Free radicals, symbols, and identities.
\r\n\tThe book will aim to cover also the synthesis and optical properties of noble metal nanostructures, patterned surfaces, continuous or grated surfaces, and devices. This book intends to provide the reader with a comprehensive overview of the current state-of-the-art in plasmonic microscopy, surface-enhanced spectroscopic properties, such as Raman scattering or fluorescence, as well developments in techniques such as surface plasmon resonance and near-field scanning optical microscopy but also data transmission, plasmonic light modulators, and optoplasmonic networks.
",isbn:"978-1-80356-003-8",printIsbn:"978-1-80356-002-1",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80356-004-5",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isSalesforceBook:!1,hash:"15d44e3a7898842276a9a9da9863a59d",bookSignature:"Dr. Patrick Steglich",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11147.jpg",keywords:"Biosensors, Surface Plasmon Resonance, Optoplasmonic Networks, Plasmonic Communication, Fabrication Methods, Device Simulation, Device Optimization, Surface Plasmon Resonance, Plasmonic Microscopy, Phonon-Plasmon Interaction, Physical Background, Mathematical Background",numberOfDownloads:14,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:0,numberOfTotalCitations:0,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"November 19th 2021",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"February 25th 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"April 26th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"July 15th 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"September 13th 2022",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"3 months",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:4,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"A senior researcher in photonics at IHP - Leibniz Institute for Innovations in Microelectronics, book author, lecturer at Technical Unversity of Applied Sciences Wildau, and holder of three registered patents.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"223128",title:"Dr.",name:"Patrick",middleName:null,surname:"Steglich",slug:"patrick-steglich",fullName:"Patrick Steglich",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/223128/images/system/223128.jpeg",biography:"Patrick Steglich is a research associate at the IHP - Leibniz-Institut für innovative Mikroelektronik, Germany, and lecturer for photonics and optical technologies at the Technical University of Applied Sciences Wildau, Germany. He obtained a master's degree in Photonics from the Technical University of Applied Sciences Wildau in 2013. In 2017, he received his PhD in Industrial Engineering from the Università degli Studi di Roma 'Tor Vergata” for his work in the field of integrated photonics for communication and sensing. His research focuses on emerging photonic devices and waveguide concepts for telecommunication and sensing applications.",institutionString:"Technical University of Applied Sciences Wildau",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"2",institution:null}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"20",title:"Physics",slug:"physics"}],chapters:[{id:"81630",title:"Infrared Nano-Focusing by a Novel Plasmonic Bundt Optenna",slug:"infrared-nano-focusing-by-a-novel-plasmonic-bundt-optenna",totalDownloads:14,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"444315",firstName:"Karla",lastName:"Skuliber",middleName:null,title:"Mrs.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/444315/images/20013_n.jpg",email:"karla@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager, my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. 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Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"314",title:"Regenerative Medicine and Tissue Engineering",subtitle:"Cells and Biomaterials",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"bb67e80e480c86bb8315458012d65686",slug:"regenerative-medicine-and-tissue-engineering-cells-and-biomaterials",bookSignature:"Daniel Eberli",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/314.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"6495",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniel",surname:"Eberli",slug:"daniel-eberli",fullName:"Daniel Eberli"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"57",title:"Physics and Applications of Graphene",subtitle:"Experiments",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0e6622a71cf4f02f45bfdd5691e1189a",slug:"physics-and-applications-of-graphene-experiments",bookSignature:"Sergey Mikhailov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/57.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"16042",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergey",surname:"Mikhailov",slug:"sergey-mikhailov",fullName:"Sergey Mikhailov"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"75229",title:"Lipid Peroxidation",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.95802",slug:"lipid-peroxidation",body:'Free radicals are formed during the reactions required for the maintenance of normal metabolism and energy formation in biological systems. Under normal conditions, the most significant source of free radicals in cells is the leakage of electrons into molecular oxygen from electron flow in the mitochondria and endoplasmic reticulum during oxidative respiration. The superoxide anion formed in this way is converted into hydrogen peroxide, a reactive oxygen type. Hydrogen peroxide forms the peroxyl radical, which is the most reactive radical type in the organism in the presence of transition metal ions. When free radicals cannot be removed from the environment, they cause damage at the cell, tissue, and organ level by disrupting the structure of biomolecules such as lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids due to their high reactivity. Lipid peroxidation begins when polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs), which are in the structure of membrane lipids in cells, are affected by free radicals. If peroxyl radicals are not cleaned, a chain reaction starts affecting the intact PUFA. Lipid peroxidation is damaging as it is a self-sustaining chain reaction. When lipid peroxides (LOOH) are broken down, aldehydes are formed, many of which are biologically active. These compounds are either metabolized at the cellular level or diffuse from their initial domains and spread damage to other parts of the cell. When peroxidation of fatty acids containing three or more double bonds. Malondialdehyde (MDA) arises following the peroxidation of fatty acids comprised of three or more double bonds and appears in blood and urine. Due to its ability to corelate well with the degree of which lipid peroxidation occurs despite not being a specific or quantitative indicator of fatty acid oxidation, the measurement of MDA in biological material is used as an indicator of lipid peroxide levels. Nonenzymatic lipid peroxidation is a very harmful chain reaction. It both damages the membrane structure directly and also damages other cell components indirectly with the reactive aldehydes it produces. Thus, it causes tissue damage and many subsequent diseases.
According to quantum chemistry, only two electrons can enter the structure of a bond together. Electron pairs exist in a very stable state. Electrons in the human body exist almost entirely in electron pairs. When a bond breaks, the two electrons are either separated but remain in the same atom or both remain in the atom separately. If they remain together, the atom formed becomes an ion, and when they leave, the atom formed becomes a free radical [1]. Atoms or compounds that contain the unpaired electron in their final orbital are defined as free radicals. In other words, they are atoms or molecules that have an open electron shell configuration and contain an odd number of electrons in their structure [2]. The term Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS) is more commonly used in place of the term free oxygen radical as it includes molecules that are radical and are not actually radical, but that cause the formation of oxygen radicals with their reactions [1].
Despite oxygen being crucial for life, in some cases it can also damage cells. This damage is caused by increased oxygen-induced ROS production. The amounts of ROS produced under normal physiological conditions do not exceed the capacity of the natural antioxidant defense systems in the body. ROSs are chemical derivatives with unpaired high energy electrons in their outer orbits. In order to stabilize, ROS interact with any molecule they can find in their vicinity and exchange electrons. Molecules that react with free radicals turn into free radicals and initiate the damage chain reaction. These radicals react with organic and inorganic chemicals such as protein, lipid, and carbohydrate. When radicals occur in cells, they react with nucleic acids and various membrane molecules and break them down. While radicals affect intracellular organelles, they also create distant effects by passing to the extracellular compartment [1]. Although oxygen is crucial for human life, some ROS that occur during normal metabolism have the potential to cause great harm to the body. Compared to normal oxygen molecules, ROS, which are mostly composed of free radicals, appear as oxygen forms with higher chemical reactivity [3].
Free radicals are any atom or molecule with one or more unpaired electrons produced in many physiological or pathological conditions. These molecules, also known as oxidant molecules or reactive oxygen particles, easily exchange electrons with other molecules [4]. A compound can return to a free radical by losing an electron (reduction) or gaining an additional electron (oxidation). Free radicals can be part of a larger structure, as well as in immobile or small and freely spreading species [5, 6, 7, 8]. Free radicals are frequently produced by the mitochondria during the body’s normal use of oxygen. These free radicals, which are formed as a result of energy production, can change the structure of lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids. Free radicals are produced from many endogenous and exogenous sources as well as mitochondria and cause a variety of damage alongside their benefits. The benefits of free radicals only occur when they are of low concentration. Low concentration free radicals are involved in the activation of cellular signals such as calcium release from intracellular stores, and the activation of tyrosine phosphating and growth factor signals, along with defense functions such as defense against infections, the killing cancer cells and detoxification of xenobiotics [9].
Common biochemical events, such as those which occur during normal respiration, cause reduction–oxidation (redox) reactions. The molecular oxygen in mitochondria is gradually diminished with the adding of four electrons to form water. Several toxic intermediate derivatives occur during this event. These include superoxide radicals (O−2), hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) and hydroxyl (OH−). In addition, some intracellular oxidases such as xanthine oxidase directly form superoxide radicals as a result of their activities. It catalyzes the formation of free radicals (Fe+++ H2O2 → Fe++++ OH− + OH−) as in the Fenton reaction by exchanging free electrons during some intracellular reactions in exchange metals such as copper and iron. To play a part in the Fenton reaction, the intracellular free iron, occuring in the ferric state (Fe+++), must initially be reduced to its ferrous (Fe++) form. Iron and superoxide are both required for maximum oxidative cell damage as the reduction is amplified by the superoxide ion.
By absorption of radiant energy (such as ultraviolet light, X-rays): For example, water can be hydrolyzed to hydroxyl (OH−) and hydrogen (H+) free radicals with ionizing radiation.
By the intracellular enzymatic metabolism of external chemicals or drugs: For example, CCl3 free radical is formed as a result of the intracellular metabolism of carbon tetrachloride (CCl4).
Nitric oxide (NO), an important chemical mediator normally synthesized in various cell types, reacts with oxygen, especially non-radical peroxynitrite, a type of free oxygen that inhibits mitochondrial respiration, as well as the radical nitrogen dioxide (NO2) and nitrogen trioxide (NO3) [1]. Common free radicals, their symbols and identities are shown in the table below (Table 1):
Free radical | Symbol | Identity |
---|---|---|
Hydrogen | H | The simplest radical. |
Superoxide | O2˙− | The first intermediate product of oxygen metabolism. |
Hydroxyl | OH˙ | The most toxic (reactive) oxygen metabolite radical. |
Hydrogen peroxide | H2O2 | Reactivity is very low, molecular damage ability is poor. |
Singlet oxygen | O2− | Strong oxidative form of oxygen with fast half-life. |
Perhydroxy radical | HO2˙ | Rapidly dissolves in lipids and increases lipid peroxidation. |
Peroxide radical | ROO− | is less effective than perhydroxyl, localized to lipids. |
Trichloromethyl | CCl3 | CCl4 is a radical produced in the liver, the product of metabolism. |
Thiyl radical | RS˙ | General name for sulfurous and unpaired electron-containing species. |
Alkoxyl | RO˙ | Oxygen metabolite produced by the breakdown of organic peroxides. |
Nitrogen oxide | NO | is produced in vivo from the amino acid NO L- arginine. |
Nitrogen dioxide | NO2 | is produced by the reaction of NO with oxygen [10]. |
Free radicals, symbols, and identities.
The most important free radicals that occur are:
Superoxide radical (O2−).
Hydrogen peroxide (H2O2).
Hydroxyl radical (HO−).
The superoxide anion radical (O2−) is produced by the single electron reduction of oxygen which acts as an intermediate in a number of biochemical reactions in body [13] and is a weak oxidant that cannot cause serious cell damage by itself.
However, it may lead to the initiation of a series of reactions that can lead to oxidative stress [6, 14, 15]. One of the main points of superoxide production is Coenzyme Q , and this anion is formed at other points in the electron transport chain as well as in the mitochondrial electron transport chain. Another ROS is produced by the O2− radical, which does not leak far from where it originates [12, 16].
The OH− radicals produced are highly reactive and can cause significant damage by reacting with structures such as DNA [6, 17, 18].
The half-lives of superoxide radicals that produce H2O2 and oxygen by the dismutation reaction are quite short. This reaction occurs spontaneously and is catalyzed by the Superoxide Dismutase (SOD) enzyme [6].
In natural conditions, O2− can be produced in muscle tissues in a variety of ways. One of the sources of O2 in muscle tissues are various components of the electron transport chain in mitochondria, such as NADPH-linked dehydrogenase and ubiquinone, which can leak electrons into O2. Autoxidation of heme proteins [19, 20] and metabolic enzymes such as xanthine oxidase [21] are other sources of O2. With the ingestion of bacteria, the activation of several leukocytes in the vasculature of the muscle tissue causes the production of O2−, one of the major bactericides [22].
Aerobic cells naturally contain low concentrations of hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) as a metabolite. In an O2 forming system, it is expected to give H2O2 catalyzed by nonenzymatic or superoxide dismutase (SOD) [23]. Although it is not free radical, hydrogen peroxide reacts with a transition metal (e.g. Fe+2) to form a free radical [16].
H2O2 production has been detected in mitochondria, microsomes, peroxisomes and phagocytic cells. Also, many enzymes, such as xanthine oxidase, aldehyde oxidase, urate oxidase, glucose oxidase, glycolate oxidase, and D-amino acid oxidase, can directly produce H2O2 [23]. It has been reported that H2O2 is produced at a hemoglobin rate of approximately 3.9 × 10-9 M/hg and the concentration of H2O2 in red blood cells in a steady state is 2 × 10-10 M [24]. It has been reported that H2O2 formed during oxidation of oxymyoglobin plays an important role in lipid peroxidation [25]. Furthermore, it was reported that turkey muscle tissues stored at 37°C for 30 minutes produced approximately 14.0 nmol H2O2 per gram fresh weight, and its formation increased with storage at 4°C [26].
H2O2, which lacks unpaired electrons, is not a radical and, unlike charged O2, shows limited reactivity and permeability to the membrane [27]. Nevertheless, H2O2 can have devastating effects by generating more reactive species such as OH by catalysis of Fe (II) [28]. In addition, H2O2, depending on its concentration, can denature heme proteins to release iron and heme group or to convert heme protein to ferryl or perferryl radical [20].
The hydroxyl radical (OH) is the most reactive oxygen radical [29]. It is the most powerful free radical hydroxyl radical found in biological systems. In tissues exposed to radiation, a large part of the energy is absorbed by the water inside the cell and the radiation creates a covalent bond between oxygen and hydrogen, forming hydrogen (H−) and hydroxyl radical (OH−).
OH− radicals, which can provide radical formation and participate in a series of reactions, cause strand breaks in DNA by joining the structure of bases in DNA and RNA, which they do by causing a lot of damage to the bases and sugars of DNA. If the damage is very severe, it may not be repaired by cellular protective systems and as a result, mutations and cell death occur [14, 17, 30].
The steady-state concentration of the OH− radical in vivo is zero because it reacts with every molecule in the living cell, such as DNA, protein, phospholipid, amino acid, and sugar, at or near the place of formation. The high reactivity of the OH− radical is thought to result from the extraordinary combination of three properties. These properties include high electrophilicity, high thermochemical reactivity, and the ability to form near target molecules [31]. OH− formation was achieved in living erythrocytes under the effect of adriamycin using the spin trap electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) technique [32]. Most of the OH− produced in vivo or in situ was obtained from the decomposition of H2O2 [33] by Fe (II) catalysis. Additionally, OH− can be produced by various sources: sunlight (Joseph JM, Aravindakumar), ultraviolet radiation [34], ionizing irradiation [35], reaction of hypochlorous acid with O2- [36] and sonolysis of water (ultrasound) [37].
The reaction of the OH− radical can be inhibited by OH− scavengers such as methanol, ethanol, 1-butanol, mannitol, formate, thiourea, dimethylthiourea, glucose, tris-buffer, or sorbitol [23]. Although OH− scavengers prevent OH− from reacting with other molecules, including lipid molecules, they are not always effective. There are several reasons to consider:
Reaction of the OH− radical with a scavenger can create scavenger radicals that can react with other molecules in the system [38].
More attention has been paid to the possibility of a metal-mediated mechanism [28]: OH− produced by the reaction of H2O2 with metal ions bound to macromolecules can react with metal-binding molecules. It has been reported that as a result of the formation of the Fe (II) ion and 2-deoxyreebose complex, the Fe (II) ion that binds to DNA interacts with H2O2 to form OH−, which instantly damages DNA [39]. It was determined that the Fe (III) ion binds to the membrane and then forms free radicals in the binding site. It has been suggested that iron is accepted as the main binding site of the sulfone group with the carboxyl groups of sialic acids to the membrane, the sulfate group of glycolipids and the phosphate head group of glycoproteins and phospholipids [40]. On the other hand, it has also been reported that OH− scavengers effectively inhibit OH− formation in the presence of EDTA. Indeed, EDTA allows Fe (II) ions to be removed from these binding sites [41]. Thus, the toxicity of O2 and H2O2 may be due to the presence and distribution of metal ion catalysts to form OH− in cells.
Singlet oxygen is the name given to the excited form of oxygen; it is a reactive oxygen type with a very high non-radical reactivity. By directly reacting with unsaturated fatty acids, it forms the peroxyl radical and initiates a lipid peroxidation as strong as the hydroxyl radical [10].
Continuously produced SR in the cell and in the environment can be generated by both endogenous and exogenous sources.
Oxygen catalyzed by the electron transport system during oxygen respiration in mitochondria produces free radicals as a by-product.
In case of inflammation, cytokines are released and as a result neutrophils and macrophages begin to produce free radicals.
Free radicals can originate from a variety of sources such as lipid peroxidation, xanthine oxidase, and mitochondrial cytochrome oxidase.
Free radicals can be produced by smooth muscle cells, platelets, and arachidonic acid metabolism.
It may occur as a result of electron leaks in the Cytocom p450 system in the endoplasmic reticulum with enzymes such as xanthine oxidase (XO) and nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADPH) oxidase during autooxidation reactions.
Stress from mental stress or body fatigue can create free radicals as a toxic by-product. In addition, hormones such as cortisol and catecholamine can cause stress reactions in the body, and these hormones themselves can turn into free radicals.
Immune system cells can generate ROS and oxy-radicals in response to pathogens.
X-rays, UV rays, microwave rays, gamma rays.
Burning organic materials during cooking.
Volcanic activities, forest fires.
Pollutants such as benzene, asbestos, formaldehyde, carbon monoxide, toluene, and ozone.
Chemicals such as glue, cleaning products, thinner, paint, pesticides, and perfumes.
Water contaminants such as chloroform and other trihalomethanes.
Cigarette smoke, exhaust smoke, alcohol and cigarette use can contribute to the production of free radical exogenously [9, 42, 43, 44, 45].
As a result of the damaging effects of free radicals on cells, the cell’s plasma and organelle membranes lose their continuity. As a result, sodium and calcium ions enter the cell in addition to water. Morphologically recognized by their pale granular cytoplasm, these cells swell. Over time, this structural defect leads to irreversible changes in the cell0, followed eventually by death [1].
Lipids are the most sensitive biomolecules to the effects of free radicals, and the unsaturated bonds of fatty acids and cholesterol in cell membranes react very easily with free radicals to form peroxidation products. The oxidative breakdown of polyunsaturated fatty acids, known as lipid peroxidation and which is highly harmful, proceeds as a self-sustaining chain reaction [17, 46]. Lipid peroxides, which are an important component of cell membranes, form RS- and ROO- radicals with the presence of transition metals such as Fe and Cu. In this way, Fe and Cu salts increase the rate of lipid peroxidation and consequently reduce the fluidity and permeability of the cell membrane and cause the disruption of membrane integrity [6, 17, 47].
Lipid peroxidation is a free radical chain reaction that is comprised of three primary steps: initiation, propagation, and termination. Highly reactive radicals, such as the hydroxyl radical, attack polyunsaturated fatty acids, causing a hydrogen atom to be removed from the methylene (—CH2—) group and, thus, initiate lipid peroxidation. Polyunsaturated fatty acids are very sensitive to peroxidation, as the number of double bonds in the fatty acid side chain increases, the hydrogen atom cleavage becomes easier [13]. Conjugated dienes will, however, react to one another in the bounds of the membranes or other membrane components such as protein and cholesterol under conditions when O2 is extremely restricted [48]. The creation of conjugated dienes is followed by changes in the structure of the double bond from cis to trans form, which may facilitate tighter packing of the unsaturated fatty acids, contributing to the development of more rigid domains inside the bilayer of oxidized lipid [49].
When the hydrogen atom leaves the molecule by acquiring an electron, only one electron remains in the carbon of the fatty acid; In order to eliminate the weakening of the C-H bond in the carbon atom adjacent to the double bond, the carbon-centered radical forms the conjugated diene. Conjugated diene reacts with oxygen, causing the lipid peroxyl radical (LOO•); the lipid radical formed in this step is important because it starts a chain reaction by removing the hydrogen atom from another fatty acid. Peroxyl radicals show less reactive properties than •OH; however, they can reach farther regions. Peroxyl radicals can react with each other, attack membrane proteins or break hydrogen atoms from neighboring fatty acid chains, leading to the progression of lipid peroxidation chain reaction. Lipid peroxidation in biological membranes can lead to decreased membrane fluidity and membrane potential, increased permeability to H+ and other ions, and disruption of organelle or cell integrity [13].
The termination process is the last stage of lipid peroxidation. During this process, LOOs either undergo a reciprocal causal nexus or self-destruct and in this way go on to form non-radical products. Despite their potential to breakdown when exposed to high temperatures or by contact with transitional metal ions, LOOH is a compound which remains stable at physiological temperatures [23]. The formed free radicals (LO•, LOO•) and electrophilic products (e.g. 4-hydroxynonenal) can react with neighboring membrane proteins as well as diffuse with distant molecules such as DNA [13].
Herbicides are chemical compounds used mostly to control weed (i.e., uncultivated) plants in agriculture and forestry and also for algae control [1, 2]. Herbicide formulations are designed to affect mainly plants, affecting specific plant biochemical pathways. However, it is common that this kind of pesticides affects nontarget organisms such animals, including aquatic organisms [3, 4].
The most used herbicide worldwide is glyphosate-based herbicide (GBH), such as Roundup® from Monsanto, and its usage has been increased [5] mainly due to the development of transgenic glyphosate-resistant crops [6]. Glyphosate (N-(phosphonomethyl) glycine (CAS no. 1071-83-6)) is a weak organic acid with a molecular weight of 169.09 M and has a half-life of 7–142 days in water and 76–240 in soil [6, 7]. Glyphosate has high solubility in water (10,000–15,700 mg L−1 at 25°C), and it readily dissolves and disperses in an aquatic environment.
Glyphosate affects a specific plant biochemical pathway, inhibiting the action of the enzyme 3-enolpyruvylshikimic acid 5-phosphate synthase (EPSPS) that is necessary for biosynthesis of amino acids such as phenylalanine, tyrosine, and tryptophan [8] (Figure 1). Animals do not have this biochemical pathway, and hypothetically, they would be safe from glyphosate. However, the use of glyphosate requires that some other compounds as surfactants are added to the commercial formulation to increase adhesion to the leaf surface and absorbance by plants, trespassing the waxy cuticle [6]. There are a variety of surfactants, but the most common used on glyphosate-based formulations has been polyethoxylated amine (POEA). This surfactant is known to be more toxic to animals then glyphosate itself [6, 9].
Glyphosate action on the biochemical pathway of plants inhibiting 3-enolpyruvylshikimic acid 5-phosphate synthase (EPSPS) enzyme and production of essential amino acids as phenylalanine, tyrosine, and tryptophan, causing plant death.
As mentioned above, glyphosate
In terrestrial animals, glyphosate reaches these organisms through direct application and contaminated food consumption. However, application of GBH in an aquatic environment is not so common when compared to terrestrial environments. Despite this, GBH can reach the aquatic environment through many ways. It can be applied directly on water bodies for algae control, although the opposite effect can be found, with proliferation of some species of algae due to the increase of phosphorus levels [18]. GBH can also reach the aquatic environment through leaching, run-off, and contaminated food source [6].
As mentioned, glyphosate has high solubility in an aquatic environment. Some studies say that 50% of glyphosate in natural waters dissipates by water flow and decomposition in a few days to 2 weeks [19, 20, 21]. Despite that, glyphosate binds to soil particles and solid surfaces [22], which makes its dissipation difficult. The by-products of glyphosate decomposition are sarcosine and aminomethylphosphonic acid (AMPA). The first one is known to be nontoxic [23] and the second one less or equally toxic for aquatic organisms than glyphosate [24, 25]. This substance has also a great solubility and dissipates in water in 7–14 days. POEA in natural environments degrades by microbial decomposition in 14 weeks and its half-life is estimated in 21–42 days [24].
Considering that glyphosate
One of the first studies that evaluated the effects of glyphosate and GBH in aquatic environments was performed by Folmar et al. [26]. According to Thomson’s ISI WoS (Institute for Scientific Information, Web of Science) database, using keywords as “glyphosate,” and “aquatic environment,” since 1979 to the present day, 233 papers have been published that evaluated the toxicological effects of glyphosate in aquatic environments (Figure 2). These papers addressed the toxic effects of glyphosate on various types of organisms. The invertebrate group was the most studied, with 52 published articles (21.3%), followed by fish with 51 (20.9%), amphibians 40 (16.4%), plant 31 (12.7%), and aquatic environment 30 (12.3%). The other groups were present in 40 published articles (16.4%) (Figure 3). For the investigated period and database, there were no papers which have evaluated the toxicological effects of glyphosate in aquatic mammals and birds. This scarcity of studies demonstrates the lack of knowledge on the risk of exposure of these groups in aquatic environments contaminated by glyphosate.
Number of papers published per year. Black bars represent the number of papers published in each year. Grey bars represent the number of papers accumulated per year. (*) Papers published until August 2018.
Number of papers per organism group. Black bars represent the number of papers on toxicological effects of glyphosate published for each aquatic organism groups. Asterisk indicates lack of studies evaluating the toxicological effects of glyphosate in aquatic mammals and birds.
Glyphosate in the aquatic environment causes the death of the macrophyte community, which serves as a microhabitat for zooplanktonic, phytoplanktonic, and periphytic communities, and this leads to top-down control of planktonic organisms, affecting refuge and feeding to fish [27], triggering a chain effect. Studies have evaluated the effects of glyphosate on aquatic lentils (
Species | Group | Chemical | Glyphosate concentration (μg L−1) | Effect | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Catenulaceae | Roundup® | 8456 | Increases mortality | [36] | |
Nostocaceae | Gly. (acid) | 0.1–8.8 mM | Increases growth | [28] | |
Phormidiaceae | Gly. (acid) | 0.005–0.048 mM | Increases growth | [2] | |
Chlorellaceae | Gly. (acid) | 293,000 | Chlorophyll fluorescence/decreases PP | [35] | |
Naviculaceae | Roundup® | 1000–10,000 | Increases mortality | [30] | |
Hydrocharitaceae | DCMU Gly. (acid) | 11,600 | Decreases chlorophyll fluorescence | [31] | |
Roundup® | [30] | ||||
Lemnaceae | Roundup® | 2800 | Increases growth | [2] | |
Gly. (acid) Roundup® | 46,900 | Increases growth | [29] | ||
Leptolyngbyaceae | Gly. (acid) | 0.003–0.02 mM | Increases growth | [2] | |
Onagraceae | Gly. (acid) | 4000 and 108,000 | Bioaccumulation | [2] | |
Microcystaceae | Gly. (acid) | 3–37 | Increases growth and toxin production | [28] | |
[18] | |||||
Gly. (acid) | 15,000 | Increases growth and toxin production | [2] | ||
Haloragaceae | Gly. (acid) Roundup® | 840 | Decreases root | [30] | |
Gly. (n.c.) | 220 | Chlorophyll fluorescence | [33] | ||
Haloragaceae | Rodeo® | 1000 | Increases growth | [34] | |
Nostocaceae | Gly. (acid) | >50 mM | Increases growth | [2] | |
Chlorophyceae | Gly. (acid) | 200,000 | Chlorophyll fluorescence/decreases primary productivity (PP) | [2] | |
Nostocaceae | Gly. (acid) | 0.005–0.02 mM | Increases growth | [2] |
Ecotoxicity of glyphosate-based herbicide (GBH) to aquatic plants worldwide.
Dörr [18] studied the effect of glyphosate on the growth and production of secondary metabolites by toxigenic strains of the cyanobacteria
The effects of herbicides on nontarget aquatic plants are emerging as a major conservation issue in aquatic biodiversity [29].
Another important community in aquatic ecosystems that is also affected by the use of glyphosate is the periphyton. In terms of primary production, the periphyton has a photosynthetic contribution 77% higher than that of phytoplankton [30]. Among the most common and potentially toxic outcrossing cyanobacteria,
The exposure to GBH reduced 78% of the primary productivity of phytoplankton when used at low concentrations (0.125 mg L−1) [33] and at high concentrations (3.8 mg L−1) [34], causing a disturbance in the trophic levels. In freshwater systems, glyphosate at high levels stimulated eutrophication by increasing total phosphorus and favoring the growth of cyanobacteria on the periphyton, which altered the typology of the study ecosystem that was a mesocosm [32].
Species-based differences in sensitivity to GBH exposure may lead to decreased richness and abundance of ecosystem species [34]. Even though herbicides are thought to kill terrestrial plants, it can have an even more devastating effect in water, due to the imbalance that causes mortality of algae and aquatic plants. This causes an increase in decomposing organic matter in the water, which will reduce the concentrations of dissolved oxygen in the system and increase the stress of aquatic communities [35]. Thus, algae and aquatic plants are considered as nontarget organisms that are sensitive to the effects of glyphosate, and the damage to the balance of the aquatic environment is of concern. The damage of glyphosate on the aquatic plant community ranges from the death of the plant itself to the reduction of environmental heterogeneity promoted by the local plants. Consequently, this leads to the death of other aquatic species, causing an imbalance in the ecosystem.
One of the pioneer studies of the effects of GBH on invertebrate organisms was carried out by Tsui and Chu [9] that studied the effects of this chemical on
Species | Chemical | Exposure time (h) | LC50 (μg L−1) | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|
Roundup® | 48 | 1770 (1330–2340) | [38] | |
Roundup® | 96 | 4304 (2121–7902) | [44] | |
Roundup® | 96 | 2842 (2524–3190) | [44] | |
Roundup® | 48 | 5390 (4810–6050) | [38] | |
Eskoba®, Panzer Gold®, Roundup Ultramax®, Sulfosato Touchdown® | 48 | 250–16,770 | [45] | |
Roundup®, POEAE, Glyphosate acid | 96 | 18,000 (9400–32,000) | [46] | |
Rodeo®, X-77 Spreader®, ChemTrol® | 48 | 1,216,000 (996,000–1,566,000) | [47] | |
Eskoba®, Panzer Gold®, Roundup Ultramax®, Sulfosato Touchdown® | 48 | 2670–15,430 | [45] | |
Roundup®, POEAE, Glyphosate acid | 48 | 3000 (2600–3400) | [46] | |
Eskoba®, Sulfosato Touchdown® | 48 | 1620–31,410 | [48] | |
Rodeo®, X-77 Spreader®, ChemTrol® | 48 | 218,000 (150,000–287,000) | [47] | |
Roundup® | 96 | 657 (472–914) | [44] | |
Roundup®, POEAE, Glyphosate acid | 48 | 62,000 (40,000–98,000) | [46] | |
Roundup®, POEAE, Glyphosate acid | 96 | 43,000 (28,000–66,000) | [46] | |
Roundup® | 96 | 340,000 | [49] | |
Rodeo®, X-77 Spreader®, ChemTrol® | 96 | 720,000 (399,000–1,076,000) | [47] | |
Roundup® | 96 | 8199 (6690–9580) | [50] | |
Rodeo®, X-77 Spreader®, ChemTrol® | 96 | 1,177,000 (941,000–1,415,000) | [47] | |
Eskoba®, Sulfosato Touchdown® | 48 | 1220–1,282,000 | [48] | |
Roundup® | 1440 | 2200 | [51] | |
Roundup® | 96 | 12,240 (9454–22,360 | [44] | |
Roundup® | 24 | 18.3 ± 12.9 | [52] |
Ecotoxicity of glyphosate-based herbicide (GBH) to aquatic invertebrates, exposure time, LC50 value (lower-upper values), and reference.
Specifically about microinvertebrates (<35 μm), these organisms persist within resting eggs (or egg banks) in lake sediments [36]. They represent a major source of regenerative potential in lake ecosystems near agricultural areas, and play a key role in influencing the active population and community dynamics, seasonal succession, biogeographic patterns, and the evolution of populations [36, 37]. Despite the widely accepted importance of resting egg banks in the ecology of aquatic micro-invertebrates’ communities, recently, experimental studies have demonstrated that the extensive and inappropriate use of commercial GBH, associated with agricultural activities, may impair the hatching of resting eggs in the sediment of lakes [38, 39]. Gutierrez and collaborators [38] indicated that the GBHs (Sulfosato Touchdown®) affect the hatching dynamics of micro-invertebrates, and selectively alter the species richness and abundance of community hatched from lake sediment. Portinho and associates [39] extended these findings and indicated that commercial herbicides as Roundup® (a.i. glyphosate) separate or in combination with 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D) have the potential to suppress emergences of micro-invertebrates from resting egg banks from lake sediments.
The environmental implication of this scenario suggests that changes in micro-invertebrates’ structure and composition induced by herbicides will occur, causing not only negative impacts on the process of recolonization from resting egg banks but also shifts in community composition. Recent attempts to develop guidelines for protecting aquatic organisms have focused on emergence from resting egg banks within the context of an ecological community [40], with potential implications for studies related to environmental risk to, and integrity assessment of, aquatic ecosystems.
Fish species are particularly vulnerable to GBH and their susceptibility depends on the commercial formulation, fish species, fish developmental stages, and exposure conditions, such as concentrations, exposure time, and route of exposure. Furthermore, gender-specific response of fish to GBH has been indicated in guppy
In general, the surfactant and the commercial formulation showed higher toxicity to fish when compared to active ingredient (glyphosate pure) and their metabolite (AMPA). The 50% lethal concentration (i.e., LC50) of GBHs for fish has high variability, ranging from 1000 to 9750 μg L−1 [6, 41]. Chandrasekera and Weeratunga [42] found a LC50 of 976 μg L−1 for 48 h of exposure in fries of
Glyphosate and formulation compounds can be taken by fish via gills and digestive tract through ingestion of contaminated food or water [6, 45]. Once inside the organisms, glyphosate is absorbed and distributed to the whole body through blood circuit, reaching several tissues. GBHs can affect fishes in different ways, affecting many organs and as well molecular levels. In liver, vacuolization process was reported in hepatocytes and nuclear pyknoses; in kidney, studies report Bowman capsule dilatation and accumulation of hyaline drops in tubular cells; and in gills, glyphosate causes hyperplasia, lamellar fusion and aneurism [46, 47, 48, 49, 50]. Besides that, Langiano and Martinez [49] showed activation of the stress axis, with increased blood glucose levels. Souza-Filho and collaborators [44] also showed genotoxic effects in fish cells. Concerning to enzymes, Sandrini and collaborators [17] showed that glyphosate impairs acetylcholinesterase activity in synapses, preventing detaching of acetylcholine from receptors, impairing electric transmission by neurons. This can impair muscle contraction and information transmittance. GBH in sub-lethal levels can also impair fish feeding behavior as shown by Giaquinto and collaborators [51]. Also, a recent
OMIC technologies, such as proteomics, transcriptomics, and metabolomics, have been applied to investigate the molecular mechanisms and toxicity of GBHs on fish. For example, proteomics-based methods (two-dimensional gel electrophoresis associated with mass spectrometry and bioinformatics) were used to complement the knowledge about the ecotoxicity of GBH on
The herpetofauna is composed of reptiles and amphibians, and due to the low mobility, physiological requirements, and habitat specificity, this group has become ideal models for environmental conservation studies [55]. Amphibians are sensitive to exposure to contaminants and are considered good bioindicators in monitoring water quality [56]. Characteristics such as permeable skin, reproduction, and larval stages dependent on the aquatic environment make anuran amphibians highly vulnerable to pesticide contamination [57]. Evidence suggests that anuran species decline is related to the intensive use of pesticides [58, 59, 60].
The decline of amphibian populations is related to the increase of environmental pollutants, the influence of climate change, habitat fragmentation, exposure to ultraviolet radiation, and human-induced environmental changes [61, 62]. Contamination of water bodies next to agricultural areas generally increases during the rainy season, that is, widely used to breed by most species of amphibians, and many species use temporary ponds and small streams adjacent to agricultural areas as part of their life cycle, harming the reproductive period and larval development [57, 58, 63]. During the rainy season, the agrochemical present in the soil are susceptible to be transported down the soil profiles and/or surfaces/underground water bodies and consequently affect the amphibian population [58] and other environmental (a) biotic elements [6, 64].
Herbicides may delay or inhibit the metamorphosis of amphibians directly impacting their reproduction [57]. According to Walker and collaborators [65], the main routes of herbicide absorption in anuran amphibians are through contaminated food ingestion and skin absorption of pollutants dissolved or suspended in water. After absorption, the substance is transported to different compartments of the body through blood. The effect of herbicides on tadpoles is less known when compared to adult amphibians, since the larvae of the anurans are less visible, and unlike adults, they do not have vocalization. Tadpoles of various species have not yet been described, which makes it even more difficult to study these organisms in depth [66].
The reduction in larval survival due to exposure to glyphosate was observed by Simioni and collaborators [67], Figueiredo and Rodrigues [68], and Costa and collaborators [69] in larvae of
Species | Chemical | Exposure time (h) | LC50 mg a.i./L | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|
Roundup® | 384 | 0.55–2.52 | [31] | |
Roundup® | 96 | 0.8–2.0 | [80] | |
Roundup® | 96 | 0.8–2.0 | [31] | |
Roundup® | 48 | 2.9–11.6 | [31] | |
Roundup® | 96 | 0.28 | [85] | |
Roundup® | 48 | 2.9–11.6 | [31] | |
Roundup® | 384 | 0.55–2.52 | [31] | |
Roundup® | 96 | 0.8–2.0 | [31] | |
Roundup® | 48 | 2.9–11.6 | [31] | |
Roundup® | 384 | 0.55–2.52 | [31] | |
Roundup® | 96 | 0.8–2.0 | [31] | |
Roundup® | 384 | 0.55–2.52 | [31] | |
Roundup® | 96 | 0.8–2.0 | [31] | |
Roundup® | 384 | 0.55–2.52 | [31] | |
Roundup® | 96 | 0.8–2.0 | [31] | |
Roundup® | 384 | 0.55–2.52 | [31] | |
Roundup® | 96 | 0.8–2.0 | [31] | |
Roundup® | 48 | 2.9–11.6 | [31] | |
Roundup® | 96 | 0.8–2.0 | [31] | |
Roundup® | 96 | 0.8–2.0 | [31] | |
Roundup® | 48 | 2.42 | [83] | |
Roundup® | 48 | 1.74 | [82] |
Ecotoxicity of glyphosate-based herbicide (GBH) to herpetofauna, exposure time, and LC50 value.
Reptiles are extremely sensitive to herbicide formulations and may exhibit changes in their behavior after exposure of these xenobiotics [74]. This group is fairly uniform and exposure to GBHs may affect its energy storage process [75, 76]. Schaumburg and collaborators [77] found that exposure to sublethal concentrations of glyphosate during the embryonic phase of
Currently in the Neotropical region, about 40 studies relate the indiscriminate use of herbicides based on glyphosate with the risk to biodiversity of herpetofauna. Schiesari and collaborators [80] reported that some species of amphibians, including tadpoles and adults and some reptiles are sensitive to exposure to formulations based on glyphosate. Exposure to sublethal concentrations of glyphosate is sufficient to cause irreversible damage to the DNA of amphibians and reptiles, so the use of GBH should be controlled in arable areas avoiding the decline of species that make up the herpetofauna group.
Glyphosate when used in recommended rates is considered not bioaccumulative and of low toxicity in birds [81]. However, the present acquaintance is not enough to make affirmation about low toxicity risk and low exposure of birds to herbicide considering the possible complex process behind the movement and accumulation of glyphosate, additives, and waste in the environment. Moreover, even the few available studies [82, 83, 84, 85, 86, 87, 88, 89, 90, 91, 92, 93, 94, 95, 96] have found direct and indirect effects of glyphosate on bird species (Figure 4). Among those, only five studies along years 1994 and 2017 on Google Scholar database have analyzed effects on aquatic bird species. Direct effects have been analyzed on male ducks (
Ecotoxicity of glyphosate-based herbicide (GBH) to aquatic birds. Direct (continuous arrows) and indirect (dashed arrows) effects of GBH on birds.
Indirect effects have been found in wetlands where the glyphosate is used to control the increase of
The direct effect of glyphosate on aquatic plants and macroalgae [87] can also affect aquatic birds once they make up the varied and plentiful diet of many of those birds. Changes in physiological, histological, and behavioral levels and lethal cases have been documented in fishes due to use of glyphosate [87, 88]. In this way, piscivorous birds can also be suffering indirect effects. In fact, all aquatic birds’ food chain can be affected by glyphosate once effects on invertebrates [81, 87, 88], amphibians [89], and reptiles [90] have already been confirmed.
Birds are very similar in their physiology and anatomy. Then, studies that have tested direct and indirect effects of glyphosate on nonaquatic birds can be also considered here. In Japanese quails (
Therefore, the controlled and scaled use of glyphosate in large areas is necessary to contribute to conservation of environmental heterogeneity and biological diversity avoiding the plausible effects on bird communities [83, 84, 85, 94]. To know what plants are important to bird diet and to promote techniques that do not eliminate all of those plants from the place are important activities before glyphosate application [91]. More studies that aim to analyze the bird contamination by herbicides are also necessary [97]. Long-term studies that encourage collaborative work between ecologist, toxicologist, and chemist are more pertinent [98].
For the best of our knowledge, GBH or glyphosate only was not tested in aquatic mammals. Searching on Web of Science website for the terms “Glyphosate AND mammal AND aquatic,” there is no study reported to date. Despite that, mammals in general are considered less sensible to GBH damages than other groups due to reduced contact with the environment of mammals when compared to other groups as fishes, amphibians, or aquatic invertebrates [99]. The main way that GBH or the active ingredient glyphosate reaches mammals’ bodies is through the digestive tract. However, it seems to be poorly absorbed and is excreted essentially nonmetabolized [100]. Essentially, mammals that were tested were rats, mice, and dogs [101], tested through injection or ingestion. Some studies report glyphosate in humans in medical case studies. Reported direct effects of GBH on mammals are described as a “wide range of clinical manifestations” such as skin and throat irritation, hypotension, or death [102] and include heart arrhythmias and atrioventricular block, cardiac electrophysiological changes and conduction blocks [103], pregnancy problems [104], disrupt transcriptional expression of the steroidogenic acute regulatory protein in testicle [105] and aromatase activity, alter mRNA levels, and interact with enzymes [106]. Indirect effects on mammals can be due to reduction of vegetation and animals that are a source of food such as invertebrates [101] and fishes. Although these mentioned studies were conducted in nonaquatic mammals, it is expected that aquatic mammals have similar or even more accentuated effect, since they have intense contact with water, and if it is contaminated, the exposure will be higher.
Despite the fact that GBHs were developed to control weeds, acting specifically in a restrict plan biochemical pathway, several studies demonstrated that there are many side effects on nontarget organisms in all great groups as reported extensively here. Looking to control these side effects, governments for many countries around the world established limits for usage and concentrations in water bodies. The USA, for example, allows 700 μg L−1 in water bodies, while Canada allows 280 μg L−1 in drink water. The Brazilian law is a little more restrictive, allowing 65 μg L−1 in water bodies class 2 that is used for crop and recreation of first degree (direct contact) [107]. However, we could check here that these maximum concentrations allowed are not safe for biodiversity conservation. Considering the Brazilian law, the more restrictive in American countries, populations of yellowtail tetra fish (
However, even with all those regulations, it is not being obeyed, since there is a large range of glyphosate and its metabolite (e.g., AMPA) concentrations in hydroresources [6, 64]. Therefore, another way of action for environment safety is preserving marginal forests of rivers, surveillance, and environment education. Another sustainable way to achieve this goal is changing the crop production matrix from large scale, that is, conventional-based production model to a smaller integrative-/organic-based production system, with controlled or restrictive usage of pesticides and other agrochemicals.
We are thankful to FAPEG (#201710267001261) for financial support.
The authors declare that there is no conflict of interest.
.
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His studies in robotics lead him not only to a PhD degree but also inspired him to co-found and build the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems - world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"441",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Jaekyu",middleName:null,surname:"Park",slug:"jaekyu-park",fullName:"Jaekyu Park",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/441/images/1881_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"LG Corporation (South Korea)",country:{name:"Korea, South"}}},{id:"465",title:"Dr",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Martens",slug:"christian-martens",fullName:"Christian Martens",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"479",title:"Dr.",name:"Valentina",middleName:null,surname:"Colla",slug:"valentina-colla",fullName:"Valentina Colla",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/479/images/358_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sant'Anna School of Advanced Studies",country:{name:"Italy"}}},{id:"494",title:"PhD",name:"Loris",middleName:null,surname:"Nanni",slug:"loris-nanni",fullName:"Loris Nanni",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/494/images/system/494.jpg",biography:"Loris Nanni received his Master Degree cum laude on June-2002 from the University of Bologna, and the April 26th 2006 he received his Ph.D. in Computer Engineering at DEIS, University of Bologna. 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The success of Raman spectroscopy in biomedical applications is based on the fact that the molecular composition of healthy tissue is different from diseased tissue; also, several disease biomarkers can be identified in Raman spectra, which can be used to diagnose or monitor the progress of certain medical conditions. 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Functional properties depend on composition, size, nanoparticle architecture and, in turn, on the synthesis methods. Bulk ZnFe2O4 has the normal spinel structure (all Zn2+ ions in tetrahedral and all Fe3+ ions in octahedral positions), but at the nanometric size inversion takes place with a cationic mixing on divalent and trivalent sites. The sensitivity of the Raman probe to cation disorder favored the appearance of several works on a rich variety of nanosized zinc ferrites. An overview on these results is reported and discussed at variance with synthesis methods, grain dimensions, and dopants. We add to this landscape our results from new nanosized powder samples made by microwave-assisted combustion, with different dopants (Ca, Sr on Zn site and Al, Gd on Fe site). A detailed analysis of A1g, Eg, 3F2g Raman modes has been performed and Raman band parameters have been derived from best-fitting procedures and carefully compared to literature data. 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Pharmaceutical analysis comprises a range of processes that covers both chemical and physical assessment of drugs and their formulations employing different analytical techniques. With the revolution in instrumental analysis and the huge amount of information produced, there must be an up-to-date data processing tool. The role of chemometrics then comes up. Multivariate analysis (MVA) has the capability of effectively drawing a complete picture of the investigated process. Moreover, MVA reproduces the arithmetic influence of variables and their interactions through a smaller number of trials, keeping both efforts and capitals. Spectrophotometry is among the most extensively used techniques in pharmaceutical analysis either direct (single component) or derivative (multicomponent). In addition to these recognized benefits, using chemometrics in conjunction with spectrophotometry affects three vital characteristics: accuracy, precision and robustness. The impact of hyphenation of spectrophotometric analytical techniques to chemometrics (experimental design and support vector machines) on analytical laboratory will be revealed. A theoretical background on the different factorial designs and their relevance is provided. Readers will be able to use this chapter as a guide to select the appropriate design for a problem.",book:{id:"5857",slug:"spectroscopic-analyses-developments-and-applications",title:"Spectroscopic Analyses",fullTitle:"Spectroscopic Analyses - Developments and Applications"},signatures:"Marwa S. 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It is based on the conversion of the sample into ionized state, with or without fragmentation which are then identified by their mass-to-charge ratios (m/e). Mass spectroscopy provides rich elemental information, which is an important asset to interpret complex mixture components. Thus, it is an important tool for structure elucidation of unknown compounds. Mass spectroscopy also helps in quantitative elemental analysis, that is, the intensity of a mass spectra signal is directly proportional to the percentage of corresponding element. It is also a noninvasive tool that permits in vivo studies in humans. Recent research has looked into the possible applications of mass spectrometers in biomedical field. It is also used as a sensitive detector for chromatographic techniques like LC–MS, GC–MS and LC/MS/MS. These recent hyphenated technological developments of the technique have significantly improved its applicability in pharmaceutical and biomedical analyses.",book:{id:"5857",slug:"spectroscopic-analyses-developments-and-applications",title:"Spectroscopic Analyses",fullTitle:"Spectroscopic Analyses - Developments and Applications"},signatures:"Uttam Singh Baghel, Atamjit Singh, Deeksha Singh and Manish\nSinha",authors:[{id:"204152",title:"Dr.",name:"Uttam",middleName:"Singh",surname:"Baghel",slug:"uttam-baghel",fullName:"Uttam Baghel"},{id:"204438",title:"Mrs.",name:"Deeksha",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"deeksha-singh",fullName:"Deeksha Singh"},{id:"204439",title:"Mr.",name:"Atamjit",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"atamjit-singh",fullName:"Atamjit Singh"},{id:"207608",title:"Dr.",name:"Manish",middleName:null,surname:"Sinha",slug:"manish-sinha",fullName:"Manish Sinha"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"59012",title:"Graphene Nanocomposites Studied by Raman Spectroscopy",slug:"graphene-nanocomposites-studied-by-raman-spectroscopy",totalDownloads:2238,totalCrossrefCites:27,totalDimensionsCites:42,abstract:"The goal of this chapter is to provide a general introduction about graphene nanocomposites studied by Raman spectroscopy. The chapter will therefore begin with a brief description of the major Raman bands of carbon allotropes. In the following chapter a concise comparison between single walled carbon nanotubes (SWCNTs), multi-walled carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs), fullerenes and graphene is exposed. The characteristic features in Raman spectra of carbon allotropes, namely the intense signals D and G are investigated. In particular, the chapter will outline the Raman spectrum of graphene and different types of graphene oxide. The last part of the chapter is devoted to graphene nanocomposites.",book:{id:"6257",slug:"raman-spectroscopy",title:"Raman Spectroscopy",fullTitle:"Raman Spectroscopy"},signatures:"Elena Iuliana Bîru and Horia Iovu",authors:[{id:"215841",title:"Prof.",name:"Horia",middleName:null,surname:"Iovu",slug:"horia-iovu",fullName:"Horia Iovu"},{id:"215842",title:"Mrs.",name:"Iuliana",middleName:null,surname:"Biru",slug:"iuliana-biru",fullName:"Iuliana Biru"}]},{id:"56996",title:"Application of Mass Spectroscopy in Pharmaceutical and Biomedical Analysis",slug:"application-of-mass-spectroscopy-in-pharmaceutical-and-biomedical-analysis",totalDownloads:4468,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:11,abstract:"Mass spectrometry (MS) is a powerful analytical tool with many applications in pharmaceutical and biomedical field. The increase in sensitivity and resolution of the instrument has opened new dimensions in analysis of pharmaceuticals and complex metabolites of biological systems. Compared with other techniques, mass spectroscopy is only the technique for molecular weight determination, through which we can predict the molecular formula. It is based on the conversion of the sample into ionized state, with or without fragmentation which are then identified by their mass-to-charge ratios (m/e). Mass spectroscopy provides rich elemental information, which is an important asset to interpret complex mixture components. Thus, it is an important tool for structure elucidation of unknown compounds. Mass spectroscopy also helps in quantitative elemental analysis, that is, the intensity of a mass spectra signal is directly proportional to the percentage of corresponding element. It is also a noninvasive tool that permits in vivo studies in humans. Recent research has looked into the possible applications of mass spectrometers in biomedical field. It is also used as a sensitive detector for chromatographic techniques like LC–MS, GC–MS and LC/MS/MS. These recent hyphenated technological developments of the technique have significantly improved its applicability in pharmaceutical and biomedical analyses.",book:{id:"5857",slug:"spectroscopic-analyses-developments-and-applications",title:"Spectroscopic Analyses",fullTitle:"Spectroscopic Analyses - Developments and Applications"},signatures:"Uttam Singh Baghel, Atamjit Singh, Deeksha Singh and Manish\nSinha",authors:[{id:"204152",title:"Dr.",name:"Uttam",middleName:"Singh",surname:"Baghel",slug:"uttam-baghel",fullName:"Uttam Baghel"},{id:"204438",title:"Mrs.",name:"Deeksha",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"deeksha-singh",fullName:"Deeksha Singh"},{id:"204439",title:"Mr.",name:"Atamjit",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"atamjit-singh",fullName:"Atamjit Singh"},{id:"207608",title:"Dr.",name:"Manish",middleName:null,surname:"Sinha",slug:"manish-sinha",fullName:"Manish Sinha"}]},{id:"54928",title:"Metal Complexes of Pharmaceutical Substances",slug:"metal-complexes-of-pharmaceutical-substances",totalDownloads:3247,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:11,abstract:"Significant progresses have been made in the inorganic and organic chemistry up to the present concerning the synthesis, characterization, and application of the metal complexes of pharmaceutical substances. From the wide range of fields in which these coordination compounds find their application, many efforts were focused on the study of their importance in the biological processes. The coordination complexes of many pharmaceutical substances having different pharmacological effects e.g., pyrazinamide (PZA), nicotinamide (NAM), nicotinic acid (NIC), theophylline (TEO), captopril (CPL), tolbutamide (TBA), clonidine (CLN), guanfacine (GUAF), etc. with transition metals were synthesized and used in order to improve their pharmacological and pharmacotechnical properties and also for the drug analysis and control. Several techniques such as Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), Raman spectroscopy, surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy (SERS), X-ray spectroscopy, mass spectrometry, ultraviolet-visible (UV-Vis) spectrophotometry, electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) spectroscopy, X-ray diffraction, elemental analysis, electrochemical methods, thermal methods, and scanning electron microscopy were used for the physicochemical characterization of the complex composition. A significant interest in the development of metal complex-based drugs with unique research and therapeutic and diagnostic opportunities is currently observed in the medicinal inorganic chemistry area.",book:{id:"5857",slug:"spectroscopic-analyses-developments-and-applications",title:"Spectroscopic Analyses",fullTitle:"Spectroscopic Analyses - Developments and Applications"},signatures:"Tünde Jurca, Eleonora Marian, Laura Graţiela Vicaş, Mariana\nEugenia Mureşan and Luminiţa Fritea",authors:[{id:"192598",title:"Dr.",name:"Fritea",middleName:null,surname:"Luminita",slug:"fritea-luminita",fullName:"Fritea Luminita"},{id:"192813",title:"Prof.",name:"Jurca",middleName:null,surname:"Tünde",slug:"jurca-tunde",fullName:"Jurca Tünde"},{id:"192814",title:"Dr.",name:"Marian",middleName:null,surname:"Eleonora",slug:"marian-eleonora",fullName:"Marian Eleonora"},{id:"192815",title:"Prof.",name:"Vicas",middleName:null,surname:"Laura Gratiela",slug:"vicas-laura-gratiela",fullName:"Vicas Laura Gratiela"},{id:"192816",title:"Prof.",name:"Muresan",middleName:null,surname:"Mariana Eugenia",slug:"muresan-mariana-eugenia",fullName:"Muresan Mariana Eugenia"}]},{id:"69058",title:"Hardware of MRI System",slug:"hardware-of-mri-system",totalDownloads:937,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is comprehensively applied in modern medical diagnosis and scientific research for its superb soft-tissue imaging quality and non-radiating characteristics. Main magnet, gradient assembly, and radio-frequency (RF) assembly are main hardware in an MRI system. The hardware performance has direct relationship with the ultimate system overall performance. The development of MRI system toward high magnetic field strength will acquire high signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) and resolution, and meanwhile the manufacture difficulty of main magnet, gradient assembly, and RF assembly will also be significantly elevated. This will make challenges on the design, materials, primitive device, and also the whole machine assembly. This chapter introduces the main hardware of the MRI system and corresponding functions and developments.",book:{id:"7313",slug:"nuclear-magnetic-resonance",title:"Nuclear Magnetic Resonance",fullTitle:"Nuclear Magnetic Resonance"},signatures:"Qiuliang Wang",authors:[{id:"302605",title:"Prof.",name:"Qiu-Liang",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"qiu-liang-wang",fullName:"Qiu-Liang Wang"}]},{id:"69423",title:"Atomic Spectroscopy",slug:"atomic-spectroscopy",totalDownloads:1384,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"Atomic spectroscopy includes a number of analytical techniques used to determine the elemental composition of a sample (it can be gas, liquid, or solid) by observing its electromagnetic spectrum or its mass spectrum. Element concentrations of a millionth (ppm) or one billionth part (ppb) of the sample can be detected. There are different variations of atomic spectroscopy, emission, absorption, fluorescence, and mass spectroscopy. Determination of an appropriate technique requires a basic understanding of each technique since each has its individual strengths and limitations. This chapter is designed to provide a basic overview to the atomic spectroscopy techniques and how can you select the one that best suits our analytical problems.",book:{id:"7674",slug:"modern-spectroscopic-techniques-and-applications",title:"Modern Spectroscopic Techniques and Applications",fullTitle:"Modern Spectroscopic Techniques and Applications"},signatures:"Deniz Sahin",authors:[{id:"283971",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Şahin",slug:"deniz-sahin",fullName:"Deniz Şahin"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"502",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:86,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:96,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:27,numberOfPublishedChapters:283,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:9,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:138,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:128,numberOfOpenTopics:0,numberOfUpcomingTopics:2,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:105,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:100,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:11,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:0,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:9,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",issn:"2633-1403",scope:"Artificial Intelligence (AI) is a rapidly developing multidisciplinary research area that aims to solve increasingly complex problems. In today's highly integrated world, AI promises to become a robust and powerful means for obtaining solutions to previously unsolvable problems. This Series is intended for researchers and students alike interested in this fascinating field and its many applications.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/14.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"May 14th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:8,editor:{id:"218714",title:"Prof.",name:"Andries",middleName:null,surname:"Engelbrecht",slug:"andries-engelbrecht",fullName:"Andries Engelbrecht",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRNR8QAO/Profile_Picture_1622640468300",biography:"Andries Engelbrecht received the Masters and PhD degrees in Computer Science from the University of Stellenbosch, South Africa, in 1994 and 1999 respectively. He is currently appointed as the Voigt Chair in Data Science in the Department of Industrial Engineering, with a joint appointment as Professor in the Computer Science Division, Stellenbosch University. Prior to his appointment at Stellenbosch University, he has been at the University of Pretoria, Department of Computer Science (1998-2018), where he was appointed as South Africa Research Chair in Artifical Intelligence (2007-2018), the head of the Department of Computer Science (2008-2017), and Director of the Institute for Big Data and Data Science (2017-2018). In addition to a number of research articles, he has written two books, Computational Intelligence: An Introduction and Fundamentals of Computational Swarm Intelligence.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Stellenbosch University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"South Africa"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:9,paginationItems:[{id:"22",title:"Applied Intelligence",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/22.jpg",editor:{id:"27170",title:"Prof.",name:"Carlos",middleName:"M.",surname:"Travieso-Gonzalez",slug:"carlos-travieso-gonzalez",fullName:"Carlos Travieso-Gonzalez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/27170/images/system/27170.jpeg",biography:"Carlos M. Travieso-González received his MSc degree in Telecommunication Engineering at Polytechnic University of Catalonia (UPC), Spain in 1997, and his Ph.D. degree in 2002 at the University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria (ULPGC-Spain). He is a full professor of signal processing and pattern recognition and is head of the Signals and Communications Department at ULPGC, teaching from 2001 on subjects on signal processing and learning theory. His research lines are biometrics, biomedical signals and images, data mining, classification system, signal and image processing, machine learning, and environmental intelligence. He has researched in 52 international and Spanish research projects, some of them as head researcher. He is co-author of 4 books, co-editor of 27 proceedings books, guest editor for 8 JCR-ISI international journals, and up to 24 book chapters. He has over 450 papers published in international journals and conferences (81 of them indexed on JCR – ISI - Web of Science). He has published seven patents in the Spanish Patent and Trademark Office. He has been a supervisor on 8 Ph.D. theses (11 more are under supervision), and 130 master theses. He is the founder of The IEEE IWOBI conference series and the president of its Steering Committee, as well as the founder of both the InnoEducaTIC and APPIS conference series. He is an evaluator of project proposals for the European Union (H2020), Medical Research Council (MRC, UK), Spanish Government (ANECA, Spain), Research National Agency (ANR, France), DAAD (Germany), Argentinian Government, and the Colombian Institutions. He has been a reviewer in different indexed international journals (<70) and conferences (<250) since 2001. He has been a member of the IASTED Technical Committee on Image Processing from 2007 and a member of the IASTED Technical Committee on Artificial Intelligence and Expert Systems from 2011. \n\nHe has held the general chair position for the following: ACM-APPIS (2020, 2021), IEEE-IWOBI (2019, 2020 and 2020), A PPIS (2018, 2019), IEEE-IWOBI (2014, 2015, 2017, 2018), InnoEducaTIC (2014, 2017), IEEE-INES (2013), NoLISP (2011), JRBP (2012), and IEEE-ICCST (2005)\n\nHe is an associate editor of the Computational Intelligence and Neuroscience Journal (Hindawi – Q2 JCR-ISI). He was vice dean from 2004 to 2010 in the Higher Technical School of Telecommunication Engineers at ULPGC and the vice dean of Graduate and Postgraduate Studies from March 2013 to November 2017. He won the “Catedra Telefonica” Awards in Modality of Knowledge Transfer, 2017, 2018, and 2019 editions, and awards in Modality of COVID Research in 2020.\n\nPublic References:\nResearcher ID http://www.researcherid.com/rid/N-5967-2014\nORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4621-2768 \nScopus Author ID https://www.scopus.com/authid/detail.uri?authorId=6602376272\nScholar Google https://scholar.google.es/citations?user=G1ks9nIAAAAJ&hl=en \nResearchGate https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Carlos_Travieso",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"13633",title:"Prof.",name:"Abdelhamid",middleName:null,surname:"Mellouk",slug:"abdelhamid-mellouk",fullName:"Abdelhamid Mellouk",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/13633/images/1567_n.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Paris 12 Val de Marne University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"109268",title:"Dr.",name:"Ali",middleName:null,surname:"Al-Ataby",slug:"ali-al-ataby",fullName:"Ali Al-Ataby",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/109268/images/7410_n.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Liverpool",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},{id:"3807",title:"Dr.",name:"Carmelo",middleName:"Jose Albanez",surname:"Bastos-Filho",slug:"carmelo-bastos-filho",fullName:"Carmelo Bastos-Filho",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/3807/images/624_n.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade de Pernambuco",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"38850",title:"Dr.",name:"Efren",middleName:null,surname:"Gorrostieta Hurtado",slug:"efren-gorrostieta-hurtado",fullName:"Efren Gorrostieta Hurtado",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/38850/images/system/38850.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Queretaro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"239041",title:"Prof.",name:"Yang",middleName:null,surname:"Yi",slug:"yang-yi",fullName:"Yang Yi",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/239041/images/system/239041.jpeg",institutionString:"Virginia Tech",institution:{name:"Virginia Tech",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]},{id:"23",title:"Computational Neuroscience",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/23.jpg",editor:{id:"14004",title:"Dr.",name:"Magnus",middleName:null,surname:"Johnsson",slug:"magnus-johnsson",fullName:"Magnus Johnsson",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/14004/images/system/14004.png",biography:"Dr Magnus Johnsson is a cross-disciplinary scientist, lecturer, scientific editor and AI/machine learning consultant from Sweden. \n\nHe is currently at Malmö University in Sweden, but also held positions at Lund University in Sweden and at Moscow Engineering Physics Institute. \nHe holds editorial positions at several international scientific journals and has served as a scientific editor for books and special journal issues. \nHis research interests are wide and include, but are not limited to, autonomous systems, computer modeling, artificial neural networks, artificial intelligence, cognitive neuroscience, cognitive robotics, cognitive architectures, cognitive aids and the philosophy of mind. \n\nDr. Johnsson has experience from working in the industry and he has a keen interest in the application of neural networks and artificial intelligence to fields like industry, finance, and medicine. \n\nWeb page: www.magnusjohnsson.se",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Malmö University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Sweden"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"13818",title:"Dr.",name:"Asim",middleName:null,surname:"Bhatti",slug:"asim-bhatti",fullName:"Asim Bhatti",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/13818/images/system/13818.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Deakin University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Australia"}}},{id:"151889",title:"Dr.",name:"Joao Luis Garcia",middleName:null,surname:"Rosa",slug:"joao-luis-garcia-rosa",fullName:"Joao Luis Garcia Rosa",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/151889/images/4861_n.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Sao Paulo",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"103779",title:"Prof.",name:"Yalcin",middleName:null,surname:"Isler",slug:"yalcin-isler",fullName:"Yalcin Isler",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRyQ8QAK/Profile_Picture_1628834958734",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Izmir Kâtip Çelebi University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}}]},{id:"24",title:"Computer Vision",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/24.jpg",editor:{id:"294154",title:"Prof.",name:"George",middleName:null,surname:"Papakostas",slug:"george-papakostas",fullName:"George Papakostas",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002hYaGbQAK/Profile_Picture_1624519712088",biography:"George A. Papakostas has received a diploma in Electrical and Computer Engineering in 1999 and the M.Sc. and Ph.D. degrees in Electrical and Computer Engineering in 2002 and 2007, respectively, from the Democritus University of Thrace (DUTH), Greece. Dr. Papakostas serves as a Tenured Full Professor at the Department of Computer Science, International Hellenic University, Greece. Dr. Papakostas has 10 years of experience in large-scale systems design as a senior software engineer and technical manager, and 20 years of research experience in the field of Artificial Intelligence. Currently, he is the Head of the “Visual Computing” division of HUman-MAchines INteraction Laboratory (HUMAIN-Lab) and the Director of the MPhil program “Advanced Technologies in Informatics and Computers” hosted by the Department of Computer Science, International Hellenic University. He has (co)authored more than 150 publications in indexed journals, international conferences and book chapters, 1 book (in Greek), 3 edited books, and 5 journal special issues. His publications have more than 2100 citations with h-index 27 (GoogleScholar). His research interests include computer/machine vision, machine learning, pattern recognition, computational intelligence. \nDr. Papakostas served as a reviewer in numerous journals, as a program\ncommittee member in international conferences and he is a member of the IAENG, MIR Labs, EUCogIII, INSTICC and the Technical Chamber of Greece (TEE).",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"International Hellenic University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"1177",title:"Prof.",name:"Antonio",middleName:"J. 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Dr Ventura also holds the positions of Affiliated Professor at Virginia Commonwealth University (Richmond, USA) and Distinguished Adjunct Professor at King Abdulaziz University (Jeddah, Saudi Arabia). Additionally, he is deputy director of the Andalusian Research Institute in Data Science and Computational Intelligence (DaSCI) and heads the Knowledge Discovery and Intelligent Systems Research Laboratory. He has published more than ten books and over 300 articles in journals and scientific conferences. Currently, his work has received over 18,000 citations according to Google Scholar, including more than 2200 citations in 2020. In the last five years, he has published more than 60 papers in international journals indexed in the JCR (around 70% of them belonging to first quartile journals) and he has edited some Springer books “Supervised Descriptive Pattern Mining” (2018), “Multiple Instance Learning - Foundations and Algorithms” (2016), and “Pattern Mining with Evolutionary Algorithms” (2016). He has also been involved in more than 20 research projects supported by the Spanish and Andalusian governments and the European Union. He currently belongs to the editorial board of PeerJ Computer Science, Information Fusion and Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence journals, being also associate editor of Applied Computational Intelligence and Soft Computing and IEEE Transactions on Cybernetics. Finally, he is editor-in-chief of Progress in Artificial Intelligence. He is a Senior Member of the IEEE Computer, the IEEE Computational Intelligence, and the IEEE Systems, Man, and Cybernetics Societies, and the Association of Computing Machinery (ACM). 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He has more than 200 publications in reputed international journals, refereed conference proceedings, and 20 book chapters in books published by internationally renowned publishing houses, such as Springer, CRC press, IGI Global, etc. Currently, he is serving on the editorial board of the prestigious journal Frontiers in Communications and Networks and in the technical program committees of a number of high-ranked international conferences organized by the IEEE, USA, and the ACM, USA. He has been listed among the top 2% of scientists in the world for the last three consecutive years, 2019 to 2021 as per studies conducted by the Stanford University, USA.",institutionString:"Praxis Business School",institution:null},{id:"320071",title:"Dr.",name:"Sidra",middleName:null,surname:"Mehtab",slug:"sidra-mehtab",fullName:"Sidra Mehtab",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00002v6KHoQAM/Profile_Picture_1584512086360",biography:"Sidra Mehtab has completed her BS with honors in Physics from Calcutta University, India in 2018. She has done MS in Data Science and Analytics from Maulana Abul Kalam Azad University of Technology (MAKAUT), Kolkata, India in 2020. Her research areas include Econometrics, Time Series Analysis, Machine Learning, Deep Learning, Artificial Intelligence, and Computer and Network Security with a particular focus on Cyber Security Analytics. Ms. Mehtab has published seven papers in international conferences and one of her papers has been accepted for publication in a reputable international journal. She has won the best paper awards in two prestigious international conferences – BAICONF 2019, and ICADCML 2021, organized in the Indian Institute of Management, Bangalore, India in December 2019, and SOA University, Bhubaneswar, India in January 2021. Besides, Ms. Mehtab has also published two book chapters in two books. Seven of her book chapters will be published in a volume shortly in 2021 by Cambridge Scholars’ Press, UK. Currently, she is working as the joint editor of two edited volumes on Time Series Analysis and Forecasting to be published in the first half of 2021 by an international house. Currently, she is working as a Data Scientist with an MNC in Delhi, India.",institutionString:"NSHM College of Management and Technology",institution:null},{id:"226240",title:"Dr.",name:"Andri Irfan",middleName:null,surname:"Rifai",slug:"andri-irfan-rifai",fullName:"Andri Irfan Rifai",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/226240/images/7412_n.jpg",biography:"Andri IRFAN is a Senior Lecturer of Civil Engineering and Planning. He completed the PhD at the Universitas Indonesia & Universidade do Minho with Sandwich Program Scholarship from the Directorate General of Higher Education and LPDP scholarship. He has been teaching for more than 19 years and much active to applied his knowledge in the project construction in Indonesia. His research interest ranges from pavement management system to advanced data mining techniques for transportation engineering. He has published more than 50 papers in journals and 2 books.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universitas Internasional Batam",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"314576",title:"Dr.",name:"Ibai",middleName:null,surname:"Laña",slug:"ibai-lana",fullName:"Ibai Laña",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/314576/images/system/314576.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ibai Laña works at TECNALIA as a data analyst. He received his Ph.D. in Artificial Intelligence from the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU), Spain, in 2018. He is currently a senior researcher at TECNALIA. His research interests fall within the intersection of intelligent transportation systems, machine learning, traffic data analysis, and data science. He has dealt with urban traffic forecasting problems, applying machine learning models and evolutionary algorithms. He has experience in origin-destination matrix estimation or point of interest and trajectory detection. Working with large volumes of data has given him a good command of big data processing tools and NoSQL databases. He has also been a visiting scholar at the Knowledge Engineering and Discovery Research Institute, Auckland University of Technology.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"314575",title:"Dr.",name:"Jesus",middleName:null,surname:"L. Lobo",slug:"jesus-l.-lobo",fullName:"Jesus L. Lobo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/314575/images/system/314575.png",biography:"Dr. Jesús López is currently based in Bilbao (Spain) working at TECNALIA as Artificial Intelligence Research Scientist. In most cases, a project idea or a new research line needs to be investigated to see if it is good enough to take into production or to focus on it. That is exactly what he does, diving into Machine Learning algorithms and technologies to help TECNALIA to decide whether something is great in theory or will actually impact on the product or processes of its projects. So, he is expert at framing experiments, developing hypotheses, and proving whether they’re true or not, in order to investigate fundamental problems with a longer time horizon. He is also able to design and develop PoCs and system prototypes in simulation. He has participated in several national and internacional R&D projects.\n\nAs another relevant part of his everyday research work, he usually publishes his findings in reputed scientific refereed journals and international conferences, occasionally acting as reviewer and Programme Commitee member. Concretely, since 2018 he has published 9 JCR (8 Q1) journal papers, 9 conference papers (e.g. ECML PKDD 2021), and he has co-edited a book. He is also active in popular science writing data science stories for reputed blogs (KDNuggets, TowardsDataScience, Naukas). Besides, he has recently embarked on mentoring programmes as mentor, and has also worked as data science trainer.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"339677",title:"Dr.",name:"Mrinmoy",middleName:null,surname:"Roy",slug:"mrinmoy-roy",fullName:"Mrinmoy Roy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/339677/images/16768_n.jpg",biography:"An accomplished Sales & Marketing professional with 12 years of cross-functional experience in well-known organisations such as CIPLA, LUPIN, GLENMARK, ASTRAZENECA across different segment of Sales & Marketing, International Business, Institutional Business, Product Management, Strategic Marketing of HIV, Oncology, Derma, Respiratory, Anti-Diabetic, Nutraceutical & Stomatological Product Portfolio and Generic as well as Chronic Critical Care Portfolio. A First Class MBA in International Business & Strategic Marketing, B.Pharm, D.Pharm, Google Certified Digital Marketing Professional. Qualified PhD Candidate in Operations and Management with special focus on Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning adoption, analysis and use in Healthcare, Hospital & Pharma Domain. Seasoned with diverse therapy area of Pharmaceutical Sales & Marketing ranging from generating revenue through generating prescriptions, launching new products, and making them big brands with continuous strategy execution at the Physician and Patients level. Moved from Sales to Marketing and Business Development for 3.5 years in South East Asian Market operating from Manila, Philippines. Came back to India and handled and developed Brands such as Gluconorm, Lupisulin, Supracal, Absolut Woman, Hemozink, Fabiflu (For COVID 19), and many more. In my previous assignment I used to develop and execute strategies on Sales & Marketing, Commercialization & Business Development for Institution and Corporate Hospital Business portfolio of Oncology Therapy Area for AstraZeneca Pharma India Ltd. Being a Research Scholar and Student of ‘Operations Research & Management: Artificial Intelligence’ I published several pioneer research papers and book chapters on the same in Internationally reputed journals and Books indexed in Scopus, Springer and Ei Compendex, Google Scholar etc. Currently, I am launching PGDM Pharmaceutical Management Program in IIHMR Bangalore and spearheading the course curriculum and structure of the same. I am interested in Collaboration for Healthcare Innovation, Pharma AI Innovation, Future trend in Marketing and Management with incubation on Healthcare, Healthcare IT startups, AI-ML Modelling and Healthcare Algorithm based training module development. I am also an affiliated member of the Institute of Management Consultant of India, looking forward to Healthcare, Healthcare IT and Innovation, Pharma and Hospital Management Consulting works.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Lovely Professional University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"1063",title:"Prof.",name:"Constantin",middleName:null,surname:"Volosencu",slug:"constantin-volosencu",fullName:"Constantin Volosencu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/1063/images/system/1063.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Constantin Voloşencu graduated as an engineer from\nPolitehnica University of Timișoara, Romania, where he also\nobtained a doctorate degree. He is currently a full professor in\nthe Department of Automation and Applied Informatics at the\nsame university. Dr. Voloşencu is the author of ten books, seven\nbook chapters, and more than 160 papers published in journals\nand conference proceedings. He has also edited twelve books and\nhas twenty-seven patents to his name. He is a manager of research grants, editor in\nchief and member of international journal editorial boards, a former plenary speaker, a member of scientific committees, and chair at international conferences. His\nresearch is in the fields of control systems, control of electric drives, fuzzy control\nsystems, neural network applications, fault detection and diagnosis, sensor network\napplications, monitoring of distributed parameter systems, and power ultrasound\napplications. He has developed automation equipment for machine tools, spooling\nmachines, high-power ultrasound processes, and more.",institutionString:"Polytechnic University of Timişoara",institution:{name:"Polytechnic University of Timişoara",country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"221364",title:"Dr.",name:"Eneko",middleName:null,surname:"Osaba",slug:"eneko-osaba",fullName:"Eneko Osaba",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/221364/images/system/221364.jpg",biography:"Dr. Eneko Osaba works at TECNALIA as a senior researcher. He obtained his Ph.D. in Artificial Intelligence in 2015. He has participated in more than twenty-five local and European research projects, and in the publication of more than 130 papers. He has performed several stays at universities in the United Kingdom, Italy, and Malta. Dr. Osaba has served as a program committee member in more than forty international conferences and participated in organizing activities in more than ten international conferences. He is a member of the editorial board of the International Journal of Artificial Intelligence, Data in Brief, and Journal of Advanced Transportation. He is also a guest editor for the Journal of Computational Science, Neurocomputing, Swarm, and Evolutionary Computation and IEEE ITS Magazine.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"275829",title:"Dr.",name:"Esther",middleName:null,surname:"Villar-Rodriguez",slug:"esther-villar-rodriguez",fullName:"Esther Villar-Rodriguez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/275829/images/system/275829.jpg",biography:"Dr. Esther Villar obtained a Ph.D. in Information and Communication Technologies from the University of Alcalá, Spain, in 2015. She obtained a degree in Computer Science from the University of Deusto, Spain, in 2010, and an MSc in Computer Languages and Systems from the National University of Distance Education, Spain, in 2012. Her areas of interest and knowledge include natural language processing (NLP), detection of impersonation in social networks, semantic web, and machine learning. Dr. Esther Villar made several contributions at conferences and publishing in various journals in those fields. Currently, she is working within the OPTIMA (Optimization Modeling & Analytics) business of TECNALIA’s ICT Division as a data scientist in projects related to the prediction and optimization of management and industrial processes (resource planning, energy efficiency, etc).",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"49813",title:"Dr.",name:"Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Del Ser",slug:"javier-del-ser",fullName:"Javier Del Ser",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49813/images/system/49813.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Javier Del Ser received his first PhD in Telecommunication Engineering (Cum Laude) from the University of Navarra, Spain, in 2006, and a second PhD in Computational Intelligence (Summa Cum Laude) from the University of Alcala, Spain, in 2013. He is currently a principal researcher in data analytics and optimisation at TECNALIA (Spain), a visiting fellow at the Basque Center for Applied Mathematics (BCAM) and a part-time lecturer at the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU). His research interests gravitate on the use of descriptive, prescriptive and predictive algorithms for data mining and optimization in a diverse range of application fields such as Energy, Transport, Telecommunications, Health and Industry, among others. In these fields he has published more than 240 articles, co-supervised 8 Ph.D. theses, edited 6 books, coauthored 7 patents and participated/led more than 40 research projects. He is a Senior Member of the IEEE, and a recipient of the Biscay Talent prize for his academic career.",institutionString:"Tecnalia Research & Innovation",institution:null},{id:"278948",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos Pedro",middleName:null,surname:"Gonçalves",slug:"carlos-pedro-goncalves",fullName:"Carlos Pedro Gonçalves",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRcmyQAC/Profile_Picture_1564224512145",biography:'Carlos Pedro Gonçalves (PhD) is an Associate Professor at Lusophone University of Humanities and Technologies and a researcher on Complexity Sciences, Quantum Technologies, Artificial Intelligence, Strategic Studies, Studies in Intelligence and Security, FinTech and Financial Risk Modeling. He is also a progammer with programming experience in:\n\nA) Quantum Computing using Qiskit Python module and IBM Quantum Experience Platform, with software developed on the simulation of Quantum Artificial Neural Networks and Quantum Cybersecurity;\n\nB) Artificial Intelligence and Machine learning programming in Python;\n\nC) Artificial Intelligence, Multiagent Systems Modeling and System Dynamics Modeling in Netlogo, with models developed in the areas of Chaos Theory, Econophysics, Artificial Intelligence, Classical and Quantum Complex Systems Science, with the Econophysics models having been cited worldwide and incorporated in PhD programs by different Universities.\n\nReceived an Arctic Code Vault Contributor status by GitHub, due to having developed open source software preserved in the \\"Arctic Code Vault\\" for future generations (https://archiveprogram.github.com/arctic-vault/), with the Strategy Analyzer A.I. module for decision making support (based on his PhD thesis, used in his Classes on Decision Making and in Strategic Intelligence Consulting Activities) and QNeural Python Quantum Neural Network simulator also preserved in the \\"Arctic Code Vault\\", for access to these software modules see: https://github.com/cpgoncalves. He is also a peer reviewer with outsanding review status from Elsevier journals, including Physica A, Neurocomputing and Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence. Science CV available at: https://www.cienciavitae.pt//pt/8E1C-A8B3-78C5 and ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0298-3974',institutionString:"University of Lisbon",institution:{name:"Universidade Lusófona",country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"241400",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammed",middleName:null,surname:"Bsiss",slug:"mohammed-bsiss",fullName:"Mohammed Bsiss",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241400/images/8062_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"276128",title:"Dr.",name:"Hira",middleName:null,surname:"Fatima",slug:"hira-fatima",fullName:"Hira Fatima",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/276128/images/14420_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Hira Fatima\nAssistant Professor\nDepartment of Mathematics\nInstitute of Applied Science\nMangalayatan University, Aligarh\nMobile: no : 8532041179\nhirafatima2014@gmal.com\n\nDr. Hira Fatima has received his Ph.D. degree in pure Mathematics from Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh India. Currently working as an Assistant Professor in the Department of Mathematics, Institute of Applied Science, Mangalayatan University, Aligarh. She taught so many courses of Mathematics of UG and PG level. Her research Area of Expertise is Functional Analysis & Sequence Spaces. She has been working on Ideal Convergence of double sequence. She has published 17 research papers in National and International Journals including Cogent Mathematics, Filomat, Journal of Intelligent and Fuzzy Systems, Advances in Difference Equations, Journal of Mathematical Analysis, Journal of Mathematical & Computer Science etc. She has also reviewed few research papers for the and international journals. She is a member of Indian Mathematical Society.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"302698",title:"Dr.",name:"Yao",middleName:null,surname:"Shan",slug:"yao-shan",fullName:"Yao Shan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Dalian University of Technology",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"125911",title:"Prof.",name:"Jia-Ching",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"jia-ching-wang",fullName:"Jia-Ching Wang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Central University",country:{name:"Taiwan"}}},{id:"357085",title:"Mr.",name:"P. Mohan",middleName:null,surname:"Anand",slug:"p.-mohan-anand",fullName:"P. Mohan Anand",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"356696",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"P.V.",middleName:null,surname:"Sai Charan",slug:"p.v.-sai-charan",fullName:"P.V. Sai Charan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"357086",title:"Prof.",name:"Sandeep K.",middleName:null,surname:"Shukla",slug:"sandeep-k.-shukla",fullName:"Sandeep K. Shukla",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"356823",title:"MSc.",name:"Seonghee",middleName:null,surname:"Min",slug:"seonghee-min",fullName:"Seonghee Min",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Daegu University",country:{name:"Korea, South"}}},{id:"353307",title:"Prof.",name:"Yoosoo",middleName:null,surname:"Oh",slug:"yoosoo-oh",fullName:"Yoosoo Oh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:"Yoosoo Oh received his Bachelor's degree in the Department of Electronics and Engineering from Kyungpook National University in 2002. He obtained his Master’s degree in the Department of Information and Communications from Gwangju Institute of Science and Technology (GIST) in 2003. In 2010, he received his Ph.D. degree in the School of Information and Mechatronics from GIST. In the meantime, he was an executed team leader at Culture Technology Institute, GIST, 2010-2012. In 2011, he worked at Lancaster University, the UK as a visiting scholar. In September 2012, he joined Daegu University, where he is currently an associate professor in the School of ICT Conver, Daegu University. Also, he served as the Board of Directors of KSIIS since 2019, and HCI Korea since 2016. From 2017~2019, he worked as a center director of the Mixed Reality Convergence Research Center at Daegu University. From 2015-2017, He worked as a director in the Enterprise Supporting Office of LINC Project Group, Daegu University. His research interests include Activity Fusion & Reasoning, Machine Learning, Context-aware Middleware, Human-Computer Interaction, etc.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Daegu Gyeongbuk Institute of Science and Technology",country:{name:"Korea, South"}}},{id:"262719",title:"Dr.",name:"Esma",middleName:null,surname:"Ergüner Özkoç",slug:"esma-erguner-ozkoc",fullName:"Esma Ergüner Özkoç",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Başkent University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"419199",title:"Dr.",name:"Qun",middleName:null,surname:"Yang",slug:"qun-yang",fullName:"Qun Yang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Auckland",country:{name:"New Zealand"}}},{id:"351158",title:"Prof.",name:"David W.",middleName:null,surname:"Anderson",slug:"david-w.-anderson",fullName:"David W. Anderson",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Calgary",country:{name:"Canada"}}},{id:"351159",title:"BSc.",name:"Kalum J.",middleName:null,surname:"Ost",slug:"kalum-j.-ost",fullName:"Kalum J. Ost",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Calgary",country:{name:"Canada"}}},{id:"325029",title:"Dr.",name:"Prem Chand",middleName:null,surname:"Jain",slug:"prem-chand-jain",fullName:"Prem Chand Jain",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Shiv Nadar University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"357275",title:"Dr.",name:"Thomas",middleName:null,surname:"Mih",slug:"thomas-mih",fullName:"Thomas Mih",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Buea",country:{name:"Cameroon"}}},{id:"305305",title:"Dr.",name:"Arturo Yosimar",middleName:null,surname:"Jaen-Cuellar",slug:"arturo-yosimar-jaen-cuellar",fullName:"Arturo Yosimar Jaen-Cuellar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Queretaro",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"305315",title:"Dr.",name:"David Alejandro",middleName:null,surname:"Elvira-Ortiz",slug:"david-alejandro-elvira-ortiz",fullName:"David Alejandro Elvira-Ortiz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Queretaro",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"344374",title:"Dr.",name:"Manuel",middleName:null,surname:"Toledano-Ayala",slug:"manuel-toledano-ayala",fullName:"Manuel Toledano-Ayala",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Queretaro",country:{name:"Mexico"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"11",type:"subseries",title:"Cell Physiology",keywords:"Neurodevelopment and Neurodevelopmental Disease, Free Radicals, Tumor Metastasis, Antioxidants, Essential Fatty Acids, Melatonin, Lipid Peroxidation Products and Aging Physiology",scope:"\r\n\tThe integration of tissues and organs throughout the mammalian body, as well as the expression, structure, and function of molecular and cellular components, is essential for modern physiology. The following concerns will be addressed in this Cell Physiology subject, which will consider all organ systems (e.g., brain, heart, lung, liver; gut, kidney, eye) and their interactions: (1) Neurodevelopment and Neurodevelopmental Disease (2) Free Radicals (3) Tumor Metastasis (4) Antioxidants (5) Essential Fatty Acids (6) Melatonin and (7) Lipid Peroxidation Products and Aging Physiology.
",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/11.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!0,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11407,editor:{id:"133493",title:"Prof.",name:"Angel",middleName:null,surname:"Catala",slug:"angel-catala",fullName:"Angel Catala",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/133493/images/3091_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Dr. Angel Catalá \r\nShort Biography Angel Catalá was born in Rodeo (San Juan, Argentina). He studied \r\nchemistry at the Universidad Nacional de La Plata, Argentina, where received aPh.D. degree in chemistry (Biological Branch) in 1965. From\r\n1964 to 1974, he worked as Assistant in Biochemistry at the School of MedicineUniversidad Nacional de La Plata, Argentina. From 1974 to 1976, he was a Fellowof the National Institutes of Health (NIH) at the University of Connecticut, Health Center, USA. From 1985 to 2004, he served as a Full Professor oBiochemistry at the Universidad Nacional de La Plata, Argentina. He is Member ofthe National Research Council (CONICET), Argentina, and Argentine Society foBiochemistry and Molecular Biology (SAIB). His laboratory has been interested for manyears in the lipid peroxidation of biological membranes from various tissues and different species. Professor Catalá has directed twelve doctoral theses, publishedover 100 papers in peer reviewed journals, several chapters in books andtwelve edited books. Angel Catalá received awards at the 40th InternationaConference Biochemistry of Lipids 1999: Dijon (France). W inner of the Bimbo PanAmerican Nutrition, Food Science and Technology Award 2006 and 2012, South AmericaHuman Nutrition, Professional Category. 2006 award in pharmacology, Bernardo\r\nHoussay, in recognition of his meritorious works of research. 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It has become a massive part of our daily lives, making predictions based on experience, making this a fascinating area that solves problems that otherwise would not be possible or easy to solve. This topic aims to encompass algorithms that learn from experience (supervised and unsupervised), improve their performance over time and enable machines to make data-driven decisions. It is not limited to any particular applications, but contributions are encouraged from all disciplines.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/26.jpg",keywords:"Intelligent Systems, Machine Learning, Data Science, Data Mining, Artificial Intelligence"},{id:"27",title:"Multi-Agent Systems",scope:"Multi-agent systems are recognised as a state of the art field in Artificial Intelligence studies, which is popular due to the usefulness in facilitation capabilities to handle real-world problem-solving in a distributed fashion. 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We welcome chapters presenting research on the many applications of multi-agent studies including, but not limited to, the following key areas: machine learning for multi-agent systems; modeling swarms robots and flocks of UAVs with multi-agent systems; decision science and multi-agent systems; software engineering for and with multi-agent systems; tools and technologies of multi-agent systems.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/27.jpg",keywords:"Collaborative Intelligence, Learning, Distributed Control System, Swarm Robotics, Decision Science, Software Engineering"}],annualVolumeBook:{},thematicCollection:[],selectedSeries:{title:"Artificial Intelligence",id:"14"},selectedSubseries:null},seriesLanding:{item:{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",issn:"2631-5343",scope:"Biomedical Engineering is one of the fastest-growing interdisciplinary branches of science and industry. 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Dr. Koprowski has authored more than a hundred research papers with dozens in impact factor (IF) journals and has authored or co-authored six books. Additionally, he is the author of several national and international patents in the field of biomedical devices and imaging. Since 2011, he has been a reviewer of grants and projects (including EU projects) in biomedical engineering.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Silesia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},subseries:[{id:"7",title:"Bioinformatics and Medical Informatics",keywords:"Biomedical Data, Drug Discovery, Clinical Diagnostics, Decoding Human Genome, AI in Personalized Medicine, Disease-prevention Strategies, Big Data Analysis in Medicine",scope:"Bioinformatics aims to help understand the functioning of the mechanisms of living organisms through the construction and use of quantitative tools. The applications of this research cover many related fields, such as biotechnology and medicine, where, for example, Bioinformatics contributes to faster drug design, DNA analysis in forensics, and DNA sequence analysis in the field of personalized medicine. Personalized medicine is a type of medical care in which treatment is customized individually for each patient. Personalized medicine enables more effective therapy, reduces the costs of therapy and clinical trials, and also minimizes the risk of side effects. Nevertheless, advances in personalized medicine would not have been possible without bioinformatics, which can analyze the human genome and other vast amounts of biomedical data, especially in genetics. The rapid growth of information technology enabled the development of new tools to decode human genomes, large-scale studies of genetic variations and medical informatics. 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