Problems recognized in HCW management and challenges for solving them.
\\n\\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\\n\\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"Highly Cited",originalUrl:"/media/original/117"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'IntechOpen is proud to announce that 191 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nThroughout the years, the list has named a total of 261 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\nReleased this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
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Ochoa Palacios",authors:[{id:"15033",title:"Dr.",name:"Alfredo",middleName:null,surname:"Flores",fullName:"Alfredo Flores",slug:"alfredo-flores"}]},{id:"41052",title:"Aluminium Alloys in Solar Power − Benefits and Limitations",slug:"aluminium-alloys-in-solar-power-benefits-and-limitations",signatures:"Amir Farzaneh, Maysam Mohammdi, Zaki Ahmad and Intesar Ahmad",authors:[{id:"52898",title:"Prof.",name:"Zaki",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",fullName:"Zaki Ahmad",slug:"zaki-ahmad"},{id:"52910",title:"Dr.",name:"Amir",middleName:null,surname:"Farzaneh",fullName:"Amir Farzaneh",slug:"amir-farzaneh"},{id:"154698",title:"Mr.",name:"Maysam",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammadi",fullName:"Maysam Mohammadi",slug:"maysam-mohammadi"}]}]}],publishedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"3844",title:"Light Metal Alloys Applications",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6ddeae36c90447289dd3320146d31861",slug:"light-metal-alloys-applications",bookSignature:"Waldemar A. 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Over the last decades, the need for safety management of HCW has significantly increased due to the rapid population growth and increase in medical institutes, without which potential risks are very high to human health and the environment. Approximately five million people were reported to die every year due to HCW-related diseases [4]. The risk comes from accidental injuries during the handling of infectious waste components of HCW, which can cause diseases like hepatitis B, hepatitis C, and HIV infection [5]. Moreover, numerous other diseases can be transmitted by contact with infectious HCW.
The importance of HCW management is once again drawing attention in today’s COVID-19 pandemic [6]. As the virus stays longer on plastic, metal, and cardboard materials in HCW generated from the treatment of COVID-19 infected patients can be one of the potential routes for transmission of infection [7, 8].
However, in economically developing countries, which was defined by United Nations [9], HCW management systems are often unestablished or not fully functional, where infectious HCW that are not properly segregated and/or treated turn into new sources of infection and the waste streams become as a path to spread the infection. According to WHO, just over half (58%) of the sampled facilities from 24 countries (as of 2015) had adequate systems in place for the safe disposal of HCW generated [10]. Many papers have been reported that the implementation system and capacity of HCW management are often inadequate [4, 5, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18].
What can we do to improve the status of HCW management in developing countries and prevent the spread of infection? Especially in low-income developing countries where funds are insufficient, capacities at organizational, institutional, and societal levels are weak, some technical assistance for enhancing HCW management will be required through international cooperation [10]. In order to make effective use of the limited resources of donor agencies and provide appropriate technical assistance, it is essential to understand the current situation, evaluate risks, diagnose existing systems, and provide necessary technical supports.
The main theme of this chapter is to consider the challenges of international technical assistance for improving the management of hazardous infectious HCW in developing countries. The author first analyzes the trends in medical waste generation around the world and predicts the needs for medical waste management in developing countries in the near future. Next, we will examine the problems of HCW management in developing countries and the risks arising from them, and review the solutions to the problems, the system design, and an effective HCW management plan for avoiding the risks. It also proposes diagnostic methods and necessary supports for implementing effective international technical assistance. Finally, a case study of the international technical assistance on HCW management in Palestine is described.
First, the term HCW used in this chapter will be clarified in detail based on the WHO definition [1]. HCW is a broad concept and can be classified into 2 main categories, hazardous and non-hazardous HCW. According to the definition by WHO [1], the hazardous HCW can be subdivided into 6 subcategories, as follows (Figure 1).
Sharps waste: It is defined as used or unused sharps, such as hypodermic, intravenous, or other needles; auto-disable syringes; syringes with attached needles; infusion sets; scalpels; pipettes; knives; blades; broken glass.
Infectious waste (narrow sense): It is suspected to contain pathogens and that poses a risk of disease transmission, for example, waste contaminated with blood and other body fluids; dressings, bandages, swabs, gloves, masks, gowns, drapes and other material contaminated with blood or other body fluids; laboratory cultures and microbiological stocks; and waste including excreta.
Pathological waste: This is consist of human tissues, organs, or fluids; body parts; fetuses; unused blood products.
Pharmaceutical/cytotoxic wastes: These are any waste that contains medical drugs that are expired, unused, or no longer needed.
Chemical waste: It is regulated as hazardous waste if it exhibits one of four characteristics: ignitability, corrosive, reactivity, or ability to produce toxic leachate in a landfill.
Radioactive materials: This has proven to be valuable tools in medicine, while eventually becoming low-level radioactive waste.
Classification of healthcare waste (HCW) based on the definition of [
Among these 6 subcategories, (1) sharps, (2) infectious, and (3) pathological wastes are at risk of disease transmission, which are often collectively referred to as ‘infectious waste’ in the broad sense of the term. In general, around 10% of HCW is infectious waste in the broad sense, 85% of HCW is non-hazardous general waste, and 5% are the other hazardous ones ((4) pharmaceutical, (5) chemical, and (6) radioactive) those must be distinguished from other HCW and properly treated and disposed based on the national regulation and standard.
The characteristics of HCW generation depend on economic and social conditions, public health conditions, healthcare service systems, and solid waste management systems in each country.
According to the World Bank [19], the global average of HCW generation is 0.25 kg/capita/day, which is a very small part of the total special waste generated. Figure 2 shows the relationship between the level of economic growth (GDP (USD)/capita) and the HCW generation rate (kg/capita/year), using the data given by the World Bank [19] and JICA.
Correlation between economic growth (GDP/capita) and HCW generation rate (kg/capita/year). Each plot indicates country averaged data (2011–2017), and the dashed line is the trend. Both horizontal and vertical axes are on a logarithmic scale.
HCW generation data in 105 countries/regions are available and are plotted in the diagram as a cross-country analysis (Figure 2). As is clear from this diagram, the level of economic growth (GDP/capita) and HCW generation rate (kg/capita/year)show a weak positive power correlation (r2 = 0.3705). In relatively low income countries (GDP/capita <10,000 USD), HCW generations are often less than 1.0 kg/capita/year.
A similar correlation can be observed for the relationship between the total amount of municipal solid waste (MSW) generated in each country/region and the total amount of HCW generated, as shown in Figure 3, in which the data set used was the same as Figure 2.
Correlation between HCW and municipal waste (MSW) generations. Each plot indicates country averaged data (tons/year; 2011–2017), and the dashed line is the trend. Both horizontal and vertical axes are on logarithmic scale.
The total amount of MSW generated and the total amount of HCW generated are in a positive power correlation (r2 = 0.5277), which is stronger than the above-mentioned correlation with economic growth. The diagram indicates that the generation status of MSW has a strong influence on the generation status of HCW.
It has been reported that the amount of MSW generated increases year by year due to factors such as economic growth, diversification of life, urbanization, and population growth, in which the rate of increase in developing countries is higher than that in developed countries [19]. This indicates that enhancing HCW management capacity is a strong need in developing countries.
Recognizing the necessity of HCW management by government authorities means understanding its risks and considering the need for proper collection, treatment, and disposal. In that sense, it can be said that the increase in official reporting of the amount of HCW is related to the improvement of authorities’ concerns on HCW management.
Figure 4 shows the MSW collection service coverage rate (%; based on the target population or the total amount of waste generated) and the amount of HCW generation (kg/capita/year) that is officially recognized by each government authority. The MSW service coverage rate can be used as an index for the quality of MSW management services.
Correlation between MSW collection service coverage (% in population or total waste basis) and HCW generation rate (kg/capita/year).
As is clear from this figure, the HCW generation rate is generally very low, if the MSW service coverage rate is less than 83%. In other words, it shows that government authority and given administration system cannot properly respond to HCW generation unless the services for MSW management are in place to some extent. Conversely, in countries/regions where the service coverage rate is more than 83%, the necessity of enhancing HCW management is emphasized as the high priority issue for relevant authorities.
As we have seen earlier, the amount of HCW generated is closely related to the degree of economic development and also to the state of the MSW management services. It shows that socially recognizing HCW as hazardous waste and implementing necessary treatment and disposal will gradually develop in accordance with the enhancement of the capacity of MSW management service as well as economic development.
The purposes of solid waste management (SWM) are similar, whether addressing hazardous, infectious, or even general municipal waste; three themes are prominent; management, treatment, and waste minimization [20]. The management of HCW requires analysis and active control from generation to final disposal. Hazardous or infectious HCW should be appropriately treated before disposal to eliminate its hazard risks. Waste minimization or reduction is undoubtedly the most desirable goal of solid waste management, which is the same in HCW management, where 3Rs (Reduce, Reuse, Recycle) are key approaches after segregation at source and appropriate treatment of hazardous infectious components (Figure 5).
HCW management and the concept of 3Rs (Reduce, Reuse, recycle).
It is crucial that decision-makers and administrators have a complete understanding of the risks of hazardous HCW since they are responsible for setting the HCW management system with a safe workplace and preventing environmental pollution. Inappropriate HCW management poses five major occupational, health, and environmental risks; A, B, C, D, and E, as shown in Figure 6.
Causal linkage of problems and risks in hazardous HCW management often observed in developing countries. White boxes show a series of problems in HCW management and the colored boxes indicate the risks.
The most common and most investigated cause of the microbiological risks associated with HCW are injuries due to needles of sharps waste [21]. For example, according to the results of a questionnaire survey of HCW workers engaged in Palestine, 32% in-hospital workers and 27% SWM workers experienced some kind of infectious waste accident when the HCW management system had not been established and the staff training had not been given [22]. According to the CDC guideline [23], a leak-resistant biohazard bag is usually adequate for containment of infectious wastes, and puncture-resistant containers located at the point of use are set as containment for discarded tubes with small amounts of blood, scalpel blades, needles & syringes, and other sharps.
The impact of hazardous HCW in developing countries is very likely to pose a great occupational risk to general SWM workers and the public outside healthcare institutes due to inadequate practices of SWM and personal protection for workers themselves. In addition, the hazards posed by HCW may be more significant due to the limited availability of immunization against infectious diseases. The distribution of personal protective equipment (PPE) such as gloves, goggles, facemask, and disinfectant, is effective to prevent accidental infections together with periodical guidance and training.
In countries where the HCW management system is not established nor functional, HCW is directly dumped at dumpsites without any treatment. These include infectious waste and sharps, and when waste pickers collect recyclables from the sites, they can cause injury and eventually infection. The existence of informal waste pickers is due to socio-economic problems and is not directly related to the HCW management issue. However, recognizing the existence of such risks, even if the only way is direct disposal of infectious HCW, the dumping site should be off-limits or immediately covered with soil for avoiding direct exposure.
Analysis of the microbiological content of MSW and HCW has shown similar concentrations of microorganisms in both types of wastes. According to the microbiological study of HCW and MSW, 2% of blood-stained waste was positive for hepatitis viruses, and poliovirus and echovirus were recovered from soiled diapers in MSW [24]. Some infectious waste can stay infectious for many years if disposed without being sterilized. For example, anthrax-infected cattle contain spores that are known for many decades in dry soil [20, 25]. Therefore, dumping site management is required if infectious HCW must be directly disposed without any treatment.
If pharmaceutical or chemical pollutants are released into the environment, they can easily diffuse through groundwater, surface water, and eventually leach into drinking water. Pharmaceuticals are discarded and renewed in healthcare facilities when they expire. In time of conflicts or natural disasters, large quantities of pharmaceuticals are often donated as a part of humanitarian assistance [26]. However, such donated pharmaceuticals are sometimes stocked and often mismanaged when the pharmaceutical management system is not well functioned. Disposal of these unwanted or expired drugs may disturb the ecosystem. WHO guidelines [1, 27] recommended pharmaceutical waste to reverse distributors.
The above-mentioned five risks are caused by 14 problems in HCW management, and the relationship between the risks and problems is depicted as a causal linkage diagram as shown in Figure 6. The description of each problem and the challenges for enhancing HCW management, which indicate the goal of technical assistance, are summarized in Table 1. If HCW waste is not properly segregated at the source (Problems No. 1–4), it creates many risks associated with various technical and management factors in the HCW management process (No. 5–14).
Problems | Description | Challenges |
---|---|---|
1. A lack of laws and/or regulations for HCW management | Due to the unclear definition and management responsibilities of HCW, some HCWs are not processed or not properly managed. Duplication and fragmentation impede system efficiency | Establishment of the legal system on HCW. Definition of HCW and clarification of management responsibilities in line with the current situation. Establishment of HCW treatment standards |
2. A lack of HCW management system and its knowledge | HCW management system has not yet been established, where no HCW management plan and unclear implementation body are determined. Plan-Do-Check-Act (PDCA) management cycle is not developed. Inefficiencies occur due to unplanned waste treatment activities | Establishment of HCW management system with implementation body and HCW management plan |
3. A lack of training for medical workers | Due to inadequate training for medical workers, they have insufficient knowledge on the dangers of hazardous HCW and the precautions to be taken when handling HCW. As a result, an infection accident occurs within the medical institute | Create manuals, textbooks, and teaching materials for staff training. Train staff training instructors. Organize regular staff training |
4. Inappropriate HCW management practice including a lack of source segregation | Insufficient source separation increases infectious HCW and increases the loads for the treatment system. This is because if non-infectious waste is discharged without being separated from infectious waste, all becomes infectious waste. This results in the overloading of hazardous HCW to the existing treatment system, where the incoming waste amount to the treatment system exceeds its planned capacity | Training for staff in the medical institute, preparation of manual and posters for source separation. Inspection system for the situation of source separation and container management |
5. Increase of hazardous HCW | Encouraging the source separation practice | |
6. Insufficient/inappropriate capacity of hazardous HCW treatment facility | Enhancing the treatment system | |
7. Insufficient human resource, technical capacity, and financial capacity for the hazardous HCW treatment facility | There is a lack of human resources, technology, and financial base to establish a proper treatment system of hazardous HCW | Provision of equipment technology transfer, and training Financial support for establishing the treatment system |
8. Insufficient cooperation between public, medical, and private sectors about hazardous HCW issue | The best available technology is required for proper treatment of hazardous HCW in given country conditions, and the private sector plays a large role in introducing it. It is expected that the suppliers of pharmaceuticals handle unused/wasted them, but it cannot be dealt without sound cooperation between the public, medical, and private sectors | Networking between public, medical, and private sectors. Defining a rule for treatment of pharmaceutical waste in HCW. Establishing a reverse logistic system for pharmaceuticals. Establishing a treatment facility for pharmaceuticals and chemicals |
9. Weak reverse logistics of pharmaceuticals and/or treatment | ||
10. Overflow and migration of hazardous HCW into municipal SWM stream | As a result of the increase in the amount of hazardous HCW results in the overflow of HCW containing hazardous components, which poses a risk of spreading infection and other negative impacts through the waste stream | Monitoring of the treatment system |
11. A lack of monitoring of hazardous HCW stream | Despite the inclusion of hazardous waste, general waste treatment and disposal is carried out without this in mind. This deteriorates the occupational health and safety conditions of SWM workers | Monitoring of storing, transportation, and final disposal of hazardous HCW, using a manifest system |
12. A lack of emergency shielded landfill | If the necessary sterilization or treatments are not possible, the untreated hazardous HCW will be directly landfilled as an emergency measure. In that case, the disposal site must be shielded, otherwise, infection and/or contamination can spread throughout the environment | Constructing shielded landfill Landfill operation and management |
13. A lack of training on infectious HCW for SWM workers | As mentioned above, there are various possibilities that hazardous HCW will migrate into the general waste stream, and especially in the COVID-19 pandemic, the general waste management flow itself can also be a path of infection. It is necessary to train workers engaged in SWM service to prevent infection and to use PPE | Training for SWM workers about health and safety conditions. Distribution of personal protective equipment (PPE) for SWM workers |
14. A lack of awareness on waste management and hazardous HCW issues | Behind all the above issues lies the issue of awareness of the HCW issue. This includes not only the general public but also workers and decision-makers at various levels of society | Public awareness-raising on HCW and its risks Awareness-raising for decision-makers |
Problems recognized in HCW management and challenges for solving them.
In designing a system for HCW management, it is important to consider three layers institutions levels; namely, global, national, and local levels. The institution at the global level is given by the internationally-accepted guidelines published by WHO [1] and other international organizations.
In any country, a national policy is the first step in creating a successful and sustainable HCW management system. The policy should be the blueprint to drive decision-making at a political level, for the allocation of resources, and mobilize government efforts to create the conditions to implement an HCW management system [28]. Based on the international guidelines, national-level legal systems and institutions for conducting proper HCW management will be formulated according to the given conditions of the country. Specific and comprehensive legislation and policy documents on HCW management with a clear designation of responsibilities to various stakeholders are required [18].
The following five basic principles are important in formulating an effective HCW management system, which was originally specified by the Global Healthcare Waste Project conducted by the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) in cooperation with the Global Environment Facility (GEF) and WHO [29]:
Polluter pays principle: All waste generators are legally and financially responsible for safe handling of waste and environmentally sound disposal of waste.
Precautionary principle: In order to protect the environment, the precautionary approach [30] shall be applied according to their capabilities.
Duty of care principle: Stipulates that any person handling or managing hazardous HCW is ethically responsible for applying the utmost care.
Proximity principle: Treatment and disposal of hazardous HCW take place as near as possible to the generation point for minimizing potential risks during transportation.
Prior informed consent principle: Prior informed consent is required for the siting and operation of HCW treatment facilities.
There are basically two types of HCW management; a national level HCW management and a local level (individual healthcare institute or service provider) HCW management. In some cases, regional (provincial, prefectural) level HCW management is set between the national and local levels.
The purpose of planning a national/regional HCW management is to improve HCW management at the national and regional (e.g., provincial) levels, where strong political commitment is required. In the planning process, it is required to involve relevant ministries and professional organizations including academics in the HCW management field.
The goals of the national/regional HCW management plan are: to declare the government’s intentions to improve HCW management, to define overall national/regional strategies and plan for improving HCW management, to specify activities and timeline for implementation, and to define the roles and responsibilities of authorities concerned & other stakeholders.
Assessment study
The first step for formulating a national HCW management plan is to conduct a national assessment study on HCW management, where the following four points have to be clarified: (i) an inventory of existing healthcare institutes (waste generators) and HCW treatment facilities; (ii) analysis of existing legislation, regulations, and rules; (iii) existing HCW stream and its management practices if any; and (iv) implementation agency and human resource on HCW management.
The inventory of HCW generation sources and GIS (geographical information system) map are crucial for planning HCW management, which covers all healthcare institutes including hospitals, clinics, and primary healthcare (PHC) institutions. A regression model will be applied to estimate the amount of HCW generated by them using the outpatient, inpatient, and bed numbers.
Planning
Specific objectives toward developing a national HCW management plan should include the following five key objectives: (1) to understand the present situation and setting the purpose of the plan, (2) to develop the legal and regulatory framework, (3) to develop financial investments and resources for HCW management, (4) to develop capacity building program, and (5) to set up a monitoring plan. The expected general contents of the national HCW management plan are as shown in Table 2.
Categories | Contents |
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(1) To understand the background and setting the purpose of the plan |
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(2) To develop the legal and regulatory framework |
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(3) To develop financial investments and resources for HCW management |
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(4) To plan capacity building program |
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(5) To set up a monitoring plan and information strategy |
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General contents of the national HCW management plan.
When planning a local HCW management, the first thing that must be done is to clarify the executing agency based on the legal system, and that agency will make the plan. The local HCW management plan is created by each healthcare institute and/or service provider based on the above-mentioned national/regional plan. It is required to be specific and practical depending on given local conditions.
Specific objectives toward developing a local HCW management plan needs to include the following six key components based on the direction of the national/regional HCW management plan: (1) designing HCW management system, (2) segregation of HCW at source, (3) HCW handling, storage, and transport, (4) treatment technologies, (5) waste disposal, (6) staff training, and (7) monitoring:
Designing HCW management system
Regarding the treatment and/or sterilization of infectious HCW, there are basically two types of HCW management systems; distributed (on-site) and centralized (off-site) systems. The distributed one is a system in which a healthcare institute has its own (relatively small-scale) treatment facility and processes infectious HCW by itself. On the other hand, the centralized system is a system in which a private or public service provider collects infectious HCW and transports it from each healthcare institute based on a contract and centrally processes it in the service provider-owned treatment facility.
The advantages of the distributed system are: complete control of infectious HCW by the generator, mitigating the risk of exposure during waste collection & transportation, and reducing unknown risks in the treatment by a service provider. However the distributed system has the following disadvantages: the healthcare institute has to get a relatively high financial burden for a treatment facility, and also become responsible for meeting all regulatory requirements on infectious HCW treatment, which needs additional resources.
On the other hand, the advantages of a centralized system are minimization of cost and responsibility for the treatment of infectious HCW. Each healthcare institute can concentrate only on source separation and appropriate waste discharging. The HCW generators, in particular small-scale healthcare institutes, benefit from the quality of service and the economies of scale. The disadvantages are indirect control of infectious HCW management due to outsourcing.
In the case of a centralized system, two management plans, on-site and off-site plans, are required, and coordination and cooperation between the two actors are indispensable.
These distributed and centralized systems are often combined in a country/region to act as a hybrid system for actual HCW management (Figure 7). As shown in the Figure 7, the generated HCW is first separated into non-infectious HCW and infectious HCW (sharps and infectious) at the source. Non-infectious HCW is treated in the MSW management flow, while infectious HCW is sent for on-site or off-site treatment. If there is no treatment facility or in the case of the treatment capacity is insufficient, an emergency controlled cell is installed at the landfill site for direct disposal as an emergency measure.
Segregation at source
Segregation at source (source separation) is one of the most important steps to successfully manage HCW. As shown in Figure 1, only about 15% of the HCW is hazardous, treatment and disposal costs could be greatly reduced if proper segregation were performed. Segregating hazardous from nonhazardous waste reduces also greatly the risks of infecting SWM workers.
Segregation consists in separating the different waste streams based on the hazardous properties of the waste, the type of treatment and disposal practices that are applied. A recommended way of identifying HCW categories is by sorting the waste into color-coded and well-labeled bags or containers.
Handling, storage, and transport
HCW workers have the greatest occupational risk (the Risk A in Figure 3), where the hazard is from direct contact with sharps and infectious waste. Sharps can cause puncture wounds, scratches, and scrapes, where infectious agents can penetrate the skin. The use of special containers for sharps is absolutely necessary. In the HCW handling process, there is also potential for exposure through inhalation of pathogen-containing aerosols or particulates [20].
The best way to minimize the risk of exposure is to ensure that the infectious waste is properly isolated. Some basic principles [20] are: packaging the infectious HCW properly; avoiding physical contact with the infectious HCW; using personal protective equipment (PPE); and handling the infectious HCW as little as possible.
Another factor to be considered is public health including informal waste pickers if the hazardous infectious waste is directly disposed without any treatment as an emergent measure under limited conditions. In that case, no one has easy access to discarded needles and syringes, so that waste sharps’ containers need the following features: puncture resistance, impermeability, rigidity, tamper resistance, and proper marking [31].
Treatment technologies
The purpose of treatment is to change the biological character of infectious HCW to eliminate, or at least to significantly reduce, its potential for causing negative impacts. The three most common techniques used to treat infectious HCW are incineration (various types are available), steam sterilization (autoclaving), and microwaving (Table 3). Other currently available techniques include irradiation, chemical disinfection, and so on.
Disposal
When infectious HCW waste has been properly treated, the waste is no longer infectious. The treated HCW can be handled in the same way as normal municipal waste. However there are two exceptional cases [18]: for sharps and pathological wastes, additional processing before disposal is necessary; if other hazardous substances such as pharmaceutical, chemical, or radioactive waste are contained, there must be additional treatment before disposal.
In the case of sharps waste treated by steam sterilization, intact sharps are possibly sent to a landfill where workers are at risk for injury; therefore, they should be shredded or destroyed when be treated. Pathological waste treated by steam sterilization also requires additional processing since body parts or organs can be recognizable, which should not be directly disposed in the landfill.
In developing countries, sometimes no suitable HCW treatment facility is available and the only option is direct landfilling. In such a case, it is necessary to avoid using an open dumpsite and dispose a landfill having a shielded structure. It is necessary to immediately cover the soil at the time of waste disposal to prevent the dissipation of HCW and protect the environment.
Staff training
HCW management training is an effective intervention for preventing infections and improving the occupational safety of the HCWs through building awareness, changing attitudes and practices [36]. Training has two functions. One is to get a good understanding of the HCW management system so that the actual work can be implemented smoothly and without fail. The other is the meaning of risk communication. In other words, it is necessary for each worker to understand various risks involved in executing HCW management work and to give due consideration to safety. Training programs are planned for each job type, and manuals and posters are created as needed so that everyone can understand them. The staff training should be done continuously every year. Donor agencies are required to plan a training of trainer (ToT) for realizing a sustainable training program.
Monitoring
The monitoring system needs to be able to monitor the sorting status at the source, the amount and composition of the generation, the amount of treatment, and the amount of final disposal. In particular, it is necessary to track whether all infectious HCW has been properly collected and processed from the source.
Outline and options for HCW management in developing countries. Dashed parts are emergency measures under limited conditions, which is an example in Palestine.
Treatment technology | Waste type | Operation & maintenance | Residues after the treatment | Environmental consideration |
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Incineration |
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|
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Autoclave (Steam sterilization) |
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Microwave |
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Direct Landfilling |
|
|
|
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In developing countries, depending on the conditions, the appearance of the problem in HCW management will differ, and some of the 14 problems mentioned in Figure 6 and Table 2, combine to cause significant difficulties as a whole. Therefore, it is necessary to grasp the current situation of HCW, clarify the problems, and analyze the problems specifically.
A flowchart for diagnosing HCW management is shown in Figure 8. By answering 10 basic questions in the flowchart, required issues and challenges for capacity development in the HCW management are derived as follows:
Question 1 is ‘Have the legal system and authority regarding HCW management been established?’ A legal system on HCW must be in place that include definitions, treatment responsibilities, regulations, standards, and guidelines for HCW and its management. In addition, it is necessary to clarify the regulatory authority at the government level and the implementing body for HCW management at the national and local levels in accordance with the legal system. If the answer to this Question 1 is negative, then the challenge for capacity development is to establish a legal system, standards, and guidelines for HCW management and to determine regulatory agency at the government level.
Question 2 is ‘Present state of HCW has been studied?’ It is not possible to make an effective HCW management plan without an accurate understanding of the current state of HCW, in particular, the generation sources, generation amount, its composition, treatment, and disposal. If the answer to this Question 2 is negative, then the challenge for capacity development is to clarify the current waste stream of HCW if any, including the inventory of healthcare institutes, waste generation amount & composition, and treatment & disposal methods, through conducting a survey.
Question 3 is ‘In-house HCW management system has been established?’ In this question, the current state of HCW management at the individual healthcare institute level is assessed based on the law and regulation, which includes the availability of HCW plan and also its practice including segregation of HCW at source, collection, storing, and treatment. If the answer to this Question 3 is negative, then the challenge for capacity development is to formulate an HCW management plan at each level, and establish an HCW management system and strengthen the capacity of the implementing organization. This question corresponds to Problem No.2.
Question 4 is ‘Staff training program available?’ Training and capacity building of staff responsible for the HCW management work is essential for effective HCW management. It is necessary that some kind of training function is set at each level of national, local, and healthcare institutes. If the answer to this Question 4 is negative, then the challenge for capacity development is to plan and organize periodical training courses for HCW management workers, and to conduct training of trainers for that purpose.
Question 5 is ‘Distributed system or centralized system for HCW treatment?’ It is a two-choice question. As mentioned above, the infectious HCW treatment system is either a distributed type that can be used in each healthcare facility or infectious HCW is separately discharged from each healthcare facility and treated at an external treatment facility, a centralized type. It is necessary to clarify which system the target country, area, or individual facility, is adopting or intending to adopt.
Question 6 is ‘Is there monitoring system for HCW?’ This question is for the case of centralized system. The monitoring system referred to here is to monitor whether infectious HCW is properly segregated, collected, and treated in the off-site facility. If the answer to this Question 6 is negative, then the challenge for capacity development is to formulate a monitoring plan and introduce a manifest system, which is designed to track infectious HCW from the time it leaves the generation source until it reaches the off-site facility by regulatory/monitoring agency.
Question 7 is ‘Who is HCW service provider? Public or Private?’ It is a two-choice question. Since infectious HCW treatment requires specialized technology, private specialized companies are often entrusted with treatment by healthcare institutions and perform the treatment as an off-site centralized system. On the other hand, public institutions also sometimes carry out the treatment in an off-site centralized system, which differs depending on each country and area. This question is important in particular for aid agencies because public intervention should not disrupt existing systems based on private enterprises’ businesses, if private enterprises have a large share of the outsourced processing. For example, in an area where private services are predominant, if support such as the establishment of centralized treatment facilities is provided to public institutions as a grant aid project, it will clearly hinder competitiveness and create conflicts between public and private. Therefore, if the answer to the Question 7 is the ‘private company’, consider whether equipment provision (grant aid/donation) to the public will hinder the private sector. If the private sector services are existing, it is necessary to consider that the public conducts only licensing and monitoring to these private activities.
Question 8 is ‘Waste collection service is well established?’ This question is for a public SWM agency that employs a centralized system for collecting and treating infectious HCW. In such cases, it is important to consider whether public agencies are properly conducting SWM services. This is because the centralized system has a similar management structure to that of SWM; waste collection, transportation, treatment, and disposal. If the answer to this Question 8 is negative, then the challenge for capacity development is to improve implementing capacity of public agencies in SWM as well as HCW management.
Question 9 is ‘Environmental Assessment has been done for the facility?’ When installing an infectious HCW treatment facility, it is necessary to evaluate various environmental impacts such as gas emissions, wastewater, and solid waste in the treatment process. In addition, when installing a large centralized treatment facility, it is necessary to reach a consensus about the siting with surrounding local communities. If the answer to this Question 9 is negative, then the challenge for capacity development is to implement environmental impact assessment (EIA), planning measures to prevent environmental pollution, and building a consensus with local communities.
Question 10 is ‘The capacity of treatment facility is sufficient?’ Often, donor agencies ask this question first and precede the provision of facility and equipment, but as shown in the flowchart, the system only works with various technical soft components. If these soft components meet the requirements, government, or donor agencies can equip the facility and equipment, otherwise, sustainability cannot be ensured. To enhance the treatment capacity of HCW, it is also necessary to improve the operation and maintenance capacity.
A flowchart for diagnosing an HCW management system and for identifying challenges in capacity development, which are the targets of technical assistance.
Over the past decades of experience in Palestine is a typical example of inadequate HCW management [35], where one of the major threats came from that much of hazardous infectious HCW had mixed with MSW [37] and flowed into dumpsites without any treatment and safety measure [38, 39].
In 2010, the Palestinian National Authority (PNA) compiled a report on the development of a National Master Plan for Hazardous Waste Management in the West Bank and Gaza [40]. According to the report, only one-third of the healthcare facilities used special bags for HCW collection, whereas all other facilities consequently collected all types of HCW together with MSW, except for sharps that were being collected in special boxes. The report also stated that 80% of healthcare facilities in Gaza had no way to securely store HCW generated. MSW was generally collected by local government units (LGUs) without any discrimination between HCW and MSW, and eventually, all types of solid waste were mixed and disposed.
In 2012, PNA enacted Palestinian Authority Cabinet Decision No. (10) of 2012, “Medical Waste Management System, and its Uses”. The bylaw allowed both distributed (on-site) and centralized (off-site) systems of HCW treatment. As a practice based on the bylaw, the first systematic HCW collection & treatment service has been started in the southern area of West Bank (Hebron and Bethlehem governorates), where an HCW treatment (microwave) facility was equipped under the support of the EU. It is a typical “centralized system” and its operation and maintenance (O/M), as well as HCW collection, transportation, and disposal, were conducted by the Hebron-Bethlehem Higher Joint Service Council for Solid Waste Management (H-B JSC). However, in the remaining middle and northern part of West Bank and over the Gaza Strip, most of the HCW generated was still mixed and disposed without any treatment. The required local HCW management plan was little formulated at each healthcare institution and authority.
Under the circumstances described above, international technical cooperation projects for the capacity development of Palestinian authorities on HCW management were organized in the Gaza Strip from 2015 [22, 39, 41, 42], those are composed of five components: (1) assessment study to grasp the current state of HCW; (2) formulation of a strategy and preparation of HCW management plan; (3) capacity building activities such as seminars, workshops, and staff training courses; (4) Pilot projects on on-site and off-site HCW management to verify the effectiveness, efficiency, and feasibility of the HCW management plan; and (5) Provision of equipment by international donors.
As of 2015, there were 2245 inpatient beds in public hospitals and 619 inpatient beds in private/NGO hospitals in the Gaza Strip. The proper on-site segregation of the infectious and sharps showed that 2.4–0.7 kg/day of HCW is generated from hospitals and clinics. The generation rate from outpatients accounts for a rate of 11.0 g–9.5 g per outpatient [41]. The estimated total HCW generation amount was around 7199 kg/day, and the estimated amount of infectious HCW was calculated around 1071 kg/day.
Healthcare institutions in the Gaza Strip are responsible for on-site management, where MOH conducts monitoring, supervision, and enforcing bylaw on all healthcare institutions for their compliance with appropriate on-site management; three categories of segregation at sources (sharps, infectious, and noninfectious), controlled storage, and separated discharge of HCW.
Regarding the responsibility for off-site HCW management in the centralized system, collection, transport, treatment by autoclave/microwave, and final disposal, the collection service have been managed by the Joint Service Council of Khan Yunisi, Rafah, and Middle Gaza (JSC-KRM) since 2017, and later JSC of North Gaza and Gaza (JSC-GNG) has started the service since 2020. An HCW management system was established over the Gaza Strip as the twin centralized systems using autoclave/microwave facilities for the infectious waste treatment (Figure 9). From 2017 to 2019, intensive training courses have been held for the workers in healthcare institutes and service providers (JSCs).
Centralized HCW management systems, service providers, and supervising authorities in Gaza Strip.
The costs of HCW management services are borne by the HCW generator based on the polluter-pay principle (PPP), where each healthcare institute pays a reasonable fee to JSCs. In the pilot project in the southern Gaza Strip from 2018 to 2019, the real costs for waste collection, transportation, treatment, and final disposal operations were measured and aggregated, and the cost per unit weight of infectious HCW was determined. In this way, the HCW management systems in Gaza have basically been established.
HCW management is still not fully established in the West Bank area of Palestine. An international cooperation project supported by Japan (JICA) is currently conducting assessment surveys and planning, and in 2022, three centralized treatment facilities will be installed, staff training courses will be organized, and HCW management services will be started to the entire area.
More than 10-year process corresponds well with the 10-step diagnostic process described earlier (Figure 8), demonstrating that Palestine has gradually improved its capacity for HCW management.
In Gaza Strip, the 1st step was the enacting bylaw on HCW management in 2012, and then the 2nd step of the survey on the present state of HCW was conducted from 2010 (Master Plan) to 2016 (Gaza Local Plan). The 3rd step of the local HCW management plan and 4th step of the staff training program was conducted from 2017 to 2019. Under given conditions, public (JSCs) operating centralized treatment system was introduced as 5th and 6th steps in 2018, and autoclave and microwave facilities were equipped from 2018 (autoclave) to 2021 (microwave) as the 9th to 10th steps.
On the West Bank, it is still in the 2nd and 3rd steps, but in 2022, the treatment facility will be equipped, training will be conducted, HCW management services will be started, and 10 steps are expected to be achieved.
Proper management of HCW in developing countries is an urgent issue. It is important not only for public health and environmental protection in developing countries, but also for controlling infections throughout the world, in the time of pandemics.
According to statistical cross-country analysis, the amount of HCW generation shows a moderate positive power correlation with economic growth (GDP/capita). It also shows a positive power correlation with the amount of MSW generated. This indicates that economic growth will lead to an increase in MSW as well as a rapid increase in the amount of HCW generated. On the other hand, in countries with a high level of service coverage of MSW collection of 83% or more, a sudden increase in the amount of HCW are observed. This is considered to indicate that the recognition of HCW generation and the necessity of its proper management are formed in the public administration of HCW issues when the MSW management service reaches a certain stage.
It is necessary to establish an effective HCW management system and strengthen its implementation capacity, especially in developing countries. When conducting international technical assistance for them to support the establishment of the HCW management system and capacity development, it is required to set the targets for technical assistance through conducting an assessment survey, analyzing the problems, evaluating risks, supporting to formulate HCW management plans, and provision of equipment.
A flow chart to the 10-step diagnosis of HCW management is proposed to identify issues and challenges of HCW management in developing countries. The results can be used for setting the targets of technical assistance and cooperation for enhancing HCW management. More than 10-year process of technical assistance and cooperation program in Gaza Strip, Palestine corresponds well with the 10-step diagnostic process, demonstrating that Palestine has gradually improved its capacity for HCW management.
The author expresses special thanks to Hideaki Matsuoka and Chie Shimodaira of JICA Global Environment Department for their valuable discussions on the diagnosis of HCW management in developing countries. The author also thanks Suleiman Abu Mufarreh of Ministry of Local Government, Palestine, Reem Abukmeil of former MoLG-JICA project coordinator, Majdi Dher of Ministry of Health, Ali Bahoum of JSC-KRM, and Yuko Mitsui, Yuko Santo, Mariko Chiba, Saher Jaber Younis of JICA Palestine for their supports, during the implementation of technical assistance program on HCW management in Gaza Strip, Palestine. The view expressed in this chapter does not necessarily reflect the official positions of JICA or Palestinian Authority.
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MRI is commonly used once treating brain, prostate cancers, ankle and foot. The Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) images are usually liable to suffer from noises such as Gaussian noise, salt and pepper noise and speckle noise. So getting of brain image with accuracy is very extremely task. An accurate brain image is very necessary for further diagnosis process. During this chapter, a median filter algorithm will be modified. Gaussian noise and Salt and pepper noise will be added to MRI image. A proposed Median filter (MF), Adaptive Median filter (AMF) and Adaptive Wiener filter (AWF) will be implemented. The filters will be used to remove the additive noises present in the MRI images. The noise density will be added gradually to MRI image to compare performance of the filters evaluation. The performance of these filters will be compared exploitation the applied mathematics parameter Peak Signal-to-Noise Ratio (PSNR).",book:{id:"6144",slug:"high-resolution-neuroimaging-basic-physical-principles-and-clinical-applications",title:"High-Resolution Neuroimaging",fullTitle:"High-Resolution Neuroimaging - Basic Physical Principles and Clinical Applications"},signatures:"Hanafy M. Ali",authors:[{id:"213318",title:"Dr.",name:"Hanafy",middleName:"M.",surname:"Ali",slug:"hanafy-ali",fullName:"Hanafy Ali"}]},{id:"41589",doi:"10.5772/50323",title:"The Role of the Amygdala in Anxiety Disorders",slug:"the-role-of-the-amygdala-in-anxiety-disorders",totalDownloads:9671,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:28,abstract:null,book:{id:"2599",slug:"the-amygdala-a-discrete-multitasking-manager",title:"The Amygdala",fullTitle:"The Amygdala - A Discrete Multitasking Manager"},signatures:"Gina L. Forster, Andrew M. Novick, Jamie L. Scholl and Michael J. Watt",authors:[{id:"145620",title:"Dr.",name:"Gina",middleName:null,surname:"Forster",slug:"gina-forster",fullName:"Gina Forster"},{id:"146553",title:"BSc.",name:"Andrew",middleName:null,surname:"Novick",slug:"andrew-novick",fullName:"Andrew Novick"},{id:"146554",title:"MSc.",name:"Jamie",middleName:null,surname:"Scholl",slug:"jamie-scholl",fullName:"Jamie Scholl"},{id:"146555",title:"Dr.",name:"Michael",middleName:null,surname:"Watt",slug:"michael-watt",fullName:"Michael Watt"}]},{id:"26258",doi:"10.5772/28300",title:"Excitotoxicity and Oxidative Stress in Acute Ischemic Stroke",slug:"excitotoxicity-and-oxidative-stress-in-acute-ischemic-stroke",totalDownloads:7157,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:25,abstract:null,book:{id:"931",slug:"acute-ischemic-stroke",title:"Acute Ischemic Stroke",fullTitle:"Acute Ischemic Stroke"},signatures:"Ramón Rama Bretón and Julio César García Rodríguez",authors:[{id:"73430",title:"Prof.",name:"Ramon",middleName:null,surname:"Rama",slug:"ramon-rama",fullName:"Ramon Rama"},{id:"124643",title:"Prof.",name:"Julio Cesar",middleName:null,surname:"García",slug:"julio-cesar-garcia",fullName:"Julio Cesar García"}]},{id:"62072",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.78695",title:"Brain-Computer Interface and Motor Imagery Training: The Role of Visual Feedback and Embodiment",slug:"brain-computer-interface-and-motor-imagery-training-the-role-of-visual-feedback-and-embodiment",totalDownloads:1439,totalCrossrefCites:13,totalDimensionsCites:23,abstract:"Controlling a brain-computer interface (BCI) is a difficult task that requires extensive training. Particularly in the case of motor imagery BCIs, users may need several training sessions before they learn how to generate desired brain activity and reach an acceptable performance. A typical training protocol for such BCIs includes execution of a motor imagery task by the user, followed by presentation of an extending bar or a moving object on a computer screen. In this chapter, we discuss the importance of a visual feedback that resembles human actions, the effect of human factors such as confidence and motivation, and the role of embodiment in the learning process of a motor imagery task. Our results from a series of experiments in which users BCI-operated a humanlike android robot confirm that realistic visual feedback can induce a sense of embodiment, which promotes a significant learning of the motor imagery task in a short amount of time. We review the impact of humanlike visual feedback in optimized modulation of brain activity by the BCI users.",book:{id:"6610",slug:"evolving-bci-therapy-engaging-brain-state-dynamics",title:"Evolving BCI Therapy",fullTitle:"Evolving BCI Therapy - Engaging Brain State Dynamics"},signatures:"Maryam Alimardani, Shuichi Nishio and Hiroshi Ishiguro",authors:[{id:"11981",title:"Prof.",name:"Hiroshi",middleName:null,surname:"Ishiguro",slug:"hiroshi-ishiguro",fullName:"Hiroshi Ishiguro"},{id:"231131",title:"Dr.",name:"Maryam",middleName:null,surname:"Alimardani",slug:"maryam-alimardani",fullName:"Maryam Alimardani"},{id:"231134",title:"Dr.",name:"Shuichi",middleName:null,surname:"Nishio",slug:"shuichi-nishio",fullName:"Shuichi Nishio"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"29764",title:"Underlying Causes of Paresthesia",slug:"underlying-causes-of-paresthesia",totalDownloads:192666,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:7,abstract:null,book:{id:"1069",slug:"paresthesia",title:"Paresthesia",fullTitle:"Paresthesia"},signatures:"Mahdi Sharif-Alhoseini, Vafa Rahimi-Movaghar and Alexander R. Vaccaro",authors:[{id:"91165",title:"Prof.",name:"Vafa",middleName:null,surname:"Rahimi-Movaghar",slug:"vafa-rahimi-movaghar",fullName:"Vafa Rahimi-Movaghar"}]},{id:"63258",title:"Anatomy and Function of the Hypothalamus",slug:"anatomy-and-function-of-the-hypothalamus",totalDownloads:4558,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:12,abstract:"The hypothalamus is a small but important area of the brain formed by various nucleus and nervous fibers. Through its neuronal connections, it is involved in many complex functions of the organism such as vegetative system control, homeostasis of the organism, thermoregulation, and also in adjusting the emotional behavior. The hypothalamus is involved in different daily activities like eating or drinking, in the control of the body’s temperature and energy maintenance, and in the process of memorizing. It also modulates the endocrine system through its connections with the pituitary gland. Precise anatomical description along with a correct characterization of the component structures is essential for understanding its functions.",book:{id:"6331",slug:"hypothalamus-in-health-and-diseases",title:"Hypothalamus in Health and Diseases",fullTitle:"Hypothalamus in Health and Diseases"},signatures:"Miana Gabriela Pop, Carmen Crivii and Iulian Opincariu",authors:null},{id:"57103",title:"GABA and Glutamate: Their Transmitter Role in the CNS and Pancreatic Islets",slug:"gaba-and-glutamate-their-transmitter-role-in-the-cns-and-pancreatic-islets",totalDownloads:3478,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:9,abstract:"Glutamate and gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) are the major neurotransmitters in the mammalian brain. Inhibitory GABA and excitatory glutamate work together to control many processes, including the brain’s overall level of excitation. The contributions of GABA and glutamate in extra-neuronal signaling are by far less widely recognized. In this chapter, we first discuss the role of both neurotransmitters during development, emphasizing the importance of the shift from excitatory to inhibitory GABAergic neurotransmission. The second part summarizes the biosynthesis and role of GABA and glutamate in neurotransmission in the mature brain, and major neurological disorders associated with glutamate and GABA receptors and GABA release mechanisms. The final part focuses on extra-neuronal glutamatergic and GABAergic signaling in pancreatic islets of Langerhans, and possible associations with type 1 diabetes mellitus.",book:{id:"6237",slug:"gaba-and-glutamate-new-developments-in-neurotransmission-research",title:"GABA And Glutamate",fullTitle:"GABA And Glutamate - New Developments In Neurotransmission Research"},signatures:"Christiane S. Hampe, Hiroshi Mitoma and Mario Manto",authors:[{id:"210220",title:"Prof.",name:"Christiane",middleName:null,surname:"Hampe",slug:"christiane-hampe",fullName:"Christiane Hampe"},{id:"210485",title:"Prof.",name:"Mario",middleName:null,surname:"Manto",slug:"mario-manto",fullName:"Mario Manto"},{id:"210486",title:"Prof.",name:"Hiroshi",middleName:null,surname:"Mitoma",slug:"hiroshi-mitoma",fullName:"Hiroshi Mitoma"}]},{id:"35802",title:"Cross-Cultural/Linguistic Differences in the Prevalence of Developmental Dyslexia and the Hypothesis of Granularity and Transparency",slug:"cross-cultural-linguistic-differences-in-the-prevalence-of-developmental-dyslexia-and-the-hypothesis",totalDownloads:3601,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:7,abstract:null,book:{id:"673",slug:"dyslexia-a-comprehensive-and-international-approach",title:"Dyslexia",fullTitle:"Dyslexia - A Comprehensive and International Approach"},signatures:"Taeko N. Wydell",authors:[{id:"87489",title:"Prof.",name:"Taeko",middleName:"N.",surname:"Wydell",slug:"taeko-wydell",fullName:"Taeko Wydell"}]},{id:"58597",title:"Testosterone and Erectile Function: A Review of Evidence from Basic Research",slug:"testosterone-and-erectile-function-a-review-of-evidence-from-basic-research",totalDownloads:1331,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"Androgens are essential for male physical activity and normal erectile function. Hence, age-related testosterone deficiency, known as late-onset hypogonadism (LOH), is considered a risk factor for erectile dysfunction (ED). This chapter summarizes relevant basic research reports examining the effects of testosterone on erectile function. Testosterone affects several organs and is especially active on the erectile tissue. The mechanism of testosterone deficiency effects on erectile function and the results of testosterone replacement therapy (TRT) have been well studied. Testosterone affects nitric oxide (NO) production and phosphodiesterase type 5 (PDE-5) expression in the corpus cavernosum through molecular pathways, preserves smooth muscle contractility by regulating both contraction and relaxation, and maintains the structure of the corpus cavernosum. Interestingly, testosterone deficiency has relationship to neurological diseases, which leads to ED. Testosterone replacement therapy is widely used to treat patients with testosterone deficiency; however, this treatment might also induce some problems. Basic research suggests that PDE-5 inhibitors, L-citrulline, and/or resveratrol therapy might be effective therapeutic options for testosterone deficiency-induced ED. Future research should confirm these findings through more specific experiments using molecular tools and may shed more light on endocrine-related ED and its possible treatments.",book:{id:"5994",slug:"sex-hormones-in-neurodegenerative-processes-and-diseases",title:"Sex Hormones in Neurodegenerative Processes and Diseases",fullTitle:"Sex Hormones in Neurodegenerative Processes and Diseases"},signatures:"Tomoya Kataoka and Kazunori Kimura",authors:[{id:"219042",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Tomoya",middleName:null,surname:"Kataoka",slug:"tomoya-kataoka",fullName:"Tomoya Kataoka"},{id:"229066",title:"Prof.",name:"Kazunori",middleName:null,surname:"Kimura",slug:"kazunori-kimura",fullName:"Kazunori Kimura"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"18",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"81646",title:"Cortical Plasticity under Ketamine: From Synapse to Map",slug:"cortical-plasticity-under-ketamine-from-synapse-to-map",totalDownloads:14,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104787",abstract:"Sensory systems need to process signals in a highly dynamic way to efficiently respond to variations in the animal’s environment. For instance, several studies showed that the visual system is subject to neuroplasticity since the neurons’ firing changes according to stimulus properties. This dynamic information processing might be supported by a network reorganization. Since antidepressants influence neurotransmission, they can be used to explore synaptic plasticity sustaining cortical map reorganization. To this goal, we investigated in the primary visual cortex (V1 of mouse and cat), the impact of ketamine on neuroplasticity through changes in neuronal orientation selectivity and the functional connectivity between V1 cells, using cross correlation analyses. We found that ketamine affects cortical orientation selectivity and alters the functional connectivity within an assembly. These data clearly highlight the role of the antidepressant drugs in inducing or modeling short-term plasticity in V1 which suggests that cortical processing is optimized and adapted to the properties of the stimulus.",book:{id:"11374",title:"Sensory Nervous System - Computational Neuroimaging Investigations of Topographical Organization in Human Sensory Cortex",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11374.jpg"},signatures:"Ouelhazi Afef, Rudy Lussiez and Molotchnikoff Stephane"},{id:"81582",title:"The Role of Cognitive Reserve in Executive Functioning and Its Relationship to Cognitive Decline and Dementia",slug:"the-role-of-cognitive-reserve-in-executive-functioning-and-its-relationship-to-cognitive-decline-and",totalDownloads:22,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104646",abstract:"In this chapter, we explore how cognitive reserve is implicated in coping with the negative consequences of brain pathology and age-related cognitive decline. Individual differences in cognitive performance are based on different brain mechanisms (neural reserve and neural compensation), and reflect, among others, the effect of education, occupational attainment, leisure activities, and social involvement. These cognitive reserve proxies have been extensively associated with efficient executive functioning. We discuss and focus particularly on the compensation mechanisms related to the frontal lobe and its protective role, in maintaining cognitive performance in old age or even mitigating the clinical expression of dementia.",book:{id:"11742",title:"Neurophysiology",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11742.jpg"},signatures:"Gabriela Álvares-Pereira, Carolina Maruta and Maria Vânia Silva-Nunes"},{id:"81488",title:"Aggression and Sexual Behavior: Overlapping or Distinct Roles of 5-HT1A and 5-HT1B Receptors",slug:"aggression-and-sexual-behavior-overlapping-or-distinct-roles-of-5-ht1a-and-5-ht1b-receptors",totalDownloads:19,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104872",abstract:"Distinct brain mechanisms for male aggressive and sexual behavior are present in mammalian species, including man. However, recent evidence suggests a strong connection and even overlap in the central nervous system (CNS) circuitry involved in aggressive and sexual behavior. The serotonergic system in the CNS is strongly involved in male aggressive and sexual behavior. In particular, 5-HT1A and 5-HT1B receptors seem to play a critical role in the modulation of these behaviors. The present chapter focuses on the effects of 5-HT1A- and 5-HT1B-receptor ligands in male rodent aggression and sexual behavior. Results indicate that 5-HT1B-heteroreceptors play a critical role in the modulation of male offensive behavior, although a definite role of 5-HT1A-auto- or heteroreceptors cannot be ruled out. 5-HT1A receptors are clearly involved in male sexual behavior, although it has to be yet unraveled whether 5-HT1A-auto- or heteroreceptors are important. Although several key nodes in the complex circuitry of aggression and sexual behavior are known, in particular in the medial hypothalamus, a clear link or connection to these critical structures and the serotonergic key receptors is yet to be determined. This information is urgently needed to detect and develop new selective anti-aggressive (serenic) and pro-sexual drugs for human applications.",book:{id:"10195",title:"Serotonin and the CNS - New Developments in Pharmacology and Therapeutics",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10195.jpg"},signatures:"Berend Olivier and Jocelien D.A. Olivier"},{id:"81093",title:"Prehospital and Emergency Room Airway Management in Traumatic Brain Injury",slug:"prehospital-and-emergency-room-airway-management-in-traumatic-brain-injury",totalDownloads:49,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104173",abstract:"Airway management in trauma is critical and may impact patient outcomes. Particularly in traumatic brain injury (TBI), depressed level of consciousness may be associated with compromised protective airway reflexes or apnea, which can increase the risk of aspiration or result in hypoxemia and worsen the secondary brain damage. Therefore, patients with TBI and Glasgow Coma Scale (GCS) ≤ 8 have been traditionally managed by prehospital or emergency room (ER) endotracheal intubation. However, recent evidence challenged this practice and even suggested that routine intubation may be harmful. This chapter will address the indications and optimal method of securing the airway, prehospital and in the ER, in patients with traumatic brain injury.",book:{id:"11367",title:"Traumatic Brain Injury",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11367.jpg"},signatures:"Dominik A. Jakob, Jean-Cyrille Pitteloud and Demetrios Demetriades"},{id:"81011",title:"Amino Acids as Neurotransmitters. The Balance between Excitation and Inhibition as a Background for Future Clinical Applications",slug:"amino-acids-as-neurotransmitters-the-balance-between-excitation-and-inhibition-as-a-background-for-f",totalDownloads:19,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103760",abstract:"For more than 30 years, amino acids have been well-known (and essential) participants in neurotransmission. They act as both neuromediators and metabolites in nervous tissue. Glycine and glutamic acid (glutamate) are prominent examples. These amino acids are agonists of inhibitory and excitatory membrane receptors, respectively. Moreover, they play essential roles in metabolic pathways and energy transformation in neurons and astrocytes. Despite their obvious effects on the brain, their potential role in therapeutic methods remains uncertain in clinical practice. In the current chapter, a comparison of the crosstalk between these two systems, which are responsible for excitation and inhibition in neurons, is presented. The interactions are discussed at the metabolic, receptor, and transport levels. Reaction-diffusion and a convectional flow into the interstitial fluid create a balanced distribution of glycine and glutamate. Indeed, the neurons’ final physiological state is a result of a balance between the excitatory and inhibitory influences. However, changes to the glycine and/or glutamate pools under pathological conditions can alter the state of nervous tissue. Thus, new therapies for various diseases may be developed on the basis of amino acid medication.",book:{id:"10890",title:"Recent Advances in Neurochemistry",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10890.jpg"},signatures:"Yaroslav R. Nartsissov"},{id:"80821",title:"Neuroimmunology and Neurological Manifestations of COVID-19",slug:"neuroimmunology-and-neurological-manifestations-of-covid-19",totalDownloads:41,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103026",abstract:"Infection with SARS-CoV-2 is causing coronavirus disease in 2019 (COVID-19). Besides respiratory symptoms due to an attack on the broncho-alveolar system, COVID-19, among others, can be accompanied by neurological symptoms because of the affection of the nervous system. These can be caused by intrusion by SARS-CoV-2 of the central nervous system (CNS) and peripheral nervous system (PNS) and direct infection of local cells. In addition, neurological deterioration mediated by molecular mimicry to virus antigens or bystander activation in the context of immunological anti-virus defense can lead to tissue damage in the CNS and PNS. In addition, cytokine storm caused by SARS-CoV-2 infection in COVID-19 can lead to nervous system related symptoms. Endotheliitis of CNS vessels can lead to vessel occlusion and stroke. COVID-19 can also result in cerebral hemorrhage and sinus thrombosis possibly related to changes in clotting behavior. Vaccination is most important to prevent COVID-19 in the nervous system. There are symptomatic or/and curative therapeutic approaches to combat COVID-19 related nervous system damage that are partly still under study.",book:{id:"10890",title:"Recent Advances in Neurochemistry",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10890.jpg"},signatures:"Robert Weissert"}],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:17},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:0,limit:8,total:null},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:87,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:98,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:27,numberOfPublishedChapters:288,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:9,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:139,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:0,numberOfUpcomingTopics:2,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:107,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:10,numberOfPublishedChapters:103,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:0,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:11,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",issn:"2754-6713",scope:"\r\n\tScientists have long researched to understand the environment and man’s place in it. The search for this knowledge grows in importance as rapid increases in population and economic development intensify humans’ stresses on ecosystems. Fortunately, rapid increases in multiple scientific areas are advancing our understanding of environmental sciences. Breakthroughs in computing, molecular biology, ecology, and sustainability science are enhancing our ability to utilize environmental sciences to address real-world problems.
\r\n\tThe four topics of this book series - Pollution; Environmental Resilience and Management; Ecosystems and Biodiversity; and Water Science - will address important areas of advancement in the environmental sciences. They will represent an excellent initial grouping of published works on these critical topics.