Barely three months into the new year and we are happy to announce a monumental milestone reached - 150 million downloads.
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This achievement solidifies IntechOpen’s place as a pioneer in Open Access publishing and the home to some of the most relevant scientific research available through Open Access.
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We are so proud to have worked with so many bright minds throughout the years who have helped us spread knowledge through the power of Open Access and we look forward to continuing to support some of the greatest thinkers of our day.
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Thank you for making IntechOpen your place of learning, sharing, and discovery, and here’s to 150 million more!
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C",surname:"Hamsini",slug:"b-c-hamsini",fullName:"B C Hamsini"},{id:"398224",title:"Dr.",name:"Bhavana",surname:"Nagabhushana Reddy",slug:"bhavana-nagabhushana-reddy",fullName:"Bhavana Nagabhushana Reddy"}]}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"225753",firstName:"Marina",lastName:"Dusevic",middleName:null,title:"Ms.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/225753/images/7224_n.png",email:"marina.d@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. 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1. Introduction
Palm oil mill effluent (POME) is an important source of inland water pollution when released into local rivers or lakes without treatment. In the process of palm oil milling, POME is generated through sterilization of fresh oil palm fruit bunches, clarification of palm oil and effluent from hydro-cyclone operations [Borja et al.,1996a]. POME is a viscous brown liquid with fine suspended solids at pH ranging between 4 and 5 [Najafpour et al., 2006]. In general appearance, palm oil mill effluent (POME) is a yellowish acidic wastewater with fairly high polluting properties, with average of 25,000 mg/l biochemical oxygen demand (BOD), 55,250 mg/l chemical oxygen demand (COD) and 19,610 mg/l suspended solid (SS). This highly polluting wastewater can cause several pollution problems. Therefore, direct discharge of POME into the environment is not encouraged due to the high values of COD, BOD and SS.
Over the past 20 years, the technique available for the treatment of POME in Malaysia has been biological treatment, consisting of anaerobic, facultative and aerobic pond systems [Chooi,1984], and [N. Ma, 1999]. Anaerobic digestion has been employed by most palm oil mills as their primary treatment of POME [Tay, 1991]. More than 85% of palm oil mills in Malaysia have adopted the ponding system for POME treatment [Ma et al., 1993], while the rest opted for open digesting tanks [Yacop et al., 2005]. These methods are regarded as a conventional POME treatment method involving long retention times and large treatment areas. High-rate anaerobic bioreactors have also been applied in laboratory-scaled POME treatment such as up-flow anaerobic sludge blanket (UASB) reactors [Borja el al., 1994a]; up-flow anaerobic filtration [Borja et al., 1994b]; fluidized bed reactors [Borja et al., 1995a], [Borja et al., 1995b] and up-flow anaerobic sludge fixed-film (UASFF) reactors [Najafpour et al., 2006]. Anaerobic contact digesters Ibrahim et al. (1984) and continuous stirred tank reactors (CSTR) have also been studied for PMOE treatment Chin (1981). Other than anaerobic digestion, POME has also been treated using membrane technology [Ahmad et al., 2006; 2007] and [Fakhru’l-Razi, 1994].
2. Anaerobic digestion
Anaerobic digestion is the most suitable method for the treatment of effluents containing high concentration of organic carbon such as POME [Borja et al.,1996a]. Anaerobic digestion is defined as the engineered methanogenic anaerobic decomposition of organic matter. It involves different species of anaerobic microorganisms that degrade organic matter [Cote et al., 2006]. In the anaerobic process, the decomposition of organic and inorganic substrate is carried out in the absence of molecular oxygen. The biological conversion of the organic substrate occurs in the mixtures of primary settled and biological sludge under anaerobic condition followed by hydrolysis, acidogenesis and methanogenesis to convert the intermediate compounds into simpler end products as methane (CH4) and carbon dioxide (CO2) [Gee et al., 1994], [Guerrero et al., 1999], and [Gerardi, 2003]. Therefore, the anaerobic digestion process offers great potential for rapid disintegration of organic matter to produce biogas that can be used to generate electricity and save fossil energy [linke, 2006]. The suggested anaerobic treatment processes for POME include anaerobic suspended growth processes, attached growth anaerobic processes (immobilized cell bioreactors, anaerobic fluidized bed reactors and anaerobic filters), anaerobic blanket processes (up-flow anaerobic sludge blanket reactors and anaerobic baffled reactors), membrane separation anaerobic treatment processes and hybrid anaerobic treatment processes.
2.1. Anaerobic and alternative POME treatment methods
Currently available alternative methods for POME treatment are: aerobic treatment, membrane treatment systems and the evaporation method. The advantages and disadvantages of anaerobic and alternative treatment methods are shown in Table 1. In terms of energy requirement for POME treatment operation, anaerobic digestion has a greater advantage over the other alternative methods as it does not require energy for aeration. Furthermore, anaerobic POME treatment produces methane gas (CH4) which is a value-added product to digestion that can be utilized in the mill to gain more revenue in terms of CER. For example, the open digesting tank for POME treatment without land application, the capital cost quoted by [Gopal et al., 1986] for a palm oil mill processing 30 tons FFB/h is RM 750,000. Based on the chemical Engineering Plant Cost Index [Ulrich et al., 2004] the capital cost for this system is estimated to be US 370,272 in 2006. Comparing this to the capital cost for a membrane system in POME treatment for a palm oil mill processing 36 tons FFB/h at RM 3,950,000 [Chong, 2007], it is obvious that the former anaerobic treatment has better advantage over other treatment methods in terms of capital cost. The disadvantages of anaerobic treatment are (a) long retention times and (b) long start-up period. However, the problem of long retention times can be rectified by using high-rate anaerobic bioreactors while the long start-up period can be shortened by using granulated seed sludge [McHugh et al., 2003], utilizing seed sludge from same process [Yacob et al., 2006b] or maintaining suitable ph and temperature in the high-rate anaerobic bioreactor for growth of bacteria consortia [Liu et al., 2002].
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Treatmenttypes
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tAdvantages\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tDisadvantages\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tReference\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Membrane
\n\t\t\t
Produce consistent and good water quality after treatment, smaller space required for membrane treatment plants, can disinfect treated water
\n\t\t\t
Short membrane life, membrane fouling, expensive compared to conventional treatment
\n\t\t\t
[Ahmad et al.,2006] [Metcalf et al., 2003]
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Anaerobic
\n\t\t\t
low energy requirements (no aeration),Producing methane gas as a valuable end product, generated sludge from process could be used for land applications
\n\t\t\t
Long retention time, large area required For conventional digesters, slow start-up (granulating reactors)
\n\t\t\t
[Metcalf et al., 2003] [Borja et al., 2006a]
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Evaporation
\n\t\t\t
solid concentrate from process can be utilized as feed material for fertilizer manufacturing
\n\t\t\t
High energy consumption
\n\t\t\t
[ MA et al., 1997]
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Aerobic
\n\t\t\t
Shorter retention time, more effective in handling toxic wastes
\n\t\t\t
High energy requirement (aeration), rate of pathogen inactivation is lower in aerobic sludge compared to anaerobic sludge, thus unsuitable for land applications
\n\t\t\t
[Jr et al., 1999] [Doble et al., 2005]
\n\t\t
\n\t
Table 1.
Advantages and disadvantages between anaerobic and alternative treatment methods
2.2. Anaerobic treatment methods
2.2.1. Anaerobic filtration
Anaerobic digestion has existed as a technology over 100 years. It gradually evolved, from an airtight vessel and a septic tank, to a temperature controlled, completely mixed digester, and finally to a high rate reactor, containing a density of highly active biomass. The microbiology of methane digestion has been examined intensively in the last decade. It has been established that three physiological groups of bacteria, converting hydrogen and carbon dioxide or acetate to methane. In contrast to aerobic degradation, which is mainly a single species phenomenon, anaerobic degradation proceeds as a chain process, in which several sequent organisms are involved. Anaerobic conversion of complex substrates requires the synergistic action of the micro-organisms involved. A factor of utmost importance, in the overall process, is the partial pressure of hydrogen and the thermodynamics linked to it. This fact has been recognized and discussed by researchers [Bryant et al., 1967]; [Boone and Bryant, 1980]; [McInerney et al. 1979]; [Hickey and Switzenbaum 1988]. Anaerobic filter were favor for wastewater treatment because (a) high substrate removal efficiency (b) it requires a smaller reactor volume which operates on a shorter hydraulic retention times (HRT), [Borja et al., 1994b], (c) the ability to maintain high concentration of biomass in contact with the wastewater without affecting treatment efficiency [Reyes et al., 1999], [Wang et al. (2007)], and (d) tolerance to shock loadings [Reyes et al., 1999], [Van Der Merwe et al., 1993]. Besides, construction and operation of anaerobic filter is less expensive and small amount of suspended solids in the effluent eliminates the need of solid separation or recycle [Russo et al. 1985].
Another factor of fundamental importance has been the identification of new methanogenic species, and the characterization of their physiological behaviour. Of particular interest was the determination of the substrate affinity constants of both hydrogenotrophic and acetotrophic methanogens. While the first exhibit quite high substrate affinities and remove hydrogen down to ppm levels, the second group appears to contain species with only low substrate affinities [Zehnder et al., 1980]; [Huser et al., 1982]. This limited substrate affinity has,, an important consequence for anaerobic wastewater treatment.
A technological advance of utmost importance in anaerobic digestion has been the development of methods to concentrate methanogenic biomass in the reactor, especially in very low solids concentration in the wastewater, 1 - 2%. Such higher concentration of biomass can be achieved using of autoflocculation and gravity settling as, for instance, in the UASB reactor [Lettinga et al. 1983], by attachment to a static carrier (anaerobic filter) [Henze and Harremoes, 1982]; [Van Den Berg and Kennedy 1981]; [Young and McCarty 1969], by attachment to a mobile carrier (fluidized bed) [Binot et Heijnen 1984]; [Bull et al., 1984] or by growth in and on a matrix [Huysman et al., 1983]. All these different methods are in full development
Anaerobic filters have been applied to treat various types of wastewater including soybean processing wastewater [H-Q et al., 2002a], wine vinases [Nebot et al., 1995], [Perez et al., 1998 ], land fill leachate [Wang et al., 2007], municipal wastewater [Bodkhe, 2008], brewery wastewater [Leal et al., 1998], slaughterhouse wastewater [Ruiz et al., 1997], drug wastewater [Gangagni et al., 2005], and beet sugar water [Farhadian et al., 2007]. However, filter clogging is a major drawback in the continuous operation of anaerobic filters [Bodkhe, 2008], [Jawed et al. 2000], [Parawira et al., 2006]. Clogging of anaerobic filter has only been reported in the treatment of POME at an organic loading rate (OLR) of 20 g COD/l/day [Borja et al., 1995b] and also in the treatment of slaughterhouse wastewater at 6 g COD/l/day. This because the other studies were conducted at lower OLRs which had lower suspended solid content compared to POME. In general, anaerobic filter s are capable of treating wastewaters to obtain good effluent quality with at least 70% of COD removal efficiency with methane gas composition of more than 50%. Table 2 illustrates the COD removal efficiency of some treated wastewater using anaerobic filtration based on highest achievable percentage of methane in the generated biogas. In terms of POME treatment, the highest COD removal efficiency recorded was 94% with 63% of methane at an OLR of 4.5 kg COD/m3/day, while overall COD removal efficiency was up to 90% with an average methane gas composition of 60% [Borja et al., 1994b]. Investigations have been done to improve the efficiency of anaerobic filtration in wastewater treatment. [Yu et al., 2002a] found that operating at an optimal recycle ratio which varies depending on OLR will enhance COD removal. However, methane percentage will be compromised with increase in optimal recycle ratio. Higher retention of biomass in the filter will also lead to a better COD removal efficiency.
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tTypes of Wastewater\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Operating OLR range(Kg COD/m3/day)
\n\t\t\t
COD removalefficiency (%)
\n\t\t\t
Highest methanecomposition (%)
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tReference\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Slaughterhouse wastewater
\n\t\t\t
1.0-6.5
\n\t\t\t
79.9 (91.5)
\n\t\t\t
51.1
\n\t\t\t
[Ruiz et al.,1997]
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
POME
\n\t\t\t
1.2-11.4
\n\t\t\t
94.0 (94.0)
\n\t\t\t
63.0
\n\t\t\t
[Borja et al. 1994b]
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Baker’s yeast factory effluent
\n\t\t\t
1.8-10.0
\n\t\t\t
69.0 (74.0)
\n\t\t\t
65.0
\n\t\t\t
[Van der et al. 1993]
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Distillery wastewaters
\n\t\t\t
0.42-3.4
\n\t\t\t
91.0 (93.0)
\n\t\t\t
63.0
\n\t\t\t
[Russo et al., 1985]
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Landfill leachate
\n\t\t\t
0.76-7.63
\n\t\t\t
90.8 (90.8)
\n\t\t\t
N/A
\n\t\t\t
[Wang et al., 2007]
\n\t\t
\n\t
Table 2.
Operating OLR range; COD removal efficiency in various wastewater treatments using anaerobic filtration based on highest % of methane production
() - number in bracket denotes highest COD removal efficiency. N/A- data unavailable.
2.2.2. Fluidized bed reactor
A fluidized bed reactor (FBR) is a type of reactor device that can be used to carry out a variety of multiphase chemical reactions. Fluidized bed reactor exhibits several advantages that make it useful for treatment of high-strength wastewaters. It has very large surface areas for biomass attachment [Borja et al., 2001], [Toldra et al., 1987] enabling high OLR and short HRTs during operation [Garcia et al., 1998], [Sowmeyan et al., 2008]. Furthermore, fluidized bed has minimal problems of channeling, plugging or gas hold-up [Borja et al., 2001], [Toldra et al. 1987]. Higher up-flow velocity of raw POME is maintained for fluidized bed reactor to enable expansion of the support material bed. Biomass will then attach and grow on the support on material. In this way, biomass can be retained in the reactor. Hickey and [Switzenbaum, 1988] reported on the development of the anaerobic expanded bed process, which was found to convert dilute organic wastes to methane at low temperatures and at high organic and hydraulic loading rates. This process was being evaluated in 1988, on a 10,000 gallons per day pilot scale, consisting of an anaerobic expanded bed followed by post- treatment. [Jeris, 1987] reported on a two year experiment, testing two pilot scale anaerobic fluidized bed reactors, treating primary effluent. One reactor used sand as a carrier, the other granular activated carbon (GAC). Seeding experiments indicated that the GAC developed a biofilm more quickly and had more attached biomass. In addition, better BOD removal was observed with the GAC reactor. He noted that removal efficiencies were essentially independent of organic volumetric loading rates. Over a twelve month period in temperate climates, effluent total BOD5 values were consistently around 40 mg/l.
Investigations have been done on the application of fluidized bed to treat cutting-oil wastewater [Perez et al., 2007]; real textile wastewater [Sen et al., 2003]; slaughterhouse wastewater [Toldra et al., 1987]; wine and distillery wastewater [Garcia et al. 1998], [Sowmeyan et al., 2008]; ice-cream wastewater [Borja et al., 1995a], [Hawkes et al., 1995]; pharmaceutical effluent [Saravanane et al., 2001], and POME [Borja et al., 1995b]. OLR ranges and COD removal efficiencies of various wastewater treatments using fluidized bed is tabulated in Table 3. Based on Table 3, it can be concluded that anaerobic fluidized bed can typically remove at least 65% and up to more than 90% of COD. Inverse flow anaerobic fluidized bed is capable of tolerating higher OLRs compared to up-flow configuration.
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tTypes of Wastewater\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Operating OLR range(Kg COD/m3/day)
\n\t\t\t
COD removalefficiency (%)
\n\t\t\t
Reactorconfiguration
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tReference\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Protein production from extracted
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Sunflower flour effluent
\n\t\t\t
0.6-9.3
\n\t\t\t
80.0-93.3
\n\t\t\t
UF
\n\t\t\t
[Borja et al., 2001]
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
POME
\n\t\t\t
10.0-40.0
\n\t\t\t
78.0-94.0
\n\t\t\t
UF
\n\t\t\t
[Borja et al., 1995b]
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Ice-cream wastewater
\n\t\t\t
3.2-15.6
\n\t\t\t
94.4
\n\t\t\t
UF
\n\t\t\t
[Borja et al.,1995a]
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Distillery effluent
\n\t\t\t
6.11-35.09
\n\t\t\t
80.0-92.0
\n\t\t\t
DF
\n\t\t\t
[Sowmeyan et al., 2008]
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Brewery wastewater
\n\t\t\t
0.5-70.0
\n\t\t\t
80.0-90.0
\n\t\t\t
DF
\n\t\t\t
[Alvarado et al., 2008]
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Real textile wastewater
\n\t\t\t
0.4-5.0
\n\t\t\t
78.0-89.0
\n\t\t\t
UF
\n\t\t\t
[Sen et al., 2003]
\n\t\t
\n\t
Table 3.
Operating OLR range; COD removal efficiency of various wastewater treatments using fluidized bed reactor
The type of support material in the fluidized bed plays an important role to determine the efficiency of the entire treatment system [Garcia et al., 1998], [Sowmeyan et al., 2008] for both inverse flow and up-flow systems. Studies using fluidized bed to treat ice-cream wastewater showed different COD removal efficiencies when different support materials were used. Researcher [Hawkes et al., 1995] found that fluidized bed using granular activated carbon (GAC) gave about 60% COD removal while [Borja et al., 1995a] obtained 94.4% of COD removal using ovoid saponite. Thus suitable support material needs to be selected to obtain high COD removal efficiency in the system.
Up-flow anaerobic sludge blanket (UASB) technology, normally referred to as UASB reactor, is a form of anaerobic digester that is used in the treatment of wastewater. UASB was developed by [Lettinga et al., 1980] whereby this system has been successful in treating a wide range of industrial effluents including those with inhibitory compounds. The UASB reactor is a methanogenic (methane-producing) digester that evolved from the anaerobic clarigester. A similar but variant technology to UASB is the expanded granular sludge bed (EGSB) digester. The underlying principle of the UASB operation is to have an aerobic sludge which exhibits good settling properties [Lettinga, 1995]. So far, UASB has been applied for the treatment of potato wastewater [Kalyuzhnyi et al., 1998], [Lettinga et al., 1980], [Parawira et al., 2006]; domestic wastewater [Barbosa et al., 1989], [Behling et al., 1997]; slaughterhouse wastewater [Sayed et al., 1984]; POME [Borja et al., 1994c]. UASB has a relatively simple design where sludge from organic matter degradation and biomass settles in the reactor. Organic matter from wastewater that comes in contact with sludge will be digested by the biomass granules. Table 4 shows some performances of wastewater treatment using UASB system. For potato wastewater treatment [Kalyuzhnyi et al., 1998] and [Parawira et al., 2006] both observed foaming and sludge floatation in the UASB reactor when operating at higher OLRs (> 6.1kg COD/m3 day). The ability of UASB to tolerate higher OLR for potato wastewater investigated by [Lettinga et al., 1980] compared due to the fact that the latter two studies were conducted at laboratory scale. In general, UASB is successful in COD removal of more than 60% for most wastewater types except for ice-cream wastewater. Researcher [Hawkes et al., 1995] suggested that the lower COD removal percentage from ice-cream wastewater was due to design faults in the reactor’s three phase separator and high contents of milk fat that were hard to degrade.
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tTypes of Wastewater\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Operating OLR range(Kg COD/m3/day)
\n\t\t\t
COD removalefficiency (%)
\n\t\t\t
MethaneComposition(%)
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tReference\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
POME single-stage two-stage
\n\t\t\t
1.8-13.9
\n\t\t\t
63.0-81.0
\n\t\t\t
54.0-67.0
\n\t\t\t
[Kalyuzhnyi et al 1998]
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
(based on methanogenic reactor)
\n\t\t\t
1.5-6.1
\n\t\t\t
92.0-98.0
\n\t\t\t
59.0-70.0
\n\t\t\t
[Parawira et al. 2006]
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Domestic sewage
\n\t\t\t
3.76
\n\t\t\t
74.0
\n\t\t\t
69.0
\n\t\t\t
[Barbosa et al. 1989]
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Ice-cream wastewater
\n\t\t\t
0.5-50
\n\t\t\t
50.0
\n\t\t\t
69.6
\n\t\t\t
[Hawkes et al. 1995]
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Sugar – beet
\n\t\t\t
4.0-5.0
\n\t\t\t
95.0
\n\t\t\t
N/A
\n\t\t\t
[Lettinga et al. 1980]
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Pharmaceutical wastewater
\n\t\t\t
0.27-2.0
\n\t\t\t
26.0-69.0
\n\t\t\t
N/A
\n\t\t\t
[Stronach et al. 1987]
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Slaughter wastewater
\n\t\t\t
7.0-11.0
\n\t\t\t
55.0-85.0
\n\t\t\t
65.0-75.0
\n\t\t\t
[Sayed et al. 1984]
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Confectionary wastewater
\n\t\t\t
1.25-2.25
\n\t\t\t
66.0
\n\t\t\t
N/A
\n\t\t\t
[Forster et al. 1983]
\n\t\t
\n\t
Table 4.
Performance of UASB in various wastewater treatments
N/A – data unavailable.
POME treatment has been successful with UASB reactor, achieving COD removal efficiency up to 98.4% with the highest operating OLR of 10.63 kg COD/m3 day [Borja et al., 1994c]. However, reactor operated under overload conditions with high volatile fatty acid content became unstable after 15 days. Due to high amount of POME discharge daily from milling process, it is necessary to operate treatment system at higher OLR. UASB reactor is advantageous for its ability to treat wastewater with high suspended solid content [Fang et al. 1994]; [Kalyuzhnyi et al., 1998] that may clog reactors with packing material and also provide higher methane production [Kalyuzhnyi et al., 1996]; [Stronach et al., 1987]. However, this reactor might face long start-up periods if seeded sludge is not granulated.
2.2.4. Anaerobic contact digester
The anaerobic contact process is a type of anaerobic digester. Anaerobic digesters are the aerobic equivalents of activated sludge process and are currently used for treating effluents from sugar processing, distilleries, citric acid and yeast production, industries producing canned vegetables, pectin, starch, meat products, etc. This process has been implemented in POME [Ibrahim et al., 1984]; ice-cream wastewater, alcohol distillery wastewater [Vlissidis et al., 1993] and fermented olive mill wastewater treatment [Hamdi et al. 1991]. Concentrated wastewaters are suitable to be treated by anaerobic contact digestion since relatively high quality effluent can be achieved [Jr et al., 1999]. In the study of fermented olive mill wastewater treatment, anaerobic contact was capable of reaching steady state more quickly compared to anaerobic filter; however, more oxygen transfer in the digester (due to mixing) causes this process to be less stable.
2.2.5. Continuous Stirred Tank Reactor (CSTR)
CSTR run at steady state with continuous flow of reactants and products; the feed assumes a uniform composition throughout the reactor, exit stream has the same composition as in the tank. The mechanical agitator provides more area of contact with the biomass thus improving gas production. In POME treatment, CSTR has been applied by a mill under Keck Seng (Malaysia) Berhad in Masai, Johor and it is apparently the only one which has been operating continuously since early 1980’s [Tong et al., 2006]. Other applications of CSTR on wastewater treatment include dilute dairy wastewater [Chen et al., 1996]; jam wastewater [Mohan et al., 2008] and coke wastewater [Vazquez et al., 2006].
The CSTR in Kek Seng’s Palm oil mill has COD removal efficiency of approximately 83% and CSTR treating dairy wastewater has COD removal efficiency of 60%. In terms of methane composition in generated biogas, it was found to be 62.5% for POME treatment and 22.5-76.9% for dairy wastewater treatment.
2.2.6. Anaerobic contact digestion
Presently there are three categories of anaerobic treatment systems. The first category is the conventional anaerobic digester, which includes two basic designs and another that combines the two. The standard rate digester is the most basic treatment system. It mixes the waste is solely by the movement of gas up through the solid matter and into the top of the tank; there is no external mixing. This process is highly inefficient, for it utilizes only 50 percent of the total waste volume, and requires a very long solid retention time (SRT), usually greater than 30 days; this process has been implemented in POME [Ibrahim et al., 1984]; ice-cream wastewater, alcohol distillery wastewater [Vlissidis et al., 1993] and fermented olive mill wastewater treatment [Hamdi et al., 1991]. Concentrated wastewaters are suitable to be treated by anaerobic contact digestion since relatively high quality effluent can be achieved [Jr et al., 1999]. In the study of fermented olive mill wastewater treatment, anaerobic contact was capable of reaching steady state more quickly compared to anaerobic filter; however, more oxygen transfer in the digester (due to mixing) causes this process to be less suitable.
2.2.7. Membrane separation anaerobic treatment process
Membrane separation has been considered for anaerobic reactors but the technology is still in a development stage. Several studies on membrane anaerobic processes for the treatment of various wastewaters including POME [Fakhru’l et al., 1999] have been performed [Fakhru’l et al., 1994]; [Nagano et al., 1992]; [Pillay et al., 1994]. For example, an ultrafiltration (UF) membrane with a molecular cut-off (MWCO) of 200,000 was used by [76] for biomass/effluent separation in conjunction with an anaerobic process for the treatment of POME. A lower operating pressure (1.5-2 bars) but a higher cross-flow velocity (2.3 m/s) was applied in this study in order to control fouling and to reduce solid deposition on the membrane surfaces. A high COD removal could be obtained in the membrane anaerobic system (MAS), but the permeate displayed a high color content with a low turbidity (less than 10 NTU), including that the color was due to dissolved solids with molecular weights lower than 200,000 g/mol. The particular organics retained in the reactor could be liquefied and decomposed because of the long solid retention time, which was independent of the HRT. The HRT was mainly influenced by the UF membrane flux rates which directly determined the volume of influent that could be fed to the reactor.
2.3. Clean Development Mechanism (CDM)
The Kyoto Protocol is an international agreement linked to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change. The major feature of the Kyoto Protocol is that it sets binding targets for 37 industrialized countries and the European community for reducing greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions.These amount to an average of five per cent against 1990 levels over the five-year period 2008-2012.
The Clean Development Mechanism (CDM), defined in Article 12 of the Protocol, allows a country with an emission-reduction or emission-limitation commitment under the Kyoto Protocol (Annex B Party) to implement an emission-reduction project in developing countries. Such projects can earn saleable certified emission reduction (CER) credits, each equivalent to one tonne of CO2, which can be counted towards meeting Kyoto targets.
The mechanism is seen by many as a trailblazer. It is the first global, environmental investment and credit scheme of its kind, providing a standardized emission offset instrument, CERs. Besides helping to reduce carbon emission to the environment, CDM has the advantage to offer developing countries such as Malaysia to attract foreign investments to sustain renewable energy projects [Menon, 2002]. Thus, palm oil mills could earn carbon credits as revenue by the utilization of methane gas as renewable energy from anaerobic digestion of palm oil mill effluent. There is a lot of attention has been give to develop anaerobic treatment for POME since the implementation of CDM.
2.4. Comparison of various anaerobic treatment methods in POME treatment
Table 5 shows the performance of several of anaerobic digestion or treatment methods under both mesophilic and thermophilic conditions of POME. As can be seen from Table 5, the fluidized bed reactor has the ability to treat POME at very high organic loading rates; OLR with a short retention time, biogas capture is not emphasized using this process. Therefore, it can be concluded that USFF currently gives the best performance in POME treatment, achieving high COD removal efficiency and high OLR methane production at relatively short hydraulic retention time, HRT compared to conventional and other available anaerobic treatment methods.
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
retention(days)
\n\t\t\t
Operating OLR(Kg COD/m3/day)
\n\t\t\t
COD removalefficiency (%)
\n\t\t\t
Hydraulictime
\n\t\t\t
Methanecomposition(%)
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tReference\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Anaerobic pond 40
\n\t\t\t
1.4
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
97.8
\n\t\t\t
54.4
\n\t\t\t
[Perez et al., 2001]
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Anaerobic digester
\n\t\t\t
2.16
\n\t\t\t
80.7
\n\t\t\t
20
\n\t\t\t
36
\n\t\t\t
[Yacop et al., 2005]
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Anaerobic filtration
\n\t\t\t
4.5
\n\t\t\t
94.0
\n\t\t\t
15
\n\t\t\t
63
\n\t\t\t
[Borja et al., 1994b]
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Fluidized bed
\n\t\t\t
40.0
\n\t\t\t
78
\n\t\t\t
0.25
\n\t\t\t
N/A
\n\t\t\t
[Borja et al., 1995b]
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
UASB
\n\t\t\t
10.63
\n\t\t\t
98.4
\n\t\t\t
4
\n\t\t\t
54.2
\n\t\t\t
[Borja et al., 1994c]
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
UASFF
\n\t\t\t
11.58
\n\t\t\t
97
\n\t\t\t
3
\n\t\t\t
71.9
\n\t\t\t
[Najafpour et al., 2006]
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
CSTR
\n\t\t\t
3.33
\n\t\t\t
80
\n\t\t\t
18
\n\t\t\t
62.5
\n\t\t\t
[Tong et al., 2006]
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Anaerobic contact processa\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
3.44
\n\t\t\t
93.3
\n\t\t\t
4.7
\n\t\t\t
63
\n\t\t\t
[Ibrahim et al., 1984]
\n\t\t
\n\t
Table 5.
Performance of various anaerobic treatment methods on POME treatment
N/A: data unavailable.
a In terms of BOD.
Table 6 shows the advantages and disadvantages of each anaerobic treatment method. It can clearly seen that conventional methods are lacking in terms of treatment time, area required for treatment and facilities to capture biogas. However, these methods are more economically viable and have the capacity to tolerate a wider range of OLR. High-rate bioreactors are more effective in biodegradation as shorter retention times are needed, producing higher methane yield while compromising the OLR, capital and operating cost.
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tTreatment processes\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tadvantages\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tdisadvantages\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tReferences\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Ponding system
\n\t\t\t
Reliable and stable Anaerobically digested POME from the ponds could be used to culture algae. Cheap, simple to construct, low maintenance costs, the energy needed to operate a ponding system is minimal.
\n\t\t\t
large area of land are required, making it unsuitable for factories located in the near urban and other developed areas. no facilities to capture biogas long retention time.
\n\t\t\t
[Chooi et al. 91984]
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Anaerobic filtration
\n\t\t\t
Small reactor volume Producing high quality effluent, short hydraulic times, able to tolerate shock Loadings, retain high biomass Concentration in the packing
\n\t\t\t
lower methane emission, Clogging at high OLRs, High media and support cost Unsuitable for high suspended solid wastewater
\n\t\t\t
[Borja et al., 1994b]
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Fluidized bed
\n\t\t\t
Most compact of all high-rate Processes, very well mixed Conditions in the reactor, large Surface area for biomass Attachment
\n\t\t\t
high power requirements for bed fluidization, high cost of carrier media, not suitable for high suspended solid wastewaters
\n\t\t\t
[Jr et al., 1997]
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
UASB
\n\t\t\t
Useful for treatment of high suspended solid wastewater Producing high quality effluent No media required (less cost)
\n\t\t\t
Performance dependent on sludge settleability, foaming and sludge floatation at high OLRs, long start up period if granulated, seed sludge is not used
\n\t\t\t
[Lettinga, 1995]
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
UASFF
\n\t\t\t
Higher OLRs achievable compared to operating UASB or anaerobic filtration alone, problems of clogging eliminated Higher biomass retention, more Stable operation, ability to tolerate Shock loadings, suitable for diluted Wastewater.
\n\t\t\t
Granulation inhibition at high volatile fatty acid concentration Lower OLRs when treating suspended solid wastewaters
\n\t\t\t
[Ayati et al., 2006]
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
CSTR
\n\t\t\t
Provides more contact of wastewater with biomass through mixing, increased gas production compared to conventional method
\n\t\t\t
Less efficient gas production at treatment volume. Less biomass retentio
\n\t\t\t
Hamdi et al., 1991]
\n\t\t
\n\t
Table 6.
Advantages and disadvantages of various treatment processes for POME
Biogas coming from biomethanization or anaerobic digestion represents an attractive strategy for both biomass waste treatment and recycling and is of great interest from an environmental point of view and may benefit society by providing a clean fuel source from renewable energy. This technology is accomplished by a series of biochemical transformations, which can be toughly separated into a first step where hydrolysis, acidification and liquefaction take a place and second step where acetate, hydrogen and carbon dioxide are transformed into biogas with methane content between 60-80%, which cover a large part of energy. Many factors govern the performance of anaerobic digesters where adequate control is required to prevent reactor failure. These factors are operating temperature, pH, mixing, nutrients for bacteria and organic loading rates into the digester.
2.5.1. Operating temperature
One of the most important factors affecting anaerobic digestion of organic waste is temperature. Anaerobic digestions can be developed at different temperature ranges including mesophilic temperatures (approximately 35ºC) and thermophilic temperatures ranging from 55 ºC to 60 ºC. Conventional anaerobic digestion is carried out at mesophilic temperatures (35–37 ºC), mainly because of the lower energy requirements and better stability of the process. POME is discharged at temperatures around 80-90 oC [Zinatizadeh et al., 2006] which actually makes treatment at both mesophilic and thermophilic temperature feasible especially in tropical countries like Malaysia. Effect of temperature on the performance of anaerobic digestion was investigated by [H-Q et al., 2002a] and found that substrate degradation rate and biogas production rate at 55 oC was higher than operation at 37 oC. Studies have reported that thermophilic digesters are able to tolerate higher OLRs and operate at shorter HRT while producing more biogas [Ahn et al., 2002], [Kim et al., 2006], and [Yilmaz et al., 2008]. However, failure to control temperature increase can result in biomass washout [Lau et al., 1997] with accumulation of volatile fatty acid due to inhibition of methanogenesis. At high temperatures, production of volatile fatty acid is higher compared to mesophilic temperature range [H-Q et al., 2002a].
2.5.2. pH
A pH (potential of Hydrogen) measurement reveals if a solution is acidic or alkaline (also base or basic). If the solution has an equal amount of acidic and alkaline molecules, the pH is considered neutral. The microbial communities in anaerobic digesters are sensitive to pH changes and methanogens are affected to a great extend [Jr et al., 1999]. Several cases of reactor failure reported in studies of wastewater treatment are due to accumulation of high volatile fatty acid concentration, causing a drop in pH which inhibited methanogenesis Parawira et al. (2006), [Patel et al., 2002]. Thus, volatile fatty acid concentration is an important parameter to monitor to guarantee reactor performance [Buyukkamaci et al., 2004]. It was found that digester could tolerate acetic acid concentrations up to 4000 mg/l without inhibition of gas production Stafford (1982). To control the level of volatile fatty acid in the system, alkalinity has to be maintained by recirculation of treated effluent [Najafpour et al., 2006], [Borja et al., 1996a] to the digester or addition of lime and bicarbonate salt [Gerardi, 2003].
2.5.3. Mixing
Distribution of bacteria, substrate, nutrients and temperature equalization by means of adequate mixing, are known to be crucial for the overall anaerobic digester (AD) process [Chapman, 1989]. Several investigations show that improvements in reactor performance can be achieved when changes in mixing intensity are imposed [Angelidaki et al., 2004]. According to [Gerardi, 2003] the main advantages of mixing in AD are: minimization of solids accumulation that may restrict reactor hydraulics, reduction of scum build up, elimination of temperature stratification and maintaining close contact between substrate particles and microbial communities. In a sequential experiment [Stroot et al., 2001] studied the feasibility of co-digestion of municipal solid waste, primary sludge and waste activated sludge (WAS) under mesophilic conditions in laboratory scale continuous stirred tank reactors (CSTRs) under different OLR and mixing conditions.
2.5.4. Organic loading rates
Organic loading rate is defined as the application of soluble and particulate organic matter. It’s typically expressed on an area basis as pounds of BOD per unit area. Various studies have shown that higher OLRs will reduce COD removal efficiency in wastewater treatment systems [Torkian et al., 2003], [Sanchez et al., 2005]. However, gas production will increase with OLR until a stage when methanogens could not work quick enough to convert acetic acid to methane.
3. Conclusions
The performance of anaerobic treatment for POME and effects of organic loading rates were thoroughly reviewed. The palm oil industry is an indisputable source of pollution in Malaysia. In order to counteract the negative impact of this source, anaerobic digestion is an advantageous method for POME treatment as it generates valuable and product that can be exchanged into revenue when registered as a clean development mechanism CDM project. Furthermore, research can be done to develop a thermophilic anaerobic bioreactor with minimal control to ease system operation. Moreover, intensity of mixing in the thermophilic range should be investigated to obtain an optimum mixing rate that will keep microbial consortia in close proximity and at the same time improve the system efficiency. Furthermore, operation costs can be reduced through utilization of biogas for heat or electricity energy generation in the plant.
\n',keywords:null,chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/42628.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/42628.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/42628",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/42628",totalDownloads:5537,totalViews:532,totalCrossrefCites:7,totalDimensionsCites:17,totalAltmetricsMentions:0,introChapter:null,impactScore:6,impactScorePercentile:94,impactScoreQuartile:4,hasAltmetrics:0,dateSubmitted:"February 23rd 2012",dateReviewed:"October 14th 2012",datePrePublished:null,datePublished:"February 27th 2013",dateFinished:"February 6th 2013",readingETA:"0",abstract:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/42628",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/42628",book:{id:"1269",slug:"international-perspectives-on-water-quality-management-and-pollutant-control"},signatures:"N.H. Abdurahman, Y.M. Rosli and N.H. Azhari",authors:[{id:"151817",title:"Prof.",name:"Abdurahman",middleName:"H",surname:"Nour",fullName:"Abdurahman Nour",slug:"abdurahman-nour",email:"nour2000_99@yahoo.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/151817/images/3309_n.jpg",institution:{name:"Universiti Malaysia Pahang",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Malaysia"}}}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Anaerobic digestion",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"2.1. Anaerobic and alternative POME treatment methods",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"2.2. Anaerobic treatment methods",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_3",title:"Table 2.",level:"3"},{id:"sec_4_3",title:"Table 3.",level:"3"},{id:"sec_5_3",title:"Table 4.",level:"3"},{id:"sec_6_3",title:"2.2.4. Anaerobic contact digester",level:"3"},{id:"sec_7_3",title:"2.2.5. Continuous Stirred Tank Reactor (CSTR)",level:"3"},{id:"sec_8_3",title:"2.2.6. Anaerobic contact digestion",level:"3"},{id:"sec_9_3",title:"2.2.7. Membrane separation anaerobic treatment process",level:"3"},{id:"sec_11_2",title:"2.3. Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) ",level:"2"},{id:"sec_12_2",title:"2.4. Comparison of various anaerobic treatment methods in POME treatment",level:"2"},{id:"sec_13_2",title:"2.5. Factors influencing anaerobic digester performance",level:"2"},{id:"sec_13_3",title:"2.5.1. Operating temperature",level:"3"},{id:"sec_14_3",title:"2.5.2. pH",level:"3"},{id:"sec_15_3",title:"2.5.3. Mixing",level:"3"},{id:"sec_16_3",title:"2.5.4. Organic loading rates",level:"3"},{id:"sec_19",title:"3. Conclusions",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'AhmadA. LM. FChongSBhatiaSIsmail2006Drinking water reclamation from palm oil Mill effluent (POME) using membrane technologyDesalination1913544'},{id:"B2",body:'AhmadA. LM. 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(2006Process modeling and analysis of palm oil mill effluent treatment in an up-flow anaerobic sludge fixed film bioreactor using response surface methodology (RSM)Water Research4031933208'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"N.H. Abdurahman",address:null,affiliation:'
LebuhrayaTun Razak, Gambang, Kuantan, Malaysia
Faculty of Chemical and Natural Resources Engineering, University Malaysia Pahang, Malaysia
Faculty of Chemical and Natural Resources Engineering, University Malaysia Pahang, Malaysia
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1. Introduction
Goats are small ruminants that were among first domesticated farm animals which are into herding from about 10,000 years ago [1]. The acclimatising capacity of goat is peculiar as they can be economically reared in areas ranging from tropics, deserts, temperate to harsh climate of mountains without fluctuation in productivity [2]. Goat is a major supplier of dairy and meat products for rural people and regarded as a “Poor man’s cow” [3].
The world’s goat population has increased by around 55% from 1991 to 2011 whereas cattle population grew only by 9% and sheep population decreased by about 7%. In between these years Goat’s milk (GM) production increased by around 70% [4] which can however be greater because of unreported home consumption of GM in large amount in case of developed countries [5]. The production of GM in world showed an increase of 62% from 1993 to 2013 from 11 to 18 million tons [6]. Except in Antarctic, GM consumption by human is found in all over the world [6]. The contribution of developing countries in goat rearing is noteworthy. Out of total goat population more than 90% alone is maintained by countries in Asia and Africa [7]. Majority of goats including dairy ones in Asia are in the hands of small-scale farmers, among which many of them are poor and landless [8]. The production and consumption pattern of GM and its products has increased in recent decades. Growth in consumption of such milk products is due to their known beneficial effects on human health which are already recognised by the scientific community (Table 1).
Total annual milk supply of goat is about 3.4%, sheep milk is 1.4%, camel milk is 0.2%, cow milk is 85% while buffalo contribute 11% [9]. About 80% of total GM supply is only from Asia [3] of which main countries include India, China, Bangladesh, Iran, Pakistan and Turkey [10]. 36.7% of world dairy goats are reared in Indian subcontinent producing 40.7% of the world’s goat milk, with India (60.6%, 129 L/doe), Bangladesh (16.9%, 37 L/doe) and Pakistan (13.3%, 100 L/doe) [11]. Out of 500 breeds of goat only half dozen is raised for milking purpose and about 600–700 million dairy goats are present in the world (Figure 1) [12].
Figure 1.
World goat milk production trends from 1916 to 2016 (solid line) and forecast to 2030 by using time series model (dashed line). Source: Ref. [7].
The major species of milching dairy goat includes Sannen, Anglo-nubian, Toggenburg, British alpine. They produce good quantity of milk. For an instance Toggenburg can produce 7.57 litres of milk per day [13]. Factors like breed, season of kidding, stage of lactation, species, age, parity, colostrums, feed, environmental conditions, length of dry period, disease, body weight etc. can cause change in GM composition [14].
Milk is clean lacteal secretion from mammalians shortly after parturition. GM being highly compatible and nourishing complete natural food, can serve as a substitute for a meal. Its acceptability has increased in recent years which is mainly due to its low fat and capacity to neutralize acids and toxins present in body and also due to higher gross composition than that of cow’s milk. GM has potential that enable tolerating different technological treatments to obtain a product which have ability to satisfy the demand of consumer in terms of health, nutrition, safety and pleasure. Beside qualitative criteria (colour and odour), other aspects should also be given equal importance (milk protein, fat, bacteriology, freezing point, lipolysis, somatic cell count, immunoglobulins, inhibitors etc) for improving the quality of milk [15]. Human milk consumption as defined by the International Congress of Food “milk is the product of the total, full and uninterrupted milking of dairy female in good health, also nourished and not overworked”. It must be collected properly with no colostrum [16].
GM can be consumed as an alternative to cow milk as it is less allergenic [17] and highly digestible [18]. It has been reported by Park (1994) that between 40 and 100% of patients allergic to cow milk proteins can tolerate GM. It is also recommended to pregnant women and infant to fulfil their nutritional requirement at growing stage [19] and also to old and convalescent people [20]. It is immune to several diseases and boost the immunity system of human. It differs from cow and human milk as it shows distinct alkalinity, higher buffering capacity and certain therapeutic values in medicine and human nutrition. The nutritional and health benefits of GM are related to a number of medical problems, the most important being food allergies and a pure substitute for those who are allergic to cow milk (Figure 2) [22].
Figure 2.
Goat milk production in the world from 2000 to 2013 (million tons). Source: Ref. [21].
2. Methodology
This review chapter is a compilation of numerous research and review paper. In the course of writing this chapter we have reviewed number of articles, proceedings, magazines, newspaper, bulletin, editorial etc, Solids so that a broad range of information could be collected and presented. So, this is a thorough and detailed information regarding goat milk and its nutritive as well as medicinal values, accordingly which its conclusion has been drawn.
3. Composition of GM
GM because of its specific composition is being considered as a high-quality raw material for manufacturing food of infants along with population with particular needs [23]. Fresh goat milk appears as a white, opaque liquid with a little sweet in taste having no odour in practical life [24]. The Solid content in goat milk ranges from 12 to 18% while protein content in solid lies between 3 and 4.5% in goat milk [25]. Compositional and nutritive value of goat milk can be preserved, enhanced and improved by the aid of processing [26].
The composition and milk yield of goat varies with varying factors such as diet, breed, management, environment, age, stage of lactation, season, plane of nutrition etc. [27]. GM having all the composition in adequate amount is preferred as a high-quality milk and it should be free from pathogens and foreign substances such as antibiotics, antiseptics or residue of pesticides and should not differ from that of cow’s milk in taste and odour. GM is proven to have a better and efficient digestibility, buffering capacity, alkalinity and therapeutic values as compared to human and cow’s milk in human nutrition and medicine [28].
3.1 Fat
The physical properties like surface tension, viscosity and specific gravity of GM are higher in comparison with cow milk [17]. The fat globules of GM are smaller than bovine milk. The smaller sized fat globules allow dispersion and more homogeneous mixing of fat in milk. The average diameter of globules in GM ranges from 1.5–2 μm while that of cow’s milk ranges from 2.5–3.5 μm [24] which is the reason behind GM to be known as “self homogenised or naturally homogenised milk”. Having smaller fat globules and greater surface area facilitate GM to be more digestible than cow milk as total surface area of globules gets effectively connected with the lipids [29]. Also, lipases in the gut tentatively attack the lipids ester linkages in the short chain fatty acids more readily and rapidly helping in faster digestion of GM [30]. GM is enriched with higher proportion of short and medium chain fatty acids, mostly butyric, palmitic, caproic, capric, caprylic, linolenic, alpha- linolenic, lauric, myristic acid while lower in longer chain fatty acids like oleic and stearic [23]. Among these 3 (Capric, Capryllic and Caproic) have been named after goat because of their predominance in GM [31].
3.2 Protein
Milk is composed of casein and whey protein where casein (alpha s1, alpha s2, beta and Κ-caseins) represent 80% of proteins while rest part is filled by major whey proteins (alpha-lactoglubulin and alpha-lactalbumin) [32]. The major protein in cow milk is alpha s1 casein while in GM it is beta casein. One of the most representative free amino acid in GM is Taurine [33] which is higher in GM as compared to cow milk [34]. Out of 10 essential amino acids 6 (threonine, isoleucine, lysine, cystine, tyrosine, valine) are found in high amount in GM than in cow milk [35]. Main reason behind the low amount of folic acid in GM is that it contains high concentration of folate binding protein making it unavailable for human to digest and absorb. The heavy fat content and mucus-producing components of cow milk are absent in GM and it is complete source of proteins containing all essential amino acids [36, 37]. Fragments of GM caseins have been found to possess antimicrobial peptides that shows strong activity against gram negative bacteria [38].
3.3 Vitamin
The content of Vitamin A in GM is higher than in cow milk as goat convert all beta carotene from foods to Vitamin A (retinol) in milk which is the reason for whiter GM and milk fat [17]. Also, higher casein content is GM promotes the same [39]. It contains 25% more Vitamin B6, 47% more Vitamin A than cow’s milk and it mainly possesses Vitamin A2 [40]. Content of Vitamin D of both GM and cow milk is similar that is mostly needed during infancy (Table 2) [41].
Vitamin
Goat milk
Cow milk
Vitamin A (IU)
185
126
Vitamin D (IU)
2.2
2.0
Thiamine (mg)
0.068
0.045
Riboflavin (mg)
0.21
0.16
Niacin (mg)
0.27
0.08
Pantothenic acid (mg)
0.31
0.32
Vitamin B6 (mg)
0.046
0.042
Folic acid (ug)
1.0
5.0
Biotin (ug)
1.5
2.0
Vitamin B12 (ug)
0.065
0.357
Vitamin C (mg)
1.29
0.94
Table 2.
Composition of vitamin (per 100 g) of goat and cow milk.
Major carbohydrate in GM is Lactose whose content is slightly lower in GM than in cow’s milk [42]. Lactose, a valuable nutrient favours intestinal absorption of calcium, phosphorus and also in proper utilisation of vitamin D [31]. It is crucial for milk synthesis and during secretion of milk in the duct system of udder [5]. As compared to cow milk, GM contains surplus amount of lactose derived oligosaccharides. Other carbohydrates that are present in small amount includes oligosaccharides, glycopeptides, glycoproteins and nucleotides [42]. GM oligosaccharides are thought to be exhibiting the anti-inflammatory effects in induced colitis [43]. GM oligosaccharides are especially beneficial for infants due to their prebiotic and anti-infective properties (Table 3) [45].
Component
Cow milk
Goat milk
Human milk
Protein
3.58
3.52
1.63
Fat
4.14
4.25
3.75
Total solids
13.19
13.00
12.57
Solids not fat
9.25
7.75
8.82
Lactose
4.96
4.27
6.98
Ash
0.71
0.86
0.21
Table 3.
Average composition of cow, goat and human milk (%).
GM contains major and trace minerals that includes Ca, Na, Mg, P, K, Zn, Mn, Se, Cu, Co, Fe which have great health benefits. Percentage of Zn in GM is higher than in cow’s milk that is responsible for maintaining healthy skin, healing of wound, act as antioxidant and eliminate reactive oxygen species via its role as a cofactor for antioxidant enzyme superoxide dismutase (SOD). Mineral content in GM is higher than that of human and cow milk ranging from 0.7 to 0.85% [46]. GM contains 13% more calcium than cow’s milk per serving and 134% more potassium [47]. Selenium content in goat and human milk is higher than that found in cow milk [48]. The Selenium in GM plays a key role in acting as a cofactor for the functioning of glutathione peroxidase (GPX), an antioxidant enzyme which scavenges harmful free radical in body and helps in macrophage activation (Table 4) [49].
Because of the highest nutritional value, GM is preferred over cow and buffalo milk [50]. The nutritional and health benefits of GM are directly related to the medical problems that are faced by people of which main being allergies towards milk proteins obtained from cow’s milk [51]. It provides 70 calories per 100 ml. The superior digestibility of GM, its proper fatty acid composition and content of bioactive compounds seem to give those properties to it that help in treating or preventing certain medical conditions. Bioactive peptides derived from milk plays vital role in human health and nutrition. The most vulnerable ones are infants, aged people and pregnant women as their immune system could answer at any time if extra supplement is not administered.
The amount of calcium and phosphate supplied from GM is of much importance to human nutrition. It contains 1.2 g calcium and 1 g phosphate per litre which is higher than that contained in human milk. So, GM offer excess of calcium and phosphorus to human infant that is easily absorbed by them [30]. GM supply adequate amount of Vitamin A and niacin to human infant. Though it supplies excess of thiamine, riboflavin and pantothenic acid [5, 30] it is deficient in terms of Vitamin C, D, B12, pyridoxine and folate [52]. So, these nutrients should be supplied at the time of infant feeding by applying appropriate fortification. American Academy of Paediatrics forbade the use of GM products for infants under one year mainly because they can cause intestinal irritation and anaemia. Infants of such age who are allergic to cow’s milk-based formulas are only fed on goat’s milk formula after properly consulting baby’s doctor or paediatric nutritionist [53].
One of the reasons that consumers are accepting GM and its products in an appreciable manner is due to its nutritive value. It is beneficial in maintaining health, physiological functions, in the nutrition of child and elderly ones [54]. It is reported that it contains off flavour. This is due to the fact that membranes around fat globules in GM are more fragile which may relate to their greater susceptibility in developing off flavour than in cow milk. However, fresh milk obtained under sanitary conditions from properly fed and hygienically managed goats is found to be free from such objectionable flavour and odour [55].
Cow’s milk is reported to be mucus forming for many people but goat milk is not only non-mucus forming but also help in neutralising the mucus. GM has been a viable alternative for those children who are having difficulties in digesting cow’s milk as it is second best option, first being mother’s milk. The composition of goat and human milk is almost similar. Children who drink goat milk tend to remain more satisfied between meals and sleep through the night [56]. 2.5% of infants during first 3 years of their life suffer from cow milk allergy [57] while this percentage rise from 12 to 30% for infants who are less than 3 months old [58]. Not just for infants but also for adults and nursing mother, GM has been good alternative because of its unique properties. GM is rich in vitamins, minerals, trace minerals, enzymes, protein, fatty acids and amino acids (especially tryptophan) that are easily utilised by human body. The greatest advantage of consuming GM by many people lies in the fact that those who cannot digest cow’s milk find it easy in digesting GM without any complications. The reason for this is yet to be known but it is thought that this action in GM is due to lower lactose content (7% less than that of cow milk). There is one fact which says that our body takes 20 minutes to digest GM while it takes 2–3 hours in digesting cow’s milk [56].
Conjugated Linoleic Acid (CLA), an important bioactive component is naturally found in GM which helps in immune response stimulation. Mediators of immunity such as cytokines, prostaglandins, immunoglobulins etc, are modified by the action of CLA. The CLA possess ability to reduce the allergy related immunoglobulin IgE in humans that suggest anti-allergic potential of lipid [38]. The richness of GM in Medium Chain Triglycerides (MCT) helps in improving nutrients absorption and energy production in the body. MCT along with other amino acids exhibits antimicrobial activity [59].
Taurine (free amino acid) performs different roles in human body such as growth and brain development, formation of bile salts, calcium flux modulation, stabilisation of membranes as an osmoregulation by attenuating toxic substances. Its deficiency in human tissues may be the result of cardiomyopathy, epilepsy, lack of growth etc. [60]. In case of animal studies, Taurine is suggested as an important amino acid in alleviating muscle fatigue and can build up exercise capacity during workouts [46].
Amount of Vitamin A contained in GM is similar to human milk which is crucial for innate and adaptive immune responses that also includes cell-mediated immunity and antibody responses as well. Deficiency of this vitamin leads to decreased innate immunity that will affect NK cell function and phagocytic activity. Vitamin D plays an important role in the immune system and help preventing infections, autoimmune diseases, cancer and diabetes. Vitamin C which is present in greater amount in GM than in cow’s milk has shown to affect many aspects of the immune system including regulation of immunity via antiviral and anti-oxidant properties [49].
As compared to cow’s milk GM has higher content of Ca, P, K, Se, chloride, Zn, Cu [61, 62]. Potassium is crucial in acid/base balance and also in the proper functioning of muscles, nerves and kidneys. Chloride maintains fluid balance, blood pH and osmotic pressure. Calcium and phosphorus strengthen the structure of bones, muscles and help in blood coagulation. Selenium is vital in protecting cell against free radicals and also it acts as a major component in preventing dengue fever. Copper helps in metabolism of iron and oxygen and also defence the cell against free radicals [49].
5. GM medicinal value
Multivitamins, proteins, minerals (including trace one), fatty acids as well as Lactic acid bacteria in GM help in fighting human against diseases including diarrhoea, vomiting, constipation, gastric discomfort, respiratory disorders and many other [20].
5.1 Prevention of dengue fever
Dengue fever which is transmitted by the bite of Aedes aegypti mosquito is of great problem in tropical countries. Each serotypes of dengue virus (DEN 1, 2, 3 and 4) are equally responsible to cause severe dengue and haemorrhagic syndrome [63]. Ferropenic anaemia and bone demineralization were better recovered with GM. Dengue is endemic in 112 countries of the world [64]. Regular consumption of GM is suggested by doctors in case of dengue fever because it is necessary to maintain body fluid balance and also transfusion of platelets is not possible in all cases. If platelet level drops (below 20,000) and there is significant bleeding then platelet transfusion should be provided. Selenium (Se) which is present in GM act in preventing dengue. GM have more than 2.5 times the Se powdered infant formula (19.98 mg/L vs. 7.47 mg/L) as compared to cow milk and nearly 35% greater than pasteurised cow milk (19.98 mg/L vs. 14.85 mg/L) [65]. As compared to cow milk GM possesses 27% more Se [33]. Se if become deficient can cause an irreversible cardiomyopathy [66]. Se helps in controlling the human immune system in case of autoimmune disease by upgrading it when necessary and degrading it when it is overactive. Se has anticlotting effect while thrombotic and pro-clotting effects are due to its deficiency. The replication of dengue virus is prevented by Se. T cell and interleukin both are vital component of immune system and Se help by modulating the production of interleukin or by increasing the T cell function [67]. In treatment of dengue fever GM and its products are very helpful as they directly modulate human immune system. Immune response and antioxidant protection of host can be significantly improved by the incorporation of Se as selenocysteine in GPx [68]. Deficiency of Se can be prevented by having pills and animal products that contain Se [69].
5.2 Antimicrobial properties
Proteins derived from milk are proved to be precursors of antimicrobial peptides. GM have been reported to have antimicrobial activity of several pathogenic bacteria that are contained in food materials. GM caseins fragments are good source of antimicrobial peptides that are effective against gram negative bacteria [38]. Alpha-S2 Casein (CSN1S2) in GM is studied for its antimicrobial property. The result indicated that this caprine protein has inhibition activity that opposes the pathogenic bacteria by optimal concentration of 5 mg/ml in all bacteria especially Gram positive (Listeria monocytogenes, Staphylococcus aureus and Bacillus cereus) and negative (Escherichia coli, Salmonella typhi and Shigella flexneri) [70]. This property of CSN1S2 casein is detected when it goes through degradation by gastrointestinal enzyme pepsin [38]. The distinct antimicrobial impact of GM and its specific chemical composition can result in increased antimicrobial compounds production [71]. Another study shows that during the fermentation of GM with individual microorganisms of kefir grains, bioactive substances were released that have antimicrobial properties against deadly strains of bacteria present in food [72]. Short chain fatty acids (SCFA), Medium Chain Triglycerides (MCT), capric, caproic and caprylic acids found in GM have been proved to possesses antimicrobial activity [59]. GM proteins can be in-vitro hydrolysed by enzymes or can be fermented by lactic acid bacteria which give potent antioxidant peptides [73].
5.3 Treatment of cardiovascular disease (CVD)
CVD includes diseases that involves heart and blood vessels, veins, coronary heart diseases, high blood pressure, arrhythmias, atherosclerosis etc. Inorder to maintain normal blood pressure and proper heart functioning a good amount of potassium rich food is needed and GM serves for the same. GM supply 498.7 mg of K and 121.5 mg of Na that is sufficient in preventing high blood pressure and protecting against atherosclerosis. Atherosclerosis is likely to occur if people are adopting unhygienic inactive lifestyle (smoking, diet and exercise) and after incidence of dyslipidemia, diabetes, high blood pressure etc. [74]. The Angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitory peptides obtained after hydrolysis of GM caseins have shown beneficial effects on blood pressure regulation [75]. Fat in GM reduces total cholesterol levels thereby making it as a food of choice for the prevention of cardiac disorders. GM have selenium and its absence is thought to cause irreversible cardiomyopathy [66]. When excess amount of fat is deposited in the arterial wall and blood vessels then cardiac arrest is common. In case of goat, fat present in its milk and meat is considered as user friendly [76]. The Low-density lipoprotein (LDL) is known as “bad cholesterol” as it transports cholesterol from liver to blood vessels while High-density lipoprotein is “good cholesterol” as it transports cholesterol from vessels to oxidative modification of LDL which suppresses atherosclerosis [74].
The composition of GM exceeds cow’s milk in monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFA), polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) and MCT which have beneficial health effects especially in cardiovascular conditions [23]. Due to anti-inflammatory effects of CLA GM decreases the atherosclerosis incidence [38]. The MCT present in GM includes capric, caproic and caprylic acids which comprises 15% of total milk fat. The higher constituent of MCT in GM helps in lowering cholesterol deposits in the arteries, dissolve and prevent cholesterol deposits in the gallstones. Also, the presence of MCT decrease the synthesis of endogenous cholesterol thus helping to boost the immune system [77]. Capric, caprylic acids and MCT are used in treatment of many diseases including cystic fibrosis, coronary by-pass etc, because of their unique ability to provide energy directly without being deposited in adipose tissues [78]. GM is naturally homogenised while cow’s milk requires homogeniser. When fat globules are forcibly broken down by mechanical homogeniser, an enzyme associated with milk fat i.e., xanthine oxidase become free and can penetrate intestinal wall. When it reaches blood stream via intestinal wall, it can cause tissue scar on the heart and arteries which leads to mechanism causing arteriosclerosis while it is prevented in case of GM [77].
5.4 Treatment of gastrointestinal diseases
Infants who are suffering from problems like gastrointestinal disturbances, vomiting, colic, constipation and diarrhoea can be treated when they are fed GM. Pasteurised GM is easily tolerated by infants who are suffering from such diseases. GM easily assimilates in human body as chemical composition of GM is almost similar to human one which therefore enhances the bioavailability of nutrients in it. It is reported that GM consumption increases the uptake of Iron and Copper in digestive tract [79]. The readily bioavailable nature of GM has increased its consumption in recent years. The availability of beneficial gut microbes increases when GM is taken. Soft curd formed in fermented milk of goat is easily digested and absorbed [22]. People who are lactose intolerance can also easily digest it because of its small sized fat globules in which the total surface area of globules are effectively connected with lipids and also the fat globules of GM do not clump together as in cow’s milk [29].
GM is the vital source of biorganic sodium, the absence of which causes arthritis. Human stomach stores more sodium than any other organ. The absence of sodium causes digestive discomforts and inhibits stomach from producing needed enzymes leading to bloating and even ulcers. Soft curd in GM can be advantageous for adult humans who are suffering from gastrointestinal disturbances and ulcers [5]. Also, the property of high buffering capacity of GM appears to be fruitful in treating gastric ulcers [52]. The intestinal inflammation and clinical symptoms (diarrhoea and bloody stools) in colitis can be decreased by consuming GM. The presence of oligosaccharides in its milk exhibits anti-inflammatory effect in the management of Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) [43]. It has been reported in one study of rats infected with colitis when fed GM oligosaccharides reduces and promotes recovery of damaged colonic mucosa due to less severe lesions in colon and production of more favourable gut microbiota [38].
5.5 Treatment of cancer, allergy and others
Alpha lactalbumin present in GM is anti-carcinogenic by nature. CLA in GM is full of anti-carcinogenic properties. It is also studied that tumour cells in patients with skin and bladder cancers were killed by alpha lactalbumin. The passive transfer of serum albumin in GM to the blood has an inhibitory effect against growth and development of breast cancerous cells [75].
Proteins are most common antigens that are important for proper body functioning. On the basis of nature, allergies can be acute or chronic that have symptoms ranging from non-life threatening to life threatening. It is recommended as an substitute for patients with cow milk allergy [54]. Eczema, Rhinitis and digestive problems are simple symptoms while bronchospasm, anaphylaxis and urcaria are severe one. GM is less allergenic than cow’s milk. GM is thought to resolves 30–40% of problematic cases of childhood cow milk allergy. Some researches shows that alpha S1 casein in cow’s milk is the reason of cow milk intolerance. It has been found that level of alpha S1 casein in GM is 89% lower than that of cow milk. Therefore, GM is less allergic and improves digestive disorder, colic diseases etc. in people with cow milk sensitivities [80]. Lactose intolerance in many child and adults is caused by the deficiency of lactase enzyme that functions in easing the digestion of lactose. Generally, in case of lactose intolerant individuals, unhydrolyzed lactose passes into the large intestine whereby it is fermented by the aid of microbes which results in the production of hydrogen, methane, carbon-dioxide, SCFA leading to flatulence, diarrhoea as well as abdominal pain [81]. When ulcers worsen it takes a new form i.e., cancer and it is well known that the high buffering capacity of GM prevents gastric ulcers [52].
GM is used as a good alternative to treat mammary, colorectal and colon cancer [82] in case of animal models, as well as in vitro models of human melanoma [83] colorectal and breast cancer [84] because of the known anticarcinogenic properties of CLA [85] which is in surplus amount in it. Lactic Acid Bacteria (LAB) present in goat milk exhibit potential role in combating against cancer [86]. The risk of occurrence of cancer, carcinogenic toxicity and tumour suppression are prevented by LAB present in GM [87]. The bacteria in GM after isolation and microencapsulation can be used as a probiotics to cure cancer [88]. The study of different strains of LAB in GM can strengthen the research of cancer prevention [89].
5.6 Immunological properties
Se is vital as it plays role in proper functioning of the immune system and thyroid activity as well as participates in spermiogenesis thereby affecting fertility [90]. It is an integral part of the antioxidant capacity of the organism [91]. GM and its products act as immunity booster and prevents from several illness in infants [87]. There is involvement of many cells like T lymphocytes (T-cells), Natural Killer (NK) cells and B-lymphocytes (B-cells) in the innate and adaptive immune response. Even though the structure of Immunoglobulin’s (Ig) are similar, minor differences exist in the main immunological classes (IgG, IgM, IgA, IgD and IgE). The major properties of serum immunoglobulin accounts for IgG and IgA. Several researches have shown immunomodulatory effects of GM in case of both in-vitro and human studies. The release of nitric oxide (NO) from human blood cells exhibits cardio protective effects in the milk consumer and also possesses antibacterial activity which prevents them from infections. Content of sialic acid is higher in GM which acts as an important biological component in playing crucial role in brain development and in boosting infant immunity [92, 93].
6. Conclusion
Since GM is rich surplus to calcium, proteins, bioactive compounds it can be taken as a “functional and nutraceutical health drink”. The role played by GM in eliminating major health complications including digestive, respiratory, immunological, viral, cardiac, cancer, allergy, osteoporosis, malabsorption, anaemia etc. favours longevity to human life. The contribution of small developing nations in the production of GM should not be neglected rather new technological innovation’s assistance to those nations will uplift the production and contribute to mankind as the consumption of GM has increased in developed nations. The compositional attributes of GM can be raised if goats are provided with ample browsing, adequate temperature and stress-free environment. It should be supplemented with folic acid and can be fortified if consumers find its odour unpleasant.
Goat rearing has several economic returns after its milk, meat, hair etc. are marketed. Goat business can help uplifting the life standard of people in rural areas. The unique properties of GM and its products carve for its more marketing potential. Its nutritional value in treating diseases has broaden its future prospects. If grading up is followed to improve the performance of local breeds of different nations then eventually more milk can be produced that benefits human. That is why more thorough and detailed descriptive research in this field is needed to fight against life taking diseases.
\n',keywords:"arteriosclerosis, bioavailable, capra milk, fortification, immunity, substitute",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/76625.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/76625.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/76625",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/76625",totalDownloads:157,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:"February 18th 2021",dateReviewed:"April 7th 2021",datePrePublished:"December 2nd 2021",datePublished:null,dateFinished:"May 6th 2021",readingETA:"0",abstract:"Milk is clean lacteal secretion from mammalians shortly after parturition. GM is taken as a complete meal in human diet. GM is the only milk from milching species that possess possibility of substituting human milk. Availability of A2 casein in GM make it comparable to human milk in terms of protein. The most vulnerable ones are infants, aged people and pregnant women as their immune system could answer at any time if extra supplement is not administered. In this case, GM is only option that is highly compatible and nutritious nourishing food naturally. It has been used in curing respiratory problems, diarrhoea, colic, gastrointestinal disturbances etc. Feeding GM enhances production of immunoglobulin, beneficial gut microbiota, phagocytosis activities. Presence of inherent antibodies suits GM for using it in curing Tuberculosis. It contains every needed nutrient in higher amount as compared to milk from other animals. Per servings it has 13% more Calcium, 47% more vitamin A than Cow’s milk. It is filled with most of the trace minerals. Selenium, an immune system enhancer provides anti-oxidative and anti-inflammatory protection via inhibition of bacterial growth. Chlorine and Fluorine acts as natural germicides. GM contain good source of Potassium which is crucial for maintainance of blood pressure and functioning of heart, it protects against arteriosclerosis. GM not only reduces the level of total cholesterol due to presence of Medium Chain Triglycerides but also improve mineralisation of skeleton and haemoglobin level. GM consists huge source of biorganic sodium, the absence of which results in arthritis. People who are lactose intolerant even can consume GM as it has low lactose content and for those who finds its smell and taste unusual, there is option of fortification. Because of easily digestible and readily bioavailable nature its consumption has been increased.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/76625",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/76625",signatures:"Rajendra Panta, Vinod Kumar Paswan, Pankaj Kumar Gupta and Dhruba Narayan Kohar",book:{id:"9706",type:"book",title:"Goat Science - Environment, Health and Economy",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Goat Science - Environment, Health and Economy",slug:null,publishedDate:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Sándor Kukovics",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9706.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:null,isbn:"978-1-78984-709-3",printIsbn:"978-1-78984-708-6",pdfIsbn:"978-1-78985-193-9",isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"25894",title:"Dr.",name:"Sándor",middleName:null,surname:"Kukovics",slug:"sandor-kukovics",fullName:"Sándor Kukovics"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:null,sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Methodology",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Composition of GM",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"3.1 Fat",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"3.2 Protein",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"3.3 Vitamin",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"3.4 Lactose",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7_2",title:"3.5 Minerals",level:"2"},{id:"sec_9",title:"4. Nutritional value in GM",level:"1"},{id:"sec_10",title:"5. GM medicinal value",level:"1"},{id:"sec_10_2",title:"5.1 Prevention of dengue fever",level:"2"},{id:"sec_11_2",title:"5.2 Antimicrobial properties",level:"2"},{id:"sec_12_2",title:"5.3 Treatment of cardiovascular disease (CVD)",level:"2"},{id:"sec_13_2",title:"5.4 Treatment of gastrointestinal diseases",level:"2"},{id:"sec_14_2",title:"5.5 Treatment of cancer, allergy and others",level:"2"},{id:"sec_15_2",title:"5.6 Immunological properties",level:"2"},{id:"sec_17",title:"6. Conclusion",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Haenlein, G.F.W., 2007. 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Sedlackova1, M. Slukova and P. Milada, 2014. Influence of Whey, Whey Component and Malt on the Growth and Acids Production of Lactobacilli in Milk. Czech J. Food Sci., 32: 526-531'},{id:"B43",body:'Daddaoua, A., V. Puerta, P. Requena, A. Martinez Ferez, Zarzuelo, M.D. Suarez, J. Boza and O. MartinezAugustin, 2006. Goat milk oligosaccharides are anti-inflammatory in rats with hapten induced colitis. Journal of Nutrition, 136: 672-676'},{id:"B44",body:'Bosworth, A.W. and L.V. Slyke, 2009. Comparison of the composition of cow’s milk goat milk and human milk. cited from http://www.jbc.org/cgi/reprint. Cited on the 28th March, 2021'},{id:"B45",body:'Kunz, C., S. Rudloff, W. Baier, N. Klein and S. Strobel, 2000. Oligosaccharides in human milk: structural, functional and metabolic aspects. Annu Rev Nutr, 20: 699-722'},{id:"B46",body:'Silanikove, Leitner G, Merin U, Prosser C (2010) Recent advances in exploiting goat’s milk: Quality, safety and Production aspects. 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Sci., 10(12): 9975-9987'},{id:"B92",body:'EdnieAR, Harper JM, Bennett ES (2015) Sialic acids attached to N- and Oglycans within the Nav 1.4 D1S5–S6 linker contribute to channel gating.Biochim Biophys Acta 1850 (2):307-317'},{id:"B93",body:'Formiga de Sousa YR, Vasconcelas MAS, Costa RG, Filho CAA, Paiva EPP, Queiroga RCRE (2015) Sialic acid content of goat milk during lactation.Livest Sci 177: 175-180'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Rajendra Panta",address:"rajendrapanta3@gmail.com",affiliation:'
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Shree Jay Kalika Secondary School Technical and Vocational Training, Nepal
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In order to help Authors identify appropriate funding agencies and institutions, we have created a list, based on extensive research on various OA resources (including ROARMAP and SHERPA/JULIET) of organizations that have funds available. Before consulting our list we encourage you to petition your own institution or organization for Open Access funds or check the specifications of your grant with your funder to ascertain if publication costs are included. Where you are in receipt of a grant you should clarify:
\n\n
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Does your institution already have a budget for covering Open Access publication costs?
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Does your grant list Open Access publication fees as legitimate direct/indirect costs?
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If you are associated with any of the institutions in our list below, you can apply to receive OA publication funds by following the instructions provided in the links. Please consult the Open Access policies or grant Terms and Conditions of any institution with which you are linked to explore ways to cover your publication costs (also accessible by clicking on the link in their title).
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The literature source was Web of Science and SSCI, SCI-EXPANDED, A&HCI, CPCI-S, CPCI-SSH, and ESCI indexes. Fifty-two articles were reviewed; however, 14 of them were not been included in the study. As a result, 38 articles were examined. Level of education, field of education, and material types of AR used in education and reported educational advantages of AR have been investigated. All articles are categorized according to target groups, which are early childhood education, primary education, secondary education, high school education, graduate education, and others. AR technology has been mostly carried out in primary and graduate education. “Science education” is the most explored field of education. Mobile applications and marker-based materials on paper have been mostly preferred. 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The more active a lesson, the more students tend to engage intellectually and emotionally in the learning activities. Cooperative learning is the foundation on which many of the active learning procedures are based. Cooperative learning is the instructional use of small groups so that students work together to maximize their own and each other’s learning. Most of the active learning procedures, such as problem-based learning, team-learning, collaborative learning, and PALS, require that students work cooperatively in small groups to achieve joint learning goals. Cooperative learning is based on two theories: Structure-Process-Outcome theory and Social Interdependence theory. Four types of cooperative learning have been derived: formal cooperative learning, informal cooperative learning, cooperative base groups, and constructive controversy. There is considerable research confirming the effectiveness of cooperative learning. 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Currently, you can hear a lot of criticism that the classroom has not changed significantly compared to the last century or even like two centuries ago. Do the teachers succeed in modern changes? The purpose of the chapter is to summarize the current changes in didactics for the use of innovative teaching methods and study the understanding of changes by teachers. In this chapter, we consider four areas: the expansion of the subject of pedagogy, environmental approach to teaching, the digital generation and the changes taking place, and innovation in teaching. The theory of education, figuratively speaking, has two levels. At the macro-level, in the “education-society” relationship, decentralization and diversification, internationalization of education, and the introduction of digital technologies occur. At the micro-level in the “teacher-learner” relationship, there is an active mix of traditional and innovative methods, combination of an activity approach with an energy-informational environment approach, cognition with constructivism and connectivism.",book:{id:"5980",slug:"new-pedagogical-challenges-in-the-21st-century-contributions-of-research-in-education",title:"New Pedagogical Challenges in the 21st Century",fullTitle:"New Pedagogical Challenges in the 21st Century - Contributions of Research in Education"},signatures:"Aigerim Mynbayeva, Zukhra Sadvakassova and Bakhytkul\nAkshalova",authors:[{id:"201997",title:"Dr.",name:"Aigerim",middleName:null,surname:"Mynbayeva",slug:"aigerim-mynbayeva",fullName:"Aigerim Mynbayeva"},{id:"209208",title:"Dr.",name:"Zukhra",middleName:null,surname:"Sadvakassova",slug:"zukhra-sadvakassova",fullName:"Zukhra Sadvakassova"},{id:"209210",title:"Dr.",name:"Bakhytkul",middleName:null,surname:"Akshalova",slug:"bakhytkul-akshalova",fullName:"Bakhytkul Akshalova"}]},{id:"59468",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.74344",title:"Virtual and Augmented Reality: New Frontiers for Clinical Psychology",slug:"virtual-and-augmented-reality-new-frontiers-for-clinical-psychology",totalDownloads:2364,totalCrossrefCites:13,totalDimensionsCites:21,abstract:"In the last decades, the applied approach for the use of virtual reality (VR) and augmented reality (AR) on clinical and health psychology has grown exponentially. These technologies have been used to treat several mental disorders, for example, phobias, stress-related disorders, depression, eating disorders, and chronic pain. The importance of VR/AR for the mental health field comes from three main concepts: (1) VR/AR as an imaginal technology, people can feel “as if they are” in a reality that does not exist in external world; (2) VR/AR as an embodied technology, the experience to feel user’s body inside the virtual environment; and (3) VR/AR as connectivity technology, the “end of geography’. In this chapter, we explore the opportunities provided by VR/AR as technologies to improve people’s quality of life and to discuss new frontiers for their application in mental health and psychological well-being promotion.",book:{id:"6543",slug:"state-of-the-art-virtual-reality-and-augmented-reality-knowhow",title:"State of the Art Virtual Reality and Augmented Reality Knowhow",fullTitle:"State of the Art Virtual Reality and Augmented Reality Knowhow"},signatures:"Sara Ventura, Rosa M. Baños and Cristina Botella",authors:[{id:"106036",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosa Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Baños",slug:"rosa-maria-banos",fullName:"Rosa Maria Baños"},{id:"227763",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sara",middleName:null,surname:"Ventura",slug:"sara-ventura",fullName:"Sara Ventura"},{id:"229056",title:"Dr.",name:"Cristina",middleName:null,surname:"Botella",slug:"cristina-botella",fullName:"Cristina Botella"}]},{id:"64583",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.81714",title:"Evaluating a Course for Teaching Advanced Programming Concepts with Scratch to Preservice Kindergarten Teachers: A Case Study in Greece",slug:"evaluating-a-course-for-teaching-advanced-programming-concepts-with-scratch-to-preservice-kindergart",totalDownloads:1422,totalCrossrefCites:13,totalDimensionsCites:18,abstract:"Coding is a new literacy for the twenty-first century, and as a literacy, coding enables new ways of thinking and new ways of communicating and expressing ideas, as well as new ways of civic participation. A growing number of countries, in Europe and beyond, have established clear policies and frameworks for introducing computational thinking (CT) and computer programming to young children. In this chapter, we discuss a game-based approach to coding education for preservice kindergarten teachers using Scratch. The aim of using Scratch was to excite students’ interest and familiarize them with the basics of programming in an open-ended, project-based, and personally meaningful environment for a semester course in the Department of Preschool Education in the University of Crete. For 13 weeks, students were introduced to the main Scratch concepts and, afterward, were asked to prepare their projects. For the projects, they were required to design their own interactive stories to teach certain concepts about mathematics or physical science to preschool-age students. The results we obtained were more satisfactory than expected and, in some regards, encouraging if one considers the fact that the research participants had no prior experiences with computational thinking.",book:{id:"6936",slug:"early-childhood-education",title:"Early Childhood Education",fullTitle:"Early Childhood Education"},signatures:"Stamatios Papadakis and Michail Kalogiannakis",authors:null}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"58060",title:"Pedagogy of the Twenty-First Century: Innovative Teaching Methods",slug:"pedagogy-of-the-twenty-first-century-innovative-teaching-methods",totalDownloads:8832,totalCrossrefCites:17,totalDimensionsCites:23,abstract:"In the twenty-first century, significant changes are occurring related to new scientific discoveries, informatization, globalization, the development of astronautics, robotics, and artificial intelligence. This century is called the age of digital technologies and knowledge. How is the school changing in the new century? How does learning theory change? Currently, you can hear a lot of criticism that the classroom has not changed significantly compared to the last century or even like two centuries ago. Do the teachers succeed in modern changes? The purpose of the chapter is to summarize the current changes in didactics for the use of innovative teaching methods and study the understanding of changes by teachers. In this chapter, we consider four areas: the expansion of the subject of pedagogy, environmental approach to teaching, the digital generation and the changes taking place, and innovation in teaching. The theory of education, figuratively speaking, has two levels. At the macro-level, in the “education-society” relationship, decentralization and diversification, internationalization of education, and the introduction of digital technologies occur. At the micro-level in the “teacher-learner” relationship, there is an active mix of traditional and innovative methods, combination of an activity approach with an energy-informational environment approach, cognition with constructivism and connectivism.",book:{id:"5980",slug:"new-pedagogical-challenges-in-the-21st-century-contributions-of-research-in-education",title:"New Pedagogical Challenges in the 21st Century",fullTitle:"New Pedagogical Challenges in the 21st Century - Contributions of Research in Education"},signatures:"Aigerim Mynbayeva, Zukhra Sadvakassova and Bakhytkul\nAkshalova",authors:[{id:"201997",title:"Dr.",name:"Aigerim",middleName:null,surname:"Mynbayeva",slug:"aigerim-mynbayeva",fullName:"Aigerim Mynbayeva"},{id:"209208",title:"Dr.",name:"Zukhra",middleName:null,surname:"Sadvakassova",slug:"zukhra-sadvakassova",fullName:"Zukhra Sadvakassova"},{id:"209210",title:"Dr.",name:"Bakhytkul",middleName:null,surname:"Akshalova",slug:"bakhytkul-akshalova",fullName:"Bakhytkul Akshalova"}]},{id:"61746",title:"Facilitation of Teachers’ Professional Development through Principals’ Instructional Supervision and Teachers’ Knowledge- Management Behaviors",slug:"facilitation-of-teachers-professional-development-through-principals-instructional-supervision-and-t",totalDownloads:3384,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"With the rise of global competition and the focus on teacher quality, teacher professional development is becoming increasingly crucial, and the stress and challenges for principals are more severe than ever. Teachers can improve their professional abilities through principals’ instructional supervision and their own knowledge-management (KM) behaviors to benefit students. Thus, this chapter analyzes the relationship among principals’ instructional supervision, teachers’ KM, and teachers’ professional development. The author believes that principals’ instructional supervision and effective KM can facilitate the professional development of teachers. The author also believes the readers can know the relationships among them, and teachers’ professional development can be improved through principal’s instructional supervision and teachers’ KM behaviors.",book:{id:"6674",slug:"contemporary-pedagogies-in-teacher-education-and-development",title:"Contemporary Pedagogies in Teacher Education and Development",fullTitle:"Contemporary Pedagogies in Teacher Education and Development"},signatures:"Chien-Chin Chen",authors:[{id:"232569",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Chien Chih",middleName:null,surname:"Chen",slug:"chien-chih-chen",fullName:"Chien Chih Chen"}]},{id:"75908",title:"From the Classroom into Virtual Learning Environments: Essential Knowledge, Competences, Skills and Pedagogical Strategies for the 21st Century Teacher Education in Kenya",slug:"from-the-classroom-into-virtual-learning-environments-essential-knowledge-competences-skills-and-ped",totalDownloads:519,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"As teachers in Kenya begin to migrate from the classroom to virtual learning spaces following COVID 19 pandemic, there is pressing need to realign Teacher Education to requisite Knowledge, competences, skills, and attitudes that will support online teaching. This chapter explores these needs using a combination of lived experiences and literature review that captured a meta-analysis of research trends on e-learning. While trends in Teacher Education indicate progression towards adoption of technology, there are disparities between the theory and practice. Evidence from recent research and reports; and the recollected experiences confirmed knowledge, competence, skills and pedagogical gaps in the implementation of online learning, that have been exacerbated by COVID-19. The researcher recommends that teacher education should sensitize and train teacher trainees on how to access, analyze and use new knowledge emerging with technology; they also should be coached on how learners learn with technology and on fundamentals of the communication process. Particularly the course on educational technology, should focus on how to create and manage online courses. The 5-stage E-Moderator Model and Universal Design for Learning (UDL) are recommended as effective pedagogical scaffold for online teaching.",book:{id:"10229",slug:"teacher-education-in-the-21st-century-emerging-skills-for-a-changing-world",title:"Teacher Education in the 21st Century",fullTitle:"Teacher Education in the 21st Century - Emerging Skills for a Changing World"},signatures:"Catherine Adhiambo Amimo",authors:[{id:"333482",title:"Dr.",name:"Catherine Adhiambo",middleName:null,surname:"Amimo",slug:"catherine-adhiambo-amimo",fullName:"Catherine Adhiambo Amimo"}]},{id:"75224",title:"Decoding the Digital Gap in Teacher Education: Three Perspectives across the Globe",slug:"decoding-the-digital-gap-in-teacher-education-three-perspectives-across-the-globe",totalDownloads:589,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:"Educational use of technology is regularly assessed, and results often show a gap between educational policies and what is actually practiced. This chapter will help clarify how teacher educators experience the changing educational contexts due to the digital revolution, how their meaning-making shifts, and how outside forces influence those processes. The results are based on comparative international studies. Central for this study is practitioners’ professional digital competence, their attitudes towards digital technology and the use of digital technology in education. We found that the influence and contribution of digital practice is carried out quite differently across the globe. Our research questions were: How do practitioners experience teaching in a rapidly changing context? How do attitudes change due to top-down governing of education? and What motivates teacher educators to implement digital technology?",book:{id:"10229",slug:"teacher-education-in-the-21st-century-emerging-skills-for-a-changing-world",title:"Teacher Education in the 21st Century",fullTitle:"Teacher Education in the 21st Century - Emerging Skills for a Changing World"},signatures:"Steinar Thorvaldsen and Siri Sollied Madsen",authors:[{id:"332624",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Siri Sollied",middleName:null,surname:"Madsen",slug:"siri-sollied-madsen",fullName:"Siri Sollied Madsen"},{id:"332626",title:"Prof.",name:"Steinar",middleName:null,surname:"Thorvaldsen",slug:"steinar-thorvaldsen",fullName:"Steinar Thorvaldsen"}]},{id:"75416",title:"Self-Study Research: Challenges and Opportunities in Teacher Education",slug:"self-study-research-challenges-and-opportunities-in-teacher-education",totalDownloads:777,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"This article aims to describe what self-study research is, why self-study can be a good approach to teacher educators’ professional development and improvements in practice and highlight some challenges and opportunities in this research approach. In addition, the article will shed light on some methodological aspects related to self-study. Self-study refers to teacher educators who in an intentionally and systematically way examine their practice to improve it, based on a deeper understanding of practice, as well as the context practice takes place. In the article, I argue that engaging in self-study is a learning and development process and an approach to developing personal professionalism, collective professionalism and improvements in practice.",book:{id:"10229",slug:"teacher-education-in-the-21st-century-emerging-skills-for-a-changing-world",title:"Teacher Education in the 21st Century",fullTitle:"Teacher Education in the 21st Century - Emerging Skills for a Changing World"},signatures:"Kåre Hauge",authors:[{id:"332053",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Kåre",middleName:null,surname:"Hauge",slug:"kare-hauge",fullName:"Kåre Hauge"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"265",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:90,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:108,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:33,numberOfPublishedChapters:330,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:14,numberOfPublishedChapters:145,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:140,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:123,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:112,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:22,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:11,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-6580",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",issn:"2632-0983",scope:"Biochemistry, the study of chemical transformations occurring within living organisms, impacts all areas of life sciences, from molecular crystallography and genetics to ecology, medicine, and population biology. Biochemistry examines macromolecules - proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and lipids – and their building blocks, structures, functions, and interactions. Much of biochemistry is devoted to enzymes, proteins that catalyze chemical reactions, enzyme structures, mechanisms of action and their roles within cells. Biochemistry also studies small signaling molecules, coenzymes, inhibitors, vitamins, and hormones, which play roles in life processes. Biochemical experimentation, besides coopting classical chemistry methods, e.g., chromatography, adopted new techniques, e.g., X-ray diffraction, electron microscopy, NMR, radioisotopes, and developed sophisticated microbial genetic tools, e.g., auxotroph mutants and their revertants, fermentation, etc. More recently, biochemistry embraced the ‘big data’ omics systems. Initial biochemical studies have been exclusively analytic: dissecting, purifying, and examining individual components of a biological system; in the apt words of Efraim Racker (1913 –1991), “Don’t waste clean thinking on dirty enzymes.” Today, however, biochemistry is becoming more agglomerative and comprehensive, setting out to integrate and describe entirely particular biological systems. The ‘big data’ metabolomics can define the complement of small molecules, e.g., in a soil or biofilm sample; proteomics can distinguish all the comprising proteins, e.g., serum; metagenomics can identify all the genes in a complex environment, e.g., the bovine rumen. 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Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. He has published more than 100 peer-reviewed research articles and graduated numerous Ph.D. and postdoctoral students.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"New York University Langone Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:2,paginationItems:[{id:"89",title:"Education",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/89.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!1,annualVolume:null,editor:{id:"260066",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Michail",middleName:null,surname:"Kalogiannakis",slug:"michail-kalogiannakis",fullName:"Michail Kalogiannakis",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/260066/images/system/260066.jpg",biography:"Michail Kalogiannakis is an Associate Professor of the Department of Preschool Education, University of Crete, and an Associate Tutor at School of Humanities at the Hellenic Open University. He graduated from the Physics Department of the University of Crete and continued his post-graduate studies at the University Paris 7-Denis Diderot (D.E.A. in Didactic of Physics), University Paris 5-René Descartes-Sorbonne (D.E.A. in Science Education) and received his Ph.D. degree at the University Paris 5-René Descartes-Sorbonne (PhD in Science Education). His research interests include science education in early childhood, science teaching and learning, e-learning, the use of ICT in science education, games simulations, and mobile learning. He has published over 120 articles in international conferences and journals and has served on the program committees of numerous international conferences.",institutionString:"University of Crete",institution:{name:"University of Crete",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},editorTwo:{id:"422488",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Ampartzaki",slug:"maria-ampartzaki",fullName:"Maria Ampartzaki",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/422488/images/system/422488.jpg",biography:"Dr Maria Ampartzaki is an Assistant Professor in Early Childhood Education in the Department of Preschool Education at the University of Crete. Her research interests include ICT in education, science education in the early years, inquiry-based and art-based learning, teachers’ professional development, action research, and the Pedagogy of Multiliteracies, among others. She has run and participated in several funded and non-funded projects on the teaching of Science, Social Sciences, and ICT in education. She also has the experience of participating in five Erasmus+ projects.",institutionString:"University of Crete",institution:{name:"University of Crete",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},editorThree:null},{id:"90",title:"Human Development",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/90.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11974,editor:{id:"191040",title:"Dr.",name:"Tal",middleName:null,surname:"Dotan Ben-Soussan",slug:"tal-dotan-ben-soussan",fullName:"Tal Dotan Ben-Soussan",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSBf1QAG/Profile_Picture_2022-03-18T07:56:11.jpg",biography:"Tal Dotan Ben-Soussan, Ph.D., is the director of the Research Institute for Neuroscience, Education and Didactics (RINED) – Paoletti Foundation. Ben-Soussan leads international studies on training and neuroplasticity from neurophysiological and psychobiological perspectives. As a neuroscientist and bio-psychologist, she has published numerous articles on neuroplasticity, movement and meditation. She acts as an editor and reviewer in several renowned journals and coordinates international conferences integrating theoretical, methodological and practical approaches on various topics, such as silence, logics and neuro-education. She lives in Assisi, Italy.",institutionString:"Research Institute for Neuroscience, Education and Didactics, Patrizio Paoletti Foundation",institution:null},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null}]},overviewPageOFChapters:{paginationCount:11,paginationItems:[{id:"83075",title:"Practices and Challenges of Community Services at Debre Markos University, Ethiopia: A Case Study",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105896",signatures:"Adane Mengist",slug:"practices-and-challenges-of-community-services-at-debre-markos-university-ethiopia-a-case-study",totalDownloads:1,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Corporate Social Responsibility",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11602.jpg",subseries:{id:"86",title:"Business and Management"}}},{id:"82858",title:"Corporate Social Responsibility a Case of the Provision of Recreational Facilities",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105608",signatures:"Peter Musa Wash, Shida Irwana Omar, Badaruddin Mohamed and Mohd Ismail Isa",slug:"corporate-social-responsibility-a-case-of-the-provision-of-recreational-facilities",totalDownloads:5,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Corporate Social Responsibility",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11602.jpg",subseries:{id:"86",title:"Business and Management"}}},{id:"82786",title:"Discussion of Purchasing Virtual Digital Nature and Tourism",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105869",signatures:"Hiroko Oe and Yasuyuki Yamaoka",slug:"discussion-of-purchasing-virtual-digital-nature-and-tourism",totalDownloads:6,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"A New Era of Consumer Behavior - Beyond the Pandemic",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11581.jpg",subseries:{id:"88",title:"Marketing"}}},{id:"82289",title:"Consumer Culture and Abundance of Choices: Having More, Feeling Blue",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105607",signatures:"Ondřej Roubal",slug:"consumer-culture-and-abundance-of-choices-having-more-feeling-blue",totalDownloads:7,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"A New Era of Consumer Behavior - Beyond the Pandemic",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11581.jpg",subseries:{id:"88",title:"Marketing"}}}]},overviewPagePublishedBooks:{paginationCount:1,paginationItems:[{type:"book",id:"11392",title:"Leadership in a Changing World",subtitle:"A Multidimensional Perspective",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11392.jpg",slug:"leadership-in-a-changing-world-a-multidimensional-perspective",publishedDate:"May 11th 2022",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Muhammad Mohiuddin, Bilal Khalid, Md. 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That is exactly what he does, diving into Machine Learning algorithms and technologies to help TECNALIA to decide whether something is great in theory or will actually impact on the product or processes of its projects. So, he is expert at framing experiments, developing hypotheses, and proving whether they’re true or not, in order to investigate fundamental problems with a longer time horizon. He is also able to design and develop PoCs and system prototypes in simulation. He has participated in several national and internacional R&D projects.\n\nAs another relevant part of his everyday research work, he usually publishes his findings in reputed scientific refereed journals and international conferences, occasionally acting as reviewer and Programme Commitee member. Concretely, since 2018 he has published 9 JCR (8 Q1) journal papers, 9 conference papers (e.g. ECML PKDD 2021), and he has co-edited a book. He is also active in popular science writing data science stories for reputed blogs (KDNuggets, TowardsDataScience, Naukas). Besides, he has recently embarked on mentoring programmes as mentor, and has also worked as data science trainer.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"103779",title:"Prof.",name:"Yalcin",middleName:null,surname:"Isler",slug:"yalcin-isler",fullName:"Yalcin Isler",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRyQ8QAK/Profile_Picture_1628834958734",biography:"Yalcin Isler (1971 - Burdur / Turkey) received the B.Sc. degree in the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering from Anadolu University, Eskisehir, Turkey, in 1993, the M.Sc. degree from the Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, Suleyman Demirel University, Isparta, Turkey, in 1996, the Ph.D. degree from the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey, in 2009, and the Competence of Associate Professorship from the Turkish Interuniversity Council in 2019.\n\nHe was Lecturer at Burdur Vocational School in Suleyman Demirel University (1993-2000, Burdur / Turkey), Software Engineer (2000-2002, Izmir / Turkey), Research Assistant in Bulent Ecevit University (2002-2003, Zonguldak / Turkey), Research Assistant in Dokuz Eylul University (2003-2010, Izmir / Turkey), Assistant Professor at the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering in Bulent Ecevit University (2010-2012, Zonguldak / Turkey), Assistant Professor at the Department of Biomedical Engineering in Izmir Katip Celebi University (2012-2019, Izmir / Turkey). He is an Associate Professor at the Department of Biomedical Engineering at Izmir Katip Celebi University, Izmir / Turkey, since 2019. In addition to academics, he has also founded Islerya Medical and Information Technologies Company, Izmir / Turkey, since 2017.\n\nHis main research interests cover biomedical signal processing, pattern recognition, medical device design, programming, and embedded systems. He has many scientific papers and participated in several projects in these study fields. He was an IEEE Student Member (2009-2011) and IEEE Member (2011-2014) and has been IEEE Senior Member since 2014.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Izmir Kâtip Çelebi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"339677",title:"Dr.",name:"Mrinmoy",middleName:null,surname:"Roy",slug:"mrinmoy-roy",fullName:"Mrinmoy Roy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/339677/images/16768_n.jpg",biography:"An accomplished Sales & Marketing professional with 12 years of cross-functional experience in well-known organisations such as CIPLA, LUPIN, GLENMARK, ASTRAZENECA across different segment of Sales & Marketing, International Business, Institutional Business, Product Management, Strategic Marketing of HIV, Oncology, Derma, Respiratory, Anti-Diabetic, Nutraceutical & Stomatological Product Portfolio and Generic as well as Chronic Critical Care Portfolio. A First Class MBA in International Business & Strategic Marketing, B.Pharm, D.Pharm, Google Certified Digital Marketing Professional. Qualified PhD Candidate in Operations and Management with special focus on Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning adoption, analysis and use in Healthcare, Hospital & Pharma Domain. Seasoned with diverse therapy area of Pharmaceutical Sales & Marketing ranging from generating revenue through generating prescriptions, launching new products, and making them big brands with continuous strategy execution at the Physician and Patients level. Moved from Sales to Marketing and Business Development for 3.5 years in South East Asian Market operating from Manila, Philippines. Came back to India and handled and developed Brands such as Gluconorm, Lupisulin, Supracal, Absolut Woman, Hemozink, Fabiflu (For COVID 19), and many more. In my previous assignment I used to develop and execute strategies on Sales & Marketing, Commercialization & Business Development for Institution and Corporate Hospital Business portfolio of Oncology Therapy Area for AstraZeneca Pharma India Ltd. Being a Research Scholar and Student of ‘Operations Research & Management: Artificial Intelligence’ I published several pioneer research papers and book chapters on the same in Internationally reputed journals and Books indexed in Scopus, Springer and Ei Compendex, Google Scholar etc. Currently, I am launching PGDM Pharmaceutical Management Program in IIHMR Bangalore and spearheading the course curriculum and structure of the same. I am interested in Collaboration for Healthcare Innovation, Pharma AI Innovation, Future trend in Marketing and Management with incubation on Healthcare, Healthcare IT startups, AI-ML Modelling and Healthcare Algorithm based training module development. I am also an affiliated member of the Institute of Management Consultant of India, looking forward to Healthcare, Healthcare IT and Innovation, Pharma and Hospital Management Consulting works.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Lovely Professional University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"310576",title:"Prof.",name:"Erick Giovani",middleName:null,surname:"Sperandio Nascimento",slug:"erick-giovani-sperandio-nascimento",fullName:"Erick Giovani Sperandio Nascimento",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0033Y00002pDKxDQAW/ProfilePicture%202022-06-20%2019%3A57%3A24.788",biography:"Prof. Erick Sperandio is the Lead Researcher and professor of Artificial Intelligence (AI) at SENAI CIMATEC, Bahia, Brazil, also working with Computational Modeling (CM) and HPC. He holds a PhD in Environmental Engineering in the area of Atmospheric Computational Modeling, a Master in Informatics in the field of Computational Intelligence and Graduated in Computer Science from UFES. He currently coordinates, leads and participates in R&D projects in the areas of AI, computational modeling and supercomputing applied to different areas such as Oil and Gas, Health, Advanced Manufacturing, Renewable Energies and Atmospheric Sciences, advising undergraduate, master's and doctoral students. He is the Lead Researcher at SENAI CIMATEC's Reference Center on Artificial Intelligence. In addition, he is a Certified Instructor and University Ambassador of the NVIDIA Deep Learning Institute (DLI) in the areas of Deep Learning, Computer Vision, Natural Language Processing and Recommender Systems, and Principal Investigator of the NVIDIA/CIMATEC AI Joint Lab, the first in Latin America within the NVIDIA AI Technology Center (NVAITC) worldwide program. He also works as a researcher at the Supercomputing Center for Industrial Innovation (CS2i) and at the SENAI Institute of Innovation for Automation (ISI Automação), both from SENAI CIMATEC. He is a member and vice-coordinator of the Basic Board of Scientific-Technological Advice and Evaluation, in the area of Innovation, of the Foundation for Research Support of the State of Bahia (FAPESB). He serves as Technology Transfer Coordinator and one of the Principal Investigators at the National Applied Research Center in Artificial Intelligence (CPA-IA) of SENAI CIMATEC, focusing on Industry, being one of the six CPA-IA in Brazil approved by MCTI / FAPESP / CGI.br. He also participates as one of the representatives of Brazil in the BRICS Innovation Collaboration Working Group on HPC, ICT and AI. He is the coordinator of the Work Group of the Axis 5 - Workforce and Training - of the Brazilian Strategy for Artificial Intelligence (EBIA), and member of the MCTI/EMBRAPII AI Innovation Network Training Committee. He is the coordinator, by SENAI CIMATEC, of the Artificial Intelligence Reference Network of the State of Bahia (REDE BAH.IA). He leads the working group of experts representing Brazil in the Global Partnership on Artificial Intelligence (GPAI), on the theme \"AI and the Pandemic Response\".",institutionString:"Manufacturing and Technology Integrated Campus – SENAI CIMATEC",institution:null},{id:"1063",title:"Prof.",name:"Constantin",middleName:null,surname:"Volosencu",slug:"constantin-volosencu",fullName:"Constantin Volosencu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/1063/images/system/1063.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Constantin Voloşencu graduated as an engineer from\nPolitehnica University of Timișoara, Romania, where he also\nobtained a doctorate degree. He is currently a full professor in\nthe Department of Automation and Applied Informatics at the\nsame university. Dr. Voloşencu is the author of ten books, seven\nbook chapters, and more than 160 papers published in journals\nand conference proceedings. He has also edited twelve books and\nhas twenty-seven patents to his name. He is a manager of research grants, editor in\nchief and member of international journal editorial boards, a former plenary speaker, a member of scientific committees, and chair at international conferences. His\nresearch is in the fields of control systems, control of electric drives, fuzzy control\nsystems, neural network applications, fault detection and diagnosis, sensor network\napplications, monitoring of distributed parameter systems, and power ultrasound\napplications. He has developed automation equipment for machine tools, spooling\nmachines, high-power ultrasound processes, and more.",institutionString:'"Politechnica" University Timişoara',institution:null},{id:"221364",title:"Dr.",name:"Eneko",middleName:null,surname:"Osaba",slug:"eneko-osaba",fullName:"Eneko Osaba",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/221364/images/system/221364.jpg",biography:"Dr. Eneko Osaba works at TECNALIA as a senior researcher. He obtained his Ph.D. in Artificial Intelligence in 2015. He has participated in more than twenty-five local and European research projects, and in the publication of more than 130 papers. He has performed several stays at universities in the United Kingdom, Italy, and Malta. Dr. Osaba has served as a program committee member in more than forty international conferences and participated in organizing activities in more than ten international conferences. He is a member of the editorial board of the International Journal of Artificial Intelligence, Data in Brief, and Journal of Advanced Transportation. He is also a guest editor for the Journal of Computational Science, Neurocomputing, Swarm, and Evolutionary Computation and IEEE ITS Magazine.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"275829",title:"Dr.",name:"Esther",middleName:null,surname:"Villar-Rodriguez",slug:"esther-villar-rodriguez",fullName:"Esther Villar-Rodriguez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/275829/images/system/275829.jpg",biography:"Dr. Esther Villar obtained a Ph.D. in Information and Communication Technologies from the University of Alcalá, Spain, in 2015. She obtained a degree in Computer Science from the University of Deusto, Spain, in 2010, and an MSc in Computer Languages and Systems from the National University of Distance Education, Spain, in 2012. Her areas of interest and knowledge include natural language processing (NLP), detection of impersonation in social networks, semantic web, and machine learning. Dr. Esther Villar made several contributions at conferences and publishing in various journals in those fields. Currently, she is working within the OPTIMA (Optimization Modeling & Analytics) business of TECNALIA’s ICT Division as a data scientist in projects related to the prediction and optimization of management and industrial processes (resource planning, energy efficiency, etc).",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"49813",title:"Dr.",name:"Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Del Ser",slug:"javier-del-ser",fullName:"Javier Del Ser",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49813/images/system/49813.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Javier Del Ser received his first PhD in Telecommunication Engineering (Cum Laude) from the University of Navarra, Spain, in 2006, and a second PhD in Computational Intelligence (Summa Cum Laude) from the University of Alcala, Spain, in 2013. He is currently a principal researcher in data analytics and optimisation at TECNALIA (Spain), a visiting fellow at the Basque Center for Applied Mathematics (BCAM) and a part-time lecturer at the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU). His research interests gravitate on the use of descriptive, prescriptive and predictive algorithms for data mining and optimization in a diverse range of application fields such as Energy, Transport, Telecommunications, Health and Industry, among others. In these fields he has published more than 240 articles, co-supervised 8 Ph.D. theses, edited 6 books, coauthored 7 patents and participated/led more than 40 research projects. He is a Senior Member of the IEEE, and a recipient of the Biscay Talent prize for his academic career.",institutionString:"Tecnalia Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"278948",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos Pedro",middleName:null,surname:"Gonçalves",slug:"carlos-pedro-goncalves",fullName:"Carlos Pedro Gonçalves",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRcmyQAC/Profile_Picture_1564224512145",biography:'Carlos Pedro Gonçalves (PhD) is an Associate Professor at Lusophone University of Humanities and Technologies and a researcher on Complexity Sciences, Quantum Technologies, Artificial Intelligence, Strategic Studies, Studies in Intelligence and Security, FinTech and Financial Risk Modeling. He is also a progammer with programming experience in:\n\nA) Quantum Computing using Qiskit Python module and IBM Quantum Experience Platform, with software developed on the simulation of Quantum Artificial Neural Networks and Quantum Cybersecurity;\n\nB) Artificial Intelligence and Machine learning programming in Python;\n\nC) Artificial Intelligence, Multiagent Systems Modeling and System Dynamics Modeling in Netlogo, with models developed in the areas of Chaos Theory, Econophysics, Artificial Intelligence, Classical and Quantum Complex Systems Science, with the Econophysics models having been cited worldwide and incorporated in PhD programs by different Universities.\n\nReceived an Arctic Code Vault Contributor status by GitHub, due to having developed open source software preserved in the \\"Arctic Code Vault\\" for future generations (https://archiveprogram.github.com/arctic-vault/), with the Strategy Analyzer A.I. module for decision making support (based on his PhD thesis, used in his Classes on Decision Making and in Strategic Intelligence Consulting Activities) and QNeural Python Quantum Neural Network simulator also preserved in the \\"Arctic Code Vault\\", for access to these software modules see: https://github.com/cpgoncalves. He is also a peer reviewer with outsanding review status from Elsevier journals, including Physica A, Neurocomputing and Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence. Science CV available at: https://www.cienciavitae.pt//pt/8E1C-A8B3-78C5 and ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0298-3974',institutionString:"University of Lisbon",institution:{name:"Universidade Lusófona",country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"241400",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammed",middleName:null,surname:"Bsiss",slug:"mohammed-bsiss",fullName:"Mohammed Bsiss",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241400/images/8062_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"276128",title:"Dr.",name:"Hira",middleName:null,surname:"Fatima",slug:"hira-fatima",fullName:"Hira Fatima",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/276128/images/14420_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Hira Fatima\nAssistant Professor\nDepartment of Mathematics\nInstitute of Applied Science\nMangalayatan University, Aligarh\nMobile: no : 8532041179\nhirafatima2014@gmal.com\n\nDr. Hira Fatima has received his Ph.D. degree in pure Mathematics from Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh India. Currently working as an Assistant Professor in the Department of Mathematics, Institute of Applied Science, Mangalayatan University, Aligarh. She taught so many courses of Mathematics of UG and PG level. Her research Area of Expertise is Functional Analysis & Sequence Spaces. She has been working on Ideal Convergence of double sequence. She has published 17 research papers in National and International Journals including Cogent Mathematics, Filomat, Journal of Intelligent and Fuzzy Systems, Advances in Difference Equations, Journal of Mathematical Analysis, Journal of Mathematical & Computer Science etc. She has also reviewed few research papers for the and international journals. She is a member of Indian Mathematical Society.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"414880",title:"Dr.",name:"Maryam",middleName:null,surname:"Vatankhah",slug:"maryam-vatankhah",fullName:"Maryam Vatankhah",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Borough of Manhattan Community College",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"414879",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammad-Reza",middleName:null,surname:"Akbarzadeh-Totonchi",slug:"mohammad-reza-akbarzadeh-totonchi",fullName:"Mohammad-Reza Akbarzadeh-Totonchi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ferdowsi University of Mashhad",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"414878",title:"Prof.",name:"Reza",middleName:null,surname:"Fazel-Rezai",slug:"reza-fazel-rezai",fullName:"Reza Fazel-Rezai",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"American Public University System",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"426586",title:"Dr.",name:"Oladunni A.",middleName:null,surname:"Daramola",slug:"oladunni-a.-daramola",fullName:"Oladunni A. Daramola",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Federal University of Technology",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"357014",title:"Prof.",name:"Leon",middleName:null,surname:"Bobrowski",slug:"leon-bobrowski",fullName:"Leon Bobrowski",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Bialystok University of Technology",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"302698",title:"Dr.",name:"Yao",middleName:null,surname:"Shan",slug:"yao-shan",fullName:"Yao Shan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Dalian University of Technology",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"354126",title:"Dr.",name:"Setiawan",middleName:null,surname:"Hadi",slug:"setiawan-hadi",fullName:"Setiawan Hadi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Padjadjaran University",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"125911",title:"Prof.",name:"Jia-Ching",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"jia-ching-wang",fullName:"Jia-Ching Wang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Central University",country:{name:"Taiwan"}}},{id:"332603",title:"Prof.",name:"Kumar S.",middleName:null,surname:"Ray",slug:"kumar-s.-ray",fullName:"Kumar S. Ray",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Statistical Institute",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"415409",title:"Prof.",name:"Maghsoud",middleName:null,surname:"Amiri",slug:"maghsoud-amiri",fullName:"Maghsoud Amiri",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Allameh Tabataba'i University",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"357085",title:"Mr.",name:"P. Mohan",middleName:null,surname:"Anand",slug:"p.-mohan-anand",fullName:"P. Mohan Anand",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"356696",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"P.V.",middleName:null,surname:"Sai Charan",slug:"p.v.-sai-charan",fullName:"P.V. Sai Charan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"357086",title:"Prof.",name:"Sandeep K.",middleName:null,surname:"Shukla",slug:"sandeep-k.-shukla",fullName:"Sandeep K. Shukla",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur",country:{name:"India"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"18",type:"subseries",title:"Proteomics",keywords:"Mono- and Two-Dimensional Gel Electrophoresis (1-and 2-DE), Liquid Chromatography (LC), Mass Spectrometry/Tandem Mass Spectrometry (MS; MS/MS), Proteins",scope:"With the recognition that the human genome cannot provide answers to the etiology of a disorder, changes in the proteins expressed by a genome became a focus in research. Thus proteomics, an area of research that detects all protein forms expressed in an organism, including splice isoforms and post-translational modifications, is more suitable than genomics for a comprehensive understanding of the biochemical processes that govern life. The most common proteomics applications are currently in the clinical field for the identification, in a variety of biological matrices, of biomarkers for diagnosis and therapeutic intervention of disorders. From the comparison of proteomic profiles of control and disease or different physiological states, which may emerge, changes in protein expression can provide new insights into the roles played by some proteins in human pathologies. Understanding how proteins function and interact with each other is another goal of proteomics that makes this approach even more intriguing. Specialized technology and expertise are required to assess the proteome of any biological sample. Currently, proteomics relies mainly on mass spectrometry (MS) combined with electrophoretic (1 or 2-DE-MS) and/or chromatographic techniques (LC-MS/MS). MS is an excellent tool that has gained popularity in proteomics because of its ability to gather a complex body of information such as cataloging protein expression, identifying protein modification sites, and defining protein interactions. The Proteomics topic aims to attract contributions on all aspects of MS-based proteomics that, by pushing the boundaries of MS capabilities, may address biological problems that have not been resolved yet.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/18.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!0,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11414,editor:{id:"200689",title:"Prof.",name:"Paolo",middleName:null,surname:"Iadarola",slug:"paolo-iadarola",fullName:"Paolo Iadarola",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSCl8QAG/Profile_Picture_1623568118342",biography:"Paolo Iadarola graduated with a degree in Chemistry from the University of Pavia (Italy) in July 1972. He then worked as an Assistant Professor at the Faculty of Science of the same University until 1984. In 1985, Prof. Iadarola became Associate Professor at the Department of Biology and Biotechnologies of the University of Pavia and retired in October 2017. Since then, he has been working as an Adjunct Professor in the same Department at the University of Pavia. His research activity during the first years was primarily focused on the purification and structural characterization of enzymes from animal and plant sources. During this period, Prof. Iadarola familiarized himself with the conventional techniques used in column chromatography, spectrophotometry, manual Edman degradation, and electrophoresis). Since 1995, he has been working on: i) the determination in biological fluids (serum, urine, bronchoalveolar lavage, sputum) of proteolytic activities involved in the degradation processes of connective tissue matrix, and ii) on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. In this context, he has developed and validated new methodologies (e.g., Capillary Electrophoresis coupled to Laser-Induced Fluorescence, CE-LIF) whose application enabled him to determine both the amounts of biochemical markers (Desmosines) in urine/serum of patients affected by Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (Human Neutrophil Elastase, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in sputa of these patients. More recently, Prof. Iadarola was involved in developing techniques such as two-dimensional electrophoresis coupled to liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry (2DE-LC/MS) for the proteomic analysis of biological fluids aimed at the identification of potential biomarkers of different lung diseases. He is the author of about 150 publications (According to Scopus: H-Index: 23; Total citations: 1568- According to WOS: H-Index: 20; Total Citations: 1296) of peer-reviewed international journals. He is a Consultant Reviewer for several journals, including the Journal of Chromatography A, Journal of Chromatography B, Plos ONE, Proteomes, International Journal of Molecular Science, Biotech, Electrophoresis, and others. He is also Associate Editor of Biotech.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorTwo:{id:"201414",title:"Dr.",name:"Simona",middleName:null,surname:"Viglio",slug:"simona-viglio",fullName:"Simona Viglio",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRKDHQA4/Profile_Picture_1630402531487",biography:"Simona Viglio is an Associate Professor of Biochemistry at the Department of Molecular Medicine at the University of Pavia. She has been working since 1995 on the determination of proteolytic enzymes involved in the degradation process of connective tissue matrix and on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. She gained considerable experience in developing and validating new methodologies whose applications allowed her to determine both the amount of biomarkers (Desmosine and Isodesmosine) in the urine of patients affected by COPD, and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (HNE, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in the sputa of these patients. Simona Viglio was also involved in research dealing with the supplementation of amino acids in patients with brain injury and chronic heart failure. She is presently engaged in the development of 2-DE and LC-MS techniques for the study of proteomics in biological fluids. The aim of this research is the identification of potential biomarkers of lung diseases. She is an author of about 90 publications (According to Scopus: H-Index: 23; According to WOS: H-Index: 20) on peer-reviewed journals, a member of the “Società Italiana di Biochimica e Biologia Molecolare,“ and a Consultant Reviewer for International Journal of Molecular Science, Journal of Chromatography A, COPD, Plos ONE and Nutritional Neuroscience.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorThree:null,series:{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",issn:"2632-0983"},editorialBoard:[{id:"72288",title:"Dr.",name:"Arli Aditya",middleName:null,surname:"Parikesit",slug:"arli-aditya-parikesit",fullName:"Arli Aditya Parikesit",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/72288/images/system/72288.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indonesia International Institute for Life 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