (DOF).
Hybrid meshing (hex-pyram-tetra) is a very special option but not all software supports its application.
The power of the Finite Element Method is its versatility. It is a well-established numerical analysis used not only in aerospace, automotive industry and civil engineering, but also in health care. It addresses the biomedical problems that are challenging due to structural complexity. The structure analyzed may have arbitrary shape, arbitrary support, and arbitrary loads therefore; it is ideally suited for the analysis of bibliographical structures, which are non-homogeneous. The modeling and simulation of the structures and or materials saves time and money in conducting the experiment. Therefore, this tool has been successfully employed in various areas of dentistry.
A finite element analysis does not produce formula as a solution, nor does it solve a class of problems. This method is a way of getting a numerical solution to a specific problem. Finite element analysis is an accurate tool in assessing stress distribution, only of the given set of values are effective. However, it varies from person to person as the situation and biomechanical properties of living structures interpretation differs. Hence, the obvious shortcomings should be kept in mind before any decision making procedure in experimental as well as clinical dentistry. The experiments done are repeatable with no ethical concern and study designs can be modified as per the requirement. Certain limitations of FEA do exist. Keeping in mind the limitations, FEA research should be accompanied with clinical evaluation.
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
One of the central component of terrestrial ecosystem is soil. Loss in ecosystem is a representation of the degradation of soil. The soil plays a key role in the health of ecosystem, however, over-exploitation of these ecosystem by humans causes considerable degradation and migration of contaminants. The use of land for agriculture occupies 36.5% of the earth’s land mass [1]. Though this human activities may be justified to provide greater benefit in other services termed development, but consistent degradation of this ecosystem and exposure of it to various contaminants is not in the best interest of the society and it is detrimental to the environment that sustains all life forms.
Soil conservation are various practices of farming operations and management strategies which are conducted with the purpose of controlling soil erosion by avoiding or minimizing soil particle detachment and movement of water or/and air. It also helps in preventing the loss of the top-most layer of the soil and fertility which could also be caused by soil contamination. Understanding the processes and factors that govern soil erosion is very important to implementing its control practice and will help to manage soil erosion thus leading to soil conservation. The mechanics involve fluid (wind/water) detachment or entrainment which is being accompanied by the transportation of soil particles and its subsequent deposition as soil sediments. Conservation approaches and management strategies that ensures these include crop rotation, cover cropping, planting windbreaks and conservation tillage, which have been harnessed for millennia. Soil conservation practices are said to be farming operations and soil management strategies carried out with the aim of achieving a goal which is to control soil erosion by preventing or reducing soil particle detachment and transport in air or water [2]. Soil conservation started with the aim to protect an ecology from agricultural production by making use of largely unproven technology that failed to adapt with the natural requirements of the land. The evolving land degradation trend could only be understood by determining if the causes were as a result of natural occurrences or by unwise use [3].
In Europe, Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) is put in place in a bid to target the application of best management practices such as winter cover crops, reduced tillage, plant residues and grass margins in order to address conservation [4]. This traditional approaches which enhanced the productivity, environmental benefits and profits are based on procedures of no-tillage, and the broader concepts of agricultural conservation and land management sustainability. These concepts are one and not divided, but part of a continuous land management practices which range from detailed soil management practices such as zero-tillage, to the enhnaced concepts, principles and objectives of agricultural conservation and land management for sustainability.
This method is effective in reducing migration of top soil by leaving a cover over the soil in a bid to reduce soil displacement which is associated with the impacts from raindrops on the soil particles. Cover crops and mulching also reduces the amount of runoff and its velocity over the soil. Mulching, which is the application of organic materials over exposed soil to confer a form of covering to it over a period before decomposing. Straw can be used as mulch but hay is proven to be the best and it is important to ensure that it is harvested before the weeds mature. These crops are necessary to control erosion especially when the main crops planted do not give sufficient residue for more conventional residue management-based erosion control [5]. Where precipitation is adequate, cover crops like peas can help protect against wind erosion and also add nitrogen to the soil. The nitrogen released from the roots of these legumes are energy source for microbial metabolic activities hence such live mulch or cover crop give rise to an active microbial community in the rhizosphere soil.
Crop rotation is an indigenous and practical way for managing agro-ecosystem biodiversity by enhancing soil health, minimizing pests and disease outbreaks [6]. This method enables farmers to improve the structure of the soil, increase the soil organic matter and rooting depth. This happens when secondary crops are grown in order to enhance soil health. As a result of the extensive shattering of soil aggregrates during seedbed preparation and harvesting, root crops are particularly destructive to the soil structure. Therefore, it is advised that root crops should be grown once in every three years. Corn can be grown in the following year with two years of silage followed in succession by three or more years of forage. Leguminous crops (such as pea and chickpea) during crop rotation helps in modifying soil functional microbial communities. In the rotation, cover cropping or mulching, and zero tillage should be incorporated too. Crop rotations can provide better opportunities for the growth of some soil functional microorganisms. This brings about rich biodiversity within the soil ecosystem as both the shallow feeding crops and deep rooted crops activates varying species of microorganismsper time thus creating a build up of microbes exhibiting varying characteristics to colonize the soil. Thus, different crops can produce various residues and root exudates to boost soil microbial diversity and activity, and increase soil microbial biomass as well as enhance C and N cycling [7, 8].
This method is aimed atpreserving soil aggregates, organic matter and crop residues [9, 10]. Conservation tillage include changes in making use of less destructive tillage implements (for instance, instead of using mouldboard plow, use chisel plow), minimum tillage (that is, one turn instead of two), leaving crop residue on the soil surface to prevent erosion. Plowing and tilling land for the preparation of the seed bed are basis of the traditional agricultural practices. However, these practices have been proven to be highly destructive to the soil with 24% of global agricultural land degraded as a result of this [11]. New approach which is centered on conserving and improving soil is gradually replacing soil tillage. The soil is typically inverted to a depth of less than 20 cm using mouldboard plow during conventional tillage system, however, in conservation tillage system, the soil is not disturbed or disturbed to a lesser degree [12]. This conservation method has shown to improve soil structure, reduce soil erosion, improve drainage and water holding capacity of the soil, increase soil organic matter and also increase microbial and earthworm activity [13].
The ridges are made across wind and they consist of tall listed seed beds that are being formed over the entire field or as trap strips which is in a position perpendicular to the direction of the prevailing wind. The formation of an earthen embankment along a common elevation contour gives an elevated terrace structure that can directly reduce wind erosion by potential reduction in wind speed and interception of soil particles. Indirect wind erosion control benefits of terraces and the related contour tillage and cropping practices expand overall crop grain and residue productivity by controlling runoff for increased water storage in the soil [14]. The underlying layer of soil becomes relatively less disturbed by the action of erosion hence making room for an increased microbial population within the micro-climate.
This is another method of conserving the soil and for controlling wind erosion. A windbreak serves as a barrier with the purpose of deflecting the flow of air and reducing leeward wind speed [15]. However, the availability of irrigation makes this conservation method useful in a difficult environment. The crops may be cultured in strips perpendicular to the prevailing wind where field orientation is not restricted as a means to reduce the near surface wind speed [16]. This practice is broadly accommodating of various width of crop strips depending on the crop tolerance to eroding soil or potential to trap soil grains. The interplay between erosivity and erodibility potential of soil determines the gradient of detachment experienced within varying soil types. This confers significance on the efficacy of windbreaks/strip crops to band soil particles together thereby curtailing dislodgement.
This is the most preferred method for controlling wind erosion for most crops and climates [17]. It is made up of several tillage practices that maintain residue from a previously harvested crop as a surface cover to prevent soil erosion. Residue management also maintains mulches which may be standing or flat to intercept soil grains by trapping their movement [18]. Leaving the residue of the previous crop on the surface of the soil is beneficial in that it improves soil water storage regardless of the runoff controlling contours, it helps to increase rain infiltration and reduce evaporation from the soil. The micro-climate here is well adapted for microbial activities as there exists a steady retrieval of energy from the decomposing biomass of residues thereby giving rise to mineralization of organic compounds and disintegration of complex molecules.
Soil health is the innate potential of a soil to function within ecosystem boundaries (either natural or managed), sustain plant productivity, maintain water and air quality, support human well-being, and provide habitats for biodiversity [19, 20, 21]. Agricultural intensification is placing huge pressure on the soil’s potential to maintain its functions which is progressively leading to large-scale ecosystem degradation and loss of productivity in the long term [22, 23, 24]. Over a few decades, significant efforts have been made to enhance agricultural productivity through increased fertilization and pesticide application, improved irrigation, soil management regimes and crops, and massive land conversions [25]. However, there is a growing concern that the use of natural ecosystems for agricultural purposes has incurred substantial environmental costs, including desertification, increased emissions of greenhouse gasses, decreased organic matter in soils, loss of biodiversity, and alterations to biogeochemical and hydrological cycles [26, 27].
The quality of the soil, conversely, is an extrinsic feature of soils and changes with the desired usage of that soil by humans. This may be related to agricultural production and its capacity to support wildlife, watershed production, or recreation outputs provision. Some of the environmental challenges that are related to agriculture are expressed as pollutants, climate change, soil degradation, and deforestation [28].
Climate is described as general or average weather conditions of a certain region, including temperature, rainfall and wind, over a long period. Climate change has direct and indirect effect in speeding up or slowing down terrestrial microbial community composition and their functional activities. Climatic change alters the relative population of microorganisms and their functions within soil communities since soil community members differ in their physiology, temperature sensitivity, and growth rates [29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34]. The direct effects of climatic change on microbial population, composition and function have been reviewed extensively [35, 36, 37, 38, 39]. Temperature and water are essential environmental factors for microbial growth. Increased temperature alters microbial community structures and processes such as respiration, fermentation and methanogenesis are also accelerated. This directly affects enzyme activity and microbial physiological property. Both agriculture and climate change are interrelated processes, of which they both take place on a global scale. Climate change impacts microbial community structure and activities both directly, through alteration of the soil chemical and physical environment, and indirectly through changes in land use. Environmental changes such as global warming are directly altering microbial soil respiration rates because soil microorganisms, and the processes they mediate, are temperature sensitive. The role of the prevailing changing climate, visibly expressed with elevated temperature, in microbial metabolism has been accorded considerable attention of recent [40, 41, 42, 43]. This stresses the effects of climatic changes on soil microorganisms which are essential components in the ecosystem since they play a key role in maintaining soil health through ecological intensification.
Deforestation is a major driver of climate change and cause of the loss of habitat for millions of species. The soil is the basis for agriculture, natural plant communities and natural climate regulation, with 75% organic carbon stored in terrestrial habitat [44, 45, 46]. Vegetation has extensive contribution in sustaining ecosystem services of both surface and subsurface soil. Deforestation exacerbates climate change in that trees are completely or selectively removed to create farmland. Land use changes have several undesirable consequences, with significant effect on radical losses in soil fertility, soil carbon and nitrogen stocks have been recorded in the first 20–25 years after deforestation [47, 48].
Synthetic pesticides are the most common and widely use method of controlling pests in agriculture. A large number of agricultural chemicals (such as fertilizer, pesticides, etc.) are used and some become pollutants through their use, misuse or ignorance hence leaching through the soil to pollute the groundwater. Soil erosion has been instrumental in the horizontal and vertical movement of these pollutants (earlier bonded with soil particles but displaced) from agricultural fields to other places, especially water bodies (both surface and underground). Consequently, pollutants from agricultural fields do have large effect on the quality of water. Poorly managed animal feeding operations, overgrazing, heavy use of fertilizers, plowing, and improper, heavy use, or wrongly timed use of pesticides, causes pollution. These pollutants find their ways through the soil profile and across the gradient of slope hence affecting rivers, groundwater, wetlands, lakes, and estuaries [28] through continued deposition over a long period. In the same vein, untreated industrial pollutants discharged from the industries and factories have prevalent toxic concentration. Oftentimes, these wastes are discharged into the water body and affect aquatic cultures as well as flora and fauna life cycles. Usage of unsuitable contaminated water and the discharge of untreated industrial wastewater into water bodies form a main source of water pollution. Soil pollution occurs due to untreated disposal of industrial wastes (laden with high toxic contaminants) into soil. Wastes from industries have varying amount of toxic chemicals such that when deposited in soil, they cause the soil layer strength in the top soil to deteriorate, thus reducing fertility and microbial activity of the soil. In addition, the hazardous effect of these pollutants leads to ecological imbalances within the soil ecosystem.
Soil degradation is the decrease in the quality of soil that can be as a result of many factors, most especially from agriculture. Soils hold the majority of the world’s biodiversity, and healthy soils are essential for food production and adequate water supply [49]. Soil degradation shows expression in salting, waterlogging, compaction, pesticide contamination, decline in soil structure, loss of fertility, increase in soil acidity, alkalinity, salinity, and prevalence of erosion. Soil erosion is the wearing away of topsoil by water, wind, or farming activities [50]. At the same time, agriculture has been shown to contribute significantly to degradation, mainly through the continued dependence and improper use of inorganic fertilizers, synthetic pesticides, etc., which culminates in production and release of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide, methane, and nitrous oxide. Moreover, agriculture that practices conventional practices such as tillage, fertilization, and pesticide application also release ammonia, nitrate, phosphorus, and many other gases that pollute the air, water, and soil quality, as well as biodiversity. Agriculture also changes the land cover of the Earth, which can change its ability to absorb or reflect heat and light, hence contributing to radiative forcing. Soil degradation also has a large impact on biological degradation, which influence the microbial community of the soil negatively and alters nutrient cycling, pest and disease control, and chemical transformation properties of the soil.
By 2050, it is projected that the world population will increase to 8.9 billion people and this will lead to higher demand for agricultural produce [51]. In the future, the high demand of food and shortage of new agricultural land development will require increasing crop yields making use of sustainable means. Improvement of soil conservation increases soil organic matter and reduces erosion in other to have a sustainable agricultural land management and improved soil health [52]. Assessment of soil is based on the quality of soil variables that guarantee crop production sustainability in agricultural lands [19, 53]. Soil biota components such as microbial community, activity, abundance, stability and diversity which are improved by soil conservation have been discussed in several studies to be important indicators of soil quality [19, 54]. The rhizosphere of the plant is the narrow zone of the soil that is closed to the root system and sustains the production of crops with agrochemical inputs level that is balance or minimized [55]. Rhizoremediation of organic pollutants [8] and organic compounds creates nutrient-rich environment that influence microbial communities and the degradation of organic contaminants [56]. Soil biota plays a great role in residues of plant mineralization to form plants nutrients which can be easily absorbed by the plants for their growth and development [57]. Also, soil biota increases the rate of decomposition by excreting different enzymes that support plants’s nutrients kinetics in the soil [58]. Microorganisms in the soil especially bacteria and fungi, transforms N between organic and inorganic forms which improves plant minerals uptake [59]. Microbial communities support the fundamental processes that provide productivity and stability of agroecosystems [60].
Soil conservation activities such as cover crops and minimum tillage as earlier mentioned can favorably improve soil health by increasing the number of soil organisms that break down organic matter, and in the process, release nutrients for the plant uptake. This soil organism breaks organic soil contaminants and several factors can interfere with the soil–microbe–plant complex hence influencing its functionality. Soil type [61], organic carbon level [60], temperature and moisture [62], oxygen level [63], electrical conductivity, calcium level and pH [64] are all factors that can change the composition and functionality of soil microbial communities. Of the soil macrofauna, earthworms are a major component and are very important in the soil fertility dynamics as their burrowing activities helps in improving the soil aeration and infiltration of water into the soil. The population of earthworm is influenced by soil conservation. [65, 66] discussed how minimum tillage which is part of soil conservation affects the population of earthworm. The increase of earthworms could encourage biological-remediation of contaminated soil known as vermiremediation [67]; soils contaminated with metallic contaminants [68] and organic pollutants and some chlorinated compounds inclusive [69]. The earthworms makes holes through the soil, mix the soil, affects its structure, and alters its nutritional profile and fungal and bacterial communities [70].
Fungi are chemoorganotrophic organism that are present everywhere and plays fundamental roles in geological and ecological processes [71, 72]. They can transform a large varieties of organic substrates, in addition with natural polymers not only lignin, cellulose, starch and chitin, but also other anthropogenic products such as explosives, pesticides and other xenobiotics [73, 74]. Mycoremediation, that is, the use of fungi to remove soil contaminant, has emerged as one of the most promising and cost-effective soil remediation techniques [75, 76, 77, 78, 79]. Bacterial genera, namely,
The physical and chemical properties of the soil significantly influence the soil fungal community structure and this is determined by agricultural practices [84, 85]. Increase in fungal biomass and bacterial is termed as changes in soil microbial communities and it has been observed in zero tillage than in conventional tillage practices [86]. Various land management practices has been examined to increase fungal biomass in the soil. Total fungal hyphal biomass and fungal propagules were discovered to be more in soil collected from organically managed agricultural systems [87, 88, 89]. The density of fungi in soil were found to be affected by crop rotation, animal grazing and soil tillage [90, 91, 92, 93, 94, 95, 96, 97, 98].
The type of land management practices in agroecosystems as an impacts on the structure of microbial community and function through a variety of different mechanisms. Land-use changes also impact on soil microbial community structure through alterations in carbon availability and quality, pH and nutrient availability. Since the ratio of fungal population to bacterial population are commonly measured as indicators of microbial community structure, and the relative proportions of fungi are increased by no-till practices, crop rotations, and use of cover crops, thus biological mechanisms are regulating carbon and nitrogen exchanges between the land, water and atmosphere. This reveals the importance of soil management and conservation approach in enhancing microbial activity for soil ecological intensification as well as buffering the soil to neutralize contaminants. Albeit, microbial ecology to assess terrestrial carbon cycle plays a crucial role in maintaining balance within the ecosystem.
There is no conflict of interest.
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Saleh and Amal I. Hassan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11120.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"June 23rd 2022",editors:[{id:"144691",title:"Prof.",name:"Hosam M.",middleName:null,surname:"Saleh",slug:"hosam-m.-saleh",fullName:"Hosam M. Saleh"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10696",title:"Applications of Calorimetry",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8c87f7e2199db33b5dd7181f56973a97",slug:"applications-of-calorimetry",bookSignature:"José Luis Rivera Armenta and Cynthia Graciela Flores Hernández",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10696.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"June 23rd 2022",editors:[{id:"107855",title:"Dr.",name:"Jose Luis",middleName:null,surname:"Rivera Armenta",slug:"jose-luis-rivera-armenta",fullName:"Jose Luis Rivera Armenta"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},subject:{topic:{id:"135",title:"Environmental Studies",slug:"environmental-studies",parent:{id:"12",title:"Environmental Sciences",slug:"environmental-sciences"},numberOfBooks:5,numberOfSeries:0,numberOfAuthorsAndEditors:177,numberOfWosCitations:193,numberOfCrossrefCitations:130,numberOfDimensionsCitations:338,videoUrl:null,fallbackUrl:null,description:null},booksByTopicFilter:{topicId:"135",sort:"-publishedDate",limit:12,offset:0},booksByTopicCollection:[{type:"book",id:"8969",title:"Deserts and Desertification",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"4df95c7f295de7f6003e635d9a309fe9",slug:"deserts-and-desertification",bookSignature:"Yajuan Zhu, Qinghong Luo and Yuguo Liu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8969.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"180427",title:"Dr.",name:"Yajuan",middleName:null,surname:"Zhu",slug:"yajuan-zhu",fullName:"Yajuan Zhu"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6706",title:"Environmental Risks",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ea444f5d9f74628b340b2d9514bca236",slug:"environmental-risks",bookSignature:"Florin-Constantin Mihai and Adrian Grozavu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6706.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"175726",title:"Dr.",name:"Florin-Constantin",middleName:null,surname:"Mihai",slug:"florin-constantin-mihai",fullName:"Florin-Constantin Mihai"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5995",title:"Mediterranean Identities",subtitle:"Environment, Society, Culture",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5254b511e85984b9457a09ddc2758a1c",slug:"mediterranean-identities-environment-society-culture",bookSignature:"Borna Fuerst-Bjelis",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5995.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"138475",title:"Prof.",name:"Borna",middleName:null,surname:"Fuerst-Bjeliš",slug:"borna-fuerst-bjelis",fullName:"Borna Fuerst-Bjeliš"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1011",title:"International Perspectives on Global Environmental Change",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"aaa208c16030078cdca711a1867ca7ff",slug:"international-perspectives-on-global-environmental-change",bookSignature:"Stephen S. Young and Steven E. Silvern",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1011.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"96190",title:"Dr.",name:"Stephen",middleName:null,surname:"Young",slug:"stephen-young",fullName:"Stephen Young"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"2110",title:"Relevant Perspectives in Global Environmental Change",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a531a19888ec539192408b7a229fdbf9",slug:"relevant-perspectives-in-global-environmental-change",bookSignature:"Julius Ibukun Agboola",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2110.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"107567",title:"Dr.",name:"Julius",middleName:"Ibukun",surname:"Agboola",slug:"julius-agboola",fullName:"Julius Agboola"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],booksByTopicTotal:5,seriesByTopicCollection:[],seriesByTopicTotal:0,mostCitedChapters:[{id:"27194",doi:"10.5772/29375",title:"Using Fuzzy Cognitive Mapping in Environmental Decision Making and Management: A Methodological Primer and an Application",slug:"using-fuzzy-cognitive-mapping-in-environmental-decision-making-and-management-a-methodological-prime",totalDownloads:4654,totalCrossrefCites:41,totalDimensionsCites:89,abstract:null,book:{id:"1011",slug:"international-perspectives-on-global-environmental-change",title:"International Perspectives on Global Environmental Change",fullTitle:"International Perspectives on Global Environmental Change"},signatures:"Elpiniki Papageorgiou and Areti Kontogianni",authors:[{id:"6011",title:"Dr.",name:"Elpiniki",middleName:null,surname:"Papageorgiou",slug:"elpiniki-papageorgiou",fullName:"Elpiniki Papageorgiou"},{id:"71620",title:"Prof.",name:"Areti",middleName:"D.",surname:"Kontogianni",slug:"areti-kontogianni",fullName:"Areti Kontogianni"}]},{id:"27184",doi:"10.5772/26954",title:"Effect of Environmental Change on Secondary Metabolite Production in Lichen-Forming Fungi",slug:"effect-of-environmental-change-on-secondary-metabolite-production-in-lichen-forming-fungi",totalDownloads:7066,totalCrossrefCites:14,totalDimensionsCites:29,abstract:null,book:{id:"1011",slug:"international-perspectives-on-global-environmental-change",title:"International Perspectives on Global Environmental Change",fullTitle:"International Perspectives on Global Environmental Change"},signatures:"Christopher Deduke, Brinda Timsina and Michele D. Piercey-Normore",authors:[{id:"68386",title:"Dr.",name:"Michele",middleName:null,surname:"Piercey-Normore",slug:"michele-piercey-normore",fullName:"Michele Piercey-Normore"},{id:"68390",title:"BSc.",name:"Chris",middleName:null,surname:"Deduke",slug:"chris-deduke",fullName:"Chris Deduke"},{id:"102711",title:"Ms.",name:"Brinda",middleName:null,surname:"Timsina",slug:"brinda-timsina",fullName:"Brinda Timsina"}]},{id:"27182",doi:"10.5772/26536",title:"Primary Succession in Glacier Forelands: How Small Animals Conquer New Land Around Melting Glaciers",slug:"primary-succession-in-glacier-forelands-how-small-animals-conquer-new-land-around-melting-glaciers",totalDownloads:4996,totalCrossrefCites:8,totalDimensionsCites:28,abstract:null,book:{id:"1011",slug:"international-perspectives-on-global-environmental-change",title:"International Perspectives on Global Environmental Change",fullTitle:"International Perspectives on Global Environmental Change"},signatures:"Sigmund Hågvar",authors:[{id:"66992",title:"Prof.",name:"Sigmund",middleName:null,surname:"Hågvar",slug:"sigmund-hagvar",fullName:"Sigmund Hågvar"}]},{id:"55867",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.69214",title:"The Marine Biodiversity of the Mediterranean Sea in a Changing Climate: The Impact of Biological Invasions",slug:"the-marine-biodiversity-of-the-mediterranean-sea-in-a-changing-climate-the-impact-of-biological-inva",totalDownloads:2351,totalCrossrefCites:9,totalDimensionsCites:19,abstract:"The Mediterranean Sea, one of the most complex marine ecosystems, is inhabited by a rich and diverse biota which is disproportionate to its dimensions. It is currently affected by different pressures, mainly driven by human activities such as climate change and bioinvasions. This Sea, also due to its geographic position (wedged between the temperate climate of central Europe and the arid climate of northern Africa), seems to be one of the regions most susceptible to global climate change. The increased rates of introduction and spread of marine alien species may represent a supplementary stress factor to Mediterranean marine native biota already challenged by climatic abnormalities. The Suez Canal is considered to be the main vector of introduction of non‐indigenous marine species into the Mediterranean Sea. Due to the dramatically accelerating rate of such introductions and due to the sheer magnitude of shipping traffic, the Mediterranean Sea may be considered as a true hotspot of marine bioinvasions. The complexity of interactions between native and invasive species and the associated resulting impacts make environmental management of such an issue particularly difficult. A collaboration between researchers, resource management agencies and policy makers is called for to bolster the effectiveness of invasive species management procedures.",book:{id:"5995",slug:"mediterranean-identities-environment-society-culture",title:"Mediterranean Identities",fullTitle:"Mediterranean Identities - Environment, Society, Culture"},signatures:"Anna M. Mannino, Paolo Balistreri and Alan Deidun",authors:[{id:"202075",title:"Prof.",name:"Alan",middleName:null,surname:"Deidun",slug:"alan-deidun",fullName:"Alan Deidun"},{id:"203773",title:"Dr.",name:"Anna Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Mannino",slug:"anna-maria-mannino",fullName:"Anna Maria Mannino"},{id:"203777",title:"Dr.",name:"Paolo",middleName:null,surname:"Balistreri",slug:"paolo-balistreri",fullName:"Paolo Balistreri"}]},{id:"55996",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.69410",title:"The Fire in the Mediterranean Region: A Case Study of Forest Fires in Portugal",slug:"the-fire-in-the-mediterranean-region-a-case-study-of-forest-fires-in-portugal",totalDownloads:2079,totalCrossrefCites:8,totalDimensionsCites:19,abstract:"Forest fires are a common disturbance in many forest systems in the world and in particular in the Mediterranean region. Their origins can be either natural or anthropogenic. The effects in regard to the time trends, vegetation, and soil will be reflected in the species distribution, forest composition, and soil potential productivity. In general, it can be said that the larger the fire and the shorter the time between two consecutive occurrences, the higher the probability to originate shifts in vegetation and soil degradation. In the Mediterranean region, the number of fire ignitions does not reflect the burnt area due to the occurrence of very large fires. The latter occur in a very small proportion of the number of ignitions, but result in very large burnt areas. Also there seems to be an increasing trend toward larger fires in the Mediterranean region due mainly to climatic and land use changes. This case study highlights the importance of vegetation regrowth a short time after the fire to maintain both forest systems and soil conservation.",book:{id:"5995",slug:"mediterranean-identities-environment-society-culture",title:"Mediterranean Identities",fullTitle:"Mediterranean Identities - Environment, Society, Culture"},signatures:"Ana Cristina Gonçalves and Adélia M.O. Sousa",authors:[{id:"187880",title:"Prof.",name:"Adélia",middleName:null,surname:"Sousa",slug:"adelia-sousa",fullName:"Adélia Sousa"},{id:"194484",title:"Prof.",name:"Ana Cristina",middleName:null,surname:"Gonçalves",slug:"ana-cristina-goncalves",fullName:"Ana Cristina Gonçalves"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"77362",title:"Role of Eco-Village Initiatives in Mitigating Desertification in Semi-Arid Areas of Tanzania",slug:"role-of-eco-village-initiatives-in-mitigating-desertification-in-semi-arid-areas-of-tanzania",totalDownloads:112,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Climate change adaptation actions for mitigating desertification and improving community livelihood in developing countries have attracted numerous scholarly works. However, there have been insufficient findings on the adaptation regarding the eco-village practices in semi-arid areas in particular. This inspired a study to assess the role of eco-village practices in strengthening climate change adaptive capacity and mitigating desertification in semi-arid areas of Chololo village, Dodoma region in central Tanzania. Data were collected using mixed methods, that is, household survey (92), focus group discussions (21), key informants interviews (6), field observation and documentary review. Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) and content analysis were used in analyzing quantitative and qualitative data respectively. The study found a relatively high level of community awareness on the eco-village initiative; the initiative rehabilitated village forest reserve; improved land productivity for sorghum and pearl millet; increased number of planted trees; and strengthening communities’ adaptation to climate change through improved households’ nutrition, income and reduced water stress.",book:{id:"8969",slug:"deserts-and-desertification",title:"Deserts and Desertification",fullTitle:"Deserts and Desertification"},signatures:"Fredy S. Mswima and Abiud L. Kaswamila",authors:[{id:"115390",title:"Prof.",name:"Abiud L.",middleName:"Lucas",surname:"Kaswamila",slug:"abiud-l.-kaswamila",fullName:"Abiud L. Kaswamila"},{id:"415117",title:"Dr.",name:"Fredy S.",middleName:null,surname:"Mswima",slug:"fredy-s.-mswima",fullName:"Fredy S. Mswima"}]},{id:"77741",title:"Characteristic on the Stability of Haloxylon ammodendron Plantation in the Southern Fringe of Gurbantunggut Desert, Northwest China",slug:"characteristic-on-the-stability-of-em-haloxylon-ammodendron-em-plantation-in-the-southern-fringe-of-",totalDownloads:165,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Using chronosequence theory and method, the characteristics of vegetation-soil coupling and structure stability of Haloxylon ammodendron plantations in the southern fringe of Gurbantunggut Desert were analyzed. The results showed, the canopy storey of H. ammodendron plantation experienced three stages, rapid growth (the age of 7 to 20), then slow growth (the age of 20 to 28) and last decline (over the age of 28). The best natural regeneration started from 17-yr-old plantation. Vegetation-soil system coupling degree (C) and coupling coordinative degree (D) of plantations with different age were not one-to-one correspondence. The system of H. ammodendron plantations always stayed in disorder recession, vegetation and soil were prone to loss type during the process of sand-fixation. Five principal components evaluated that the first rank was 42-yr-old plantation. It was inferred that the trend of the vegetation and soil system was from senescence to harmonious development. So the trend of coordinated development between vegetation and soil would be promoted, if the artificial tending and management measures strengthened.",book:{id:"8969",slug:"deserts-and-desertification",title:"Deserts and Desertification",fullTitle:"Deserts and Desertification"},signatures:"Qinghong Luo, Qimin Chen, Miao He and Na Li",authors:[{id:"340564",title:"Dr.",name:"Qinghong",middleName:null,surname:"Luo",slug:"qinghong-luo",fullName:"Qinghong Luo"},{id:"347848",title:"Mr.",name:"Qimin",middleName:null,surname:"Chen",slug:"qimin-chen",fullName:"Qimin Chen"},{id:"348214",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Miao",middleName:null,surname:"He",slug:"miao-he",fullName:"Miao He"},{id:"348215",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Na",middleName:null,surname:"Li",slug:"na-li",fullName:"Na Li"}]},{id:"77086",title:"Bowing Sand, Dust, and Dunes, Then and Now–A North American Perspective",slug:"bowing-sand-dust-and-dunes-then-and-now-a-north-american-perspective",totalDownloads:94,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Dune fields of the present day, the Dust Bowl disaster of the 1930s U.S. Great Plains, and contemporary efforts to forecast, simulate, and understand dust storms have a striking, uniform commonality. What these apparently diverse phenomena have in common is that they all result from blowing sand and dust. This review paper unifies these three disparate but related phenomena. Its over-arching goal is to clearly explain these manifestations of windblown sand and dust. First, for contemporary dune fields, we offer reviews of two technical papers that explain the eolian formation and the continuing development of two major dune fields in southeastern California and northwestern Sonora, Mexico: the Algodones Dunes and the Gran Desierto de Altar. Second, historical, geological, meteorological, and socioeconomic aspects of the 1930s Great Plains Dust Bowl are discussed. Third, and last, we return to the present day to summarize two lengthy reports on dust storms and to review two technical papers that concern their forecasting and simulation. The intent of this review is to acquaint the interested reader with how eolian transport of sand and dust affects the formation of present-day dune fields, human agricultural enterprises, and efforts to better forecast and simulate dust storms. Implications: Blowing sand and dust have drastically affected the geological landscape and continue to shape the formation of dune fields today. Nearly a century ago the U.S. Great Plains suffered through the Dust Bowl, yet another consequence of blowing sand and dust brought on by drought and mismanagement of agricultural lands. Today, this phenomenon adversely affects landscapes, transportation, and human respiratory health. A more complete understanding of this phenomenon could (and has) led to more effective mitigation of dust sources, as well as to a more accurate predictive system by which the public can be forewarned.",book:{id:"8969",slug:"deserts-and-desertification",title:"Deserts and Desertification",fullTitle:"Deserts and Desertification"},signatures:"Peter Hyde and Alex Mahalov",authors:[{id:"348247",title:"Dr.",name:"Peter",middleName:null,surname:"Hyde",slug:"peter-hyde",fullName:"Peter Hyde"},{id:"419631",title:"Dr.",name:"Alex",middleName:null,surname:"Mahalov",slug:"alex-mahalov",fullName:"Alex Mahalov"}]},{id:"61738",title:"Assessment of the Riparian Vegetation Changes Downstream of Selected Dams in Vhembe District, Limpopo Province on Based on Historical Aerial Photography",slug:"assessment-of-the-riparian-vegetation-changes-downstream-of-selected-dams-in-vhembe-district-limpopo",totalDownloads:1571,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"Dams have been associated with various impacts on downstream river ecosystems, including a decrease in stream flow, species biodiversity, water quality, altered hydrology and colonisation of the area by invasive alien plant species. The impacts normally interfere with the ecosystem functioning of riparian and aquatic environments, thereby leading to decreased biodiversity. This study aims to assess the impacts of dams on downstream river ecosystems, using data from aerial photographs and orthophotos, supplemented by field work. Five dams in Limpopo Province, South Africa, were selected (Albasini, Damani, Mambedi, Nandoni and Vondo), and photographs from different years were used. The area devoid of trees of certain species both downstream and upstream of the dams was calculated using grids of predetermined square sizes on each available photograph. Aerial photographs and orthophoto data were supplemented by field work. The nearest-individual method was used in the field to determine tree density of particular tree species. The environments downstream of the dams show a loss of obligate riparian vegetation and an increase of obligate terrestrial vegetation (Acacia Karroo, Acacia Ataxacantha and Bauhinia galpinii). Treeless area increased in all cases, especially in the case of Mambedi and Vondo dams, indicating lower resilience and higher fragility there.",book:{id:"6706",slug:"environmental-risks",title:"Environmental Risks",fullTitle:"Environmental Risks"},signatures:"John M. Mokgoebo, Tibangayuka A. Kabanda and Jabulani R.\nGumbo",authors:[{id:"224099",title:"Prof.",name:"Jabulani",middleName:null,surname:"Gumbo",slug:"jabulani-gumbo",fullName:"Jabulani Gumbo"},{id:"250766",title:"Mr.",name:"M.J.",middleName:null,surname:"Mokgoebo",slug:"m.j.-mokgoebo",fullName:"M.J. Mokgoebo"},{id:"250767",title:"Prof.",name:"T.A.",middleName:null,surname:"Kabanda",slug:"t.a.-kabanda",fullName:"T.A. Kabanda"}]},{id:"78428",title:"Jojoba - The Gold of Desert",slug:"jojoba-the-gold-of-desert",totalDownloads:247,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Jojoba [Simmondsia chinensis (Link) Schneider] is evergreen, perennial and drought resistant shrub belongs to the family of Simmondsiaceae. It is a multipurpose oil seed crop mainly grown in desert regions of world. This plant has unique oil among plant kingdom which is chemically a liquid-wax. The liquid-wax is made up of an ester of long chain fatty acids and alcohols. The liquid-wax is unique in nature because have no traces of glycerine and easily modified via hydrolysis, hydrogenation, halogenation, sulfurization, phosphosulfurization and ozonization techniques. The main uses of liquid-wax in various industries like cosmetics, pharmaceuticals, petrochemicals and lubricants. It is a potential seed oil crop for desert region so it is well known as the gold of desert. The main purpose of this chapter is to review the complete information about this plant so that it can produce and utilized maximally. 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He obtained a Master’s degree in Public Health and PhD in Public Health and Epidemiology. He has a background in Clinical Medicine and has taken courses at higher diploma levels in public health from University of Transkei, Republic of South Africa, and African Medical and Research Foundation (AMREF) in Nairobi, Kenya. Dr. Kasenga worked in different places in and outside Malawi, and has held various positions, such as Licensed Medical Officer, HIV/AIDS Programme Officer, HIV/AIDS resource person in the International Department of Diakonhjemet College, Oslo, Norway. He also managed an Integrated HIV/AIDS Prevention programme for over 5 years. He is currently working as a Director for the Health Ministries Department of Malawi Union of the Seventh Day Adventist Church. Dr. Kasenga has published over 5 articles on HIV/AIDS issues focusing on Prevention of Mother to Child Transmission of HIV (PMTCT), including a book chapter on HIV testing counseling (currently in press). 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