\\n\\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\\n\\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"Highly Cited",originalUrl:"/media/original/117"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'IntechOpen is proud to announce that 191 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nThroughout the years, the list has named a total of 261 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\nReleased this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"5176",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Nutritional Deficiency",title:"Nutritional Deficiency",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Intake of a sufficient diet will provide an individual to live a healthy and functional life. However, poor intake of different nutritional components, such as proteins, vitamins, minerals, and trace elements, may lead to health problems that can cause morbidity and finally mortality. Assessment of nutritional status involves physical examination, comprehensive evaluation of biochemical tests, body composition, and organ functions. Both high and low intake of nutritional elements may lead to significant health impairment. The main aim of the book Nutritional Deficiency is to determine the relationships between nutritional status and general health. The authors, who are contributing to the book, particularly focused on iron, vitamin D, and zinc deficiencies, which are global health problems. Besides, some chapters mention the impact of different nutritional deficiencies in susceptible periods of life, such as pregnancy and elderly. Besides, as a result of these deficiencies, different health conditions, such as depression, anemia, loss of neuronal plasticity, and cancer, are widely scrutinized in the book. One chapter mainly focuses on the effects of disasters on nutrition and disaster-caused malnutrition in underdeveloped countries. This book will widen the knowledge store of the readers on the effects of nutrition on general health, how nutritional deficiencies arise when there is a health problem, and how the nutritional status affects susceptible populations.",isbn:"978-953-51-2438-2",printIsbn:"978-953-51-2437-5",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-4193-8",doi:"10.5772/61450",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"nutritional-deficiency",numberOfPages:206,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:1,isInBkci:!0,hash:"a2e20dabc8ed6fbaef3686be8c6fce99",bookSignature:"Pınar Erkekoglu and Belma Kocer-Gumusel",publishedDate:"July 20th 2016",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5176.jpg",numberOfDownloads:20781,numberOfWosCitations:40,numberOfCrossrefCitations:26,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:1,numberOfDimensionsCitations:55,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:1,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:121,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"October 7th 2015",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"October 28th 2015",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"February 1st 2016",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"May 1st 2016",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"May 31st 2016",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,8,9",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"109978",title:"Prof.",name:"Pınar",middleName:null,surname:"Erkekoğlu",slug:"pinar-erkekoglu",fullName:"Pınar Erkekoğlu",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/109978/images/system/109978.jpg",biography:"Pınar Erkekoğlu graduated from the Faculty of Pharmacy, Hacettepe University, Turkey, where she received her MSci and Ph.D. in Toxicology. She completed her Ph.D. studies at the University of Joseph Fourier, France, and the French Alternative Energies and Atomic Energy Commission/Institute for Nanosciences and Cryogenics/Nucleic Acid Lesions (CEA/INAC/LAN). She worked as a post-doc and visiting associate in the Biological Engineering Department, Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), USA. She is currently a full professor and head of the Department of Toxicology, Hacettepe University, and a faculty staff/board member at the Hacettepe University Vaccine Institute. Her main interests are endocrine-disrupting chemicals, neurotoxic chemicals, and the toxic effects of vaccines. Dr. Erkekoğlu has published more than 180 papers and 15 book chapters. She has edited seven international books and served as the translation editor for three others. She has been a European Registered Toxicologist (ERT) since 2014.",institutionString:"Hacettepe University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"6",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"7",institution:{name:"Hacettepe University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:{id:"185037",title:"Dr.",name:"Belma",middleName:null,surname:"Kocer-Gumusel",slug:"belma-kocer-gumusel",fullName:"Belma Kocer-Gumusel",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/185037/images/system/185037.JPG",biography:"Belma Kocer-Gumusel graduated from Hacettepe University Faculty of Pharmacy (BS). She is currently working as a full-time professor and serves as the department head in Hacettepe University, Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Pharmaceutical Toxicology. She received her PhD degree in 1999. She worked as a postdoctoral fellow at the Department of Biochemistry, Laboratory of Oxidative Stress Biology in Grenoble Joseph Fourier University Faculty of Pharmacy and in CEA, the laboratory of Inorganic Chemistry and Nucleic Acid Lesions in 1999, 2000, and 2004. She gave lectures as invited speaker in many congresses. Her main interests are the reproductive disorders, endocrine diseases (particularly thyroid diseases), and oxidative stress induced by endocrine disrupting chemicals, particularly by phthalates, and the protective role of selenium against oxidative stress. Belma Kocer-Gumusel has published more than 100 papers in national and international peer-reviewed journals and has more than 700 citations. Dr. Kocer-Gumusel is a member of numerous national and international scientific societies including Turkish Society of Toxicology, EUROTOX, and IUTOX.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:null},coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"1130",title:"Euthenics",slug:"euthenics"}],chapters:[{id:"50622",title:"Zinc Deficiency and Depression",doi:"10.5772/63210",slug:"zinc-deficiency-and-depression",totalDownloads:2204,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Zinc deficiency has multiple effects, including neurological and somatic symptoms. Zinc deficiency can lead to depression, increased anxiety, irritability, emotional instability, and induced deficits in social behavior. Clinical studies have shown that low levels of zinc intake contributes to the symptoms of depression and patients suffering from depression have a lower serum zinc level. Also the animal studies have shown an important role of dietary zinc deficiency in the induction of depressive‐like symptoms. Moreover, both preclinical and clinical studies have indicated the potential benefits of zinc supplementation as an adjunct to conventional antidepressant drugs or as a stand‐alone intervention. This chapter focuses on the role of the zinc deficiency in the pathogenesis of depression, changes in animal behavior induced by dietary zinc restriction, the role of zinc supplementation in the treatment of depression, and the possible mechanisms involved in these relationships. Both clinical and preclinical studies related to these findings will be discussed.",signatures:"Anna Rafalo, Magdalena Sowa‐Kucma, Bartlomiej Pochwat, Gabriel\nNowak and Bernadeta Szewczyk",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/50622",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/50622",authors:[{id:"129632",title:"Prof.",name:"Gabriel",surname:"Nowak",slug:"gabriel-nowak",fullName:"Gabriel Nowak"},{id:"180643",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Bernadeta",surname:"Szewczyk",slug:"bernadeta-szewczyk",fullName:"Bernadeta Szewczyk"},{id:"180644",title:"MSc.",name:"Anna",surname:"Rafało",slug:"anna-rafalo",fullName:"Anna Rafało"},{id:"185041",title:"Dr.",name:"Magdalena",surname:"Sowa-Kucma",slug:"magdalena-sowa-kucma",fullName:"Magdalena Sowa-Kucma"},{id:"185042",title:"Dr.",name:"Bartlomiej",surname:"Pochwat",slug:"bartlomiej-pochwat",fullName:"Bartlomiej Pochwat"}],corrections:null},{id:"51098",title:"Zinc Deficiency",doi:"10.5772/63203",slug:"zinc-deficiency",totalDownloads:2121,totalCrossrefCites:8,totalDimensionsCites:16,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Zinc is an essential trace element for humans and plays a critical role both as a structural component of proteins and as a cofactor in about 300 enzymes. Zinc deficiency was, for example, reported to affect the immune response and the endocrine system and to induce and modify brain disorders. Besides hereditary zinc deficiency, zinc deficiency – at least in mild forms – is nowadays a very abundant health issue. Today, an estimated 20% of the population worldwide is at risk of developing zinc deficiency with a high number also in industrialized countries. The major risk factors to develop zinc deficiency in industrialized nations are aging and pregnancy. Mechanistic and behavioral studies on the effects of zinc deficiency have mainly been performed using animal models. However, in combination with the few studies on human subjects, a picture emerges that shows importance of adequate nutritional zinc supply for many processes in the body. Especially the immune system and brain development and function seem to be highly sensitive to zinc deficiency. Here, we provide an overview on the effects of zinc deficiency on different organ systems, biological processes, and the associations of zinc deficiency with pathologies observed in humans and animal models.",signatures:"Ann Katrin Sauer, Simone Hagmeyer and Andreas M. Grabrucker",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/51098",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/51098",authors:[{id:"178792",title:"Dr.",name:"Andreas",surname:"Grabrucker",slug:"andreas-grabrucker",fullName:"Andreas Grabrucker"},{id:"184915",title:"MSc.",name:"Ann Katrin",surname:"Sauer",slug:"ann-katrin-sauer",fullName:"Ann Katrin Sauer"},{id:"184916",title:"MSc.",name:"Simone",surname:"Hagmeyer",slug:"simone-hagmeyer",fullName:"Simone Hagmeyer"}],corrections:null},{id:"50620",title:"Zinc: What Is Its Role in Lung Cancer?",doi:"10.5772/63209",slug:"zinc-what-is-its-role-in-lung-cancer-",totalDownloads:1632,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Recently, zinc emerged as an important signaling molecule, activating intracellular pathways and regulating cell fate, although our knowledge remains incomplete. Zinc is required in many enzymatic and metabolic pathways, playing roles as enzyme cofactors. In normal cell physiology, optimal zinc availability is essential for regular growth and proliferation. Zinc accumulation has varied effects: from stimulation to inhibition of cell growth, depending on type. There is evidence that zinc is capable of inducing apoptosis in some cancers, while others proved that zinc may act as apoptosis activator depending on the dose and cell type. Upregulation of telomerase in most cancer tissues is considered to be responsible for unlimited proliferation of cancer cells, and in some cell lines, it was induced by Zn. These suggest that Zn is highly involved in cell cycle and metabolism; whether it goes to the survival or the cancer pathway depends on the concentration and the cell type involved. Nevertheless, the conclusion is that Zn is not just another trace element; but a vital one and further studies are needed to elucidate the mechanisms involved in cancer and metastatic spread in order to identify potential therapies.",signatures:"Nidia N. Gomez, Verónica S. Biaggio, María E. Ciminari, María V.\nPérez Chaca and Silvina M. Álvarez",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/50620",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/50620",authors:[{id:"180536",title:"Dr.",name:"Nidia",surname:"Gomez",slug:"nidia-gomez",fullName:"Nidia Gomez"},{id:"180869",title:"Dr.",name:"Verónica S.",surname:"Biaggio",slug:"veronica-s.-biaggio",fullName:"Verónica S. Biaggio"},{id:"180870",title:"Dr.",name:"María Eugenia",surname:"Ciminari",slug:"maria-eugenia-ciminari",fullName:"María Eugenia Ciminari"},{id:"180871",title:"Dr.",name:"María V.",surname:"Perez Chaca",slug:"maria-v.-perez-chaca",fullName:"María V. Perez Chaca"},{id:"180872",title:"Dr.",name:"Silvina M.",surname:"Alvarez",slug:"silvina-m.-alvarez",fullName:"Silvina M. Alvarez"}],corrections:null},{id:"50879",title:"Iron Nutrition, Oxidative Stress, and Pathogen Defense",doi:"10.5772/63204",slug:"iron-nutrition-oxidative-stress-and-pathogen-defense",totalDownloads:2081,totalCrossrefCites:11,totalDimensionsCites:20,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Adaptation is a challenge that plants have to undergo in order to survive in difficult environments. Nutrient deficiency, stress, and microorganism attack are abiotic and biotic factors that frequently impair plant wellness, which is reflected by low crop yield and quality. Poor crops in turn affect human nutrition. To solve these problems, it is necessary to understand the molecular and physiological mechanisms of nutrient uptake and adaptation to stress. With this knowledge, we may have the possibility to generate new plants, which offer better yield due to their better health. This chapter summarizes and compares iron uptake and assimilation as well as pathogen responses in plants and humans. We also discuss novel approaches for improving crops in the context of human food quality.",signatures:"Maria Augusta Naranjo‐Arcos and Petra Bauer",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/50879",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/50879",authors:[{id:"178795",title:"Prof.",name:"Petra",surname:"Bauer",slug:"petra-bauer",fullName:"Petra Bauer"},{id:"183127",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Maria Augusta",surname:"Naranjo Arcos",slug:"maria-augusta-naranjo-arcos",fullName:"Maria Augusta Naranjo Arcos"}],corrections:null},{id:"51044",title:"An Integrated Approach to Iron Deficiency Anemia",doi:"10.5772/63932",slug:"an-integrated-approach-to-iron-deficiency-anemia",totalDownloads:1558,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Iron deficiency is a common nutritional disorder in developing countries and contributes significantly to reduced work productivity and economic output as well as to increased morbidity and mortality. There are well-established biochemical tests for assessing iron status in developed countries. However, cost and interference from infectious conditions make it difficult to assess iron status in many developing country settings. Examination of the hemoglobin distribution in the population and assessment of the hemoglobin response to supplementation are alternative approaches to define iron status and the nature of anemia. Prevention and control of iron deficiency requires the combined approach of dietary improvement, fortification of a common staple food when feasible, and appropriate iron supplementation for infants and pregnant women. In all these intervention activities, operational research is needed to improve effectiveness. In addition, controlling iron deficiency requires coordination with other nutrition and primary health care programs as part of an integrated approach to improved health and nutrition of the population. A randomized, controlled double-blind clinical trial was conducted to compare the efficacy and safety of herbal medicinal treatment syrup Sharbat-a-Folad versus syrup Ferplex for the treatment of iron deficiency anemia (IDA).",signatures:"Halima Nazar and Khan Usmanghani",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/51044",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/51044",authors:[{id:"179274",title:"Dr.",name:"Halima",surname:"Nazar",slug:"halima-nazar",fullName:"Halima Nazar"}],corrections:null},{id:"50716",title:"Anemia During Pregnancy",doi:"10.5772/63211",slug:"anemia-during-pregnancy",totalDownloads:3793,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:7,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Anemia during pregnancy is a considerable health problem, with around two-fifths of pregnant women worldwide being anemic. Many gynecological and infectious diseases are predisposing factors for anemia during pregnancy. Anemia during pregnancy—especially the severe form—can lead to various maternal and perinatal adverse effects such as preterm labor, low birth weight, and intrauterine fetal death. It is one of the leading causes of maternal mortality. Therefore, preventive measures are needed if anemia and its adverse effects are to be prevented. Iron and folic acid supplements are the cornerstone for the prevention of anemia during pregnancy and one of the earliest preventive measures adopted in antenatal care. Other measures to prevent anemia during pregnancy include the fortification of principle foods with iron, increasing health and nutritional awareness, combating parasitic infections, and improvement in sanitation. There is a controversy concerning the benefit of other elements such as zinc, copper, and magnesium, so the use of these elements is not widely adopted for the prevention of anemia.",signatures:"Ishag Adam and Abdelaziem A. Ali",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/50716",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/50716",authors:[{id:"180747",title:"Prof.",name:"Ishag",surname:"Adam",slug:"ishag-adam",fullName:"Ishag Adam"}],corrections:null},{id:"50656",title:"Malaria, Schistosomiasis, and Related Anemia",doi:"10.5772/63396",slug:"malaria-schistosomiasis-and-related-anemia",totalDownloads:1740,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:5,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Parasitic infections (e.g., malaria and helminthiases) have a huge impact on public health in endemic areas. Moreover, parasitic infestations are prominent causes of anemia in the tropics and subtropics, further perpetuated by malnutrition, inflammatory, and genetic diseases. Anemia-associating parasitic infections vary depending on the requirements and pathophysiology of the parasites. There is an interplay between different factors that can be segregated as host and parasite factors, resulting in severe anemia accompanying these parasitic infestations. The pathophysiological mechanisms leading to anemia associated with the different parasites vary greatly, including hemolysis, anemia of inflammation, bone marrow suppression, and micronutrients deficiency. The major means to deal with this anemia include prevention and treatment of such infestations.",signatures:"Gasim I Gasim and Ishag Adam",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/50656",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/50656",authors:[{id:"180747",title:"Prof.",name:"Ishag",surname:"Adam",slug:"ishag-adam",fullName:"Ishag Adam"},{id:"184935",title:"Dr.",name:"Gasim",surname:"Gasim",slug:"gasim-gasim",fullName:"Gasim Gasim"}],corrections:null},{id:"51112",title:"Redox Homeostasis in Neural Plasticity and the Aged Brain",doi:"10.5772/63931",slug:"redox-homeostasis-in-neural-plasticity-and-the-aged-brain",totalDownloads:1621,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Currently, humans can easily live for 60 years and more. This increase in life expectancy produces myriad changes in our bodies that diminish the individual’s physical and mental capacities and affect as well the functional capacity of individuals to interact appropriately with their social and physical environments. The oxidative theory of aging predicts an accumulation of oxidative damage to proteins, lipids, and DNA with age; as a consequence, the aged brain gradually suffers loss in neuronal functions, increasing the risk of developing neurodegenerative diseases and cognitive impairment. To date, there are no effective treatments to prevent age-related cognitive decline, making it urgent to identify the neural mechanisms that are altered during aging. In this chapter, we discuss the mechanisms that underlie synaptic plasticity, emphasizing the relationship between redox balance and neuronal function, and we also address current evidence supporting oxidative stress as an important contributing factor in brain aging.",signatures:"Pablo Muñoz, Francisca García, Carolina Estay, Alejandra Arias,\nCecilia Hidalgo and Álvaro O. Ardiles",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/51112",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/51112",authors:[{id:"181513",title:"Dr.",name:"Pablo",surname:"Muñoz",slug:"pablo-munoz",fullName:"Pablo Muñoz"}],corrections:null},{id:"51143",title:"Vitamin D Deficiency",doi:"10.5772/63638",slug:"vitamin-d-deficiency",totalDownloads:1801,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Previously, known actions of vitamin D were confined to skeletal health, but accumulating evidence has consistently suggested that vitamin D has pleomorphic roles in overall human physiology. Hence, no other micronutrient deficiency in the modern times has gained as much global attention as vitamin D deficiency. In this chapter, the author reinforces what is already known in vitamin D and highlights several important findings in vitamin D research, with a special focus on one of the most vitamin D-deficient regions in the world, the Middle East, and Saudi Arabia, in particular.",signatures:"Naji J. Aljohani",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/51143",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/51143",authors:[{id:"178866",title:"Dr.",name:"Naji",surname:"Aljohani",slug:"naji-aljohani",fullName:"Naji Aljohani"}],corrections:null},{id:"50604",title:"Cancer Treatment and Nutritional Deficiencies",doi:"10.5772/63395",slug:"cancer-treatment-and-nutritional-deficiencies",totalDownloads:2232,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Increasing cancer incidence and improved survival rates have seen the number of cancer survivors increase exponentially throughout the last few decades. As a consequence of this, cancer survivors may experience a number of permanent side effects from their cancer or the treatment. Traditionally, patient follow-up has been undertaken by oncological specialists with a major focus on possible cancer reoccurrence; however, this fails to identify or adequately address many patients’ concerns regarding post-cancer treatment. For a majority of patients, nutrition during treatment and post-cancer diagnosis and treatment is an area they can control and change for their own health and well-being. The following chapter addresses nutrient deficiencies associated with certain cancers, chemotherapy agents, radiation and surgical procedures. Potential treatment protocols for different oncological stages post diagnosis are explored and conditions that may induce nutrient deficiencies and how they can be treated or decreased are explained.",signatures:"Janet Schloss",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/50604",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/50604",authors:[{id:"179133",title:"Ms.",name:"Janet",surname:"Schloss",slug:"janet-schloss",fullName:"Janet Schloss"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"5836",title:"Bisphenol A",subtitle:"Exposure and Health Risks",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"446599b9e5cf929537d445edc546c449",slug:"bisphenol-a-exposure-and-health-risks",bookSignature:"Pinar Erkekoglu and Belma Kocer-Gumusel",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5836.jpg",editedByType:"Edited 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Social problems change based on economic and environmental factors. These changes also differ based on social structure and state policies.
\nThe historical background of social policies is in parallel with important events in the human history. An important cornerstone in the world history, industrial revolution, is an economic revolution on one side, but it increased the social problems on the other side. From industrial perspective, societies can be regarded as preindustrial society, industrial society, and postindustrial society. It is also possible to say that social policies that provided solutions to social problems also changed based on the conditions of the period.
\nIt is seen that traditional methods were used to satisfy social needs, and the groups in need of protection were tried to be protected through social aid and services in the preindustrial period.
\nThe period which began with the industrial revolution caused varied social problems as from the second half of eighteenth century. Seeking solutions to address the poverty and social imbalance, which were caused by the industrialization, social policy tried to make balance between economy and social policies. The migrations to industrialized regions with the impact of industrialization caused new professions, negative life and work conditions, and poverty. In the face of this change in the demographic structure, states adopted the liberal economic understanding as a solution. Free market economy that emerged as a result of concerns that state interventions would damage economic and social balances helped a part of society to have welfare but caused workers who constituted the majority of society to impoverish. Liberal economy understanding’s failure to ensure social welfare resulted in criticisms and the rise of neoliberal approaches.
\nThe fact that liberal state understanding’s limited approach caused negative results on social policies led adopting a more interventionist and regulating state model. Because social expectations that the state should meet social needs increased, the state got a new character to solve social problems. Affected by the wars which broke out in the first half of twentieth century and 1929 economic crisis, the concept of state changed in favor of social policies. With Keynesian economic approach, it paved the way for more inclusive interventions and adopted “welfare state” approach. However, also affected by globalization, the interventionist approach of welfare state to ensure economic and social welfare failed to ensure economic growth, and the position of state was discussed again.
\nIn this new period, where the increase of social expenditures and taxes was perceived as a threat, it was suggested that the social responsibilities of the state should be reduced. The crises beginning in 1970s and the problems which increased with the effect of globalization led to a transformation in the welfare state. The crisis of welfare state and the constantly increasing discussion about the role of state to determine social policies caused states to plunge into new quests.
\nAlthough the quests for the welfare state of Golden Age were different, it is possible to say that the basic attitudes were neoliberal attitudes like increasing the effectiveness of local administrations, leaving ensuring welfare ton on profit organizations, and leaving social services to private sector. Therefore, the Welfare State mode that emerged with industrial revolution was restructured with the “Information Age” and globalization which emerged in the last quarter of twentieth century. In this period, social policies are determined by civil society, international, and supranational organizations instead of traditional means, and social policy understanding turns into new forms.
\nIn spite of all criticisms, welfare state still regulates and implements social policies today. Exposed to some transformations and to some extent replaced by neoliberal policies as a result of changes caused by the globalization and information age, the welfare state is predicted to continue its existence in new forms and remains as an important power to regulate social policies in future.
\nIn this study which has been made under the light of this information and predictions, first of all, the conceptual foundations, targets, and means of social policy will be explained with the factors which paved the way for its emergence in the historical process. After that, the concept of welfare state and the effects and events, which paved the way for its emergence, will be handled in the historical process. Welfare state crisis and globalization will be explained under different headings and determinations, and predictions will be made about today and future, discussing their impact on the social policy.
\nSocial policy is referred to as “social policy” in Continental Europe, but it is referred to as “social welfare policy” in the North American literature. Some authors argue that these two concepts have the same meaning but some others argue that social policy is a frame concept which encompasses various policies, including social welfare policy [1].
\nDifferences regarding the definition of social policy also arise from periodic conditions. To Wagner, social policy means the measurements taken by state to protect workers, while to Kessler, it means the movements and struggles of social class and state’s attitude against this struggle. To Lauber, social policy is a set of measurements taken at national level in order to change and regulate the financial and cultural life conditions in a definite period of time. Albrech defines social policy as all measures and institutions that are taken to protect the part of society which is in need of economic protection and to ensure social security and peace [2]. Marshall defines social policy as a set of policies developed by state to ensure welfare in order that it obtains service and income. Hagenbuch asserts that social policy is an effort to make sure that individuals have minimum standards and opportunities.
\nIn narrow sense, social policy is an attitude to address the disputes, imbalances, and conflict of interests between employers and employees and to ensure harmony between classes in capitalist systems [3, 4, 5]. In narrow sense, the aim of social policies is to find solutions for the problems emerging in industrials societies. From this perspective, it serves ensuring the social justice for ending the social inequalities that have been caused by the industrial revolution in social policy. In narrow sense, it represents the policies for making a balance between labor and capital because it encompasses only problems of worker and labor classes [6]. These policies also include the provision of social justice.
\nIn narrow sense, political policy approaches the working life as the basic element that can explain the society. In this context, it also deals with issues such as wages, working conditions, trade unionism, and collective bargaining [7].
\nIn a broad sense, the concept of social policy means comprehensive practices which address not only the problems and needs of working class but also those of the other segments of society [8]. With a definition from this perspective, it is possible to say social policy discipline addresses the problems of urbanization, environment, health, and education and those of all segments of society such as workers, the disabled, the elders, children, and immigrants. In a board sense, social policy emerged together with the concept of welfare state after World War II. Therefore, social policy includes health services, social security, city, environment, and struggling against unemployment and poverty that affect social welfare. In a broad sense, the final target of all these practices is to ensure social peace, social justice, and equality between different groups [9].
\nSocial policy is determined on the basis of redistribution. The regulatory and distributive view of policies serves to ensure that everyone living in society has social freedoms and equal opportunities [10]. Ensuring the welfare of each individual is the main objective of the state and other organizations that are social policy practitioners.
\nThe members of society have such needs as education, social security, health services, and housing. Social policy aims to ensure the welfare of individuals through legislative regulations. Because social policy is affected by social developments, it changes based on the needs of individuals. State makes new regulations based on needs. It is possible to make separate regulations for those who are in need of protection from social policy perspective for children and youth, for the disabled, for families with low income, and for the elders.
\nThe factors which affect and determine social policy are not only the needs of society and individuals but also are ideological movements, crime rates, unemployment, media, politics, industrial groups, and violence, such economic factors as debit and recession and the nature of welfare state (social democratic, liberal, etc.) [11].
\nSocial policy can be defined as an area consisting of decisions taken with the participation of many individuals and parties, which is put in force after the state determines its basis [12]. There is a mutual interaction between social policy and economic policies [3]. Thus, the development of a country is not possible only through economic growth but also by achieving a fair and balanced growth to solve social problems. From this perspective, the problems in economy and those in social policy need to be handled together.
\nTo achieve its goals, social policy needs to have some principles regarding the policies it will determine.
\nThe social policy, which is put in force by the state and other institutions, affects the welfare of society directly. A state’s regulations regarding welfare need to be determined by analyzing its social policies. The subjects and basic principles related with social policies are social needs and social problems, equal rights and social justice, efficiency, equity and choice, altruism, reciprocity and obligation, and division, difference, and exclusion [13].
\nWelfare state should provide some rights to the people. These are elaborated below.
All of these rights are provided by welfare state. The individuals who live in society are bound to state through the bond of citizenship. He/she has the right to request the state to which he/she is a citizen to make policies which pave the way to provide him/her the rights he/she has. From this perspective, the citizenship concept plays an important role in determining the state’s obligations and rights of individuals as a part of social policies.
\nThe main goal of social policies is to ensure that everyone in society lives in harmony, afar from conflicts. Thus, the target is to ensure social justice, social development, social balance, social integration, and social peace [7].
Thanks to
Ensuring the
Achieving the goal of
The social policy, which is considered to have emerged as a result of the economic and social developments in the nineteenth century, started to become meaningful with the industrial revolution. As a result of the change in economic relations with the industrial revolution, social changes became inevitable. With the industrial revolution, increased production gave rise to the need for more labor. The dominance of capital owners on the labor market increased even further through the liberalization of trade.
\nIn a period when the liberal market economy approach (Laissez-faire) was adopted, the dominant opinion was that government interventions would negatively affect the free market [14]. The belief that a market created without intervention would enrich the people, on the one hand, ensured the enrichment of the owners of capital and, on the other hand, caused the labor sector to become poor. The poverty faced by children and women hurts humanitarian feelings [15]. Increasing poverty during this period when no intervention was made to workers’ wages and working conditions caused the social problems to increase and thus the rapid development of social policies.
\nAs a result of liberal approach in the economy, two opposing sections have emerged in society: the bourgeois class who are the capital owners and working class who are the labor holders. The reduced of wages, poor working conditions, and long working hours have led to social problems in the labor class and to class conflicts. In the nineteenth century, social policies were applied to solve the social problems created by the liberal economy understanding of the state. Providing social peace and justice through the intervention of the state in the working life, working relations, and wages is inevitable.
\nWith the social reform movements that began in England and Canada between 1880 and 1920, social policies turned into a descriptive approach from the prohibitive approach [1]. In this approach, the state was criticized that its role in the work life was limited and rigid, and it was suggested that the state should regulate social conditions in order to eliminate the negativities in the work life. In this period, there was an opinion that the role of the state in social policies should increase, in the capitalist developed countries, such as France, Germany, and the USA.
\nConsequently, the emergence of social policy in the modern sense is attributed to social conditions created by French Revolution in intellectual-political sphere and those created by industrial revolution in the social and economic spheres [16].
\nAfter World War II, liberal economic approaches in developed countries were abandoned, and Keynesian policy approach was adopted with the belief that the state should intervene in social policies. Another important factor in the adoption of this approach is the 1929 economic crisis and its negative consequences. After the industrial revolution, the scope of social policies expanded, and not only the problems of labor sector but also those of the whole society were addressed. All of the issues such as health services, elderly and child care, struggle against unemployment and poverty, participation of women in working life, protection of the environment, and gender discrimination became issues for which the state struggled under social policy.
\nThe concept of welfare state emerged in 1930s and 1940s. Unlike the concept of state which was adopted during World War II and which aimed for providing sufficient money to cover the need of army in far, welfare state aims at providing social policy, health services and thus providing social needs [17].
\nWelfare state concept gains different aspects in different countries according to their cultural, social, political, and economic legacies and historical developments. Welfare state aims at providing welfare of the individual citizens. According to the demands of labor market and civil society, welfare state intervenes in the economy.
\nAlthough there are many definitions about the welfare state, Asa Brigg defines it as follows: “It is a kind of state in which consciously organized public power is used to reduce the role of market forces.” It is accepted within the scope of the role of the welfare state to provide a minimum income guarantee to individuals and families, to facilitate the prevention of certain social risks, and to offer good living conditions to individuals in society through social welfare [18].
\nAnother definition of the welfare state is that “it is a contemporary state understanding that undertakes the duty to ensure a fair income distribution, protect the groups and classes in need of protection, direct the social security practices and employment policies, practice the politicize to meet the basic requirements of society such as education, health, and housing and takes measures for regulating the working life, thanks to the tax and wage policies it follows” [19].
\nThe difficulties were faced with regard to making definition of the welfare state and justifying its historical development. As mentioned above, each and every state has a different national social security system, a different social structure, and thus, different needs. Moreover, welfare state determines the policies that are required by the economic, social, and cultural conditions and put in force the legislative regulations accordingly.
\nThe development process of welfare state can be handled by categorizing in three periods. The first period was between 1870 and 1913, in other words from the late seventeenth century when the industrial revolution took place to early nineteenth century. The next period was the time between World War I and World War II and the time period between 1950 and 1973 when is referred to as the “Golden Age of Welfare States.” Welfare state changed with the economic crises which realized after 1973. This period is referred to as “Welfare State Crisis” and refers to the period up today.
\nThe emergence of welfare state dates back to 1601, when Poor Laws were put in force in UK. In this period, most of men were recruited for war. When they turned back home, they lived the rest of their life without any social security or protection but under risks. 1601 Poor Law was the first legislative initiative to protect the elders, patients, and wounded people in the society. However, this legislative regulation was not sufficient because the rest of society was also in need of protection. Another legislative regulation was made in 1834 as a result of economic and social pressure and because of the developments at the time. This is the beginning of the stigmatizing effects of social policy. In the following periods, the effects of Adam Smith’s free market economy started to change the state policies and legislative regulations not only in UK but also in other countries.
\nWelfare state really emerged after World War II. Along World War I, all countries spent all of their resources for war. After World War I, it was understood that John Maynard Keynes approach was not sufficient for creating job opportunities and reviving public economy. After the war, it was believed that a second war could be prevented by means of creating job opportunities and providing new working and life standards.
\nWith 1942 Social Security report (Social Insurance and Allied Services), Lord William Beveridge aimed at creating a health system, providing minimum income and decreasing employment rates. After the war, Beveridge’s opinions were evaluated together with Keynes approach for creating a national welfare for UK [20]. Distrustfulness of liberalism urged countries for plunging into new quests.
\nStates faced new social risks between 1870 and 1913. These risks were increase of aging population, pension payments, diseases, occupational diseases, and accidents. In 1880s, Bismarck made some efforts in order to provide social security. Reform efforts made by Bismarck aimed at providing a protection through social security against the risks of industrial revolution, low income, and population movements. The long working hours and heavy working conditions increased poverty and socialist movements. With these developments, the regulations covering disease insurance in 1883, work accident insurance in 1884, and old-age and disability insurance in 1889 were put in force.
\nBismarck’s reform movement aimed at establishing a system not only under the state but also with support of employers and employees. According to this, the system had three dimensions: employer’s responsibilities, individual investments, and private insurance. This system also accepted the intervention by state. Therefore, it possible to say that the economic and political structures and, consequently, social policies of other countries started the change after Bismarck’s reform.
\nFollowing Bismarck’s reform, many legislative regulations were put in force for the diseases and injuries caused by industrialization. No similar regulations and rules had been put in force in Western European Countries until 1913.
\nBecause of industrialization, the changes in social demographic structure, and increasing pressures in nineteenth century in European states, the realization of welfare state gained speed. Public sector and economy had a rapid development in China, Brazil, and Russia. Between 1950 and 1973, when it is known as the golden age of welfare state, the intervention of state gradually increased with the Keynesian approach which was adopted for solving the problems caused by the free market economy. However, Keynesian policies caused states to go into crises after 1970s. High tax rates, increasing public expenditures, and states’ intervening markets were cited as the reasons for the crisis. In this period, when the proportion of social expenditures to public expenditures was gradually increasing, old-age, motherhood, injury, and death insurances were accepted in many countries. In addition, unemployment insurance and family aids were also regulated in more developed countries [21].
\nThe welfare state has been undergoing a transformation since 1975. The state intervention which increased with 1929 economic crisis was replaced with a system in which the state shrined after the oil crisis between 1973 and 1979. In this period, states adopted the opinion that states should be less interventionist with regard to making economic and social policies. It is observed that the budget deficit which was caused by the pressure of social expenditures increased in this period when unemployment became chronic, inflation rate increased, and economic growth decreased especially in Western European countries.
\nNeoliberal approach which emerged in this period was adopted as a new form of liberalism, a result of solution seeking against Keynesian policies [22]. As a result of fierce competition caused by economic crises, a new period started in late 1970s, and in that period, Keynesian welfare state went through a crisis.
\nWith globalization, welfare state that had stability in economic growth as well as good work conditions and price offers ended, and a new period in which nation states had less authority started. These developments which also affected social policies led to adoption of neoliberal approach for decreasing social expenditures. States started restructuring and new reforms in order to re-start economic growth. In the last 20 years, many countries have made regulations to decrease social expenditures. Yet again, in many countries, public expenditures have not decreased, instead, they have increased. The reasons of this condition are not only economic reasons and developments but also the reasons caused by the change of demographic structure like aging population and the changing family structure. As mentioned above, economic policies and social policies have mutual interactions. It is obvious that the changes in economic policies also affect social policies, and no one is independent of the other.
\nOn the other hand, the economic condition of welfare state is not only related with individual behaviors but also related with social security system to be accepted for labor market and social welfare. The contradiction between labor market and state intervention has yet to be solved [17].
\nWelfare state continues to develop. State still plays an important role in determining social policies. It is possible to say that not only economic indicators but also the changes taking place in demographic and social structure play role in determining the policies of welfare state.
\nThe welfare state aims at redistributing income and thus plays an interventionist and regulatory role. It takes measures to eliminate negativity in working life. It determines the minimum wage, undertakes social security and welfare services, and intervenes by taxes and other expenditures to eliminate injustices in income distribution [23, 24].
\nThe welfare state is expressed as the deepened and extension of the classic protective state [25]. The welfare state, whose last stage reached has been by the modern state, is no longer a “spectator state,” but it is a “player state” [19].
\nAll of the definitions regarding welfare state include the mentality to protect those who have poor economic and social conditions. This protection can be done through social policies. Therefore, welfare state’s intervention for the sake of eliminating the negative conditions, which is required to be done by the welfare state and achieve the goals of social policies, is appropriate and required.
\nAlthough the duties and scope of each welfare state change based on each country’s social, cultural, economic and demographic conditions; basically, they include ensuring the protection of children, the disabled, families, the elders and women, creating jobs, providing education and vocational training, struggling against poverty and low income, and improving the working conditions.
\nConsidering the practices of the welfare state, various distinctions have been made on the basis of services and expenditures to ensure social welfare. The most important study about this issue has been made by Gosta Esping-Andersen. Esping-Andersen classifies welfare state systems as follows:
Liberal welfare model which is practiced by USA and UK
Conservative and Continental Europe model which is practiced by Germany, France, and Belgium
Social Democratic Scandivian Model which is practiced by Sweden and Denmark [26, 27].
The welfare state, emerging as a response to the search for solutions to address the inequalities and negativities created by the industrial revolution, is a new form of the liberal state. Because the liberal approach threatening social interests due to the fact that capital and markets were not interfered and the socialist approach that kept the interests of the working class at the highest level were not sufficient to meet the social needs, the welfare state emerged as a system to overcome the problems of both of these systems.
\nRegarding the welfare state, it is possible to make the following determinations regarding the period until the beginning of the process of globalization and neoliberalism [28].
The residual approach evolved and replaced by with an institutional approach.
Demanding social welfare has turned into a human right arising from being a citizen.
While it was an understanding of service to meet the needs of only poor, it has turned into universal service to meet the needs of the whole society.
It left from a limited welfare budge to large welfare expenditures.
The understanding that such problems as poverty and unemployment are not because of the mistakes done by individuals but because of inadequacy of the state and its institutions.
Making efforts to take responsibility for providing social welfare has shifted from volunteer individuals and institutions to public institutions.
The economic crises experienced after the 1970s caused problems and criticized the Keynesian welfare state. Budget deficit was one of the problems that were faced due to the increase in unemployment, the decrease in economic growth, and the increase in retirement age and health expenditures due to the aging of the population. The criticism and debate about the welfare state are that all the negative, economic, social, and political problems are caused by the social policy practices of the welfare state.
\nLong-term consideration of demographic changes and the impact of globalization on the welfare state have opened new avenues for debate and discussion about the welfare state’s future development [17]. The important point is providing people welfare for the welfare states.
\nCriticisms about the welfare state are:
Poverty and unemployment rates have not been reduced, and social welfare policies have not been successful
The opportunities provided for welfare cause negative effects on family structure, increase divorce rates, and deteriorate moral values
It has increased the taxes put on income and capital
Welfare states have begun to develop new policies and restructure due to the problems that constitute the source of criticisms of social policy. Although it is claimed that the welfare state has a tendency to go back due to economic and financial pressures, it is possible to say that the welfare state continues to make efforts to adapt with the new conditions.
\nThe transformations which have taken place in social policy and welfare state can be explained under the shade of globalization. In 1998s and 1990s, privatization and marketization had an impact for some of conservative governments. The governments had more liberal approach to civil society and economy policy.
\nGlobalization reveals a free market economy, liberal democracy, and cultural differences in the process leading to a holistic world economy [30]. Globalization process gained momentum after 1980. In this process which was based on economic liberalization, the neoliberal model became dominant and the idea that state should abandon its active role in social policies was adopted. In some developed countries, which had been practicing the neoliberal model, social policy implementations began to lose their importance, and they were completely neglected in less developed countries.
\nThe effects of globalization became more evident at the end of the twentieth century, and the welfare state had less intrusive character with regard to taking measures for social protection due to the pressure caused by social expenditures and increased taxes. With the adoption of the dominant view that social expenditures hampered economic growth, the shrinking of welfare states and reduction of its role on social policies gained momentum. Due to the increasing competition between the welfare states, poverty and unemployment have increased, and injustices have emerged in the distribution of income [21].
\nThe narrowing of social welfare state practices in the process of globalization caused social rights to be restricted. Liberal understanding limits the state’s duties with the provision of security, justice, and infrastructure. State shrinks through liberalization. The possibility of the deterioration of the balance between capital and labor, which was tried to be established after the industrial revolution, threatens those who are in need of social protection. The increasing unemployment rate is one of the most important threats.
\nIn the process of globalization, contrary to their liberal philosophy, the states that turned into neoliberal models needed to further develop their social policy practices. Developments show that, contrary to expectations, the model adopted in the process of globalization deepens the problems of social policies further.
\nThe impacts of globalization on the welfare state model and social policies are evaluated from four different perspectives, which are:
According to Mishra; globalization eliminates the independence of nation states. Economic growth is the sole target. International wage inequality and poverty increase due to economic pressures, and social protection is weakening. Welfare of nation states decreases with neoliberal policies [31].
According to Pierson, globalization alone is not the reason for the reduction of the power of welfare states. As an external power, globalization may require renewal in the structuring of states, but this restructuring should not be a reduction of social policies. In this process, states should also take into account the internal effects such as demographic, migration, and social developments and decide on the restructuring process accordingly [32].
According to Esping-Anderson, nation states should prefer more balanced practices on the axis of globalization. Nation states with strong economic and political structures should prefer the most harmonious practices for their own future while guiding globalization [27].
According to Rieger and Leibfried, globalization emerged as a result of efforts of the nation states to reduce the negative effects of war with the liberal model. The economies of nation states are independent of the global economy; therefore, the restructuring process and the establishment of relevant policies should be evaluated in this respect [33].
The causes of the crisis of the welfare state in developed countries are globalization which is an external factor and internal variables which are related to the social structures of states. One of these reasons is the demographic structure, which has changed because of the aging population, prolongation of life, and decreasing birth rates. In addition, family structure has changed, divorces have increased, public expenditures, pension and health expenditures, and taxes have increased, and economic growth has declined. The competitive power of the countries in the international arena has decreased due to the increase in the expenditures of the welfare state to ensure social welfare. Having been in search of providing solution for the elimination of the financial pressures caused by the expenditures related to increased welfare, the welfare states have entered into a restructuring process.
\nIn the restructuring and surviving process, the financial pressure was tried to be eased through the privatization of the pension system, raising the retirement age, increasing the premiums, and reducing the financial pressure.
\nWith the shrinkage in the welfare state, the provision of welfare services has also changed. The service provision which had been performed by the state has been given through local administrations at local level, and it has been left to the nonprofit organization, which means it has been “privatized” [28].
\nIt seems hard to foresee the future state of welfare state clearly because of variables. Welfare state changes based on social, economic, cultural, and demographic structures of states. It does not seem possible to provide financing of welfare statement with traditional methods. Especially 2008 financial crisis, welfare state had a view that a system in which the main player is the state is not sufficient for economic growth. The increasing unemployment is an obstacle for the welfare state growth. Moreover, the population of many states is getting older, and the demographic structure is changing. Labor markets need to be supported, new jobs need to be created, and employment needs to be increased. Therefore, states determined their policies. Public expenditures are increasing due to increasing pension payments with the aging population.
\nThe expectations that welfare state provides welfare are increasing more and more. The approaches for providing welfare are different. Some states adopt liberal approaches, some states adopt corporatist and some others adopt universal approaches. In recent years, the belief that economic policies are not sufficient for achieving a welfare state but that welfare state needs to be achieved through social policies has been increasing.
\nAlthough many arguments have been raised in discussions on the future of the welfare state, it is possible to say that the rightist and leftist views are more dominant.
The rightists argue that the welfare state can overcome the crisis only by shifting to neoliberal policies. They also argue that the obligatory change that took place in the industrial revolution is also valid for the Information Age which emerged in the last quarter of the twentieth century and that social policies need to be developed by the supranational organizations after the change of welfare state.
For the leftists, they argue that welfare states have the ability to adapt themselves changing conditions; and therefore, they can overcome the crisis through reforms and restructuring. It is suggested that the neo-Keynesian approaches should be adopted instead of the neoliberal approach in the reform process.
As an alternative to these views, neoliberals and conservatives have made new initiatives under the name of “New Right,” and social democrats and social liberals have made new initiatives under the name “The Third Way” [21].
\nFurthermore, the legitimacy of the welfare state was questioned by both The New Right and The New Left. The New Left criticized the state’s role was too weak compared to the markets, and a reformulation of the state’s role in societal development was needed. The New Right is focused on the role of bureaucracy and pressure groups. According to their opinion, society’s welfare is more important than bureaucracy and pressure groups’ interests [17].
\nThe globalization, which has been cited as a reason for the transformation of the welfare state and social policies, increases its influence with the participation of international organizations such as World Bank, World Health Organization, and International Monetary Fund [13, 34, 35]. Nation states should implement policies in economic and social spheres not based on external processes but based on internal dynamics. As stated above, although they have similar features, each country has different applications for social protection. Here, the main important thing is to determine the impacts of change on demographic and cultural structures of the countries and make intervention properly. In summary, it is the choice of national political authorities to present the effects of globalization as the only reason for their national policies. Instead of this perspective, it would be a more realistic approach to try to benefit from the positive impacts of globalization for reducing problems at the national level. By this way, it would be possible to develop more effective tools to prevent the increasing social problems.
\nWelfare states are still developing. States are in search for better work and life conditions. They want to have social security systems which cover all social risks. From this perspective, it is possible to say that there is not a real crisis in welfare states, but there are efforts to remove obstacles before the economic growth.
\nWelfare states need to make regulations to decrease unemployment rates, taxes, and public expenditures because of the decline in economic growth [17]. There seems to be a tendency for narrowing in social policies because the proportion of social expenditures in public expenditures is high.
\nReform initiatives to reduce the welfare crises in the welfare states have led to giving more importance to “active social protection” understanding in social policy implementations [36]. These practices, which were put into practice in 1990s and which aimed to be active in the labor market, were based on regulations that encourage working and restricting passive expenditures. In order to reduce the passive expenditures, the period of benefiting from social benefits was shortened, and their conditions were made difficult. When the impact of the reform implementations on social expenditures is evaluated, it is seen that poverty of children has increased and the works for giving family aids and providing vocation education have been insufficient. It is obvious that retirement age and health expenditures will continue to increase due to the aging population. It is possible to say that the increase of passive expenditures due to the aging of the population constitutes an obstacle before realization of active and passive reforms [37].
\nAs a result, welfare states continue to exist in different ways. The developments show that the view that social rights, freedoms, and ideological thoughts are not sufficient to achieve the economic growth. It is possible to say that the welfare states having this view will follow impartial policies about making social expenditures in future years.
\nIn this study, the social policy and the welfare state are handled with their goals, scopes, types, and problems from their historical development up to today.
\nSocial policy is a set of measures developed to protect workers against the dangers arising as a result of industrialization, in parallel to the historical development, after the industrial revolution. Its emergence in this way has caused the social policies to be defined in a narrow sense. After World War II, the narrow perspective on social policy began to change. The reason of this change was the fact that the measures to protect the interests of the working class were not sufficient to solve social problems. Therefore, it was concluded that social policy should be extended to cover all segments of society. In a broad sense, social policy is a set of measures taken to ensure that all segments of the society live in peace and harmony to prevent unemployment, to improve working conditions, to provide a minimum wage, to provide social security and benefits, to eliminate injustice in income distribution, and to ensure social justice. Social policy refers to all policies that ensure the welfare of the state and individuals and the dynamic practices that constantly change.
\nThe main goal of social policies is to ensure that everyone in society lives in peace and harmony away from conflicts. With social policies, it is aimed to ensure social justice, social development, social balance, social integration, and social peace.
\nThe goal of social justice is to create equality of opportunity for every individual without eliminating the freedoms and to ensure a fair distribution of income. In particular, objective of justice is to provide services such as education, tax, social security, equal opportunities, and fair and adequate wages. Providing social balance is possible by eliminating social and regional differences. For the establishment of social peace, the factors that hinder social reconciliation must be eliminated. The aim of social integration is to ensure that measures are taken to prevent social disintegration. Social democracy, which has been adopted as the main objective of social policy, refers to the protection of individuals’ interests in the environment of democratic freedoms by taking into account the balance of equality.
\nThe industrial revolution played an important role in the historical development of social policies. After the industrial revolution, the increased capital ensured the formation of a powerful and rich bourgeoisie. On the other hand, the need for manpower was met by means of the working class. The gap between these two segments in society gradually increased. With the power from capital, the bourgeoisie class began to impose low wages, poor working conditions, and working hours of up to 16–20 hours on workers. The working class was left totally unprotected with the adoption of a liberal approach which argues that interference with market conditions adversely affects welfare. The increasing social problems led to the formation of social policies. The liberal market economy, which was replaced with Keynesian policies after World War II and 1929 economic crisis, was given up, and thus, the state could interfere with market by means of social policies.
\nAlthough there are many definitions of the welfare state, it is possible to say “It is a kind of state in which consciously organized public power is used to reduce the role of market forces.” Shifting from a liberal model to Keynesian model of welfare state, states adopted a more interventionist character from economic, social, and legal points of view. Dating back to 1880s, the welfare state continued to strengthen until the mid-1970s due to the increased unemployment and spread of poverty in all countries.
\nThe concept of welfare state entered into literature with the Beveridge Report, which was created in 1942. Looking at the foundations of the concept of welfare state, it is possible to say that it dates back to social security practices introduced by Bismarck in 1883. Welfare state emerged first in Germany and then in Western Europe, North America, and Australia. The common feature of these countries was that they had industrialization and developed market economies and democratic systems. South Korea, Hong Kong, Singapore, and Taiwan, which underwent a further industrialization process, started to be accepted as welfare states in the 1970s. Japan had completed this process earlier. While there were attempts to become a welfare state in the Soviet Union after the Bolshevik Revolution in 1917, the efforts to become a welfare state began later in China, Cuba, and Eastern Europe but they did not achieve an accomplishment with this regard because they had no industrialization.
\nSocial policy, which emerged as a result of failure of the social problems created by the liberal economy approach, was replaced with the concept of welfare state after the adoption of social security practices introduced by Bismarck in Germany.
\nThe social state developed policies not only in the areas of health, education, social security, distribution of income, and housing but also sought solutions to environmental and urban problems in order to ensure social welfare. The welfare state varies from country to country according to the level of welfare they have. According to the classification made by Esping-Anderson, liberal welfare model belongs to conservative Continental Europe, while the social democratic model belongs to Scandinavians.
\nIt is possible to say that the welfare state, which was developed to eliminate the deficiencies of the liberal and socialist understanding in welfare, is a new form of liberal model. In this sense, it acts with an interventionist approach to solve the problems that may arise in the field of social policy.
\nThe Keynesian welfare state stated to have a tendency to narrow social expenditures due to the decrease of economic growth, unemployment, and increased budget deficits after the economic crises seen in the 1970s.
\nThe criticism that the welfare state’s practices for welfare were unsuccessful was justified based on allegations that poverty and unemployment increased, tax and social expenditures constituted a big burden, and the family and moral structure in the society changed unfavorably.
\nWelfare state’s tendency to turn back retrogressively is most likely to have a negative impact on social policies. The financial pressures caused by social expenditures may cause the welfare state to take on a passive character as in the liberal period in the face of social problems and cause social policies to regress.
\nThis retrogression in the welfare is justified with globalization process, which has started to show its effects since the late 1970s. The understanding of globalization which is accompanied by liberalization suggests the limitation of the duties of the state. This situation may cause deeper problems in the social field. Although globalization had an impact on the welfare state as an external factor, it is also necessary to evaluate the internal factors related to the socioeconomic and demographic structures of the states in the emergence of the crisis.
\nDemographic structure that changed because of the aging of the population, prolongation of life span, and decreasing birth rates can be shown as a reason for the crisis of the welfare state in developed countries. In addition, the family structure changed, public expenditures, pension and health expenditures, and taxes increased, and economic growth decreased. The competitive power of the welfare state decreased due to the increase in expenditures made to ensure social welfare. The welfare states, which are in search of a solution for the elimination of the financial pressures caused by the expenditures related to increased prosperity, have entered into a restructuring process. In the process of restructuring and surviving, the financial pressure was tried to be eased through the privatization of the retirement system, raising the retirement age, and increasing the premiums. During the restructuring process, the privatization initiatives were accelerated by providing the social welfare service through local administrations at local level.
\nThere are many views on the future of the welfare state. Rightists who provide solutions to overcome the crisis argue that the neoliberal approach should be adopted, while leftists argue that neo-Keynesian approaches should be adopted.
\nIn today’s world, the concept of welfare state is transforming and the economic pressures created by globalization have a tendency to narrow social policies. Based on the fact that the reason for the transformation in the welfare state is not just globalization, each state should develop policies and tools that are the most appropriate for its social structure to adapt it to the transformation process. In fact, when we look at the practices of the welfare states in the world, it is possible to say that the effects of the crisis differ according to the level of development and welfare. Some of the welfare states continue to undertake initiatives to reduce public expenditures but they fail to satisfy the expectations especially because of the demographic structure. It is impossible to reduce the health and retirement expenditures because of the increasingly aging population.
\nThe reform initiatives to reduce the crisis in the welfare states in the 1990s adopted the “active social protection” understanding, which aimed at activation by keeping the work force in labor market active in social policy practices. In order to reduce the passive expenditures, the period of benefiting from social benefits was shortened, and their conditions were made difficult. Considering OECD data, it is seen that the activation efforts fail short to satisfy the expectations. On the other hand, it is seen that family and care support are not provided enough, and child poverty increases. Activation of practices is implemented by many countries. It can be said that the time passed is not enough to give a decision whether the activation efforts have positive effects. However, it is clear that retirement and health expenditures will continue to increase due to the aging population.
\nInflation, tax, and public expenditures need to be reduced in order that the welfare state continues its existence and economic growth and increases its competitiveness. In Europe, where there is tradition of social solidarity, there is a tendency that the welfare state continues. With the support of international organizations such as IMF, OECD, and World Bank, welfare states transfer the distribution of social services to the private sector. However, welfare services are still planned by the state, and many services are still provided by the state.
\nDespite all these developments, it is possible to say that the welfare state has an active role on social policies and welfare states are resistant to the economic negativities experienced. In our opinion, reducing social expenditures should be the last resort in the reform initiatives of states to achieve growth in the future periods of transformation of the welfare state. The strategies to be established in this way should be determined in light of the following points:
Not deviating from the goal of achieving ultimate welfare in the transferring of services to the private sector and preserving the regulatory, descriptive character of the state
Encouraging the private sector with regard to distribution of social services
Making use of the increasing of voluntary organizations and local governments with regard to the provision of social services
Restructuring to reduce expenditures other than social assistance expenditures
Attaching importance to giving child care money to families and importance to young people’s vocational education, considering the obstacles caused by the demographic structure
Reducing the burden of unemployment in public social spending by producing solutions that can prevent the increasing and deepening unemployment in the world
Reducing the inflation and tax
Not considering decreasing the spending on social welfare as a tool for economic growth and determining the economic strategies on this basis
Utilizing the developments on a global scale in favor of the social welfare state and adopting strategies in line with the positive effects of globalization and making cooperation with international and supranational organizations in this process
In the light of all these points, it is possible to say that in the future, the governments adopting approaches compromising social policies in order to achieve economic growth will lead to the reaction of the society who has the expectation of social welfare. On the other hand, achieving welfare without deviating from the goals of social policy will also vary according to the states’ ability to adapt themselves to changes and developments and reconstructing accordingly.
\nRecently, much attention has been focused on the development of more safe, high-energy density, long-life, and low-cost batteries to satisfy our energy demand as our daily life includes electric vehicles, portable electronics, and large-scale grids [1, 2, 3, 4]. However, lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) successfully prepared and available in the commercial market since the 1990s, even though their theoretical specific capacity, energy density of the electrode material is relatively low. Hence, still it is challenging to development of next generation of lithium-ion batteries to fulfill the demand by overcoming their hindrance by the intrinsic limitation [5].
Various metal sulfides, metal oxides, and metal poly-anions have been developed, and they exhibited preferable capacities, but their output voltages are not sufficient. Hence, chalcogen materials (sulfur, selenium, and tellurium (SSTs) are emerging conversion-type cathode materials for aluminum-ion batteries (AIBs) [6]. They exhibit the multi-electron transfer process; therefore, AlSST batteries can deliver very high capacities.
The low-cost and -toxicity, most-abundant sulfur (S) has theoretical gravimetric capacity of 1672 mA h g−1 due to the reaction between S and sulfide (S2−) exhibiting the highest capacity, over all cathode materials in AIBs [7]. Notably, lithium-sulfur (Li-S) batteries exhibited the highest theoretical energy density of 2600 Wh kg−1. Moreover, the sulfur-based cathodes require a large number of conductive additives due to their electrical insulating property to avoid leakage/loss issues, which greatly decreases the actual capacity [8]. Therefore, it is usually difficult to achieve the theoretical specific capacity. Based on these merits, metal chalcogens batteries (MCBs) are an attractive interest for alternative of new-generation secondary batteries.
The main research has been focused on lithium dendrite and “shuttle effect” of high-order lithium phosphate sulfur batteries. There is three-phase boundary between cathodes, electrolytes, and modified interface layers. The interface boundaries occupied by the sulfur species restrict the redox kinetics. Therefore, to improve the redox reaction, it is necessary to make strong bond of S to the host, thereby continuing to conduct mixed charge carriers (Li+ and e−). There is another difficulty that the degradation of active materials between the electrodes due to shuttle process, in which cathode electrolyte interfaces bring rapid decay of the capacity, thereby reducing the coulomb efficiency of Li-S batteries [2]. The formation of lithium dendrites on the surface of lithium anode and also unstable solid electrolyte interface (SEI) leads to low columbic efficiency (CE) and poor cyclic performance [9]. To overcome these problems, most suitable nanomaterials are considered for energy applications due their unique crystal structure providing high surface-area-to-volume ratio and shortening lithium ions transport [9].
In order to create the metal-ligand covalency is the one of strategies by replacing the oxide ligand with the chalcogen (S, Se) to achieve an anion redox stabilization, where the less electronegative nature of the chalcogen improves the ligand p band penetration into the metal d band. Tarascon et al. investigated layered chalcogen structures as well as their electrochemical performance for the next generation of cathodes [10]. The results exhibited the superior performance in voltage and capacity fade with voltage hysteresis. Hence, chalcogen anion redox plays a critical role in a Li-rich cathode batteries. Some of research was carried out on chalcogen cathodes, both Li-rich and conventional chalcogen cathodes for the evolution of chalcogen anion redox cathode [11, 12]. Mespoulie et al. [13] introduced fast Li-ion conductors of mixed anionic and cationic redox activity of Li2SnS3, by introducing the Fe redox couple in the host cation Sn site.
Selenium (Se) is another class of material present in Al-Se battery that showed higher voltage plateau resulting a desirable energy density [14]. Selenium metal has high theoretical volumetric capacity (3253 mA h cm−3, ρ = 4.81 g cm−3), which is more suitable especially in hybrid electric vehicles and in the mobile smart phones due to restrictions of the battery volume [15]. Selenium showed higher electronic conductivity (1 × 10−3 S m−1) and excellent kinetic behavior than sulfur [16]. The chemical compound Se1-xSx with different Se-S ratios shows higher theoretical capacity as well as better electronic conductivity due to fast reaction of kinetics than pristine S [17]. Even though, Se1-x Sx cathode materials also suffer from poor cycle performance, lower coulombic efficiency due to the dissolution and shuttling of intermediates [18]. The electrochemical performance of Li-Se1-xSx batteries improved by carbon coating, which provide a strong chemical affinity of polarized surface, which can effectively trap the soluble intermediates to minimize the shuttle effect and side reactions in the electrolyte [19]. A series of Se1-xSx cathodes were prepared by Se/S ratio and the presence of supercritical CO2. NC@SWCNTs@Se1-xSx cathodes exhibited higher conductivity and strong adsorption leading to superior cyclic efficiency.
Tellurium (Te) material has the highest atomic weight among sulfur and selenium, high electrical conductivity and a 6-electron transfer reaction process made it to be promising cathode material in AIBs [20]. However, still there are several challenges remaining to overcome for the development of batteries such as low electronic conductivity of S, shuttle effect, slow kinetics of ionic liquids as well as undesirable reaction mechanism [21]. Tellurium exhibits a higher theoretical volumetric capacity of 2619 mAh cm−3 due to its intrinsic electrical conductivity of Te (2 × 102 S m−1), much better than that of S (5 × 10−16 S m−1) and Se (1 × 10−4 S m−1). Therefore, the high utilization ratio of active material of Te leads to good performance at the large current density. The fabricated batteries based on Te/porous carbon (Te-G-CNT) electrode materials deliver a high volumetric capacity up to 2493.13 mAh cm−3 [22].
The polysulfide (Li2Sn) species have strong tendency to catenate and form reactive polysulfide dianions as well as radical anions (Sn2− and Sn/n/2−, 2 < n < 8). These conversion reactions of sulfur ↔ Li2S kinetically favored in the mediated solution and their deposition degrading the lithium surface and the cyclic stability [23, 24, 25]. The dissolved species shows shuttle effect by insulating deposition of Li2S/Li2S2. Polysulfide molecules modified by substituting chalcogen atoms minimized the intrinsic shuttle effect [26]. By substituting S, Se and Te can be facilely formed as the polyselenosulfides (Li2SexSy) and polytellurosulfides (Li2TexSy). However, selenium and tellurium lead to significant differences in the electrochemical performance compared with Li-S batteries. The substitution of selenium and tellurium has significant impact on the metal-chalcogen batteries and solid-state batteries by employing chalcogenide solid electrolytes. Therefore, in this chapter, the strategies to improve electrochemical performance are elaborated, and the development of new trends for next-generation lithium-ion batteries is provided.
To fabricate flexible lithium-ion batteries using sulfur-based cathodes, there are two main synthetic approaches: (1) Post-sulfur loading: The formation of a flexible skeleton then loaded with sulfur by using vapor infusion, melt diffusion, or reprecipitation of sulfur from a solution (generally carbon disulfide (CS2) or toluene). (2) Pre-sulfur loading: pre-synthesized sulfur composites into a flexible cathode. By keeping the flexible cathode required features in mind such as (1) high content of active materials with respect to total mass of the electrode, (2) mechanically robust skeleton, (3) long-range interpenetrated conductive network, (4) porous structure, and (5) three-dimensional (3D) scaffold to improve areal sulfur loading [27]. The flexible energy Li-S batteries, flexible alkali metal-chalcogen batteries, and two special flexible batteries such as prototypes of foldable and cable-type Li-S batteries are discussed.
Many efforts have focused on the cathode material design, electrolyte optimizations, separator modification, still some of the challenges remain due to slow kinetics, electrolyte compatibility, and inferior cycling stability. Hence, there are many possibilities for the development of more reliable sulfur, selenium tellurium (SSTs) batteries. He et al. [5] showed schematic representation of various components for the development of lithium-ion batteries based on SST as shown in Figure 1. The carbon-based materials, conductive materials, and their nanostructure with a porous matrix refereed as a host due to low electrical conductivity of SSTs (S and Se) and the soluble properties of the chalcogenide. Therefore, the host materials can provide necessary contact with SSTs to reduce the formation of inactive regions and satisfy the adsorbing as well as accommodation of soluble active materials. Therefore, the mass loading of SSTs cathodes can efficiently be increased. The various approaches such as melting diffusion, chalcogen vaporization are used to increase the mass loading of active SSTs into the conductive host materials. An introduced of metal atoms to form a bonding with SSTs is another possible method for reducing the reaction barriers in Al-SSTs batteries.
Perspective for Al-SSTs batteries. Reprinted from ref. [
The most abundant high-surface-area carbon porous materials are possible to absorb the SSTs materials, which is more impartment for limiting chalcogenide dissolution [28]. Thus, well-designed porous structure carbon materials composites can enhance not only the charge transport but also improve the retention of SSTs cathode during electrochemical reaction [29]. Therefore, carbon materials are attractive to be host for the insulating S with a regular matrix. A melt-diffusion method was conducted to prepare the S/activated carbon cloth (ACC) composite cathode material in Al-S battery as shown in Figure 1a. As prepared ACC material exhibited type I adsorption, corresponding to microporous structure with a pore size below 2 nm. The Brunnauer-Emmett-Teller (BET) measurement showed that after compositing of S into the ACC, specific surface area decreased from 2376.6 to 1532.8 m2 g−1 and also decreased to its micropore volume from 0.93 to 0.61 cm3 g−1, indicating that the S material was uniformly impregnate into the microporous structure. The Al-S battery based on S/ACC cathode exhibited a high specific capacity of 1320 mA h g−1 and discharged voltage about 0.65 V as shown in Figure 2b.
The galvanostatic charge/discharge curves of a, b) Al-S battery, c, d) Al-Se battery (n ≥ 1), and e, f) Al-Te battery. Reprinted from ref. [
The microporous structure ACC host consists of pore size less than 2 nm and can effectively provide the fast solid-state reaction kinetics favoring to its ready electron access, large reaction area, and decreasing the ionic diffusion length. Similarly, a free-standing CNF host was also introduced in Al-S battery as shown in 2b. The carbon nanofiber with a diameter of 100–200 nm occupies between the interspaces in micrometer scale level. This CNF structure provides a spacious, robust, conductive matrix to accommodate the active S and their products. The S and EMIC/AlCl3 slurry dispersed into the freestanding CNF host, the Al-S battery exhibited a good capacity of 1250 mAhg−1. These above free-standing carbon materials not only provide a conductive matrix for S materials, but also reduce the side reaction from the binder, thereby enhanced stability of Al-S battery. The porous carbonized Cu-based metal organic frameworks (MOFs) called as HKUST-1-C also introduced as a host to the S in Al-S batteries [30]. The HKUST-1-C carbon materials exhibited high hierarchical porous structure with surface area of 179 m2 g−1 and a pore sizes in <5 nm range. These are more suitable for being host in S cathode batteries. The metallic Cu can react with polysulfides to form S-Cu ionic clusters, thereby reducing the kinetic barrier of the electrochemical conversion reaction and facilitating the reversibility of S during charge/discharge processes. Therefore, the S@HKUST-1-C cathode battery exhibited a stable performance with a reversible capacity of 600 mA h g−1 at the 75th cycle and retained 460 mA h g−1 even after 500 cycles at 1 A g−1. These results indicate that the metallic material provides a valuable strategy to develop stable Al-S batteries. A nitrogen-doped hierarchical porous carbon called as HPCK used as a host for S in Al-S batteries [31]. Hierarchical micro-, meso-, and macro-pores of HPCK was prepared by carbonizing a N-rich polymer precursor combined with zinc nitrate and followed by a KOH etching process. Interestingly, KOH etching process greatly improved the surface area (2513 m2 g−1) and created more micro- and meso-pores. The Al-S batteries based on S/HPCK cathode delivered a capacity of 1027 mA h g−1 at 0.2 A g−1 for 50 cycles and exhibited excellent cyclic ability of 405 mA h g−1 at 1 A g−1 for 700 cycles. The hierarchical porous structure of HPCK with high surface area and large pores confined S materials. The huge macropores provide fast ion transport in the electrolyte. Therefore, the porous carbon powders, metal content along with structure optimization for host are impartment factors for Al-S batteries.
Selenium composite prepared with carbon meso-porous material (2 nm < pore size <50 nm) can enhance the encapsulation of Se in the Al-Se batteries as shown in Figure 2C [32]. The CMK-3 carbon demonstrated that it exhibited a hexagonal meso-porous structure favorable for being host material in Al-Se batteries as shown in Figure 2c. The CMK-3 carbon nanorods showed a large pore volume of 1.78 cm3 g−1, a high surface area about 1632 m2 g−1, and a uniform pore size of 3.4 nm. The Al-Se battery based on Se@CMK-3 cathode delivers an initial discharge capacity of 218 mA h g−1 at 100 mA g−1 and a relatively high discharged potential above 1.5 V as shown in Figure 2d. Hollow selenium carbon nanotube (Se@CT) with a specific surface area of 61.49 m2 g−1 and pore diameter of 3.36 nm was also demonstrated as cathode material in Al-Se batteries [6]. The Se@CT cathode exhibited an initial discharge capacity of 447.2 mA h g−1 at 200 mA g−1 with a voltage of about 1.6 V. The capacity retains 83.5% even after the 200 cycles at 500 mA g−1. The carbon materials in Se@ CT cathode reside their structural stability of Se, reduce the dissolution of selenide products, and also avoid the volume change of Se during the electrochemical process. Therefore, mesoporous structure and pore size are important to stabilize the Se cathode as well as enhance the electrochemical performance. Mesoporous carbon fibers (MCFs) size from 2.7 to 8.9 nm prepared and demonstrated the effect of pore size on the electrochemical performance of Al-Se batteries [32]. The Al-Se battery based on MCFs material with pore size of 7.1 nm exhibited a good capacity of 366 mA h g−1. The chloroaluminate ion diffusivity greatly affects in the mesopore size of MCFs composite Se cathode. The carbon well-designed structures may provide the chloroaluminate ion transportation as well as charge transportation during charge/discharge processes, which enhances the electrochemical behavior of Al-Se batteries.
The electrical conductivity of Te cathode is very high [12]. Hence, utilization ratio of active material is large and also exhibited good rate performance in Al ion batteries. Te cathode is easily prepared by coating the slurry of Te powder, acetylene black, and binder on current collector, without any host materials as shown in Figure 2e [20]. The Al-Te battery exhibited with raw material an initial capacity of 913 mA h g−1 at 20 mA g−1 with a potential of 1.4 V as shown in Figure 2f. The Al-Te battery delivers a good rate performance at different current densities due to the high electrical conductivity of Te. However, Te batteries exhibited capacity fading due to its leaching of soluble telluride from the cathode. Further, the rGO materials were introduced to encapsulate Te nanowires in Al-Te battery [6]. This Te/rGO cathode battery exhibited a capacity of 1026 mA h g−1 at 500 mA g−1 and also delivers a considerable capacity beyond 100 cycles at 1.0 and 2.0 A g−1. The rGO materials suppress the dissolution of telluride into electrolyte indicating better utilization of Te. Further, N-doped porous carbon materials coupled with rGO also introduced as a host materials for the improvement of the stability of Al-Te batteries [33]. The rGO materials are easily encapsulated soluble tellurium species under physical and chemical confinements. Therefore, the Al-Te batteries exhibited excellent cyclic ability. It exhibited initial specific capacity of 935.5 mA h g−1 and 467.5 mA h g−1 after 150 cycles with the Te loading of 70 wt%. Thus, a host material with well-designed structure, such as porous conductive matrix with specific components is necessary for cathode materials in Al-SSTs batteries.
In the case of sulfur lithium-ion batteries, during the discharge/charge reaction, the sulfur required to be tightly attached to a host with sustainable conduction of Li+ and e−. Generally, the cathodic reaction occurs at the host/elemental sulfur/liquid electrolyte interface. The carbon nano materials such as graphene, carbon nanotube (CNT), or carbon nanofiber and metal sulfide are the indispensable 2D materials to sulfur host. The modified host materials with only nano-sized pores alone cannot accommodate the sulfur and completely reduce suppression of the shuttle effect in the LiPS [34]. Therefore, in recent years the development of interface components for Li-S batteries is most impartment [28, 35]. One of the main strategies is that the coating of materials exhibited several merits such as fast electrical and ionic transmission capability, uniform thickness, and stable distribution of composition on the surface of cathode materials without effect of volume.
The another most prominent strategy is that in situ growth of nano transition metal oxides (sulfide) [36] or the loading of nano transition metals [37, 38] on the carbon surface leads to overcome the poor contact between sulfur and carbon materials. In this process, (sulfides, oxides, nitrides, etc.) compounds are added or doped some of the elements (N, S and co-NS) and their derivatives. Therefore, polar bonds are generated between host and sulfur; those provided fast transmission of electrons as well as increase the ions redox reactions at the interface.
Various nano metal oxides have interacted with LiPS through strong chemical bonds, which are reducing the shuttle effect. In particular, oxygen-rich compounds such as V2O3 [39], TiO2 [40, 41], SnO2 [42], Co3O4 [43], MnO2 [44, 45]) successfully prepared as LiPS traps to enhance the cyclic stability. The high conductive Ni foam/graphene/carbon nanotubes/MnO2 nanoflakes (NGCM) were proposed in which interconnected Ni foam, graphene, and carbon nanotubes of the NGCM sponge facilitated efficient electron transfer. The NGCM sponge showed good wettability and interfacial contact with the Li-S electrolyte, and the MnO2 nano flakes exhibited electro-catalytic effects as well as strong chemisorption on LiPS [46]. The porous and double-shelled architecture decreases the ion transfer distance, Uniform sulfur distribution offers active interfaces as well as decreases volume changes. Luo et al. developed spinel Ni-Co oxide double-shelled microspheres (NCO-HS), which consisted of defective spinel NiCo2O4–x, as the multifunctional sulfur host material. The S@NCO-HS prepared under high sulfur loading exhibited minimum capacity fading rate of 0.045% per cycle over 800 cycles with high areal specific capacity of 6.3 mAh cm−2 at 5 C.
The thin barrier layers designed with light weight and with high polysulfide-trapping capabilities showed high weight density (usually >0.3 mg cm−2), unexpectedly reducing the overall energy densities of Li-S batteries as shown in Figure 3 [47, 48, 49, 50, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55]. The development of lightweight MTO-CNTs capping layer directly coated onto the surface of sulfide cathode as shown in Figure 4a. The MTO-CNTs capping layer prepared on the sulfur cathode, which is directly contacted with an electrically conducting layer to form a cathodic “sub cell” for capturing and decreasing the polysulfide species. The thickness (~2 μm) and the weight density (0.06 mg cm−2) of the MTO-CNTs capping layer are much lower than other barrier layers reported elsewhere, as the mesoporous carbon and the grapheme layers [47, 48]. Moreover, it is noted that the area of conventional interlayer is higher than the coated capping layer. To understand the layer-by-layer electrode structure and the cathode structure was observed by SEM and energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDX). The 1D, MTO-CNTs nanostructure and the ultrathin capping layer are formed through self-weaving and firmly coated on the surface of sulfur cathode (Figure 4b). The existence of MTO-CNTs capping layer is estimated by the elemental mapping analysis (Figure 4c,d). The MTO-CNTs capping layer formed on the cathode can trap more effectively, polysulfides within the cathode material, thereby reducing the shuttle effect of polysulfide. The CV curves of electrodes reveal that the electrode with MTO-CNTs capping layer has sharper and more intensive oxidation and reduction peaks exhibited than an electrode without capping layer, indicating that the capping layer efficiently enhanced reaction kinetics of the electrode. The substantially promoted charge transfer is further confirmed by EIS analysis. The sulfur cathode with MTO-CNTs capping layer presents much lower charge-transfer resistance compared with cathode without MTO-CNTs capping layer, indicating that improvement of redox-conversion ability as well as conductivity. These results indicate that the capping layer is not only favorable for adsorption confinement of polysulfides within the electrode, but also increasing charge transfer, accelerating reversibility of polysulfide conversion. The galvanostatic charge-discharge profiles of the device with the capping layer were recorded at different rates as shown in Figure 4e. At the 0.2 C rate reversible capacity of 1212 mAh g−1 has been achieved. The specific capacities of 922 and 606 mAh g−1 were delivered at the high rates of 0.5 and 1 C, respectively. The cycling stability of the device with the capping layer at 0.5 C rate still it retains a capacity of 577 mAh g−1 after 500 cycles with capacity decay rate of 0.07% per cycle (Figure 4f), indicating a good cycling stability. These results indicate that the formation of MTO-CNTs capping layer is convenient route to fabricate high performance Li-S batteries with sulfur host along with commercial carbon materials.
Schematic diagram of as fabricated Li-S battery using MTO-CNTs interlayer. Reprinted from ref. [
(a) The dripping of MTO-CNTs on the surface of sulfur electrode. (b) SEM images of the sulfur electrode with MTO-CNTs capping layer. (c) Corresponding Ti and (d) S elemental mapping. (e) Charge-discharge curves of sulfur electrode comprises MTO-CNTs capping layer at various C rates. (f) Cycling stability of the MTO-CNTs capping layer on sulfur electrode at 0.5 C. [reprinted from ref. [
The cell was disassembled after 100 cycles at 0.2 C, to understand the function of the MTO-CNTs capping layer at a potential of 2.8 V. The dimethyl carbonate solution was used to wash electrodes with capping layer and their structure analyzed by X-ray microtomography (XRM) and SEM. The overall structure and morphology of the MTO-CNTs are similar to that of the original sample as shown in Figure 5a, the SEM images of the capping layer after 100 cycles. The TiO2 volume cannot change due to its robustness and the interaction of the CNTs. The layer-by-layer stacked structure was indicated by a 3D reconstruction of the electrode (Figure 5b). The capping layer is uniformly and strongly anchored on the sulfur cathode surface and worked as a good absorbent layer to keep polysulfide species rather than to diffuse into the lithium anode. The signal of sulfur precipitate is very strong and uniformed in the cathode (Figure 5c), reveals that the polysulfide shuttle behavior retained by the MTO-CNTs capping layer. The charge products are clearly seen in the capping layer execute the recycling of trapped polysulfides. Figure 5d reveals that the capping layer on surface of the sulfur cathode retain as it is without any cracks after cycling indicates that the structural stability. These results indicate that the light MTO-CNTs capping layer coated on the surface of sulfur cathode enhanced battery performances.
(a) SEM picture and (b) 3D XRM picture and (c, d) partial 2D of the sulfur electrode with MTO-CNTs capping layer at a potential of 2.8 V after 100 cycles at 0.2 C. reprinted from ref: [
In order to improve the metal-ligand covalency by substituting a lower electronegative chalcogen ligand such as sulfur in the cathode. In this case, reversible mixed anionic and cationic redox occurs by the metal d band penetrates into the ligand p band. The partially filled d orbital redox couples like Fe2+/3+ are introduced in the Li-ion conducting phase (Li2SnS3) is the development of a new family of layered structured cathode materials. Investigation of high-resolution transmission electron microscopy and high annular dark field-scanning transmission electron microscopy reveals that the multi-redox structural modifications and nanopore formation on its surface, during cycling process. In this study, Ni, Co ions free cathodes using various functional materials in the chalcogen-based dual anionic and cationic redox cathodes.
The charge-discharge profiles clearly exhibited a large hysteresis (0.511 V at 50% state of charge) starting from the first cycle. A voltage hysteresis plot for the 1st–30th cycles is shown in Figure 6a. Further to understand the hysteresis clearly by analyzed the effect of the upper cutoff potential on the voltage hysteresis as shown in Figure 6b. But these results have no significant effect on the voltage hysteresis, indicating that the hysteresis in the Sn-based chalcogen system may be due to the origin of intrinsic nature of the Li insertion extraction reactions. Therefore galvanostatic intermittent titration technique (GITT) measurements were carried out with current density of 5 mA/g for an interval of 30 min. Then it allowed opening circuit state for 1 hour, to obtain a steady state. Two continuous cycles of the composite electrodes by the GITT measurements are shown in Figure 6c,d. The first charge process represents the Low over potential increment gradually and the discharge process battery delivered a very high potential with different behavior. The 0.2 Fe substituted composite cathode shows the less overpotential with gradual increment is due to the smooth and kinetically faster of Li extraction process compared with the Li insertion process. The huge over potential observed around 2.5–2.1 V during the insertion process reveals that the Li insertion is kinetically limited and slower than the extraction process. In the similar way, the second cycle showed and high over potential during discharge and less over potential during charge condition. Further, the discharge profile region shows the two different slops indicating that due to the multiphase reaction region and the structural modifications. GITT profiles reveals that the inflection point region represents the high potential of ∼187 mV compared to other regions. The electrochemical insertion of Li+ ions is limited in these regions due to the slow Li-ion diffusion and charge transfer resistance.
Electrochemical kinetic study of the Sn-based chalcogen anion redox cathode (0.2Fe-Li1.33Sn0.67S2). (a) Voltage hysteresis profile of active cathode material at 10 mA/g current density. (b) Voltage profile of the cathode at different upper cutoff potentials. GITT profiles of active cathode material: (c) 1st cycle and (d) 2nd cycle GITT profiles with 30 min pulse and 1 h relaxation. Reprinted from ref. [
The Li insertion and extraction was estimated by cycling test for all the compounds in a half-cell configuration at the current density of 10 mA/g. The electrochemical investigation of 0.2 Fe substituted compounds compared with other compositions are shown in Figure 7a. There is a gradual deterioration in all the compounds cyclic performance at a very low current density of 10 mA/g for 50 continuous cycles in terms of capacity fade. Further, a cycling test of the 0.2 Fe substituted cathode done at 50 mA/g, reveals that the high rate cycling stability about 76% retention after 80 cycles as shown in Figure 7b. The multi-redox induced structural transformation is the main reason for capacity degradation and evidenced by the microscopy analysis. The cycling stability of this composite materials is comparable to that of existing chalcogen anion redox cathodes [11, 56]. Further, the nanostructure and surface coatings strategies would enhance the cycle life [57, 58]. In this chalcogen framework the Fe doped composition showed good electronic and ionic conductivity, excellent electrochemical properties with the high loading of 10 mg/cm2 cells at 10 mA/g current density.
Electrochemical study of Sn-based chalcogen anion redox cathodes. (a) Cycling stability of different Fe substituted Li1.33Sn0.67S2compounds. (b) Cycling stability of 0.2Fe- Li1.33Sn0.67S2 cathode at a high current density of 50 mA/g (initial few cycles at 10 mA/g) reprinted from ref. [
The structural evolution due to Li insertion extraction was visualized in a series of samples using HAADF-STEM images (Figure 8). High atomic number elements such as transition metals represented by the bright spots and the light elements such as Li, S, and O represented without bright spots. Figure 8a shows the ordered pristine cathode composition showed bright spots of metal elements and the lattice exhibits without distortions or cracks. The lattice showed severe structural distortions and nanopore formation after the 1st cycle, indicated by the yellow-colored circles and arrows in the Figure 8c−f.
HAADF-STEM investigation of the 0.2Fe-Li1.33Sn0.67S2composite electrode at different states of charge: (a) pristine, (b) 1st charged, (c) 1st discharged, (d, g) 2nd charged, (e, h) 2nd discharged, (f, i) cycled electrodes; In panel (c), the honeycomb ordering was visualized. Reprinted from ref. [
The structural distortion was observed in the first discharged cycle like honeycomb and after consequent cycling the ordered crystalline domain lost its crystalline nature as shown in Figure 8c. Further, investigations reveal that complete distorted structure after cycling due to the pores and structural distortions was high and the crystallinity degraded. The degradation of pore and crack formation happened during the initial cycles to extended cycling conditions. The low magnification images of second charged, second discharged, and cycled samples are shown in Figure 8g,h indicating a lot of nanopores present throughout the cycled cathode. Hence, the nanopore created by accelerated Li ion insertion-extraction and also the sulfur loss by degradation. The formation of nanopore/nanovoid due to oxygen loss in the Li-rich oxide anion redox cathode as well as their degradation mechanisms correlated with the fundamental issues of voltage fade, voltage hysteresis, and capacity fade [59]. The sulfide anion is a significant charge contributor during Li extraction and the sulfur loss increased amorphization which is reflected in charge-discharge voltage profiles by means of capacity fade of the cycled cathode materials.
Figure 9a shows the impedance plots of cathode material at different discharged cycles. All the EIS measurements showed two semicircle regions except the pristine cell. The semicircle observed at high frequency region indicates the surface film formation on the positive electrodes. Another semicircle was observed in the low frequency region attributed to the charge transfer resistance upon Li+ insertion-extraction. The observed slope line indicates the Warburg diffusion (W) in the bulk electrolyte. An equivalent circuit model (Figure 9b) designed by the fitted EIS data and the resistance values for all the active materials at different cycles noted. In the equivalent ckt Re corresponds to the solution resistance. The Cs and Rs correspond to and capacitance and the surface film resistance of the active sulfide composite cathode, respectively. The Li ion insertion and extraction double layer capacitance and induced charge transfer resistance represents as Rct and Cdl, respectively. From the Figure 9a calculated Re values for all the materials indicated small differences for all the cycles, reveals that the electrolyte is stable during cyclic process. The Rs and Rct values increased proportionally in the initial cycle number during 1st and 2nd cycles, representing that the structural distortion during the electrolyte and electrode interface. This observation consisted with GITT analysis that the very large potential during lithium insertion of initial cycles is due to the kinetic limitation of Li insertion reactions. The most of the surface film formation will occur during initial cycling. The Rct values decreased with increasing cyclic number, indicating that the resistance increased during the initial cycles and decreased by cycling cyclic number. This is due to the sulfur loss by rising cycling number, where the complete amorphization and nanopore are formed [12]. The anion redox indicates sulfur loss by reducing the Li insertion-extraction ability. These indicate the capacity fading occurred during the cycling. Therefore Sn based chalcogen layered structure materials worked as mixed redox cathode for Lithium Ion batteries.
EIS of 0.2Fe-Li1.33 Sn0.67S2 composite electrode at different states of charge. (a) Nyquist plots of the composite electrode at various cycles. This EIS was recorded after completion of respective cycle, (b the model EIS was fitted to the experimental Nyquist plot. Reprinted from ref. [
The cyclic voltammograms (CVs) of half cells assembled using [Li2S + 0.1 S/Se/Te] cathodes as shown in Figure 10a. The presence of polyselenosulfides plays a significant reduction in peak separation (∆Ep), indicating decreasing the overpotentials, and helps with increased peak heights at high scan rates (1 ≥ mV s−1) by retaining the canonical redox peaks of sulfur/Li2S. The relationship between the peak current (ip) and scan rate (ν) can be written as: ip = α ν β, where α and β are the fitting parameters [60] Plotting log (ip) versus log (ν) yields β = 0.64 for Se, compared to 0.52 for the control. The value of β changes with the addition of Se represents the shifting of slow diffusion controlled reactions to fast surface-controlled reactions. This improvement of the redox kinetics is not much with the introduction of tellurium compared with selenium. Figure 10b shows the capacities of Li || [Li2S + 0.1 S/Se/Te] half cells at 0.25 A g−1 of Li2S (BC/5). Selenium is electrochemically more active between 2.8 and 1.8 V, whereas Te is inactive at the same voltage. Hence the addition of 0.1 Se enables a considerable improvement in capacities of ̴40% under the control. Therefore the relative dominance of catalytic SeS2* radical presence in polyselenosulfide solutions works as conversion reactions and utilized completely to drives complete electrochemical reaction [61, 62]. This is critical for high capacities obtained under low-electrolyte conditions in a practical Li–S cell [24, 63]. The presence of SeS2* radicals highly react with the various electrolyte components thereby the faster capacity fade observed with polyselenosulfides even after 70 cycles. The sulfur/Li2S final product conductivity also improved due to incorporation of Se atoms. The charging/discharging profiles of Li || Li2S half cells indicate that considerable reduction achieved in overpotentials with selenium compared to sulfur or tellurium. Therefore, considerable improvement in charge-transfer and redox kinetics is occurred with the introduction of selenium rather than tellurium.
(a) Cyclic voltammograms for [Li2S + 0.1 S/Se/Te] cathodes at scan rate range of 200 to 2000 μv s-1 (b) electrochemical performance of Li || [Li2S + 0.1 S/Se/Te] half cells. Reprinted from ref. [
Electrochemical performance of Li2S and Li2S2 entirely depends on the lithium plating and stripping effectively. Figure 11a shows capacities for anode-free Ni || [Li2S + 0.1 S/Se/Te] full cells at ~ 1 mA cm−2 (C/5). Selenium showed rapid capacity fade and loss of their peak capacity 50% after the 35 cycles. By the introduction of tellurium exhibited remarkable cycling stability in the anode-free configuration and retain 52% of peak capacity at 265 cycles. The loss rate of lithium per cycle is decreased to 2.14% with Se and 0.24% with Te [64]. The improvement in lithium plating and stripping reversibility reflects by the coulombic efficiencies of the anode-free full cells as shown in Figure 11b. Polytellurosulfides showed a dramatic effect on lithium cycling efficiency by situ formation, kinetic hindrance occurred with tellurium substitution in polysulfides compared with selenium. The formation of polyselenosulfides has no effect on the reversibility of lithium deposition. These improvements were analyzed with symmetric Li || Li cells containing Li2SexSy and Li2TexSy introduced as an electrolyte components. Electrochemical impedance spectroscopy reveals the polyselenosulfides showed high and unstable overpotentials (~100 mV) and polytellurosulfides enable low and stable overpotentials (~10 mV), indicating a thin SEI layer has excellent ionic transport properties. The dense and uniform lithium deposits formed with polytellurosulfides exhibited irreversible loss of lithium. The electrochemical performance of an anode-free Ni || Li2S full cell with 0.05 Se + 0.05 Te additives was observed. There is a synergetic effect realized that the higher initial capacities and cycling stability than that of the pure 0.1 Te and 0.1 Se based cells. Therefore we believe that the presence of SeS2*radicals increased the faster capacity fade with 0.05 Se + 0.05 Te than with 0.1 Te, representing that an electrolyte system might be allowed radical anion of selenium to obtained higher capacities and also retained for longer cycles. These results further implemented impractical, large-area (4.8 × 8.1 cm2), single-layer pouch cells assembled in the anode-free configuration (N/P = 1) with a 164 mg Li2S cathode (4.2 mg cm−2) containing 10 wt% Te0 (Te:Li2S molar ratio = 0.055) and operating under lean-electrolyte conditions (E/Li2S = 4.5 ml mg−1) the results are shown in Figure 12c [65]. Tellurium was replaced with carbon black for control. Figure 11b showed the control cell exhibited a high initial capacity of 77 mAh, but it has very rapid capacity fade 80% retention within 13 cycles. By the addition of Te exceeded 80% of its peak capacity for nearly 150 cycles and retain their cycling capacity without rapid drop until the electrolyte dry-out nearly 300 cycles [66, 67]. The initial rise in capacity can be regarded as ‘activation period’ in which the dissolution of tellurium slowly into polysulfides. The improvement in cycle life with the introduction of tellurium can be attributed to the stabilizing effect of polytellurosulfides on lithium deposition. These results are valid practically relevant to the cell design and testing parameters such as long cycle life and high energy dense, anode-free configuration significantly closer to commercial viability of Li–S system.
Electrochemical performances – (a) capacity retention and (b) coulombic efficiencies of anode-free Ni || [Li2S + 0.1 S/Se/Te] full cells. (c) Electrochemical performances of large-area (39 cm2) anode-free Ni || Li2S single-layer pouch full cells with 10 wt% tellurium (Te: Li2S molar ratio = 0.04) or 10 wt% carbon black as cathode additives. Reprinted from ref [
(a) Crystal structure of Li2X (X = S, Se, and Te) and the three Li+ ion diffusion pathways marked as purple [100], red [110], and green [111] lines. Migration energy barriers along [110, 111] show a steady reduction from Li2S to Li2Se and to Li2Te. (b) Li+-ion transport pathway in Li2TeS3 along the x-axis and the corresponding energy barrier based on single-ion migration. Reprinted from ref [
First principles calculations were evaluated to understand reduced species on lithium deposition and their ionic transport properties. Li2S, Li2Se, and Li2Te indicated crystallize in a cubic antifluorite structure with a face-centered cubic anionic framework along with Li+ ions in the tetrahedral sites. Figure 12a showed Li+ can diffuse along the directions of [100], [110], [111]. Climbing image nudge elastic-band (CI-NEB) method is used to find the diffusion barriers along each of these pathways. Barrier energy found to be ̴ 0.3 eV in the lowest- pathway [68]. Barrier energies are 0.875 eV to 0.748 eV to 0.539 eV, calculated from the transitions Li2S to Li2Se to Li2Te, respectively. Te2 exhibited more polarizable anionic framework compared to those of S2and Se2due to the larger size and lower charge density. Previous report [69] reveals that the larger size of Te2 provide more open channel along [110], [111] in which high diffusion pathways for Li+ ions. Therefore, Li2Te due to its more uniform, homogenous, and dense lithium deposition can provide alternate pathways to facilitate three-dimensional ion transport. Li2TeS3 exhibited monoclinic structure with trigonal pyramidal TeS32−anions arranged in layers. The Li+ ions coordinated with sulfur atoms and occupied their octahedral and tetrahedral sites. Li2TeS3 unit cell consists of eight distinct steps between five adjacent sides and the non-equivalent lithium sites can be found in the migration pathway. The single-ion NEB model was introduced to calculate the corresponding barrier energies and find the most favorable path. It indicates the migration from one tetrahedral site to another tetrahedral site through an intermediate octahedral site in the direction of the x-axis as shown in Figure 12 (b). The migration barriers are found to be 0.378 and 0.250 eV. The barrier energies are found to be 0.4 and 0.6 eV for other migration pathways. Therefore, multiple viable Li+ ion diffusion pathways available in Li2TeS3 in three dimensional paths ways for ion transport due to stable and reversible lithium deposition. All these factors would improve the lithium cyclic efficiencies by the formation of interfacial components with polytellurosulfides.
In order to understand their effects of modified Li2Sn, Li2SexSy and Li2TexSy species by XPS, in which lithium anode-free full cells analyzed after 20 cycles. Figure 13a shows the S 2p + Se 3p and Li 1 s + Se 3d spectra for the cell with addition of 0.1 Se. The S 2p spectra SO42− species are dominated by oxidized sulfur due to the decomposition of LiTFSI. The dominated peaks at 165 eV and 58.7 eV are appeared in the Se 3p and Se 3d spectra, respectively by the oxidized Se+4 in selenites (SeO32−) and minor components are present due to Reduced sulfur species (Li2S). The presence of oxidized selenium species is due to LiNO3, which is a strong oxidizing agent and oxidizes selenides (Se2) into selenites (SeO32−) [70]. Therefore, polyselenosulfides introduced not only the fundamental alter to the lithium–electrolyte interface, which remains dominated by oxidized sulfur/selenium species. Figure 13b shows the cell with 0.1 Te additive spectra of S 2p and Te 3d. The reduced sulfur species (S2− at 160.6 eV) exhibited dominated S 2p spectra. Likewise, the Te 3d spectra are dominated by sulfurized tellurium species (Te+4 at 574.6 eV). The quantification of the spectra reveals the formation of thiotellurate (TeS32−) species [70]. Thus, the formation of Li2TeS3 as the dominant interfacial component and are reduced on the lithium surface. Some of previous research reveals that the oxidized sulfur species are present as minor components. It is extended that the oxidized tellurium species (TeO32−) made only a minor fraction of tellurium atoms on the lithium surface. Hence introduction of tellurium alters the lithium–electrolyte interface by the reduction of sulfur species (as Li2TeS3). These XPS observations consistent with the time-of-flight secondary ion mass spectrometry (ToF-SIMS). Figure 13c shows the profiles for Li2 (metallic lithium) and SO3 for three-dimensional reconstructions. A thick layer of electrolyte decomposition products is observed on the deposited lithium with polyselenosulfides but not with polytellurosulfides. Depth profiles indicate that the selenium has strong signal for SeO is compared to that for SeS. This is reversed for tellurium, in which TeS exhibited much stronger compared to that for TeO. Thus, majority of tellurium atoms made bond with sulfur and the majority selenium atoms making bond with oxygen. This is due to oxidation of LiNO3 explained by Pearson’s HSAB theory [71]. The soft Lewis acid cations (Te+4) are formed by the Tellurium that prefer soft Lewis bases such as S2 sulfides, while selenium forms hard Lewis acid cations (Se+4) that prefer hard Lewis bases such as O2oxides [72, 73]. The divergent lithium stabilization capabilities of polyselenosulfides and polytellurosulfides explained the differences in lithium interfacial chemistry. The sulfide anionic framework such as Li2TeS3 identified as preferable compared to an oxide anionic framework such as Li2SeO3 or Li2SO3 [74]. The greater size and polarizability of S2compared to those of O2, improves ionic transport properties by reducing Li+ ion diffusion barriers. The varying compositions of tellurium and selenium to get a stable sulfide-rich SEI layer, in the presence of LiNO3 changed the characteristics of lithium deposition [75].
(a) S 2p + Se 3p and Li 1 s + Se 3d spectra for the lithium surface in an anode-free full cell cycled with polyselenosulfides. (b) S 2p and Te 3d spectra for the lithium surface in an anode-free full cell cycled with polytellurosulfides. (c) 3D reconstructions of ToF-SIMS depth profiles for Li2 (metallic lithium) and SO2 (oxidized sulfur species) secondary ions. Reprinted from ref. [
The development of supercritical CO2 synthesis of selenium-sulfur solid solutions (Se1-xSx) are promising new cathodic materials for high-performance secondary lithium batteries due to their high electric conductivity than S and superior theoretical specific capacity than Se. The morphology and microstructure of N-doped carbon framework with three-dimensional (3D) interconnected porous structure (NC@SWCNTs) host are characterized by SEM and TEM pictures as shown in Figure 14. A depicted in Figure 14a shows the NC@SWCNTs host 3D honeycombed structure and interconnected melamine foam framework. The magnification SEM images (Figure 14a,c) reveals that numerous interlaced SWCNTs are covered the surface of melamine foam by the derived carbon skeletons and SWCNTs are formed as thin sheets between carbon skeletons. This structure of NC@ SWCNTs exhibited a highly conductive 3D network to transport the electron or ion, but also increases the mechanical strength as well as flexibility of NC@SWCNTs host. TEM results (Figure 14d ) reveals that SWCNTs, 3D network structure are crisscrossed in carbon skeletons. By EDS analysis the main elements found to be in the NC@SWCNTs are C, O and N, which are uniformly distributed as shown in Figure 14e. N signal is derived from melamine foam because of it contain high N. 3D network structure of NC@SWCNTs is made of by composing SWCNTs-coated N-doped carbon skeleton melamine foam and wafery sheets of SWCNTs. The NC@SWCNTs consists of pores and layer gaps are favorable for loading of Se1-xSx active conductive materials. The 3D conductive network promotes not only redox kinetics, but also endow NC@ SWCNTs host with strong buffering in volume during cycling. Further, N doped is also beneficial for the adsorption of intermediates, after Se1-xSx impregnation, compared to NC@SWCNTs host. NC@SWCNTs@ Se1-xSx composites retain their original morphology of NC@SWCNTs and no discernible Se1-xSx particles can be found. According to EDS results, the C, N, Se and Se signals are overlapped well, suggesting Se1-xSx composites are uniformly permeated into the pores and layer gaps of NC@SWCNTs host with the assistance of SC-CO2 due to the good permeability, excellent diffusivity and high solubility of SC-CO2 [76].
(a–c) Shows the SEM images, (d) represents the TEM image (e) indicated STEM image of NC@SWCNTs and the corresponding mapping images. Reprinted from ref. [
Electrochemical performance of NC@ SWCNTs@ Se1-xSx composites based cathodes evaluated in Li- Se1-xSx batteries using carbonate-based electrolyte (LiPF6-EC/DMC). Figure 15a show initial three cyclic voltammetry (CV) curves of NC@SWCNTs@ Se1-xSx cathodes with scanning rate of 0.1 mV s−1 in the potential range from 1.0 to 3.0 V versus Li/Li+. Initially, a sharp reduction peak at ∼1.38 V, a small reduction peak at ∼2.37 V and a broadened oxidation peak at ∼2.14 V appeared. The sharp reduction peak at ∼1.38 V shifts to ∼1.7 V and the small reduction peak at ∼2.37 V was disappeared after the first scan. Initially, during the lithiation the peak shift due the activation process and the polarization is also further reduced [77] CV curves overlapped after the first scan reveals that the good cyclability and reversibility of NC@SWCNTs@ Se0.2S0.8 cathode [78]. Notably, CV curves of NC@SWCNTs@ Se1-xSx cathodes obtained differently from S cathode, representing the change of electrochemical reaction of S by Se and it is more conducive and stable with carbonate-based electrolytes. Figure 15b shows the galvanostatic charge-discharge curves of NC@SWCNTs@ Se1-xSx cathodes are consistent with the result of CV. There are two plateaus are observed (1) extremely short plateau at ∼2.38 V, and (2) a long plateau at ∼1.75 V in the first cycle. Further, subsequent cycles, long plateau at ∼1.75 V becomes a little steeper and shifts to ∼1.88 V and the short plateau appeared at ∼2.38 V. The short plateau appeared at ∼2.38 V is attributed to the transformation of Se0.2S0.8 into polysulfides/polyselenides. The short plateau is disappeared due to dissolution of intermediates into the electrolyte [79]. The long plateau at 1.75–1.88 V is attributed to the conversion of polysulfides/polyselenides to Li2S/Li2Se [77]. There is only one sloping plateau appeared during the charge process, at ∼2.12 V due to the conversion of Li2Se/Li2S to Se0.2S0.8. The cyclic performance of NC@SWCNTs@ Se1-xSx cathodes at a current density of 0.2 A g−1 with different Se/S ratios as shown in Figure 15c. As prepared NC@SWCNTs@Se0.2S0.8 cathode delivers the highest initial discharge capacity (2398.5 mA h g−1) among all the samples. Discharge capacity exceeds the theoretical capacity at initial stage may be due to side reactions and the formation of SEI layer on the surface of electrode [80]. Electrochemical characteristics of NC@SWCNTs@ Se0.2S0.8 cathode exhibit the superior cyclic stability. Figure 15d showed the rate capabilities of NC@SWCNTs@ Se1-xSx cathodes at various current densities. Among all the samples, NC@SWCNTs@ Se0.2S0.8 cathode showed the best rate performance. At the various current densities of 0.2, 0.5, 0.8, 1.0 and 2.0 A g−1 the reversible rate capacities of NC@SWCNTs@ Se0.2S0.8 cathode are found to be 998.4, 723.7, 606.8, 506.1, and 415.0 mA h g−1, respectively. The reversible discharge capacity of NC@SWCNTs@ Se0.2S0.8 cathode reverts to the initial value, when the current density switches back to 0.5 A g−1. NC@SWCNTs@ Se0.2S0.8 cathode with Se loading of as high as 4.4 mg cm−2 exhibited areal capacity of as high as 2.78 mA h cm−2 is the best candidate most reported Se1-xSx cathodes in literature [77, 81, 82, 83]. The electrochemical performance of NC@SWCNTs@Se0.2S0.8 cathode is more effective due to the following reasons: 1) Se and S in Se0.2S0.8 solid solution play various roles: Se can improve more electrical conductivity, whereas the S can raise its capacity. 2) N-doped 3D porous carbon matrix and interlaced SWCNTs can provide storage and the structural stability; thereby promote the cycling stability of NC@SWCNTs@ Se1-xSx cathodes. NC@SWCNTs@ Se0.2S0.8 cathode exhibits good cycling stability (632 mA h g−1 at 0.2 A g−1 at 200 cycle) and high rate performance (415 mA h g−1 at 2 A g−1) due to well-designed structure as well as optimized chemical composition with in carbonate-based electrolyte. Hence these developments of high-performance Se1-xSx cathodes suitable for advanced Li- Se1-xSx batteries.
(A) CV curves of NC@SWCNTs@Se0.2S0.8 cathode. (B) Charge/discharge curves of the NC@SWCNTs@ Se0.2S0.8 cathode at 0.2 a g−1. (C) Cycle performances and (D) rate performances of NC@SWCNTs@Se1-xSx cathodes. Reprinted from ref [
Porous hollow nanoreactors are investigated widely for lithium selenium and tellurium batteries. The mesoporous material exhibited considerable porosity (0.2 cm3 g−1) and a large surface area of 462 m2 g−1, which allowed for uniform distribution of Se8. The Se8/C based lithium selenium batteries showed a high reversible capacity of 480 mA h g−1 at 0.25C (1C = 678 mA g−1) without loss of its capacity after 1000 cycles [84]. Further development of the Se/porous carbon cathode battery showed a high volumetric capacity of 3150 mA h cm−3 with excellent rate capability about 1850 mA h cm−3 at 20C. Therefore, it will be used for future commercialization of LSeBs [85]. Single-atom Co decorated hollow porous carbon also works as a nanoreactor with superior catalytic activity to polyselenides. These (Se@CoSA-HC) cathodes based batteries exhibited high discharge capacity, superior cycling stability,an excellent rate capability [86]. Metal or heteroatom doping (N, S, and Co) is also another alternative approach to enhance the utilization of Se or Te [87, 88, 89]. He et al. synthesized a nanoporous Co and N-co-doped carbon nanoreactor (C–Co–N) provide a high Te loading (77.2 wt%) provide ultrahigh capacity of 2615.2 mA h cm−3 and superior rate performance of 894.8 mA h cm−3 at 20C as shown in Figure 16 [90]. Design structure and micro-environmental of Te-based nanoreactors could provide high electrochemical performance. In conclusion, the development of hollow porous nanoreactors not only provide a suitable specified space for chalcogens (S, Se, and Te), but also load active species for the regulation of the microenvironment in the electrode. Further development of nanoreactors, it is necessary to design the new methodologies at the molecular level to regulate the microenvironment of the catalyst.
(a) CV curves of the three dimensional rGo/tellurium (3DGT) aerogel at a scan rate of 0.1 mV s−1. (b) Discharge curves of the 3DGT cathode at a 0.2 C. (c) Cyclic performance of the 3DGT cathode at 0.2 C for 200 cycles. (d) Rate performance at various crates for the 3DGT cathode. (e) Cyclic stability of 3DGT cathode at 1 C for 500 cycles. Reprinted from ref. [
Zhang and his coworkers developed 1D/3D hybrid flexible sulfur electrodes with good flexibility and exhibited improved electrochemical performance [91, 92]. They used sulfur-infiltrated 3D nanostructure porous carbon materials with various sizes nanometers to ten micrometers representing with high versatility and applicability for constructing flexible electrodes. These materials not sustain without support, therefore by incorporating ultralong CNT scaffolds, very robust films are obtained without sacrificing mechanical flexibility compared to ultralong CNT/MWCNT film. Such a materials exhibited tremendous specific surface area, high micro or mesoporosity, and surface functionalities than MWCNTs. Hence, this strategy is an ideal generic and versatile host to facilitate flexible sulfur cathodes. The use of graphene in 2D/3D hybridized structure is essential to alternative of CNTs in the 1D/3D, which provides required mechanical adhesion and good electrical conduction into 3D carbon constituents, but that lack of flexibility. Therefore, Wu et al. [93] demonstrated freestanding graphene based hierarchical porous carbon (GPC) films for flexible sulfur cathodes batteries as shown in Figure 17. Graphene-based microporous carbon (GMC) sheets are obtained by thin layers of microporous carbon were coated on both sides of GO after hydrothermal carbonization and KOH activation. The small sulfur molecules are stored in rich micropores of GMC, provides stronger physical confinement than normal graphene. Therefore, GPC files based batteries showed excellent cycling performance with stabilized capacities of 1030(422) and 626(357) mA h gsul(ele)−1 at 0.2C with the sulfur content as 41 and 57 wt%, respectively. In general, graphene-based film electrodes showed rapid decay in their capacity due to their polysulfide dissolution. Furthermore, the GPC-S cathode films used in flexible Li-S batteries by attaching the tape to pack the material, displaying comparable electrochemical performance in both flat and bent states as shown in Figure 18(a) and (b). Ni et al. [94] reported a facile route for synthesizing ultrathin and flexible composite films based on rGOwrapped sulfur particles with the help of sodium alginate (SA) aqueous binder, which worked as a surfactant and an adhesive agent. The SA-glued electrode battery exhibited a high reversible capacity of 1341(818) mA h gsul(ele)−1 at 0.1C and retained its capacity 823(502) mA h gsul(ele)−1 at 0.5C after 100 cycles, which are more better compared to physically mixed rGO/S film. Therefore, in order to improve electrical conductivity and their mechanical stiffness, researchers made hybride by mixing SA with polyaniline and used as glue for rGO/Mn3O4/S nanocomposite particles electrode films prepared. They exhibited a high capacity of 1015(538) mA h gsul(ele)−1 at 5.0 A gsul−1 (B3.0C) and capacity retention of 71% after 500 cycles [95].
Preparation of free-standing graphene-based porous carbon (GPC) films 1) impregnation of sulfur into the micropores of 2D graphene-based microporous carbon (GMC) sheets; 2) non-covalent functionalization of carbon (GMC)-sulfur sheets by CTAB. 3) assembly of positively charged GMC-sulfur sheets and negatively charged graphene oxide.Reprinted from ref. [
(a) The second charge-discharge profiles of the GPC-sulfur cathode films at the bent and flat states at 0.5C. (b) the cycle performance for the GPC-sulfur cathode films at 0.5C and 1C, and inset showing that a bent cell is encapsulated in the glass bottle filled with argon. Reprinted from ref. [
Selenium has several major merits for serving as cathode materials over to sulfur: (1) The magnitude higher electrical conductivity is an approximately 1024 times higher (2) More stable at room temperature, chain-like allotrope h-Se is more electro-active and more easily stabilized via spatial confinement (3) Selenium has more compatibility with conventional, cheap carbonate-based LIB electrolytes [96]. Therefore, selenium exhibits a better utilization rate, cyclic stability, and rate capability than sulfur. The volumetric specific capacity of h-Se is 3265 mA h cm−3 comparable to sulfur, 3461 mA h cm−3, therefore it is more suitable for portable electronic devices and electrical vehicles due to its volume sensitive. Theoretically, the Li–Se battery utilizing h-Selenium as cathode lithium metal as anode, respectively at average voltage of 2.0 V, affords high gravimetric and volumetric energy densities of 1155 W h kg−1 and 2528 W h L−1, respectively. Han et al. [68] introduced the mesoporous carbon nanoparticles (MCNs) with smaller size of 50 nm and favorable mesopore dominance, efficiently eliminated agglomeration in the bulk selenium. The electroactive selenium chains were stabilized in smaller micropores or mesopores, enabling high utilization and good cycling stability according to previous reports of Se–micro−/mesoporous carbon composite cathodes [84, 97]. The flexible Se/MCN–rGO cathodes demonstrated an ultrahigh selenium utilization of 97% at 0.1C, i.e., 655(406) mA h gsel(ele)−1. They exhibited good long cycling life with 89% capacity retention after 1300 cycles at 1.0C. This work is one of the most remarkable achievements for flexible Li–Se batteries by considering the high content of selenium. Similarly, Yu and Zhu’s group prepared the composite PCNFs are represented as f-PCNFs, and they maintained good flexibility after selenization as shown in Figure 19a–d [98]. Very less crystalline selenium was present in PCNFs than in f-PCNFs leads to a remarkable improved capacity and initial Coulombic efficiency as shown in Figure 19e. The capacity and initial Coulombic efficiencies are 643/322 mA h gsel/ele−1 and 56.9% for Se@PCNFs at 0.05 A gsel−1, while 405/203 mA h gsel/ele−1 and 34.9% for Se@f-PCNFs. This is attributed due to the suppression of side reactions between free polyselenides produced from bulk selenium and carbonate electrolytes. Additionally, owing excellent encapsulation of selenium in the 1D conductive porous skeleton, flexible Se@PCNF cathode also exhibited non fading cycling performance with a capacity of 516(270) mA h gsel(ele)−1 retained after 900 cycles at 1.0 A gsel−1 (B1.5C). The same electrospun PCNF–CNT also demonstrated in flexible Li–S batteries as like flexible selenium PCNF–CNT fabricated, battery exhibited reversible capacity of 638(223) mA h gsel(ele)−1 after 80 cycles at 0.05 A gsel−1 (B0.074C) [99]. The utilization of conductive selenium (94%) was much higher than that of sulfur (38%) for the same PCNF–CNT conductive backbone demonstrated in cathodes.
Schematic representation of flexible selenium cathodes. (a)&(b) represents the synthesis of selenium (Se)@PCNF electrodes. (c) and d) picture of flexible Se@PCNF electrode. Cyclic performance of flexible Se@PCNF and Se@f-PCNF cathodes in (e) Li–Se and (f) Na–Se batteries at 0.05 a gsel−1. [reprinted from ref. [
Tellurium is the last nonradioactive element in the chalcogen family, which exhibit highest electrical conductivity of 2.5 Scm−1 compared to all nonmetallic materials. Te shows low gravimetric specific capacity of 420 mA h g−1 due to its heavy atomic weight, it exhibited comparable volumetric specific capacity of 2621 mA h cm−3 to that of sulfur or selenium. Te is an electrically conducting active material required less carbon to prepare electrode. The decreasing weight of the carbon favors both volumetric and gravimetric specific capacities. A Li–Te battery exhibited theoretical gravimetric and volumetric energy densities of 682 W h kg−1 and 2078 W h L−1, respectively with an estimated output voltage of 1.8 V. Li–Te battery was first demonstrated by Wang’s group [100], in which tellurium/porous carbon composite cathode and a carbonate electrolyte as the components of battery. The Li–Te battery showed an average voltage of 1.5 V and a reversible capacity of 224 mA h gtel−1 at 0.05 A gtel−1. They observed that 87% retention after 1000 cycles. Considering the relatively low voltage and promising volumetric capacity, Guo and coworkers demonstrated tellurium/carbon composites as anode materials for LIBs, indicating that extremely high tellurium utilization of 98% and a long-term cycling stability [101]. Particularly, Te is quite interest for flexible electrode materials due to its two most favorable features: (1) high electrical conductivity compared to carbon and (2) The formation of 1D Te nanostructures along the c-axis, i.e., [001] due to its inherent chirality of helical Te chains in the h-Te crystal [102]. Hence, freestanding films consisting of ultralong Te NWs used directly used as an electrodes. Freestanding Te mat via vacuum filtration of Te NWs with a diameter of 7 nm grown in the [001] direction developed by Ding et al. as shown in Figure 20a-i–iii [104]. Such a high anisotropic 1D Te nanostructure exhibited fully Te zig-zag chains to lithium ions transport and a showed high electrical conductivity of 6.7 Scm−1 in the direction perpendicular to the c-axis as shown in Figure 20a(iv–vi). The flexible tellurium cathode comprises the Te NWs along with the new electrolyte exhibited a desirable capacity of B144 mA h gtel/ele-1 at 0.1 A gtel−1 (0.24C). The volumetric energy density of 1800 W h L−1 observed after 80 cycles as shown in the Figure 20a-vii. Further, He and Chen’s et al. [103] demonstrated a flexible tellurium cathode prepared from a 3D hierarchical aerogel with Te NWs wrapped homogeneously by rGO as shown Figure 20b. The synthetic method was adopted from the previous report on 3DCG–Li2S. The rGO/Te NW electrode made of 63 wt% tellurium delivers high capacities of 418(263) and 174(110) mAh gtel(ele)−1 at 0.2 and 10C, respectively and excellent long-cyclic performance at a high rate of 1.0C. Therefore, as prepared flexible Te-NWs electrodes are quite attractive over the sulfur and selenium counterparts due to their distinguish features.
Flexible tellurium NWs cathodes. (a) Flexible, carbon-free TeNW mat: (i) photograph; (ii) SEM and (iii) TEM morphology images; (iv, v) nanoscale crystalline structure of freestanding TeNW mat; (vi) simulated crystal structure of h-Te; (vii) cyclic performance of TeNW mat at 0.1 a gtel−1. Reprited from ref. [
Al-S batteries prepared based on S/HPCK cathode delivered a capacity of 1027 mA h g−1 at 0.2 A g−1 for 50 cycles and exhibited excellent cyclic ability 405 mA h g−1 at 1 A g−1 for 700 cycles due to large porous structure with high surface area by adding of carbon powder. The Al-Se battery based on MCFs material with pore size of 7.1 nm exhibited a good capacity of 366 mA h g−1. The chloroaluminate ion diffusivity greatly improved, which enhances the electrochemical behavior of Al-Se batteries. The rGO materials are introduced in the Al-Te batteries exhibited excellent cyclic ability and its initial capacity of 935.5 mA h g−1 and showed 467.5 mA h g−1 after 150 cycles with the Te loading of 70 wt% due to their excellent encapsulation.
The Interfacial layer of S@ spinel Ni-Co oxide double-shelled microspheres (NCO-HS) prepared under high sulfur loading exhibited minimum capacity fading rate of 0.045% per cycle over 800 cycles with high areal capacity of 6.3 mAh cm−2 and superior rate capability up to 5 C. As prepared capping layer of MTO-CNTs on surface of the sulfur cathode exhibited reversible capacity of 1212 mAh g−1 at the 0.2 C. The cycling stability of the device with the capping layer at 0.5 C rate still it retains a capacity of 577 mAh g−1 after 500 cycles with capacity decay rate of 0.07% per cycle, indicating a good cycling stability.
There is a gradual deterioration in all the compounds in the case of mixed cationic and anionic cyclic performance at a very low current density of 10 mA/g for 50 continuous cycles in terms of capacity fade. Cycling test of the 0.2 Fe substituted cathode done at 50 mA/g, reveals that the high rate cycling stability about 76% retention after 80 cycles. In the case of polysulfides on lithium deposition, the addition of Te exceeds 80% of its peak capacity for nearly 150 cycles and retains their cycling capacity without rapid drop until the electrolyte dryout nearly 300 cycles.
The developments of high-performance Se1-xSx cathodes such as NC@SWCNTs@ Se0.2S0.8 cathode exhibits good cycling stability (632 mA h g−1 at 0.2 A g−1 at 200 cycle) and high rate performance (415 mA h g−1 at 2 A g−1) due to well-designed structure as well as optimized chemical composition with in carbonate-based electrolyte. Synthesized a nanoporous Co and N-co-doped carbon nanoreactor (C–Co–N) provide a high Te loading (77.2 wt%) provide ultrahigh capacity of 2615.2 mA h cm−3 and superior rate performance of 894.8 mA h cm−3 at 20C. Design structure and micro-environmental of Te-based nanoreactors could provide high electrochemical performance.
In the case of flexible batteries, in order to improve electrical conductivity and their mechanical stiffness, researchers made hybride by mixing SA with polyaniline and used as glue for rGO/Mn3O4/S nanocomposite particles electrode films, exhibited a high capacity of 1015(538) mA h gsul(ele)−1 at 5.0 A gsul−1 (B3.0C) and capacity retention of 71% after 500 cycles. The electrospun PCNF–CNT also demonstrated in flexible Li–S batteries as like flexible selenium PCNF–CNT fabricated, battery exhibited reversible capacity of 638(223) mA h gsel(ele)−1 after 80 cycles at 0.05 A gsel−1 (B0.074C). The rGO/Te NW electrode made of 63 wt% tellurium delivers high capacities of 418(263) and 174(110) mAh gtel(ele)−1 at 0.2 and 10C, respectively and excellent long-cyclic performance at a high rate of 1.0C. Therefore, as prepared flexible Te-NWs electrodes are quite attractive over the sulfur and selenium counterparts due to their distinguish features.
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Jane Grande-Allen"}]},{id:"59778",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.74768",title:"Epidemiology of Myocardial Infarction",slug:"epidemiology-of-myocardial-infarction",totalDownloads:4460,totalCrossrefCites:11,totalDimensionsCites:23,abstract:"Coronary heart disease (CHD) is the leading cause of morbidity and mortality throughout the world. The most common form of CHD is the myocardial infarction. It is responsible for over 15% of mortality each year, among the vast majority of people suffering from non-ST-segment elevation myocardial infarction (NSTEMI) than ST-segment elevation myocardial infarction (STEMI). The prevalence of myocardial infarction (MI) is higher in men in all age-specific groups than women. Although the incidence of MI is decreased in the industrialized nations partly because of improved health systems and implementation of effective public health strategies, nevertheless the rates are surging in the developing countries such as South Asia, parts of Latin America, and Eastern Europe. The modifiable risk factors represent over 90% of the risk for acute MI. The risk factors such as dyslipidemia, smoking, psychosocial stressors, diabetes mellitus, hypertension, obesity, alcohol consumption, physical inactivity, and a diet low in fruits and vegetables were strongly associated with acute MI.",book:{id:"6373",slug:"myocardial-infarction",title:"Myocardial Infarction",fullTitle:"Myocardial Infarction"},signatures:"Joshua Chadwick Jayaraj, Karapet Davatyan, S.S. Subramanian and Jemmi Priya",authors:[{id:"223196",title:"Dr.",name:"Joshua",middleName:null,surname:"Chadwick",slug:"joshua-chadwick",fullName:"Joshua Chadwick"},{id:"231054",title:"Dr.",name:"Karapet",middleName:null,surname:"Davatyan",slug:"karapet-davatyan",fullName:"Karapet Davatyan"},{id:"231055",title:"Ms.",name:"Jemmi",middleName:null,surname:"Priya",slug:"jemmi-priya",fullName:"Jemmi Priya"},{id:"244487",title:"Dr.",name:"S.S.",middleName:null,surname:"Subramanian",slug:"s.s.-subramanian",fullName:"S.S. Subramanian"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"80213",title:"Evolution of Heart Transplantation Surgical Techniques",slug:"evolution-of-heart-transplantation-surgical-techniques",totalDownloads:222,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Organ transplantation has kindled the human imagination since the beginning of time. Prehistorically, transplantation appeared as mythological stories: from creatures with body parts from different species, the heart transplant between two Chinese soldiers by Pien Ch’iao, to the leg transplant by physician Saints Cosmas and Damian. By 19th century, the transplantation concept become possible by extensive contributions from scientists and clinicians whose works had taken generations. Although Alexis Carrel is known as the founding father of experimental organ transplantation, many legendary names had contributed to the experimental works of heart transplantation, including Guthrie, Mann, and Demikhov. The major contribution to experimental heart transplantation before the clinical era were made by a team lead by Richard Lower and Norman Shumway at Stanford University in the early 1960s. They played the vital role in developing experimental and clinical heart transplantation as it is known today. Using Shumway biatrial technique Christiaan Barnard started a new era of clinical heart transplantation, by performing the first in man human-to-human heart transplantation in 1967. The techniques of heart transplant have evolved since the first heart transplant. This chapter will summarize the techniques that have been used in clinical heart transplantation.",book:{id:"11236",slug:null,title:"Heart Transplantation - New Insights in Therapeutic Strategies",fullTitle:"Heart Transplantation - New Insights in Therapeutic Strategies"},signatures:"Samuel Jacob, Anthony N. Pham and Si M. Pham",authors:null},{id:"65757",title:"Prevalence of Dyslipidemia and Goal Attainment with Lipid-Lowering Therapy: Insights from Thai Multicenter Study and Overview of the Major Guidelines",slug:"prevalence-of-dyslipidemia-and-goal-attainment-with-lipid-lowering-therapy-insights-from-thai-multic",totalDownloads:2266,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Background Since the release in Thailand in 2001 of the Third Guidelines by the National Cholesterol Education Program (NCEP) Expert Panel on Detection, Evaluation and Treatment of High Blood Cholesterol in Adults or the Adult Treatment Panel (ATP III), there have been no nationwide studies on the proportion of dyslipidaemic patients who have achieved the low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C) goals. The authors therefore aimed to estimate the percentage achievement of LDL-C goals based on the modified NCEP ATP III guidelines in intermediate- to high-risk patients. Methods The authors conducted a hospital-based, cross-sectional, epidemiological survey. Patients (1240) were selected consecutively from 50 hospitals across Thailand. Patients were included if they had been treated with statins for at least 3 months. Results Two-thirds were female, and the mean age was 61.7+69.5 years. The median duration of statin treatment was 21 months. Half (633/1240) of the patients achieved the LDL-C goal levels as defined by the NCEP guidelines (51.1%, 95% CI 48.3% to 53.8%). The very high-risk group had the lowest percentage achievement (11.6%; 95% CI 1.6% to 21.6%), compared with 54.2% (95% CI 50.9% to 57.4%) for the high-risk group and 47.0% (95% CI 41.1% to 52.8%) for the moderate-risk group. More males achieved the LDL-C goals than females (55.6% vs. 48.9%; P = 0.029). Conclusions Overall, 51.1% of the patients with cardiovascular risk, on statins treatment, achieved the NCEP ATP III LDL-C goal levels.",book:{id:"7556",slug:"dyslipidemia",title:"Dyslipidemia",fullTitle:"Dyslipidemia"},signatures:"Songkwan Silaruks, Charn Sriratanasathavorn, Petch Rawdaree, Rapeephon Kunjara-Na-Ayudhaya, Bandit Thinkhamrop and Piyamitr Sritara",authors:[{id:"256769",title:"Prof.",name:"Songkwan",middleName:null,surname:"Silaruks",slug:"songkwan-silaruks",fullName:"Songkwan Silaruks"},{id:"283455",title:"Dr.",name:"Charn",middleName:null,surname:"Sriratanasathavorn",slug:"charn-sriratanasathavorn",fullName:"Charn Sriratanasathavorn"},{id:"283456",title:"Dr.",name:"Petch",middleName:null,surname:"Rawdaree",slug:"petch-rawdaree",fullName:"Petch Rawdaree"},{id:"283457",title:"Dr.",name:"Rapeephon",middleName:null,surname:"Kunjara-Na-Ayudhaya",slug:"rapeephon-kunjara-na-ayudhaya",fullName:"Rapeephon Kunjara-Na-Ayudhaya"},{id:"283458",title:"Dr.",name:"Bandit",middleName:null,surname:"Thinkhamrop",slug:"bandit-thinkhamrop",fullName:"Bandit Thinkhamrop"},{id:"283459",title:"Prof.",name:"Piyamitr",middleName:null,surname:"Sritara",slug:"piyamitr-sritara",fullName:"Piyamitr Sritara"}]},{id:"59778",title:"Epidemiology of Myocardial Infarction",slug:"epidemiology-of-myocardial-infarction",totalDownloads:4460,totalCrossrefCites:11,totalDimensionsCites:23,abstract:"Coronary heart disease (CHD) is the leading cause of morbidity and mortality throughout the world. The most common form of CHD is the myocardial infarction. It is responsible for over 15% of mortality each year, among the vast majority of people suffering from non-ST-segment elevation myocardial infarction (NSTEMI) than ST-segment elevation myocardial infarction (STEMI). The prevalence of myocardial infarction (MI) is higher in men in all age-specific groups than women. Although the incidence of MI is decreased in the industrialized nations partly because of improved health systems and implementation of effective public health strategies, nevertheless the rates are surging in the developing countries such as South Asia, parts of Latin America, and Eastern Europe. The modifiable risk factors represent over 90% of the risk for acute MI. The risk factors such as dyslipidemia, smoking, psychosocial stressors, diabetes mellitus, hypertension, obesity, alcohol consumption, physical inactivity, and a diet low in fruits and vegetables were strongly associated with acute MI.",book:{id:"6373",slug:"myocardial-infarction",title:"Myocardial Infarction",fullTitle:"Myocardial Infarction"},signatures:"Joshua Chadwick Jayaraj, Karapet Davatyan, S.S. Subramanian and Jemmi Priya",authors:[{id:"223196",title:"Dr.",name:"Joshua",middleName:null,surname:"Chadwick",slug:"joshua-chadwick",fullName:"Joshua Chadwick"},{id:"231054",title:"Dr.",name:"Karapet",middleName:null,surname:"Davatyan",slug:"karapet-davatyan",fullName:"Karapet Davatyan"},{id:"231055",title:"Ms.",name:"Jemmi",middleName:null,surname:"Priya",slug:"jemmi-priya",fullName:"Jemmi Priya"},{id:"244487",title:"Dr.",name:"S.S.",middleName:null,surname:"Subramanian",slug:"s.s.-subramanian",fullName:"S.S. Subramanian"}]},{id:"70032",title:"Coronary Artery Bypass Grafting: Surgical Anastomosis: Tips and Tricks",slug:"coronary-artery-bypass-grafting-surgical-anastomosis-tips-and-tricks",totalDownloads:1310,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"The definite feature of coronary artery disease is the focal narrowing in the vascular endothelium, and this leads to the decrease in the flow of blood to the myocardium. Atherosclerotic plaque is the main lesion. These patients can present with chest pain (angina or myocardial infarction) and need further workup noninvasively and invasively for the management. The main reasons for myocardial revascularization can be: (1) relief from symptoms of myocardial ischemia; (2) reduce the risks of future mortality; (3) to treat or prevent morbidities such as myocardial infarction, arrhythmias, or heart failure. Coronary artery bypass grafting (CABG) is the surgical technique of cardiac revascularization. In 1910, Dr. Alexis Carrel described a series of canine experiments in which he devised means to treat CAD by creating a “complementary circulation” for the diseased native coronary arteries. No clinical translation occurred at the time, but he was awarded the Nobel Prize in Medicine. Experimental refinements of coronary arterial revascularization, including the use of internal thoracic artery (ITA) grafts, were later reported by Murray and colleagues, Demikhov, and Goetz and colleagues in the 1950s and early 1960s. Dr. Rene Favaloro performed his first coronary bypass operation in May 1967 with an interposed saphenous vein graft (SVG) and shortly thereafter used aortocoronary bypasses sutured proximally to the ascending aorta. The stenosed segment is bypassed using an arterial or venous graft. Left internal thoracic artery is the most commonly used artery, and long saphenous vein is the most commonly used vein for the coronary artery grafting to reestablish the blood flow to the compromised myocardium. This can be performed with or without the help of cardiopulmonary bypass machine and also with or without arresting the heart. These techniques are called as on-pump beating or on-pump arrested and off-pump beating coronary artery bypass grafting surgery. Distal and proximal anastomoses are usually performed in an end-to-side manner, but in the case of doing sequential grafting, side-to-side anastomosis is also performed proximal to the end-to-side anastomosis. In this chapter we are going to discuss the coronary artery bypass grafting tips and tricks in details.",book:{id:"9060",slug:"the-current-perspectives-on-coronary-artery-bypass-grafting",title:"The Current Perspectives on Coronary Artery Bypass Grafting",fullTitle:"The Current Perspectives on Coronary Artery Bypass Grafting"},signatures:"Mohd. Shahbaaz Khan",authors:[{id:"278633",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohd. Shahbaaz",middleName:null,surname:"Khan",slug:"mohd.-shahbaaz-khan",fullName:"Mohd. Shahbaaz Khan"}]},{id:"53810",title:"Angiography and Endovascular Therapy for Below-the-Knee Artery Disease",slug:"angiography-and-endovascular-therapy-for-below-the-knee-artery-disease",totalDownloads:3085,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"Critical limb ischemia (CLI) is growing in global prevalence and is associated with high rates of limb loss and mortality. “Endovascular-first” approach is considered to be the current standard care for symptomatic infrainguinal atherosclerotic disease. Given the facts that many CLI patients have severe comorbidities and endovascular-first approach is a common practice and may reduce the magnitude of the surgical trauma and systemic complications. In this chapter, updated angiographic approach for below-the-knee disease is described with endovascular technique.",book:{id:"5596",slug:"angiography-and-endovascular-therapy-for-peripheral-artery-disease",title:"Angiography and Endovascular Therapy for Peripheral Artery Disease",fullTitle:"Angiography and Endovascular Therapy for Peripheral Artery Disease"},signatures:"Akihiro Higashimori",authors:[{id:"195500",title:"Dr.",name:"Akihiro",middleName:null,surname:"Higashimori",slug:"akihiro-higashimori",fullName:"Akihiro Higashimori"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"170",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"81437",title:"Pediatric Heart Transplantation",slug:"pediatric-heart-transplantation",totalDownloads:13,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104518",abstract:"Despite advances in medical management, patients submitted for heart transplantation procedures still are at risk to development of complications. This chapter will discuss some specific topics of pediatric heart transplantation, focusing on perioperative care: (i) recipient management, (ii) donor evaluation, (iii) immunosuppression, (iv) early postoperative management, (v) complications, and (vi) conclusions.",book:{id:"11236",title:"Heart Transplantation - New Insights in Therapeutic Strategies",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11236.jpg"},signatures:"Estela Azeka"},{id:"81451",title:"Donor Assessment and Management for Heart Transplantation",slug:"donor-assessment-and-management-for-heart-transplantation",totalDownloads:13,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104504",abstract:"For many years, heart transplantation has been an established procedure for patients with end-stage heart failure using the so-called “Standard Criteria” for an optimal heart donor. However, annually listed patients for heart transplantation greatly increased worldwide, and the use of extended criteria donor hearts has been utilized as many as possible in many countries. In this chapter, firstly, pathophysiology of brain death is explained. Secondly, donor assessment and issues of extended criteria donors are introduced. Then, donor management to maximize the heart graft availability, and the Japanese donor assessment and evaluation system and its outcome are reviewed.",book:{id:"11236",title:"Heart Transplantation - New Insights in Therapeutic Strategies",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11236.jpg"},signatures:"Norihide Fukushima"},{id:"81057",title:"Induction Therapy in the Current Immunosuppressive Therapy",slug:"induction-therapy-in-the-current-immunosuppressive-therapy",totalDownloads:13,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103746",abstract:"The current immunosuppressive therapy including calcineurin inhibitors, mycophenolate mofetil, and steroids, has substantially suppress rejections and improved clinical outcomes in heart transplant (HTx) recipients. Nevertheless, the management of drug-related nephrotoxicity, fatal acute cellular rejection (ACR), antibody-mediated rejection and infections remains challenging. Although previous some studies suggested that perioperative induction immunosuppressive therapy may be effective for the suppressing ACR and deterioration of renal function, increased incidence of infection and malignancy was concerned in recipients with induction immunosuppressive therapy. The international society of heart and lung transplantation (ISHLT) guidelines for the care of heart transplant recipients do not recommend routine use of induction immunosuppressive therapy, except for the patients with high risk of acute rejection or renal dysfunction, however, appropriate therapeutic regimen and indication of induction immunosuppressive therapy remains unclear in HTx recipients. We review current evidence of induction immunosuppressive therapy in HTx recipients, and discuss the appropriate therapeutic regimen and indication of induction therapy.",book:{id:"11236",title:"Heart Transplantation - New Insights in Therapeutic Strategies",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11236.jpg"},signatures:"Takuya Watanabe, Yasumasa Tsukamoto, Hiroki Mochizuki, Masaya Shimojima, Tasuku Hada, Satsuki Fukushima, Tomoyuki Fujita and Osamu Seguchi"},{id:"80305",title:"Hepatic and Endocrine Aspects of Heart Transplantation",slug:"hepatic-and-endocrine-aspects-of-heart-transplantation",totalDownloads:13,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102418",abstract:"End-organ dysfunction is a progression that can often develop in patients with end-stage heart failure. Hepatic abnormalities in advanced systolic heart failure may affect several aspects of the liver function. Hepatic function is dependent on age, nutrition, previous hepatic diseases, and drugs. The hepatic dysfunction can have metabolic, synthetic, and vascular consequences, which strongly influence the short- and long-term results of the transplantation. In this chapter, the diagnostic and treatment modalities of the transplanted patient will be discussed. On the other hand, endocrine abnormalities, particularly thyroid dysfunction, are also frequently detected in patients on the waiting list. Endocrine supplementation during donor management after brain death is crucial. Inappropriate management of central diabetes insipidus, hyperglycemia, or adrenal insufficiency can lead to circulatory failure and graft dysfunction during procurement. Thyroid dysfunction in donors and recipients is conversely discussed.",book:{id:"11236",title:"Heart Transplantation - New Insights in Therapeutic Strategies",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11236.jpg"},signatures:"Andrea Székely, András Szabó and Balázs Szécsi"},{id:"79970",title:"The Role of Large Impella Devices in Temporary Mechanical Circulatory Support for Patients Undergoing Heart Transplantation",slug:"the-role-of-large-impella-devices-in-temporary-mechanical-circulatory-support-for-patients-undergoin",totalDownloads:13,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101680",abstract:"Large microaxial pump systems (Impella 5.0, or Impella 5.5; i.e., Impella 5+) (Abiomed Inc., Danvers, MA, USA) have gained increasing levels of attendance as valuable tools of mechanical circulatory support (MCS). Patients undergoing heart transplantation (HTX) often need temporary MCS in the perioperative course, either as a preoperative bridge or occasionally in the early post-transplant period. Here we present our experience using Impella 5+ support for patients designated to undergo HTX, describe technical aspects of implantation and removal, and further analyze factors influencing the overall patient outcome. Significant factors are discussed in front of the background of contemporary international literature, and current scientific questions are highlighted.",book:{id:"11236",title:"Heart Transplantation - New Insights in Therapeutic Strategies",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11236.jpg"},signatures:"Yukiharu Sugimura, Sebastian Bauer, Moritz Benjamin Immohr, Arash Mehdiani, Hug Aubin, Ralf Westenfeld, Udo Boeken, Artur Lichtenberg and Payam Akhyari"},{id:"80721",title:"Gene Therapy for Cardiac Transplantation",slug:"gene-therapy-for-cardiac-transplantation",totalDownloads:64,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102865",abstract:"Gene therapy is an advanced treatment approach that alters the genetic composition of cells to confer therapeutic protein or RNA expression to the target organ. It has been successfully introduced into clinical practice for the treatment of various diseases. Cardiac transplantation stands to benefit from applications of gene therapy to prevent the onset of post-transplantation complications, such as primary graft dysfunction, cardiac allograft vasculopathy, and rejection. Additionally, gene therapy can be used to minimize or potentially eliminate the need for immunosuppression post-transplantation. Several animal models and delivery strategies have been developed over the years with the goal of achieving robust gene expression in the heart. However, a method for doing this has yet to be successfully translated into clinical practice. The recent advances in ex vivo perfusion for organ preservation provide potential ways to overcome several barriers to achieving gene therapy for cardiac transplantation into clinical practice. Optimizing the selection of the gene-carrying vector for gene delivery and selection of the therapeutic gene to be conferred is also crucial for being able to implement gene therapy in cardiac transplantation. Here, we discuss the history and current state of research on gene therapy for cardiac transplantation.",book:{id:"11236",title:"Heart Transplantation - New Insights in Therapeutic Strategies",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11236.jpg"},signatures:"Michelle Mendiola Pla, Yuting Chiang, Jun-Neng Roan and Dawn E. Bowles"}],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:13},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:87,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:98,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:27,numberOfPublishedChapters:288,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:9,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:139,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:0,numberOfUpcomingTopics:2,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:107,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:10,numberOfPublishedChapters:103,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:0,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:11,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",issn:"2631-6188",scope:"This series will provide a comprehensive overview of recent research trends in various Infectious Diseases (as per the most recent Baltimore classification). Topics will include general overviews of infections, immunopathology, diagnosis, treatment, epidemiology, etiology, and current clinical recommendations for managing infectious diseases. Ongoing issues, recent advances, and future diagnostic approaches and therapeutic strategies will also be discussed. This book series will focus on various aspects and properties of infectious diseases whose deep understanding is essential for safeguarding the human race from losing resources and economies due to pathogens.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/6.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"May 19th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:13,editor:{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",biography:"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (especially arboviral diseases). He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. 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He has also designed medical devices, including a laser Doppler monitoring system.",institutionString:"Kaiser Permanente Southern California",institution:null},{id:"169608",title:"Prof.",name:"Marian",middleName:null,surname:"Găiceanu",slug:"marian-gaiceanu",fullName:"Marian Găiceanu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/169608/images/system/169608.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Marian Gaiceanu graduated from the Naval and Electrical Engineering Faculty, Dunarea de Jos University of Galati, Romania, in 1997. He received a Ph.D. (Magna Cum Laude) in Electrical Engineering in 2002. Since 2017, Dr. Gaiceanu has been a Ph.D. supervisor for students in Electrical Engineering. He has been employed at Dunarea de Jos University of Galati since 1996, where he is currently a professor. Dr. Gaiceanu is a member of the National Council for Attesting Titles, Diplomas and Certificates, an expert of the Executive Agency for Higher Education, Research Funding, and a member of the Senate of the Dunarea de Jos University of Galati. He has been the head of the Integrated Energy Conversion Systems and Advanced Control of Complex Processes Research Center, Romania, since 2016. He has conducted several projects in power converter systems for electrical drives, power quality, PEM and SOFC fuel cell power converters for utilities, electric vehicles, and marine applications with the Department of Regulation and Control, SIEI S.pA. (2002–2004) and the Polytechnic University of Turin, Italy (2002–2004, 2006–2007). He is a member of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) and cofounder-member of the IEEE Power Electronics Romanian Chapter. He is a guest editor at Energies and an academic book editor for IntechOpen. He is also a member of the editorial boards of the Journal of Electrical Engineering, Electronics, Control and Computer Science and Sustainability. Dr. Gaiceanu has been General Chairman of the IEEE International Symposium on Electrical and Electronics Engineering in the last six editions.",institutionString:'"Dunarea de Jos" University of Galati',institution:{name:'"Dunarea de Jos" University of Galati',country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"4519",title:"Prof.",name:"Jaydip",middleName:null,surname:"Sen",slug:"jaydip-sen",fullName:"Jaydip Sen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/4519/images/system/4519.jpeg",biography:"Jaydip Sen is associated with Praxis Business School, Kolkata, India, as a professor in the Department of Data Science. His research areas include security and privacy issues in computing and communication, intrusion detection systems, machine learning, deep learning, and artificial intelligence in the financial domain. He has more than 200 publications in reputed international journals, refereed conference proceedings, and 20 book chapters in books published by internationally renowned publishing houses, such as Springer, CRC press, IGI Global, etc. Currently, he is serving on the editorial board of the prestigious journal Frontiers in Communications and Networks and in the technical program committees of a number of high-ranked international conferences organized by the IEEE, USA, and the ACM, USA. He has been listed among the top 2% of scientists in the world for the last three consecutive years, 2019 to 2021 as per studies conducted by the Stanford University, USA.",institutionString:"Praxis Business School",institution:null},{id:"320071",title:"Dr.",name:"Sidra",middleName:null,surname:"Mehtab",slug:"sidra-mehtab",fullName:"Sidra Mehtab",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00002v6KHoQAM/Profile_Picture_1584512086360",biography:"Sidra Mehtab has completed her BS with honors in Physics from Calcutta University, India in 2018. She has done MS in Data Science and Analytics from Maulana Abul Kalam Azad University of Technology (MAKAUT), Kolkata, India in 2020. Her research areas include Econometrics, Time Series Analysis, Machine Learning, Deep Learning, Artificial Intelligence, and Computer and Network Security with a particular focus on Cyber Security Analytics. Ms. Mehtab has published seven papers in international conferences and one of her papers has been accepted for publication in a reputable international journal. She has won the best paper awards in two prestigious international conferences – BAICONF 2019, and ICADCML 2021, organized in the Indian Institute of Management, Bangalore, India in December 2019, and SOA University, Bhubaneswar, India in January 2021. Besides, Ms. Mehtab has also published two book chapters in two books. Seven of her book chapters will be published in a volume shortly in 2021 by Cambridge Scholars’ Press, UK. Currently, she is working as the joint editor of two edited volumes on Time Series Analysis and Forecasting to be published in the first half of 2021 by an international house. Currently, she is working as a Data Scientist with an MNC in Delhi, India.",institutionString:"NSHM College of Management and Technology",institution:null},{id:"226240",title:"Dr.",name:"Andri Irfan",middleName:null,surname:"Rifai",slug:"andri-irfan-rifai",fullName:"Andri Irfan Rifai",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/226240/images/7412_n.jpg",biography:"Andri IRFAN is a Senior Lecturer of Civil Engineering and Planning. He completed the PhD at the Universitas Indonesia & Universidade do Minho with Sandwich Program Scholarship from the Directorate General of Higher Education and LPDP scholarship. He has been teaching for more than 19 years and much active to applied his knowledge in the project construction in Indonesia. His research interest ranges from pavement management system to advanced data mining techniques for transportation engineering. He has published more than 50 papers in journals and 2 books.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universitas Internasional Batam",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"314576",title:"Dr.",name:"Ibai",middleName:null,surname:"Laña",slug:"ibai-lana",fullName:"Ibai Laña",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/314576/images/system/314576.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ibai Laña works at TECNALIA as a data analyst. He received his Ph.D. in Artificial Intelligence from the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU), Spain, in 2018. He is currently a senior researcher at TECNALIA. His research interests fall within the intersection of intelligent transportation systems, machine learning, traffic data analysis, and data science. He has dealt with urban traffic forecasting problems, applying machine learning models and evolutionary algorithms. He has experience in origin-destination matrix estimation or point of interest and trajectory detection. Working with large volumes of data has given him a good command of big data processing tools and NoSQL databases. He has also been a visiting scholar at the Knowledge Engineering and Discovery Research Institute, Auckland University of Technology.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"314575",title:"Dr.",name:"Jesus",middleName:null,surname:"L. Lobo",slug:"jesus-l.-lobo",fullName:"Jesus L. Lobo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/314575/images/system/314575.png",biography:"Dr. Jesús López is currently based in Bilbao (Spain) working at TECNALIA as Artificial Intelligence Research Scientist. In most cases, a project idea or a new research line needs to be investigated to see if it is good enough to take into production or to focus on it. That is exactly what he does, diving into Machine Learning algorithms and technologies to help TECNALIA to decide whether something is great in theory or will actually impact on the product or processes of its projects. So, he is expert at framing experiments, developing hypotheses, and proving whether they’re true or not, in order to investigate fundamental problems with a longer time horizon. He is also able to design and develop PoCs and system prototypes in simulation. He has participated in several national and internacional R&D projects.\n\nAs another relevant part of his everyday research work, he usually publishes his findings in reputed scientific refereed journals and international conferences, occasionally acting as reviewer and Programme Commitee member. Concretely, since 2018 he has published 9 JCR (8 Q1) journal papers, 9 conference papers (e.g. ECML PKDD 2021), and he has co-edited a book. He is also active in popular science writing data science stories for reputed blogs (KDNuggets, TowardsDataScience, Naukas). Besides, he has recently embarked on mentoring programmes as mentor, and has also worked as data science trainer.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"103779",title:"Prof.",name:"Yalcin",middleName:null,surname:"Isler",slug:"yalcin-isler",fullName:"Yalcin Isler",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRyQ8QAK/Profile_Picture_1628834958734",biography:"Yalcin Isler (1971 - Burdur / Turkey) received the B.Sc. degree in the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering from Anadolu University, Eskisehir, Turkey, in 1993, the M.Sc. degree from the Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, Suleyman Demirel University, Isparta, Turkey, in 1996, the Ph.D. degree from the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey, in 2009, and the Competence of Associate Professorship from the Turkish Interuniversity Council in 2019.\n\nHe was Lecturer at Burdur Vocational School in Suleyman Demirel University (1993-2000, Burdur / Turkey), Software Engineer (2000-2002, Izmir / Turkey), Research Assistant in Bulent Ecevit University (2002-2003, Zonguldak / Turkey), Research Assistant in Dokuz Eylul University (2003-2010, Izmir / Turkey), Assistant Professor at the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering in Bulent Ecevit University (2010-2012, Zonguldak / Turkey), Assistant Professor at the Department of Biomedical Engineering in Izmir Katip Celebi University (2012-2019, Izmir / Turkey). He is an Associate Professor at the Department of Biomedical Engineering at Izmir Katip Celebi University, Izmir / Turkey, since 2019. In addition to academics, he has also founded Islerya Medical and Information Technologies Company, Izmir / Turkey, since 2017.\n\nHis main research interests cover biomedical signal processing, pattern recognition, medical device design, programming, and embedded systems. He has many scientific papers and participated in several projects in these study fields. He was an IEEE Student Member (2009-2011) and IEEE Member (2011-2014) and has been IEEE Senior Member since 2014.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Izmir Kâtip Çelebi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"339677",title:"Dr.",name:"Mrinmoy",middleName:null,surname:"Roy",slug:"mrinmoy-roy",fullName:"Mrinmoy Roy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/339677/images/16768_n.jpg",biography:"An accomplished Sales & Marketing professional with 12 years of cross-functional experience in well-known organisations such as CIPLA, LUPIN, GLENMARK, ASTRAZENECA across different segment of Sales & Marketing, International Business, Institutional Business, Product Management, Strategic Marketing of HIV, Oncology, Derma, Respiratory, Anti-Diabetic, Nutraceutical & Stomatological Product Portfolio and Generic as well as Chronic Critical Care Portfolio. A First Class MBA in International Business & Strategic Marketing, B.Pharm, D.Pharm, Google Certified Digital Marketing Professional. Qualified PhD Candidate in Operations and Management with special focus on Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning adoption, analysis and use in Healthcare, Hospital & Pharma Domain. Seasoned with diverse therapy area of Pharmaceutical Sales & Marketing ranging from generating revenue through generating prescriptions, launching new products, and making them big brands with continuous strategy execution at the Physician and Patients level. Moved from Sales to Marketing and Business Development for 3.5 years in South East Asian Market operating from Manila, Philippines. Came back to India and handled and developed Brands such as Gluconorm, Lupisulin, Supracal, Absolut Woman, Hemozink, Fabiflu (For COVID 19), and many more. In my previous assignment I used to develop and execute strategies on Sales & Marketing, Commercialization & Business Development for Institution and Corporate Hospital Business portfolio of Oncology Therapy Area for AstraZeneca Pharma India Ltd. Being a Research Scholar and Student of ‘Operations Research & Management: Artificial Intelligence’ I published several pioneer research papers and book chapters on the same in Internationally reputed journals and Books indexed in Scopus, Springer and Ei Compendex, Google Scholar etc. Currently, I am launching PGDM Pharmaceutical Management Program in IIHMR Bangalore and spearheading the course curriculum and structure of the same. I am interested in Collaboration for Healthcare Innovation, Pharma AI Innovation, Future trend in Marketing and Management with incubation on Healthcare, Healthcare IT startups, AI-ML Modelling and Healthcare Algorithm based training module development. I am also an affiliated member of the Institute of Management Consultant of India, looking forward to Healthcare, Healthcare IT and Innovation, Pharma and Hospital Management Consulting works.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Lovely Professional University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"1063",title:"Prof.",name:"Constantin",middleName:null,surname:"Volosencu",slug:"constantin-volosencu",fullName:"Constantin Volosencu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/1063/images/system/1063.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Constantin Voloşencu graduated as an engineer from\nPolitehnica University of Timișoara, Romania, where he also\nobtained a doctorate degree. He is currently a full professor in\nthe Department of Automation and Applied Informatics at the\nsame university. Dr. Voloşencu is the author of ten books, seven\nbook chapters, and more than 160 papers published in journals\nand conference proceedings. He has also edited twelve books and\nhas twenty-seven patents to his name. He is a manager of research grants, editor in\nchief and member of international journal editorial boards, a former plenary speaker, a member of scientific committees, and chair at international conferences. His\nresearch is in the fields of control systems, control of electric drives, fuzzy control\nsystems, neural network applications, fault detection and diagnosis, sensor network\napplications, monitoring of distributed parameter systems, and power ultrasound\napplications. He has developed automation equipment for machine tools, spooling\nmachines, high-power ultrasound processes, and more.",institutionString:"Polytechnic University of Timişoara",institution:{name:"Polytechnic University of Timişoara",country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"221364",title:"Dr.",name:"Eneko",middleName:null,surname:"Osaba",slug:"eneko-osaba",fullName:"Eneko Osaba",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/221364/images/system/221364.jpg",biography:"Dr. Eneko Osaba works at TECNALIA as a senior researcher. He obtained his Ph.D. in Artificial Intelligence in 2015. He has participated in more than twenty-five local and European research projects, and in the publication of more than 130 papers. He has performed several stays at universities in the United Kingdom, Italy, and Malta. Dr. Osaba has served as a program committee member in more than forty international conferences and participated in organizing activities in more than ten international conferences. He is a member of the editorial board of the International Journal of Artificial Intelligence, Data in Brief, and Journal of Advanced Transportation. He is also a guest editor for the Journal of Computational Science, Neurocomputing, Swarm, and Evolutionary Computation and IEEE ITS Magazine.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"275829",title:"Dr.",name:"Esther",middleName:null,surname:"Villar-Rodriguez",slug:"esther-villar-rodriguez",fullName:"Esther Villar-Rodriguez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/275829/images/system/275829.jpg",biography:"Dr. Esther Villar obtained a Ph.D. in Information and Communication Technologies from the University of Alcalá, Spain, in 2015. She obtained a degree in Computer Science from the University of Deusto, Spain, in 2010, and an MSc in Computer Languages and Systems from the National University of Distance Education, Spain, in 2012. Her areas of interest and knowledge include natural language processing (NLP), detection of impersonation in social networks, semantic web, and machine learning. Dr. Esther Villar made several contributions at conferences and publishing in various journals in those fields. Currently, she is working within the OPTIMA (Optimization Modeling & Analytics) business of TECNALIA’s ICT Division as a data scientist in projects related to the prediction and optimization of management and industrial processes (resource planning, energy efficiency, etc).",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"49813",title:"Dr.",name:"Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Del Ser",slug:"javier-del-ser",fullName:"Javier Del Ser",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49813/images/system/49813.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Javier Del Ser received his first PhD in Telecommunication Engineering (Cum Laude) from the University of Navarra, Spain, in 2006, and a second PhD in Computational Intelligence (Summa Cum Laude) from the University of Alcala, Spain, in 2013. He is currently a principal researcher in data analytics and optimisation at TECNALIA (Spain), a visiting fellow at the Basque Center for Applied Mathematics (BCAM) and a part-time lecturer at the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU). His research interests gravitate on the use of descriptive, prescriptive and predictive algorithms for data mining and optimization in a diverse range of application fields such as Energy, Transport, Telecommunications, Health and Industry, among others. In these fields he has published more than 240 articles, co-supervised 8 Ph.D. theses, edited 6 books, coauthored 7 patents and participated/led more than 40 research projects. He is a Senior Member of the IEEE, and a recipient of the Biscay Talent prize for his academic career.",institutionString:"Tecnalia Research & Innovation",institution:null},{id:"278948",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos Pedro",middleName:null,surname:"Gonçalves",slug:"carlos-pedro-goncalves",fullName:"Carlos Pedro Gonçalves",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRcmyQAC/Profile_Picture_1564224512145",biography:'Carlos Pedro Gonçalves (PhD) is an Associate Professor at Lusophone University of Humanities and Technologies and a researcher on Complexity Sciences, Quantum Technologies, Artificial Intelligence, Strategic Studies, Studies in Intelligence and Security, FinTech and Financial Risk Modeling. He is also a progammer with programming experience in:\n\nA) Quantum Computing using Qiskit Python module and IBM Quantum Experience Platform, with software developed on the simulation of Quantum Artificial Neural Networks and Quantum Cybersecurity;\n\nB) Artificial Intelligence and Machine learning programming in Python;\n\nC) Artificial Intelligence, Multiagent Systems Modeling and System Dynamics Modeling in Netlogo, with models developed in the areas of Chaos Theory, Econophysics, Artificial Intelligence, Classical and Quantum Complex Systems Science, with the Econophysics models having been cited worldwide and incorporated in PhD programs by different Universities.\n\nReceived an Arctic Code Vault Contributor status by GitHub, due to having developed open source software preserved in the \\"Arctic Code Vault\\" for future generations (https://archiveprogram.github.com/arctic-vault/), with the Strategy Analyzer A.I. module for decision making support (based on his PhD thesis, used in his Classes on Decision Making and in Strategic Intelligence Consulting Activities) and QNeural Python Quantum Neural Network simulator also preserved in the \\"Arctic Code Vault\\", for access to these software modules see: https://github.com/cpgoncalves. He is also a peer reviewer with outsanding review status from Elsevier journals, including Physica A, Neurocomputing and Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence. Science CV available at: https://www.cienciavitae.pt//pt/8E1C-A8B3-78C5 and ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0298-3974',institutionString:"University of Lisbon",institution:{name:"Universidade Lusófona",country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"241400",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammed",middleName:null,surname:"Bsiss",slug:"mohammed-bsiss",fullName:"Mohammed Bsiss",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241400/images/8062_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"276128",title:"Dr.",name:"Hira",middleName:null,surname:"Fatima",slug:"hira-fatima",fullName:"Hira Fatima",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/276128/images/14420_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Hira Fatima\nAssistant Professor\nDepartment of Mathematics\nInstitute of Applied Science\nMangalayatan University, Aligarh\nMobile: no : 8532041179\nhirafatima2014@gmal.com\n\nDr. Hira Fatima has received his Ph.D. degree in pure Mathematics from Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh India. Currently working as an Assistant Professor in the Department of Mathematics, Institute of Applied Science, Mangalayatan University, Aligarh. She taught so many courses of Mathematics of UG and PG level. Her research Area of Expertise is Functional Analysis & Sequence Spaces. She has been working on Ideal Convergence of double sequence. She has published 17 research papers in National and International Journals including Cogent Mathematics, Filomat, Journal of Intelligent and Fuzzy Systems, Advances in Difference Equations, Journal of Mathematical Analysis, Journal of Mathematical & Computer Science etc. She has also reviewed few research papers for the and international journals. She is a member of Indian Mathematical Society.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"414880",title:"Dr.",name:"Maryam",middleName:null,surname:"Vatankhah",slug:"maryam-vatankhah",fullName:"Maryam Vatankhah",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Borough of Manhattan Community College",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"414879",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammad-Reza",middleName:null,surname:"Akbarzadeh-Totonchi",slug:"mohammad-reza-akbarzadeh-totonchi",fullName:"Mohammad-Reza Akbarzadeh-Totonchi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ferdowsi University of Mashhad",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"414878",title:"Prof.",name:"Reza",middleName:null,surname:"Fazel-Rezai",slug:"reza-fazel-rezai",fullName:"Reza Fazel-Rezai",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"American Public University System",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"302698",title:"Dr.",name:"Yao",middleName:null,surname:"Shan",slug:"yao-shan",fullName:"Yao Shan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Dalian University of Technology",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"125911",title:"Prof.",name:"Jia-Ching",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"jia-ching-wang",fullName:"Jia-Ching Wang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Central University",country:{name:"Taiwan"}}},{id:"357085",title:"Mr.",name:"P. Mohan",middleName:null,surname:"Anand",slug:"p.-mohan-anand",fullName:"P. Mohan Anand",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"356696",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"P.V.",middleName:null,surname:"Sai Charan",slug:"p.v.-sai-charan",fullName:"P.V. Sai Charan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"357086",title:"Prof.",name:"Sandeep K.",middleName:null,surname:"Shukla",slug:"sandeep-k.-shukla",fullName:"Sandeep K. Shukla",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"356823",title:"MSc.",name:"Seonghee",middleName:null,surname:"Min",slug:"seonghee-min",fullName:"Seonghee Min",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Daegu University",country:{name:"Korea, South"}}},{id:"353307",title:"Prof.",name:"Yoosoo",middleName:null,surname:"Oh",slug:"yoosoo-oh",fullName:"Yoosoo Oh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:"Yoosoo Oh received his Bachelor's degree in the Department of Electronics and Engineering from Kyungpook National University in 2002. He obtained his Master’s degree in the Department of Information and Communications from Gwangju Institute of Science and Technology (GIST) in 2003. In 2010, he received his Ph.D. degree in the School of Information and Mechatronics from GIST. In the meantime, he was an executed team leader at Culture Technology Institute, GIST, 2010-2012. In 2011, he worked at Lancaster University, the UK as a visiting scholar. In September 2012, he joined Daegu University, where he is currently an associate professor in the School of ICT Conver, Daegu University. Also, he served as the Board of Directors of KSIIS since 2019, and HCI Korea since 2016. From 2017~2019, he worked as a center director of the Mixed Reality Convergence Research Center at Daegu University. From 2015-2017, He worked as a director in the Enterprise Supporting Office of LINC Project Group, Daegu University. His research interests include Activity Fusion & Reasoning, Machine Learning, Context-aware Middleware, Human-Computer Interaction, etc.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Daegu Gyeongbuk Institute of Science and Technology",country:{name:"Korea, South"}}},{id:"262719",title:"Dr.",name:"Esma",middleName:null,surname:"Ergüner Özkoç",slug:"esma-erguner-ozkoc",fullName:"Esma Ergüner Özkoç",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Başkent University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"346530",title:"Dr.",name:"Ibrahim",middleName:null,surname:"Kaya",slug:"ibrahim-kaya",fullName:"Ibrahim Kaya",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Izmir Kâtip Çelebi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"419199",title:"Dr.",name:"Qun",middleName:null,surname:"Yang",slug:"qun-yang",fullName:"Qun Yang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Auckland",country:{name:"New Zealand"}}},{id:"351158",title:"Prof.",name:"David W.",middleName:null,surname:"Anderson",slug:"david-w.-anderson",fullName:"David W. Anderson",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Calgary",country:{name:"Canada"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"14",type:"subseries",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology",keywords:"Omics (Transcriptomics; Proteomics; Metabolomics), Molecular Biology, Cell Biology, Signal Transduction and Regulation, Cell Growth and Differentiation, Apoptosis, Necroptosis, Ferroptosis, Autophagy, Cell Cycle, Macromolecules and Complexes, Gene Expression",scope:"The Cell and Molecular Biology topic within the IntechOpen Biochemistry Series aims to rapidly publish contributions on all aspects of cell and molecular biology, including aspects related to biochemical and genetic research (not only in humans but all living beings). We encourage the submission of manuscripts that provide novel and mechanistic insights that report significant advances in the fields. Topics include, but are not limited to: Advanced techniques of cellular and molecular biology (Molecular methodologies, imaging techniques, and bioinformatics); Biological activities at the molecular level; Biological processes of cell functions, cell division, senescence, maintenance, and cell death; Biomolecules interactions; Cancer; Cell biology; Chemical biology; Computational biology; Cytochemistry; Developmental biology; Disease mechanisms and therapeutics; DNA, and RNA metabolism; Gene functions, genetics, and genomics; Genetics; Immunology; Medical microbiology; Molecular biology; Molecular genetics; Molecular processes of cell and organelle dynamics; Neuroscience; Protein biosynthesis, degradation, and functions; Regulation of molecular interactions in a cell; Signalling networks and system biology; Structural biology; Virology and microbiology.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/14.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!0,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11410,editor:{id:"165627",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosa María",middleName:null,surname:"Martínez-Espinosa",slug:"rosa-maria-martinez-espinosa",fullName:"Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/165627/images/system/165627.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa has been a Spanish Full Professor since 2020 (Biochemistry and Molecular Biology) and is currently Vice-President of International Relations and Cooperation development and leader of the research group 'Applied Biochemistry” (University of Alicante, Spain). Other positions she has held at the university include Vice-Dean of Master Programs, Vice-Dean of the Degree in Biology and Vice-Dean for Mobility and Enterprise and Engagement at the Faculty of Science (University of Alicante). She received her Bachelor in Biology in 1998 (University of Alicante) and her PhD in 2003 (Biochemistry, University of Alicante). She undertook post-doctoral research at the University of East Anglia (Norwich, U.K. 2004-2005; 2007-2008).\nHer multidisciplinary research focuses on investigating archaea and their potential applications in biotechnology. She has an H-index of 21. She has authored one patent and has published more than 70 indexed papers and around 60 book chapters.\nShe has contributed to more than 150 national and international meetings during the last 15 years. 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