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M. Sohel",middleName:null,surname:"Murshed",slug:"s.-m.-sohel-murshed",fullName:"S. M. Sohel Murshed"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}},ofsBook:{item:{type:"book",id:"9328",leadTitle:null,title:"Set Theory",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"
\r\n\tSets theory provides the basis for the developments of all mathematics. In it, several concepts are established and provide the fundamental structure for the creation of a whole construction of mathematical theory. For example, the concept of infinity, which plays a fundamental role, has always been a source of controversy among mathematicians and philosophers. This type of problem, which causes divergences and raises questions, is responsible for the establishment of new theories and sets.
\r\n\t
\r\n\tThe concepts of sets emerges naturally in the human mind, being an abstract concept created by our human reasoning. An example is the set of natural numbers, which can be seen as an immediate consequence of the notion of sets.
\r\n\t
\r\n\tHowever, when the human mind creates abstract concepts, such as numbers, which are often associated with concrete concepts; However, in some cases, it is impossible to count the number of elements of a set, even knowing that it has a finite amount of elements. The number of residences in the world or stars in the sky is a finite number, no matter how amazingly large. Thus, one of the fundamental questions of the sets theory arises that is "Does the order we use to count things not affect the result?".
\r\n\t
\r\n\tThere are many questionings of this kind that arise. Despite the protests of several lines of research, such as constructivists and intuitionists, the pillars of the theory of sets developed by Cantor, Zermelo, Frankel, and Von Neumann, served as the basis for the rationale of mathematics. The fundamental idea is to use sets to define all mathematical objects as sets. Everything is set!
\r\n\t
\r\n\tThis book aims to show new advances and representations in sets theory, asking questions still open and explaining complex axioms. Applications from sets theory to real-world representation problems can also be presented. Philosophical problems and new modeling can also be addressed.
Imbalances between generation and consumption cause frequency variations in a power system [1]. To maintain frequency in its nominal value, power systems rely on synchronous machines connected to the grid, which store kinetic energy automatically extracted in response to a sudden power imbalance [2]. However, due to the new environmental policies and the limited fossil fuel reserves, conventional generators are being replaced by renewable energy sources (RES)-based generators [3]. Among the different RES available, the most promising for electrical power generation are PV and wind power installations, which are inverter-interfaced RES (II-RES) [4]. However, the massive penetration of II-RES into the grid can involve several issues that should be taken into account [5]. First, as they depend on weather conditions, these sources are intermittent and uncertain, placing stress on power system operation [6]. Moreover, as they are connected to the grid through inverters which electrically decouple them from the grid [7], the effective inertia of the power system can be reduced [8]. This inertia reduction affects the system reliability, compromising the frequency stability [9]. The rotational inertia is related to both nadir (minimum frequency) and rate of change of frequency (ROCOF) [10]. In fact, larger nadirs and faster ROCOFs are obtained in low rotational inertia power systems, subsequently making them more sensitive to frequency deviations [11, 12]. As a result, over the last decade, several frequency control techniques have been proposed to facilitate the massive penetration of wind and PV resources into the grid [13]. In addition, recent contributions investigated the use of smart inverters with voltage and frequency support to enhance grid stability [14]. Such solutions are commonly referred to as hidden, synthetic or virtual inertia [15].
This chapter focuses on the current and future inertia concept for power systems. A methodology to estimate the current rotational inertia of power systems based on their electricity generation mix is proposed. In addition, the possibilities of wind and PV power plants to contribute to inertia and participate in frequency control are also presented. The rest of the chapter is organized as follows. The inertia analysis and swing equation of generators and current and future power systems are presented in Section 2. In Section 3, the inertia constant estimation methodology is explained, comparing the results to a previous report published by the European Network of Transmission System Operators for Electricity (ENTSO-E). Section 4 reviews different frequency control techniques for PV and wind power plants. Finally, Section 5 gives the conclusion.
Rotating masses of a synchronous generator store kinetic energy
Moment of inertia
Work in [10] reviews the inertia constants
In power systems, the motion of each turbine-generator group is expressed as Eq. (3), where
However, as
where
and in steady state:
In consequence, considering small variations around the steady state, Eq. (3) can be rewritten as in Eq. (7) [19]:
Furthermore, some electrical loads connected to the grid are also frequency-dependent, working as a load resource under frequency deviations (i.e., synchronous machines). In this way, the electrical power of those loads can be expressed as:
where
To apply the swing Eq. (9) to a power system, all synchronous generators are grouped in an equivalent rotating mass. This is carried out by determining the equivalent inertia constant
where
In the same way, loads are reduced to an equivalent one with damping factor
In recent decades, several policies have promoted the penetration of RES-based generation units, which have replaced synchronous generators directly connected to the grid [22]. However, as some of them are II-RES (i.e., wind and PV), power systems with a high penetration of those RES require new frequency control strategies that emulate the behavior of conventional power plants under power imbalance conditions [23]. Such techniques are commonly referred to as hidden, synthetic, emulated or virtual inertia [15]. By including this emulation of inertia into power systems, equivalent inertia
where
Power system with synchronous, hidden and virtual inertia.
Inertia constant values H for different wind turbine technologies.
On the other hand, PV has no rotating masses [30]. Thus, PV power plants cannot store kinetic energy and their inertia constant is
Due to the repercussions of II-RES with regard to the rotating inertia of power systems [36], they should start providing active power support under disturbances [37]. The specific literature includes several technologies that allow II-RES to participate in frequency control by providing additional power under disturbances [38, 39, 40].
Energy global statistics are provided by the International Energy Agency (IEA). Considering Eq. (10) and the electricity supply within a year presented in [41], it is possible to calculate the equivalent inertia
Figure 3 depicts the generation mix change between 1996 and 2016. Over these two decades, the total electricity consumption increased by more than 80%. However, in the same time period, RES electricity generation only increased by 4%. Based on the approach previously described to estimate
Generation mix in the world: change between 1996 and 2016. (a) Generation mix in 1996. (b) Generation mix in 2016.
Estimated equivalent inertia constants in the world by continent: change between 1996 and 2016.
In line with the inertia reduction suffered, RES supply in Europe increased by nearly 20% (refer to Figure 5). Actually, ENTSO-E has already focused on the high RES integration-low synchronous inertia problem. In one of their published reports, ENTSO-E estimated the evolution of system inertia for different TYNDP scenarios for 2030 in Europe and certain countries (i.e., the United Kingdom, France and Germany), considering that II-RES do not contribute to inertia [42]. In those estimations,
Generation mix in Europe: change between 1996 and 2016. (a) Generation mix in 1996. (b) Generation mix in 2016.
The transition of
Equivalent inertia constants estimated in EU-28: change between 1996 and 2016.
To maintain frequency within an acceptable range, generation and load in the power system must be continuously balanced [43]. In fact, frequency variations from the nominal value can cause several problems including under-/overfrequency relay operations and disconnection of some loads from the grid, among others [44]. Thus, frequency stability is an essential issue for power systems [45].
With the increase in II-RES, the equivalent inertia constant of power systems is reduced, subsequently obtaining (i) larger frequency deviations after an imbalance and (ii) higher ROCOF [7, 46]. As a consequence, II-RES should start providing active power support under disturbances [37].
In order to provide additional active power during imbalanced situations, PV power plants can integrate different solutions, mainly based on two principal approaches: energy storage systems (ESS) or de-loading control strategies. Moreover, the technical challenge is more severe with PV power plants than with wind generation, since PV systems cannot provide any inertial response unless special countermeasures are adopted [47].
With regard to ESS, different solutions have been proposed in the literature to be applied to PV systems. Although the relevant benefits of ESS to power system’s operation is widely recognized, some significant challenges can be identified: (i) the selection of a suitable technology to match the power system application requirements, (ii) an accurate evaluation of the energy storage facilities estimating both technical and economic benefits and (iii) a cost decreasing to a realistically acceptable level for deployment [48]. Among the different ESS, the battery energy storage is considered by some authors as the oldest and most mature ESS [49]. In work [50], it is concluded that the Li-Ion batteries are those that best suit frequency regulation services. Batteries are limited in power, though present a high storage ratio [51, 52, 53]; on the other hand, supercapacitors have high levels of power with low energy storage ratio. As a consequence, the battery-supercapacitor combination is proposed as an interesting ESS solution [54]. Indeed, these technologies can help to solve the problem of the ‘intermittent’ nature of solar PV supply [55]. Additional solutions for PV installations based on supercapacitors can be found in [56, 57]. Flywheels are another solution widely proposed as ESS, being applied from very small micro-satellites to large power systems [58]. Work in [59] points out a great benefit of flywheels backing up solar PV power plants, mainly focused on the cloud passing, which can cope with the high cycles of the flywheel technologies. Indeed, flywheels excel in short duration and high cycle applications [60]. Moreover, flywheels have a high efficiency, usually in the range between 90% and 95%, with an expected lifetime of around 15 years [61]. Different solutions propose hybrid ESS coupled to PV power plants [53], such as a battery hybridization with mechanical flywheel [62].
PV power plants usually work at the maximum power point (MPP) according to ambient temperature
De-loading techniques for PV power plants. (a) Vdel.1 > VMPP. (b) Vdel.2 < VMPP.
Wind power plants can also participate in frequency control by using different solutions. Apart from the use of ESS or working with the de-loading control strategy, wind turbines can provide inertial response as conventional generators due to the rotational inertia of the blades and generator [10].
With regard to ESS, wind power plants can also include batteries [71], supercapacitors [72] and flywheels [73]. ESS are considered an alternative to compensate the lack of short-term frequency response ability of wind power plants [74]. The utility-scale battery ESS helps to reduce the ROCOF, providing frequency support and improving the system frequency response [75]. A battery ESS based on a state-machine-based coordinated control strategy is developed in [76] to support frequency response of wind power plants, including both primary and secondary frequency control. A real-time cooperation scheme by considering complementary characteristics between wind power and batteries is discussed in [77] to provide both energy and frequency regulation, considering the battery life cycle. The combination of battery and supercapacitor is considered in [78] as an effective alternative to improve the battery lifetime and enhance the system economy. In this way, an enhanced frequency response strategy is investigated in [79] to improve and regulate the wind frequency response with the integration of ultra-capacitors. With the aim of smoothing the net power injected to the grid by wind turbines (or by a wind power plant), some authors propose to use flywheels [80, 81]. Flywheels are also proposed to dynamically regulate the system equivalent inertia and damping, enhancing the frequency regulation capability of wind turbines [38, 82] and also the entire grid [83]. A coordinated regulation response of the turbine power reserves and the flywheels while participating in primary frequency control is described in [84]. Finally, other works include not only frequency response but also voltage control by using flywheels [85, 86].
In line with PV installations, wind turbines also work in the MPP according to the wind speed
De-loading techniques for wind power plants. (a) Pitch control. (b) Over-speed control.
In order to provide an inertial response, at least one supplementary loop control is introduced into the power controller to increase the generated power by the wind power plant. This additional loop is only activated under power imbalances (i.e., frequency deviations), supplying the kinetic energy stored in the blades and generator to the grid as an additional active power for a few seconds [94]. The droop control provides an additional active power
Droop control for VSWTs. (a) Droop characteristic. (b) Block diagram of droop control.
The hidden inertia emulation technique is based on emulating the inertial response of traditional synchronous generators. Two possibilities are found in the specific literature, as presented in Figure 10: (i) one loop, where the additional power is proportional to the ROCOF [100, 101, 102], and (ii) two loops, where the additional power is proportional to the ROCOF and the frequency deviation. The second strategy causes the frequency to return to its nominal value [103, 104, 105]. In both cases, the rotor and generator speeds are reduced to release the stored kinetic energy.
Hidden inertia emulation controllers. (a) One loop. (b) Two loops.
The fast power reserve approach is similar to the hidden inertia emulation technique: an additional power is initially supplied, which makes the rotor speed to decrease. However, in this technique, the additional active power
Fast power reserve emulation technique [106]. (a) P – Ω curve. (b) Power variation.
In this chapter, we have conducted an extensive literature review of inertia of power systems. A methodology to estimate the inertia constants of different power systems is proposed and verified with the inertia constant results of ENTSO-E. The contribution of wind and PV power plants as ‘hidden inertia’ and ‘virtual inertia,’ respectively, to participate in frequency control has also been discussed, providing significant information for their participation in frequency control.
This work was supported by the Spanish Education, Culture and Sports Ministry (FPU16/04282), Spanish Economy and Competitiveness Ministry and European Union FEDER, which supported this work under Project ENE2016-78214-C2-1-R.
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
DFIG | double-fed induction generator |
ESS | energy storage systems |
ENTSO-E | European Network of Transmission System Operators for Electricity |
FSWT | fixed-speed wind turbine |
HAWT | horizontal axis wind turbine |
II-RES | inverter-interfaced renewable energy sources |
PMSG | permanent magnet synchronous generator |
PV | photovoltaic |
RES | renewable energy sources |
ROCOF | rate of change of frequency |
SCIG | squirrel cage induction generator |
VSWT | variable speed wind turbine |
WPP | wind power plant |
These Terms and Conditions outline the rules and regulations pertaining to the use of IntechOpen’s website www.intechopen.com and all the subdomains owned by IntechOpen located at 5 Princes Gate Court, London, SW7 2QJ, United Kingdom.
',metaTitle:"Terms and Conditions",metaDescription:"These terms and conditions outline the rules and regulations for the use of IntechOpen Website at https://intechopen.com and all its subdomains owned by Intech Limited located at 7th floor, 10 Lower Thames Street, London, EC3R 6AF, UK.",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"/page/terms-and-conditions",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"By accessing the website at www.intechopen.com you are agreeing to be bound by these Terms of Service, all applicable laws and regulations, and agree that you are responsible for compliance with any applicable local laws. Use and/or access to this site is based on full agreement and compliance of these Terms. All materials contained on this website are protected by applicable copyright and trademark laws.
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\\n"}]'},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'By accessing the website at www.intechopen.com you are agreeing to be bound by these Terms of Service, all applicable laws and regulations, and agree that you are responsible for compliance with any applicable local laws. Use and/or access to this site is based on full agreement and compliance of these Terms. All materials contained on this website are protected by applicable copyright and trademark laws.
\n\nThe following terminology applies to these Terms and Conditions, Privacy Statement, Disclaimer Notice, and any or all Agreements:
\n\n“Client”, “Customer”, “You” and “Your” refers to you, the person accessing this website and accepting the Company’s Terms and Conditions;
\n\n“The Company”, “Ourselves”, “We”, “Our” and “Us”, refers to our Company, IntechOpen;
\n\n“Party”, “Parties”, or “Us”, refers to both the Client and ourselves, or either the Client or ourselves.
\n\nAll Terms refer to the offer, acceptance, and consideration of payment necessary to provide assistance to the Client in the most appropriate manner, whether by formal meetings of a fixed duration, or by any other agreed means, for the express purpose of meeting the Client’s needs in respect of provision of the Company’s stated services/products, and in accordance with, and subject to, the prevailing laws of the United Kingdom.
\n\nAny use of the above terminology, or other words in the singular, plural, capitalization and/or he/she or they, are taken as interchangeable.
\n\nUnless otherwise stated, IntechOpen and/or its licensors own the intellectual property rights for all materials on www.intechopen.com. All intellectual property rights are reserved. You may view, download, share, link and print pages from www.intechopen.com for your own personal use, subject to the restrictions set out in these Terms and Conditions.
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\n\nIn no circumstances shall IntechOpen or its suppliers be liable for any damages (including, without limitation, damages for loss of data or profit, or due to business interruption) arising out of the use, or inability to use, the materials on IntechOpen's websites, even if IntechOpen or an IntechOpen authorized representative has been notified orally or in writing of the possibility of such damage. Some jurisdictions do not allow limitations on implied warranties, or limitations of liability for consequential or incidental damages; consequently, these limitations may not apply to you.
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