\\n\\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\\n\\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"Highly Cited",originalUrl:"/media/original/117"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'IntechOpen is proud to announce that 191 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nThroughout the years, the list has named a total of 261 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\nReleased this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"9047",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Nursing - New Perspectives",title:"Nursing",subtitle:"New Perspectives",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"The Nursing - New Perspectives book covers nursing services and related topics of interest. The book includes innovative nursing services that will positively affect patient safety such as leadership in nursing, patient-nurse conflict, patient safety and medical errors, nurses’ perspective, simulation, collaboration, communication and quality in care. Various experts from around the world have made valuable contributions to the book. I especially thank them. With these broad advanced topics covered in this particular book, no doubt the clinician, researcher, or any reader will find this book valuable in guiding them to grasp a new understanding and to keep up-to-date with information on nursing services.",isbn:"978-1-78985-972-0",printIsbn:"978-1-78985-971-3",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83962-929-7",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.83042",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"nursing-new-perspectives",numberOfPages:108,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"1500bf539d1400c51b941e95f3a1f0f9",bookSignature:"Serpil Çelik Durmuş",publishedDate:"December 16th 2020",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9047.jpg",numberOfDownloads:6321,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:1,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:5,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:6,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"March 18th 2019",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"September 23rd 2019",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"November 22nd 2019",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"February 10th 2020",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"April 10th 2020",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"189558",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Serpil",middleName:null,surname:"Çelik Durmuş",slug:"serpil-celik-durmus",fullName:"Serpil Çelik Durmuş",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/189558/images/system/189558.jpeg",biography:"Serpil ÇELİK DURMUŞ was born in 1985 in Nevşehir/Turkey. After graduating from Gazi University School of Nursing in 2007, she completed her master\\'s degree at the same university in the Department of Nursing Management. Later, in 2015, she completed her doctorate at the Istanbul University Institute of Health Sciences, Department of Nursing Management. She worked as a research assistant at Düzce University and Istanbul University between 2009 and 2016. Since 2016, she has been working as an Assistant Professor at Kırıkkale University Faculty of Health Sciences, Department of Nursing. 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Leadership in health services is important for following innovations and adapting to current situations. Nurses working together with other health personnel in hospitals providing health services constitute an important group in leadership. Nursing, which is a key force for patient safety and safe care, is a human-centered profession, and therefore leadership is a key skill for nurses at all levels. The leadership styles of nurse managers are believed to be an important determinant of job satisfaction and persistence of nurses. The need for nurses with leadership skills and the need for nurses to develop their leadership skills are increasing day by day. There are several leadership styles defined in nursing literature. These leadership styles are examined under the titles of relational leadership style, transformational leadership, resonant leadership, emotional intelligence leadership, and participatory leadership. 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In this context, there is a greater exposure of healthcare professionals to medical-legal liability issues and to becoming victims of situations that are often preventable. Nurses and medical doctors are especially exposed to these situations, since they are visible during procedures, or do so during the points of greater risk during the patient care process. This chapter will review the contribution provided by the curricular integration of simulation-based education as a tool to train technical and nontechnical issues and how this work can be done for the safety of patients through a standardized training plan, under controlled and evaluated processes. We will discuss how resources and elements allow to perform healthcare interventions in a more safely manner. Finally, we will review the existing literature, some experiences, and the available evidence on this topic.",signatures:"Eliana Escudero, Marlova Silva and Marcia Corvetto",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/68899",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/68899",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"71599",title:"Keeping Patients Safe: The Critical Role of Medical Error Recovery",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.91412",slug:"keeping-patients-safe-the-critical-role-of-medical-error-recovery",totalDownloads:479,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Two decades after the Institute of Medicine Report, To Err is Human: Building a Safer Health System illuminated the high number of preventable deaths and adverse events associated with health care, medical errors remain a top global concern. To date, resources have been focused on preventing medical errors; however, the importance of error recovery must not be overlooked. Medical errors cannot be fully eliminated from our health care system, yet many errors can be recovered thus preventing patient harm. This chapter will (1) define and describe the error recovery process, (2) discuss the role of health care providers in error recovery, (3) explore strategies that enhance and prohibit error recovery, and (4) analyze characteristics that influence error recovery. Given the importance of patient safety within the health care industry, health care professionals and organizations must focus on both error prevention and error recovery as a key strategy in keeping patients safe.",signatures:"Theresa A. Gaffney",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/71599",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/71599",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"71212",title:"Patient Safety in a First-Level Hospital in Colombia, According to London Protocol",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.89520",slug:"patient-safety-in-a-first-level-hospital-in-colombia-according-to-london-protocol",totalDownloads:523,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The objective of this study is to identify the adherence of the health personnel of the state social enterprise Norte 2 institution, Caloto, Department of Cauca, Colombia, in the application of the London protocol, referring to patient safety policy, where a quantitative investigation was conducted; observational, descriptive through a census of 92 officials of the institution through a survey designed to measure adherence to protocol, all information was tabulated in the Epi-info 7.2 program and presented by descriptive statistics; the results of this study showed that the population is composed of 60% of female nursing assistants who are more than 1-year old and that the protocol is partially met, where it was found that only 52% of adverse events are reported, concluding that there is no defined patient safety culture, which means that adverse events are not documented.",signatures:"Carmen Luisa Betancur Pulgarín, Mónica Roció Romero Carvajal, Luis Gabriel Murillo Micolta, Yaqueline Churi Antero, Yudi Nathalia Angulo Ante and Diego Carmona Carmona",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/71212",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/71212",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"69156",title:"Nurse-Patient Conflict: Verification of Structural Model",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.89130",slug:"nurse-patient-conflict-verification-of-structural-model",totalDownloads:730,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"This chapter focuses on the overlooked area of everyday nursing care in which engaging in the depressive feelings between nurses and patients is not recognized as part of nursing care. To comprehend situations that had been overlooked, a conceptual model was constructed by focusing on nurse-patient conflicts and understanding the perception of both nurses and patients based on phenomena. In the established model, it is considered that the so-called “passion” emanating from one’s personality, which is beyond techniques of communication and empathic understanding, is involved; this passion is expressed as an “emotional exchange.” In an “emotional exchange,” one sends “emotional” messages to whom he/she feels safe to express “emotions” and shares similar emotional world by receiving those “emotional” messages as they are. Such an expression has not been reported previously.",signatures:"Mayumi Uno",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/69156",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/69156",authors:[{id:"233219",title:"Dr.",name:"Mayumi",surname:"Uno",slug:"mayumi-uno",fullName:"Mayumi Uno"}],corrections:null},{id:"68912",title:"Nursing Environments: Nurses Perspectives",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.89087",slug:"nursing-environments-nurses-perspectives",totalDownloads:766,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Nurses have been found to experience higher burnout levels compared with other health professionals owing to the nature of their work. High burnout levels among nurses have been attributed to their stressful working environments. Prolonged exposure to work-related stress leading to burnout has negative consequences for job satisfaction and general health of nurses. This has wider implications on the health system, such as high turnover rates and compromised patient care. There is a significant gap in research focusing on the relationship between work-related stress, burnout, job satisfaction and general health of nurses in developing countries such as South Africa. A study exploring the relationships between work-related stress, burnout, job satisfaction and general health among South African nurses over time was conducted in order to inform how best to improve nursing environments while enabling quality nursing practice and patient care. A total of 895 nurses participated in the study at baseline and 277 of these individuals were followed up with a year later. Findings showed that although stress related to security risks in the workplace predicts job satisfaction as well as general health, stress related to patient care and nursing shortages better predict job satisfaction and general health over time. 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\r\n\r\n\tThis book aims to provide a comprehensive overview of this topic by exploring research, theories, biopsychosocial perspectives, and cross-cultural studies about happiness. The objectives of the project are: to analyze in-depth updates from research and clinic on how specific biological, psychological, and social factors are related to happiness, and how they develop in different contemporary cultural and anthropological contexts to further analyze their associations with mental health and, to investigate the interaction of demographic variables along different psychological and social trajectories, and thus obtain detailed information on the factors that influence the development of happiness.
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She has worked at Fatebenefratelli Hospital in Milan performing research and clinical activities, in addition to authoring the books Illuminarsi di Benessere, Familiar-mente, and Contemporary Perspectives on Relational Wellness.",coeditorOneBiosketch:"Dr. Fabio Gabrielli, a philosopher, is a Professor of Philosophy of the Relationship at the School of Management (Milan campus), University Jean Monnet, Bari, Italy. He is a scientific member of QPP-Quantum Paradigms of Psychopathology and the 2015 Nobel Nominee.",coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"174641",title:"Dr.",name:"Floriana",middleName:null,surname:"Irtelli",slug:"floriana-irtelli",fullName:"Floriana Irtelli",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/174641/images/system/174641.jpeg",biography:"Floriana Irtelli is a psychoanalyst/psychotherapist and member of the International Association for Relational Psychoanalysis and Psychotherapy (IARPP) who has been lecturing for several years at the Catholic University of the Sacred Heart, Milan, Italy. She has worked at Fatebenefratelli Hospital in Milan performing research and clinical activities. She is among the authors of several books, including A Fresh Look at Anxiety Disorders and Psychopathy - New Updates on an Old Phenomenon, and has published articles for the Journal of Affective Disorders, Research in Psychotherapy, and the Journal for Psychiatric and Mental Health Nursing. She has participated in numerous conferences, seminars, and congresses. Dr. Irtelli is the sole author of the books Illuminarsi di Ben-essere, Familiar-mente, and Contemporary Perspectives on Relational Wellness.",institutionString:"Catholic University of the Sacred Heart",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"5",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"4",institution:{name:"Catholic University of the Sacred Heart",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}}],coeditorOne:{id:"259407",title:"Prof.",name:"Fabio",middleName:null,surname:"Gabrielli",slug:"fabio-gabrielli",fullName:"Fabio Gabrielli",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259407/images/system/259407.jpg",biography:"Dr. Fabio Gabrielli (2015 Nobel Prize nominee) has been Full\nProfessor of Philosophical Anthropology at Ludes University of\nLugano, Switzerland. Currently, he is also working as Professor\nof Philosophy of the Relationship at the School of Management,\nUniversity Jean Monnet, Bari, Italy. He is also a visiting professor, PWSTE, at the University of Jaroslaw, Poland. Dr. Gabrielli\nis a member of the International Scientific Committee of the\nQuantum Paradigms of Psychopathology (QPP) - European section, and a member\nof the Scientific Board of the Aracne Publishing House in Rome for the Neo-existential Anthropology Series. He is the honorary-national president of CCSVI in\nMultiple Sclerosis – ONLUS. Dr. Gabrielli has participated in numerous conferences, seminars, and congresses and has authored many books and journal papers.",institutionString:"Università Lum Jean Monnet",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Università Lum Jean Monnet",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"21",title:"Psychology",slug:"psychology"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"444315",firstName:"Karla",lastName:"Skuliber",middleName:null,title:"Mrs.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/444315/images/20013_n.jpg",email:"karla@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager, my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. Whether that be identifying an exceptional author and proposing an editorship collaboration, or contacting researchers who would like the opportunity to work with IntechOpen, I establish and help manage author and editor acquisition and contact."}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"9052",title:"Psychoanalysis",subtitle:"A New Overview",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"69cc7a085f5417038f532cf11edee22f",slug:"psychoanalysis-a-new-overview",bookSignature:"Floriana Irtelli, Barbara Marchesi and Federico Durbano",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9052.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"174641",title:"Dr.",name:"Floriana",surname:"Irtelli",slug:"floriana-irtelli",fullName:"Floriana Irtelli"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7117",title:"Psychosis",subtitle:"Biopsychosocial and Relational Perspectives",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"3cfc852c7ecc10618bca94b1a559c9cd",slug:"psychosis-biopsychosocial-and-relational-perspectives",bookSignature:"Floriana Irtelli",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7117.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"174641",title:"Dr.",name:"Floriana",surname:"Irtelli",slug:"floriana-irtelli",fullName:"Floriana Irtelli"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7810",title:"Quality of Life",subtitle:"Biopsychosocial Perspectives",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0392d2712c58885b729bd943f9aac37f",slug:"quality-of-life-biopsychosocial-perspectives",bookSignature:"Floriana Irtelli, Federico Durbano and Simon George Taukeni",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7810.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"174641",title:"Dr.",name:"Floriana",surname:"Irtelli",slug:"floriana-irtelli",fullName:"Floriana Irtelli"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8864",title:"Family Therapy",subtitle:"New Intervention Programs and Researches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e50bb9cef36aeaef4ba976554b3dd141",slug:"family-therapy-new-intervention-programs-and-researches",bookSignature:"Floriana Irtelli",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8864.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"174641",title:"Dr.",name:"Floriana",surname:"Irtelli",slug:"floriana-irtelli",fullName:"Floriana Irtelli"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6494",title:"Behavior Analysis",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"72a81a7163705b2765f9eb0b21dec70e",slug:"behavior-analysis",bookSignature:"Huei-Tse Hou and Carolyn S. 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A short comparative overview on gas phase transports is given here. However, in the main we deal with the concept of Chemical Vapor Transport Reactions [1, 2]. The term “
Scheme of CVT experiments for crystallization of solids in a temperature gradient.
Chemical vapor transport reactions address the formation process of pure and crystalline solids. Especially, the growth of single-crystalline material is of particular value because, among other things, it allows the determination of the crystal structure by diffraction methods. Beyond the aspect of basic research, chemical vapor transport reactions have also gained practical significance: they form the basis of the operating mode of halogen lamps. Furthermore, an industrial process is based on a chemical transport reaction, the Mond-Langer-Process for the production of ultrapure nickel [3]. Chemical vapor transports likewise occur in nature forming minerals without human influence, in particular at places of high temperatures. Bunsen was the first who observed and described it [4]. He noticed that the formation of crystalline Fe2O3 is associated with the presence of volcanic gases which contain gaseous hydrogen chloride. Van Arkel and de Boer were the first scientists who carried out specific transport reactions in the laboratory from 1925 onwards [5]. They were motivated by the huge interest in finding a process to fabricate pure metals like titanium at that time [6]. Van Arkel and de Boer used the so called
A systematic research and description of chemical transport reactions was carried out by Schäfer in the 1950s and 1960s [1]. It became apparent that pure and crystalline species of various solids could be made with the help of chemical transport reactions: metals, metalloid, and intermetallic phases as well as halides, chalcogen halides, chalcogens, pnictides and many others. The current knowledge comprises of thousands of different examples for chemical vapor transport reactions. The results of different periods of investigations are recorded in some review articles [7-13]. Besides, the monographs [1, 2] and an extensive book chapter [14] give an overview on principles and applications of chemical transport reactions referred to the pertinent period of knowledge. To date the chemical vapor transport method developed to be an important and versatile preparative method of solid state chemistry.
Schäfer’s endeavour also showed that chemical transport reactions follow thermodynamic regularities [15]; kinetic effects are rarely observed which makes a general description easier. Subsequently, the thermodynamic approaches for detailed description of chemical vapor transports became more sophisticated [16-22]. As a result, complex models for the description of vapor transports of phase mixtures, phases with variable composition, and transports with deposition sequences were established - the “Extended transport model” [18-21] and the “Co-operative transport model” [22]. Thus, the understanding of chemical vapor transport reactions is well developed; predictions on alternative transport agents, optimal reaction conditions and the amount of transported substance are possible and fairly easy accessible via computer programs [23, 24]. Indeed, the proper handling of these programs requires a profound knowledge on thermodynamic data (enthalpy, entropy, heat capacity) of all condenses and gaseous substances that are involved.
The following section shall provide an extensive overview on both principles and mechanisms of chemical vapor transport reactions and on characteristic examples of crystal growth of different substance classes by CVT. A simple thermodynamics basis is given in order to set you in ability to estimate the conditions of vapor transport experiments by own calculations; more complex calculations methods are presented for advanced investigations. Not at least, a short introduction for performing different CVT experiments (ampoule technique, oven setup, determination of transport rates, investigation of transport sequences,…) is given.
A vast number of reactions involving gas phases hardly differ from each other: If a condensed substance encounters a temperature gradient, it moves from the place of dissolution via the gas phase to the place of deposition, from
The other possible gas species in the system, I(g) is of less importance due to the significantly lower partial pressures at the temperature of sublimation.
Composition of the gas phase of sublimation of AlCl3.
Saline solids can sublime, too. A well-known example is aluminum(III) chloride which is present in the gas phase in large proportion in form of dimeric molecule Al2Cl6, Figure 2. The additional systems gas species, such as AlCl3(g), Cl2(g), and Cl(g) show significantly lower partial pressures at the given temperature and thus not take part in the evaporation process.
In a generalized form, the sublimation of a compound
The gas phase transport of bimuth(III) selenide - Bi2Se3, an important constituent for thermoelectric materials - shows the characteristic of that. It decomposes into stoichiometric amounts of BiSe(g) and Se2(g) in the vapor phase, the molecule of the initial composition Bi2Se3(g) does not occur in evaporation process, Figure 3. During cooling, the gas phase condenses completely and solid solid bimuth(III) selenide is formed (4).
Composition of the gas phase of decomposition sublimation of Bi2Se3.
As a generalization, the decomposition sublimation of a compound
The gas phase transport of Bi2Se3 by decomposition sublimation gives an example for congruent dissolution and condensation. Thus, a solid of always the same, constant composition is deposited. Nevertheless, a decomposition sublimation can be incongruent, too. Often, the product of an incongruent decomposition sublimation has the same composition as the initial solid. A simple example of this is copper(II) chloride. If heated at a running pump to several hundred degrees, the steam that is built in subsequent equilibria (7) and (8) contains the molecules CuCl, Cu3Cl3, Cu4Cl4 and Cl2.
The mechanism of decomposition sublimation is even more complex in the case of Bi6Cl7 [25, 26]. The initial solid is decomposed into a second solid – here elemental bismuth – and the dominating gas species BiCl3 in equilibrium (9). Thereby, the compositions of the gas phase and thus the “solubility” of all components is unequal the initial composition of the solid, Figure 4.
Composition of the gas phase of decomposition sublimation of Bi6Cl7.
Nevertheless, the gas phase transport of Bi6Cl7 is realized by a second, subordinated equilibrium (10). In this case, the composition of the deposited solid strongly depends on the experimental conditions: Congruent deposition of Bi6Cl7 only occurs with low temperature gradients between source and sink. At higher temperature gradients pure BiCl3 is deposited.
As has been shown, the mechanism of gas phase transport will get more complicated if the decomposition leads to a further condensed solid and a reactive gas phase. Subsequent, auto transport processes can result.
Composition of the gas phase for the auto transport of MoBr3.
Based on this example, one can formulate the course of the auto transport in general terms [25]: A compound
Auto transports are generally endothermic reactions like sublimation and decomposition sublimation (deposition in the direction form source to sink: hot to cold). The transport equilibrium can only be effective if two conditions are met: First, the partial pressure of
There may be a smooth transition of the described phenomena of sublimation or decomposition sublimation to the mechanism of auto transport. The dissolution of CrCl3 in the gas phase represents such a complex behavior. One can find congruent sublimation, the formation of gaseous chromium(III) chloride, and of an incongruent decomposition at the same time. In a consecutive reaction chlorine can react with the primary solid CrCl3, thus becoming the transport agent. The transport effective gaseous molecule is CrCl4, Figure 6. In case of the chlorides MoCl3 or VCl3, the gas molecules
Composition of the gas phase for vapor transport processes of CrCl3.
The principle of auto transport is to apply also for other substance classes, such as oxides, chalcogenides and above all chalcogenide halides. As an example of the auto transport of an oxide, the crystallization of IrO2 is presented. At temperatures of about 1050 °C the phase decomposes into the metal and molecular oxygen (18). In a subsequent heterogeneous equilibrium (19), oxygen reacts with the primary solid to form the transport effective gas species IrO3, Figure 7. The back reaction takes place at lower temperature and IrO2 is deposited.
Composition of the gas phase for the auto transport of IrO2.
Generally, all the auto transports are feasible as “regular” chemical vapor transport reactions. In these cases, the transport is possible as well through the addition of the transport agent without the preceding decomposition reaction. An important difference in both experiments can be observed: As the auto transport is based on a decomposition reaction, crystals of a different (metal rich) composition can be deposited. Thus the auto transport of IrO2 leads to the deposition of IrO2−x (depleted by oxygen). Otherwise, the regular vapor transport in an open systems oxygen stream (
If at least one of the components of
Composition of the gas phase for the thermal decomposition of ZnO.
Composition of the gas phase for the CVT of ZnO with chlorine.
The chemical vapor transport of ZnO is also possible by addition of hydrogen chloride. Likewise for the transport with chlorine ZnCl2 is formed as the transport effective species for the transfer of zinc from source to sink, Figure 10. Otherwise the used transport agent HCl can react with oxygen, too. Thus the oxygen transferring species H2O is formed in equilibrium (21).
Gas phase composition for the CVT of ZnO with hydrogen chloride.
Here, the general principle of transport reactions can be seen clearly: The source material is transformed reversibly into gaseous products by the use of the transport agent. The transfer of the solid can be realized in different ways by formation of both heteronuclear species (like ZnCl2 and H2O) and atomar or homonuclear species (O2).
In principle, two working methods are applied for the practical realization in the laboratory: the transport in open or closed systems. An open system is applied with an on both sides opened tube made of glass or ceramic material. Inside, a continuous flow of the transport agent is led over the source material; the solid, which is kept at a certain temperature, deposits at a different place with another temperature under the release of the transport agent. In a closed system, typically a sealed ampoule, the transport agent remains in the system and constantly re-enters the reaction. Thus, in a closed system, a much smaller amount of the transport agent is needed. In some cases only few milligrams of the transport agent are sufficient to cause a transport effect. In the laboratory one predominantly works with closed systems. An easy closed system is a sealed glass tube. Such a
It is of prime interest for preparative working chemists whether a certain solid can be prepared with the aid of chemical vapor transport reactions, which transport agents are suitable and under which conditions a transport can be expected. At this point, we want to appoint some general qualitative considerations.
The vapor transport reaction has to realize, that all formed products are gaseous under the reaction conditions. Thus a suitable transport agent is to select, which can transfer all components of the initial solid into the gas phase.
The equilibrium position of the transport reaction must not be extreme, so that dissolution into the gas phase and re-condensation of the solid are possible under slightly changed experimental conditions. In cases of an extreme equilibrium no dissolution occurs (evaporation reaction unfavored) or the formation of gaseous products is not reversible (back reaction under re-condensation unfavored). In both cases no vapor transport is observed.
The temperature at which the numerical value of the equilibrium constant
The transport is caused in almost every case by different temperatures and therefore changed equilibrium position in source and sink. It is common to characterize the volatilization (source) and the deposition temperature (sink) with
A chemical vapor transport reaction can be divided into three steps: the
To intensify the theoretical understanding of chemical vapor transport reactions in a comprehensible way the representative experiment of the transport of tungsten(IV) oxide is illustrated. With the help of the clear example of the transport of WO2, the mentioned general considerations can be tackled:
Also, adding mercury halides, which are solid at room temperature, is potentially suitable to transport both components of the solid phase – tungsten as well as oxygen – into the gas phase (26).
At temperatures above 300 °C the mercury halides evaporate completely. Afterwards the gas species WO2
A highly exergonic reaction Δr
The calculations’ results give a realistic outlook on the prospective results of transport experiments: Using halogens the transport with iodine seems to be promising (29). In the case of bromine, the transport seems at least possible (28) whereas chlorine causes an extreme equilibrium position under the formation of WO2Cl2(g) – a transport should not be possible (27). With the hydrogen halides equilibria are far on the side of the reaction products (30 – 32). This is due to clearly higher gain of entropy during the reaction. Although one can observe gradations in the equilibrium position for transports with HI and HBr compared to HCl, transports are principally not expected.
The transport of WO2 with mercury halides seems possible for all three transport agents Hg
Equilibrium constants of transport reactions of WO2(s) with Hg
For the precondition of balanced equilibrium position at
Through differences in the temperatures of the source and sink side, the equilibrium position is brought towards the gaseous products when dissolving and shifted towards the solid when deposing. Calculations of the equilibrium constants were first made for an average temperature of 1000 K. If the temperatures vary, one will get the typical courses of the curve (see Figure 11). If the temperature is decreased, the equilibrium position in the transport system with HgCl2 becomes less extreme. In contrast, the equilibrium position for the transport with HgI2 becomes more favorable when the temperature is increased above 1000 K. The optimum, average temperature resulting from the quotient of the reaction enthalpy and entropy for the transport with HgCl2 is at about 700 K respectively 400 °C; with HgBr2 at about 1100 K respectively 800 °C and with HgI2 1400 K (1100 °C, respectively). In this case, the calculation of the temperature on the basis of the standard values at 298 K as well as of the derived values for 1000 K lead to the same results; which means that an estimation is possible with simple calculations, (39 – 41).
In a reaction with negative reaction enthalpy (exothermic dissolving reaction), the equilibrium constant
In a reaction with positive reaction enthalpy (endothermic dissolving reaction),
The transport direction results only from the reaction enthalpy which is why the conclusion of all three investigated transport systems of WO2 is clear: The reaction enthalpy is positive in each case – a transport to the cooler zone results. The total amount of the reaction enthalpy does not affect the decision if a transport is carried out. If the reaction enthalpy is close to zero one has to check the accuracy of the used data as they can contain errors of 10 to 20 kJ mol−1.
The term “
Δ
Σ
In most cases instead of the diffusion factor 0.6 10−4 a value of 1.8 10−4 is given which found entrance to the literature [1]. According to recent findings the factor 0.6 10−4 results in a smaller numerical value of the diffusion coefficient and corrects a mathematical error.
The calculation of transport rates for WO2 by Schornstein and Gruehn [29, 30] at first show a clear dominance of transports with HgBr2 in the average temperature range: The expected transport rates are ten times higher than for transports with HgCl2 and HgI2. Due to the balanced position of the equilibrium, high differences of partial pressures occur between the source and the sink. This way, the driving force for diffusion of the gas particles is high and thus for the substance transport as well. For the transport with HgCl2 the transport rate decreases with increasing temperatures. As we have already seen, the equilibrium position, which is far to the right side, is responsible for it. Only if the temperature decreases, the equilibrium position can move to the left. The resulting, higher differences of partial pressures between dissolution and deposition side cause increasing transport rates at low temperatures. Using mercury iodide as transport agent, the equilibrium position is on the side of the source material at low temperatures. By increasing the temperature the equilibrium position is shifted to the side of the reaction products, the transport rate increases, Figure 12.
Progression of theoretical transport rates during the transport of WO2 with Hg
Corresponding to the simple estimation of the transport behavior of WO2 with mercury halides, one gets the best results with the addition of HgBr2. The chemical vapor transport of mercury bromide is possible in a wide temperature range. Transport rates above 30 mg h–1 are achievable, Figure 13. Temperatures of the source side of about 800 °C and of the sink side of 720 °C prove optimum. This result confirms the estimations of the optimum transport temperature. Due to the shift of the equilibrium position, the transport rate decreases at both, rising temperatures (880 → 800 °C respectively 960 → 880 °C; and falling temperatures (720 → 640 °C) [2]. Transports with HgCl2 and HgI2 clearly show smaller transport rates. Experiments with mercury iodides must be realized with higher temperatures according to the estimation. Temperatures up to 1000 °C are practicable; above, the silica glass ampoule will be heavily damaged by re-crystallization. Using an average transport temperature of 940 °C, transport rates of up to 15 mg h–1 can be achieved, Figure 13. The transport rate decreases drastically with falling temperatures. With an average temperature of 640 °C the rate is even lower than 1 mg h–1. Transport experiments with HgCl2 show worst results as far as the transport rate is concerned: According to the calculation, lower temperatures are principally more favorable, however, in the range from 500 to 700 °C the transport rates are only in the range of 1 mg h–1. The transport almost grinds to a halt at higher temperatures.
Experimental transport rates during the transport of WO2 with Hg
One can come to a completely different evaluation if the quality of the crystals instead of the transport rate is given prominence. Relatively high transport rates cause uncontrolled nucleation and crystal growth. As a consequence, one gets highly epitaxial and rose-shaped crystal agglomerations for transports with HgBr2. Frequently
Typical crystal morphology of single crystallites formed during the transport of WO2 with HgI2.
Finally, in selecting the transport agent, the temperature, and the temperature gradient, respectively, one should consider the aim of the transport. A high transport rate is undoubtedly advantageous for the synthesis of a compound or the purification of it. If crystals are to be grown, keep in mind the crystal quality and therefore rather choose a smaller transport rate.
It is of prime interest for preparative working chemists whether a certain solid can be prepared by chemical transport reactions, which transport agents are suitable and under which conditions a transport can be expected. If one wants to use transport reactions only in a preparative way – without the purpose of understanding the course of the reaction in detail – often it is sufficing to check on an empiric basis which solid can be transported by using what kind of transport agent. A further, quantitative description of the transport reaction requires knowledge of the thermodynamic data of the condensed phases and gaseous molecules that are involved. In this section, we will provide a short overview of the different kinds of gaseous inorganic molecule that can occur during chemical vapor transport reactions. Under the precondition of formation of only gaseous species, transport agents and transport effective species share the property of high volatility under experimental conditions. Thus, especially halogens and halogen compounds are qualified. Some elements, hydrogen compounds, and oxygen compounds are suitable as transportable species, too.
Hydrogen halides are versatile transport agents. The oxidation levels of the metal in the solid and in the transport effective gas species are generally equal because hydrogen halides do not have an oxidizing effect. Hydrogen halides are often used during the transport of oxides. Here, the gaseous metal halide and water vapor are formed. Halogen compounds, such as TeCl4, PCl5, NbCl5 or TaCl5 are also useful transport agents, especially for metal oxides. Reactions of the mentioned chlorides lead on the one hand to the formation of gaseous metal chloride or metal oxide chloride, on the other hand oxygen is fixed in form of volatile oxides (TeO2, P4O6, P4O10) or oxide chlorides (TeOCl2, POCl3, NbOCl3, TaOCl3). Oppermann was able to show that tellurium(IV) chloride is a particular versatile transport agent [31]. According to the basic works of Schäfer, gaseous metal respectively semi-metal halides are formed as transport effective species during the reaction of different solids with halogens or halogen compounds [1].
The vapor of metal halides can consist of monomeric, dimeric and/or oligomeric molecules. With
Some gaseous oxide halides are known of main group metals. Elements of group 13 form oxide halides, such as AlOCl, at very high temperatures around 2000 °C. Phosphorus forms several oxide chlorides and -bromides that are stable at high temperatures: PO
In some cases, gaseous elements can work as transport agents. Hence, oxygen can cause the transport of some platinum metals [40]. Sulfur can transport a series of transition metal sulfides [43]. Here, gaseous polysulfides, such as TaS3, are assumed transport effective species. There are similar observations for the chemical transport of some selenides. Sulfur is an effective transport agent for tellurium as well [44]. Compounds in which tellurium atoms were integrated in the different ring-shaped sulfur molecules were detected as transport effective species. Phosphorus can transport gallium phosphide, GaP, and indium phosphide, InP, probably via GaP5 respectively InP5 as transport effective species [45]. With the help of arsenic, the transport of gallium arsenide, GaAs, and indium arsenide, InAs, succeeded in a similar way [46].
Metal vapors predominantly consist of the atoms. The fraction of bi- or polyatomic molecules in the saturated vapor is between 10−5 and 10 % [47]. In contrast, the vapors of non-metals, apart from noble gases, consist of very stable polyatomic molecules which appear in the gas phase in great amounts, atoms appear only subordinated: N2, P4, P2, As4, As2, Sb4, Sb2, O2, S2, S3 … S7, S8, Se2, Se3 … Se7, Se8, Te2, Cl2, Br2, and I2. The ratio of different molecular species in the vapors of non-metals depends on the temperature and the pressure. Higher temperature and lower pressures abet the formation of small molecules respectively atoms.
The transport reaction of tungsten with water and iodine is an important one in daily life. This reaction provides the basis of the operating mode of halogen lamps.
Traces of water, often from the wall of the silica glass tubes, which were used during the transport, can be important for transport effects [48]. Hydrogen sulfide and hydrogen selenide also appear during the transport of sulfides respectively selenides with hydrogen halides. Hydrogen telluride is too unstable to develop under transport conditions. Ammonium chloride is particularly important. It decomposes to ammonia and hydrogen chloride during sublimation. Thus, it is a hydrogen chloride source which is easy to handle and easy to dose. Ammonia decomposes to the elements at higher temperature and thus creates a reducing atmosphere which effects the equilibria involved in the transport in different ways.
The role of non-metals is more important. Carbon monoxide can function as transport agent in different ways [50]:
Non-metal oxides occur as
During the chemical transport of metal oxides, tellurium(IV) chloride plays a particular role, it reacts under the formation of a metal chloride or a metal oxide chloride and binds oxygen in form of TeO2(g) or TeOCl2(g) at the same time [31].
Further gaseous oxides that are important for the transport of oxide compounds are amongst others: B2O3, SiO, P4O6, P4O10, As4O6, Sb4O6, SeO2.
Gaseous sulfide halides or selenide halides are known of only a few elements. For example, PS
To date the chemical vapor transport of almost all substance classes has been described. This chapter will show characteristic examples of different transport reactions. A comprehensive overview with more than 2000 references of CVT is not intended here. For more details and references of CVT of elements and compounds see [2]. The chemical vapor transport of elements has been studied and described in detail using metals and some semi-metals as examples; the transport of intermetallic phases principally follows the one of metals. The oxides are the largest group among all compounds which were crystallized by chemical transport reactions with more than 600 examples. The transport of chalcogenides clearly differs from the ones of the oxides. This is due to the higher thermodynamic stability of the metal oxides, compared to the sulfides, selenides, and tellurides. Finally, the chemical vapor transport provides a very good access to phosphides and arsenides, too.
The chemical transport of elements has been studied and described in detail using metals and some semi-metals as examples. In the case of the typical non-metals phosphorus and sulfur, there is no need to increase their volatility in the sense of a chemical vapor transport reaction due to their high vapor pressures. This way, those metals and semi-metals which feature high vapor pressures can also easily be transferred into the gas phase through distillation or sublimation. The following elements belong to this group: Alkali and alkaline earth metals, zinc, cadmium, mercury, europium, ytterbium, arsenic, antimony, selenium and tellurium. Some metals’ melting temperature is that low that they can be obtained in liquid form at the most. This, for example, applies for gallium, tin and lead. Thus, chemical vapor transports are relevant for high melting elements with low vapor pressures. These elements can be deposited from the gas phase in closed reaction vessels (ampoules), fluid systems, special reactors (hot-wire process according to (Van Arkel und De Boer), or through CVD-processes [62]. All of these processes are based on the same thermodynamic basic principles. This way, more than 40 elements can be crystallized with chemical transport reactions, more than 25 with iodine as transport agent [63, 64].
In addition to iodine as most important transport agent for elements, compounds such as aluminum(III) chloride, gallium(III) chloride and iron(III) chloride as well as aluminum(III) iodide and indium(III) iodide are described as transport effective additive [65]. These can act halogenating and thus form gaseous halides with the transporting elements. Additionally, they stabilize them by forming gaseous complexes. Halogens such as fluorine, chlorine and bromine as well as the hydrogen halides, water, the chalcogens oxygen, sulfur, selenium, tellurium as well as carbon monoxide are other transport agents which can be used in individual cases. Although carbon monoxide can be used for the transport of nickel only, the industrial purifying process according to Mond and Langer found its way into chemistry textbooks, making carbon monoxide particularly prominent as a transport agent [66]. More details and references of CVT of the elements are presented in [2].
Partial pressures of species in the transport system Zr/I.
According to Van Arkel, iron can be transported exothermically with iodine from 800 to 1000 °C. At first, the following transport equation (73) comes into consideration. This reaction, however, is endothermic. According to Le Chatelier’s principle, transport from
Using the example of the transport of germanium with iodine, Oppermann and colleagues investigated the proportion of diffusion and convection of the gas movement at different total pressures. In comparative experiments, the transport behavior was determined at normal gravity on earth and under microgravity in space [28]. At microgravity conditions, the convection is negligibly small; substance transport takes place by diffusion only. The experiments indicated that in the gravitational field of earth the gas movement above 3 bar occurs not only by diffusion, but increasingly by convection.
The knowledge gained for exothermic transports with iodine also applies for the other halogens. However, their meaning as transport agents for elements is of low importance due to their unsuitable equilibrium situation. Because the stability of halides increases from iodides to fluorides, their decompositions temperatures increase as well in that direction. Higher decomposition temperatures become necessary which are more difficult to put into practice in experiments.
The increase of entropy is the driving force of the endothermic formation of the low halide. The transport always takes place from
The principle of conproportionation can also be used for transport reactions with chalcogenides [76] as shown by the following examples:
(
Some elements, such as molybdenum, tungsten, rhenium, gallium, germanium, tin and antimony can be transported with water via the gas phase. The transport is based on the formation of volatile oxides respectively acids. Besides the volatile acids H2MoO4 respectively H2WO4, one has also to consider gaseous oxides as transport effective species for the transport of molybdenum and tungsten in the given temperature range. Molybdenum and tungsten can be crystallized by adding iodine
If one refers to intermetallic phases, solids are meant which are built up by two or more metal atoms. Sometimes there is a differentiation between alloy and intermetallic compounds. In the literature, however, these terms are not used uniformly. In order to avoid misunderstanding, we solely use the term intermetallic phase. It includes metallic solids that are composed stoichiometrically as well as those with phase ranges respectively solid solutions. Solids, which are formed from metals and the semi-metals boron, silicon, germanium and antimony, can be dealt with as well due to their behavior during chemical transports.
Crystal of FeSi0.25Ge0.75 grown by chemical vapor transport.
The chemical transport of intermetallic phases principally follows the one of metals. Nowadays, a variety of examples of transports of intermetallic phases is known [2, 83]. In intermetallic phases
–One or more components of the intermetallic phase have a high vapor pressure at melting temperature.
–The intermetallic phase decomposes, e.g. peritectically before the melting temperature is reached.
–The intermetallic phase shows one or more phase changes before the melting temperature is reached.
Plenty intermetallic systems show the characteristic of the appearance of numerous solid phases with similar stabilities. Thus, often incongruent vapor transports with different composition of source and sink solid can be observed. The directed deposition of the solid with defined composition can be influenced by the composition of the source solid, the kind of the transport agents and its concentration, and the temperatures of the source and sink side as well as the resulting temperature gradient [2]. Thus, it is possible to obtain low temperature modifications of polymorphic phases in form of single-crystal. Their preparation only rarely succeeds with other methods. FeGe is an example of this in the cubic modification (575 → 535°C, [85, 86]). Likewise, the crystallization of Fe3Ge is possible by vapor transport [850…900 → 950…1000°C; [85]) despite of the peritectoid behavior of this phase, see Figure 17.
Phase diagram of the system Fe/Ge, according to [
As an example, the system iron-silicon can be presented. All binary phases, Fe2Si, Fe5Si3, FeSi, and FeSi2, can be crystallized by CVT reactions with iodine [87]. On the iron-rich side to FeSi, the exothermic transport takes places (
The CVT in the Cr-Si system by adding the halogens chlorine, bromine, and iodine is well examined and thermodynamically understood [89, 90]. Cr3Si, Cr5Si3, CrSi, and CrSi2 can be deposited by adding chlorine from 1100 to 900 °C. At the same temperatures, Cr3Si, Cr5Si3, CrSi, and CrSi2 can be deposited with bromine. The transport with iodine, on the other hand, takes place exothermically from 900 to 1100 °C. In this process, Cr3Si, Cr5Si3, CrSi, and CrSi2 can be deposited. In all three cases, transport mechanisms are clearly different. If one considers the transport efficiency of the individual gas species, the following transport equations are derived:
In the first three cases, the transport agent is not the added chlorine or bromine, respectively, but the silicon(IV) chloride or bromide, respectively, which was formed in a simultaneous reaction, Figure 18. In contrast to this, iodine functions directly as the transport agent when added.
Composition of the gas phase for the transport of CrSi using bromine, according to [
In the following binary systems, mixed-crystals are transportable in an analogous way: cobalt-nickel [91, 92], iron-nickel, silver-copper, gold-copper, copper-nickel, gold-nickel [93], and copper-gallium [94].
The majority of metal halides are sufficiently stable to evaporate undecomposed. Thus, most of them can be volatilized by distillation or sublimation; the deposition occurs at lower temperatures. Some metal halides decompose at higher temperatures either to the elements or to a metal-rich halide and the according halogen. In this manner platinum(II) chloride decomposes notably above 500 °C forming solid platinum and gaseous chlorine. Otherwise, copper(II) chloride decomposes above 300 °C under the formation of copper(I) chloride and chlorine. The tendency of decomposing generally increases from the fluorides to the iodides. Some metal halides disproportionate while heating: molybdenum(III) chloride essentially dissociates above 600 °C under the formation of solid molybdenum(II) chloride and gaseous molybdenum(IV) chloride.
Crystal of CeCl3 grown by chemical vapor transport
Beside the sublimation processes, metal halides can be obtained by CVT reactions, too. Four different types of solid-gas reactions are of relevance. Additionally, further reactions of different kinds are known, which can be used for the transport of metal halides. However, their application is limited so far. An overview on the CVT of halides is provided by Oppermann [95]; for more current references of CVT of the halides see [2].
However, the tendency of decomposition of halides with higher oxidation numbers increases at the same time. For this reason, the vapor transport by halogenation is restricted in temperature. Or, in another way, a high partial pressure of the halogen is needed to form a sufficiently high pressure of the transport effective metal halide species. Gaseous ruthenium(IV) bromide is formed during the transport of ruthenium(III) bromide with bromine (100); [96]. However, a high bromine pressure of 15 bar is required to cause a sufficient transport effect.
Generally, the halogen is used as a transport agent, which is also contained in the solid. Sometimes, however, another halogen is used as the transport agent (101), [97]. Here, during the crystallization a small amount of transport agent bromine condenses and a solid of the composition VCl2.97Br0.03 forms in the sink.
The enthalpy of formation of the complex does not entirely compensate the sublimation enthalpy of metal halide so that the transport reaction (103) is always endothermic. Under different transport conditions (> 500 °C) the transport direction can change in presence of the transport agent aluminum(III) chloride as monomeric AlCl3(g). Additionally, the formation of complexes of the composition MnAlCl5 becomes more important. This transport takes place to the hotter zone in an exothermic reaction (104).
The formation of gas complexes plays an important role for the separation of the halides of the lanthanoids. In a gas stream of aluminum(III) chloride the individual lanthanoid halides form gas complexes of different stability. These complexes decompose under the formation of the halides
Principally, the CVT of fluorides with halogens as a transport agent is not possible via equilibria, such as (110), due to their unfavorable position. The release of fluorine, which occurs during the reaction, is thermodynamically unfavorable. Nevertheless, magnesium fluoride can be crystallized with iodine as transport agent [121]. Thermodynamic model calculations with data for the gaseous iodine fluorides IF
(
Oxides represents the most reported substance group with more than 600 examples of chemical vapor transports. For more details and particularized references of CVT of the oxides see [2]. Simple binary oxides, such as zinc(II) oxide and iron(III) oxide, have been crystallized as well as oxides with complex anions, such as phosphates or sulfates, and oxides with several cations, such as ZnFe2O4 or Co1−
Crystal of ZnO grown by chemical vapor transport.
The thereby released oxygen partial pressure is called the
A variety of transport agents has been investigated for oxides, but chlorinating equilibria proved most suitable. Apart from chlorine and hydrogen chloride, tellurium(IV) chloride is an important transport agent. Tellurium(IV) chloride is used especially when the oxygen partial pressure in the system varies, and the setting of the oxygen partial pressure is of essential importance for the transport behavior. Some other chlorinating additives include phosphorus(V) chloride, niobium(V) chloride, selenium(IV) chloride, and tetrachloromethane as well as mixtures of sulfur/chlorine, vanadium(III) chloride/chlorine, and chromium(III) chloride/chlorine. Due to unfavorable equilibrium positions, brominating and iodinating equilibria are of minor importance for the CVT of oxides. Here, transport agents or transport effective additives, respectively, are: bromine and iodine, hydrogen bromide and hydrogen iodide, phosphorus(V) bromide, niobium(V) bromide and -iodide as well as sulfur+iodine. Iodine as a transport agent and iodinating equilibria are of interest if chlorine is too oxidizing or if, as is the case with rare-earth metal oxides, stable solid oxide chlorides form. Some further transport agents or transport effective additives, respectively, are hydrogen, oxygen, water, carbon monoxide and in special cases, fluorine or hydrogen fluoride. In some cases, the solid oxides can form gaseous oxide halides: transport-effective species, which contain both oxygen and halogen atoms.
(
Due to the higher stability of the chloride gas species compared to the bromide and the resulting equilibrium position, mostly chlorine is used as the transport agent for the CVT of oxides. In the process, sufficiently stable gas species are formed with adequately high partial pressures (
Halogens are also suited as transport agents for oxides when gaseous oxide halides are formed. This way, for example, the transport of molybdenum(VI) oxide with chlorine succeeds:
Instead of introducing pure halogens, decomposition of less stable halides, such as Pt
The simple transport equation by forming the respective chloride and water only applies if no volatile acids, such as H2MoO4(g), hydroxides, and oxide halides, respectively, are formed. Using hydrogen halides, often a more favorable equilibrium position can be achieved instead of halogens. As a feasible hydrogen halide source, the ammonium halides (NH4
In this simplification, however, the equilibria (123) to (128) in the system Te/O/Cl are not considered. Reichelt discussed the complex reaction behavior of tellurium(IV) chloride in detail [123].
Creating such a complex red-ox system, tellurium(IV) chloride is specially suited as a transport additive for oxide systems with a wide range of oxygen partial pressures between 10−25 and 1 bar. Thereby, at low oxygen partial pressures, the reduced gas species TeCl2, Te2, Te, Cl2, and Cl dominate. The transport of Mn3O4 with tellurium(IV) chloride can be served as an example: The gas phase consists of the dominating gas species MnCl2, Te2, Mn2Cl4, Te, TeO, and TeCl2 (with
Composition of the gas phase for the transport of Mn3O4 using TeCl4, according to [
In particular, tellurium(IV) chloride proves an ideal transport additive for those oxides that differ only slightly in their composition and stability and thus are thermodynamically stable only in narrow ranges of the oxygen partial pressure. Thus, the chemical vapor transport of the
Composition of the gas phase for the transport of VO2 using TeCl4, according to [
In some cases, a transport agent combination consisting of a halide and a halogen is applied, for example for the transport of SiO2 with CrCl4+Cl2. In this process, the surplus of halogen leads to formation of more volatile oxidized gas species (CrO2Cl2).
The usage of phosphorus(III) halides, PCl3 and PBr3, in addition to the respective halogens causes the formation of the pentahalides. The phosphorus(V) halides proved to be suitable transport agents as well as the analogues NbCl5 and TaCl5, as they have both a halogenating effect on the metal and a transport effective for oxygen (132, 133).
Aluminum(III) chloride is not suited for the transport of oxides because aluminum oxide is formed. Observed transport effects can most often be traced back the formation of hydrogen chloride.
The chemical vapor transport of oxides with complex anions represents few examples of crystallization of
sulfates, selenates, and tellurates
phosphates, arsenates, and antimonates
silicates
borates
Crystals of CuTe2O5 grown by chemical vapor transport.
These complex oxides differ from other multinary oxides (“double oxides”) by their high heats of reaction for the formation from binary oxides. In terms of their chemical structure, they are different by the low co-ordination number of the non-metal. For more details and references of CVT of compounds with complex anion see [2].
The crystallization of anhydrous
An oxidizing equilibrium gas phase is the requirement for the use of PbCl2 as transport additive for some anhydrous sulfates, such as NiSO4 or CuSO4 [133]. In the process, chlorine is released in a pre-reaction (135); the formed chlorine functions as the actual transport agent for NiSO4 (136).
While the volatilization of aluminum (III) oxide with chlorine (as with other transport agents) in a temperature gradient is impossible due to the unfavorable equilibrium position of reaction, the crystallization of aluminum sulfate by CVT is successful using SOCl2 as a transport agent [134]. The resulting transport reaction avoids the formation of free oxygen. Thus a favorable position of the heterogeneous transport equilibrium (137) is caused. The crystallization of Cr2(SO4)3, Ga2(SO4)3, and In2(SO4)3 can be realized in the same way.
The CVT of phosphates is a preparative method for crystallization of even thermally delicate phosphates, like Re2O3(PO4)2 [135] and CuP4O11 [136]. Phosphates of transition metals with oxidation states that are not easily accessible in another ways (low numbers) can be synthesized in sealed silica ampoules and crystallized in “one-pot reactions” by CVT (e. g., TiPO4, V2O(PO4), Cr3(PO4)2, and Cr2P2O7). Apart from the elemental halogens Cl2, Br2, and I2, halogen compounds (NH4
The transport of anhydrous phosphates with iodine and reducing additives does not take place via P4O10. Observations during the transport of Cr2P2O7 [138] with iodine in the presence of a surplus of CrP are as remarkable in this context as the transport of WOPO4 and WP2O7 adjacent to WP [139]. In all three cases, a
Crystals of PrPO4 grown by chemical vapor transport.
In contrast to anhydrous phosphates, metal
While there are no indications on chemical vapor transport of
In contrast to reversible CVT reactions in the direct sense, the crystallization of silicates with participation of the gas phase can be traced back to partial transport reactions. The formation of
Boron(III) oxide forms numerous ternary and multinary oxido compounds. Nevertheless, there are hardly any indications on the chemical vapor transport of
Several other borates were obtained as a by-product during the synthesis of
Chemical vapor transports of metal sulfides, selenides, and tellurides have been examined in detail. The first investigations were made in the 1960s by Nitsche [150]. To date, the number of examples that are known from the literature [2] is only exceeded by those of the oxides. Nonetheless, the CVT of chalcogenide compounds clearly differs from that of the oxides. Due to the lower thermodynamic stability of the metal sulfides, selenides, and tellurides compared to the oxides most often iodine or iodine compounds are used as transport agents. Thus more balanced equilibria of the transport reactions of sulfides, selenides, and tellurides can be achieved, in contrast to the one of the respective oxide (151).
ZnO | \n\t\t\t−26 | \n\t\t\t+22 | \n\t\t\t+103 | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t−104 | \n\t\t\t−56 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t−123 | \n\t\t\t−57 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t−170 | \n\t\t\t−122 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t
Crystal of TaS2 grown by chemical vapor transport.
While heating, most of the metal sulfides decompose completely or partly to the elements. If the metal has a sufficiently high vapor pressure at the decomposition temperature, one can observe in some cases a
(
Only a few metal sulfides can be sublimed undecomposed. Examples are gallium(I) sulfide, germanium(II) sulfide, tin(II) sulfide, lead(II) sulfide:
(
Some sulfides decompose to a metal-rich solid and gaseous sulfur, for example pyrite, which forms FeS(s) and S2(g) (155) at high temperatures. In some cases, the metal-rich sulfides, which were formed by thermal decomposition, can appear in the gas phase as well. These compounds show noticeable effects of the gas phase transport by decomposition sublimation (156).
(
Relation between the composition of the solid in the source and sink during the transport of ZnS1−
The crystallization of iron(II) sulfide plays an important role for the understanding of vapor transports for compounds with a considerable homogeneity range. The transport of “FeS” with iodine was already reported in early times [1, 8, 160, 161]. Nevertheless, the transport does not always succeed under the given conditions, as it is dependent on the composition of the initial solid FeSx, too [18]. When iodine is added, the gas phase over FeS
Composition of the gas phase for the transport of FeS1.0 using iodine, according to [
Composition of the gas phase for the transport of FeS1.1 using iodine, according to [
The use of hydrogen chloride was even successful to optimize the transport behavior of mixed-crystals ZnS1−
A series of studies report the CVT reactions of sulfides with halogenating additives CrCl3, AlCl3, CdCl2, or TeCl4. At least for transports with AlCl3 and TeCl4 the formation of hydrogen chloride (159) as an effective transport agent can be expected, too.
Transport reactions in which the transport agent reacts solely with the non-metal of the solid are exceptions. Thus, for the transport of zinc sulfide with phosphorus gaseous PS is formed [167].
In some cases (SiS2, TiS2, TaS2), CVT with sulfur as transport additive was successful. The transport effect was ascribed to the formation of gaseous polysulfides [168].
(
(
The thermal decomposition of ZnSe and CdSe (and similarly ZnTe, CdTe, HgTe) to the elements is of importance, too. Applying the decomposition equlibria (165), the deposition of crystalline ZnSe and CdSe over the gas phase is possible at temperatures above 1000 °C (
(
More than three quarters of all known CVT reactions of selenides and tellurides take place with the addition of iodine. At temperatures above 600 °C, Se2 dominates in the gas phase (166). Below this temperature, the higher condensed molecules Se
Besides transports by using hydrogen or hydrogen halides have been reported.
As already mentioned, the use of hydrogen or hydrogen halides as transport agent is important for the transport of oxides and sulfides because the solubility of oxygen and sulfur, respectively, in the gas phase is supported by the formation of water and hydrogen sulfide, respectively. However, the stability of hydrogen compounds H2
(
(
Equilibrium constants
The character of chemical bonding of metal pnictides is very variable and ranges from the metallic, ionic, and covalent nitrides and phosphides through the rather covalent or metallic arsenides and antimonides to the typical metallic bismutides. Thus the transport behavior changes significantly. There is only one example of the CVT of a binary nitride, TiN [175]. The chemical vapor transport of phosphides and arsenides is documented by numerous examples [2] while there are only a few examples of the transport of antimonides and only one of a bismuth-containing intermetallic phase, NiBi [176].
Crystal of ZrAs2 grown by chemical vapor transport.
Elemental halogens, in particular iodine, and halogen compounds are preferred as transport additives. While nitrogen, phosphorus, and arsenic have sufficiently high saturation pressures to be transport effective in elemental form, it is necessary to generate transport- effective compounds for the antimonides and bismuthides. This becomes possible by the increasing tendency of pnicogens to form halogen compounds. Concerning the transport of phosphides, in the gas phase mostly phosphorus(III) halides occur. For the transport of arsenides and antimonides one has to expect, at rising temperatures, the formation of monohalides, too. This applies in particular for the heavy halogens.
Experimental results suggest that phosphides show the best results (high transport rates; large crystals) at a ratio of
(
(
Composition of the gas phase for the transport of NdAs using iodine, according to [
Thermodynamic model calculations make clear, that the
Composition of the gas phase for the transport of FeAs2 using iodine, according to [
Arsenic is transferred into the gas phase mainly in elemental form due to the high saturation pressure and the comparatively low stability of gaseous arsenic iodides. Up to approximately 900 to 1000 °C the gas phase is mostly dominated by As4, above that temperature by As2. The species As3 and As are of minor importance to the CVT.
The endothermic transport of silicon arsenide, SiAs can be described by the formation of SiI4 as effective transport agent (186).
Otherwise, an exothermic transport can be described by HI as transport agent (187), which is formed by traces of water desorbed off the ampoule walls [181].
Additionally, hydrogen halides, hydrogen chloride in particular, are important for the transport of arsenides of group 13 (BAs, GaAs, and InAs). The transport of gallium arsenide with hydrogen chloride (188) and hydrogen bromide, respectively, is well investigated experimentally and by thermodynamic calculations. Here, the formation of AsH3 has to be taken into account for complex description of the transport behavior. Additionally, GaAs, InAs, Ga1−
(
The transport reaction is always coupled with a redox equilibrium in which a gaseous suboxide [182], arsenic, and hydrogen are formed. Finally, GaAs can be transported with a mixture of water and hydrogen. The mentioned transport agents are used especially in open systems with flowing gases [183].
The course of chemical vapor transports can be understood by thermodynamic considerations (see chapter 2.2). Here various thermodynamic models will be explained in detail. It is state-of-the-art to use computer programs for modeling and quantitative description of transport reactions. Thus, optimum experimental conditions, the direction of a transport, and transport rates can be obtained for many transport systems, frequently even in a predictive way. For more complicated cases, however, a detailed treatment of the underlying thermodynamics will be required. Such a treatment is particularly necessary when a condensed phase with homogeneity range or multi-phasic equilibrium solids do occur in a transport experiment. In addition to the influence of thermodynamic data and phenomena, the transport behavior can be affected by kinetic effects. While the mass flow via the gas phase is generally assumed to be rate determining, some examples have been observed where the kinetics of one or more elementary reaction steps in the transport process exert a dominating influence.
In all cases, the simple looking as well as the more complicated ones, prior to an experiment the experimenter has to develop some idea of which condensed equilibrium phases and gaseous species are to be expected for the transport system under consideration. This knowledge is an essential prerequisite if modeling of transport experiments is to have an outcome close to reality. The most important characteristics for various transport processes are summarized by the following schematics.
There are many examples, where chemical transport of a solid cannot be completely described by
The transport of iron with iodine corresponding to van Arkel [5, 6] might serve as an example for complex congruent transport behavior. The gas species FeI2, Fe2I4, I2, and I might occur. According to
The first transport equilibrium (191) is endothermic (
The example of the transport of iron shows the advantage of the term solubility in the description of complicated transport reactions. According to the transport equations (191) and (192), iron can be solved into the gas phase forming the species FeI2 and Fe2I4. The solvent is the gas phase, i.e. all gaseous species together. The quantitative description of the solubility of iron in the gas phase considers that one molecule Fe2I4 includes two Fe-atoms, whereas the FeI2 molecule only includes one. Hence the partial pressure of Fe2I4 is multiplied by the factor 2. If analogically same applies to the solvent gas phase, the solubility of iron in the gas phase can be described by equation (194):
The temperature dependency of the solubility of iron in the gas phase takes both ferrous molecules FeI2 and Fe2I4 into consideration. Figure 33. As the solubility of iron decreases with growing temperatures, less iron is dissolved at higher temperatures in the gas phase than at lower temperatures. Thus iron must be transported from lower to higher temperatures. This is in accordance with experimental observations of iron transport with iodine from 800 to 1000 °C.
Temperature dependence of the solubility of iron and direction of the transport, according to [
Given that equilibrium has been established, the transport direction depends on the difference Δλ (196):
Δλ > 0 transport direction
Δλ < 0 transport direction
The thermodynamic description and modeling of transport systems get increasingly complicated if the transported compound shows a homogeneity range
The general task to describe transport reactions with phases of variable composition can be treated in a vivid way for the transport within the homogeneity range of TiS2−
Phase barogram for the system Ti/S showing the co-existence pressures (according to 198) in the homogeneity range TiS2−
For transport experiments in the temperature gradient 950 to 850 °C, independent on the starting composition TiS2-δ of the source solid, at
A farther-reaching, general treatment of the phase relations encountered in transport systems with incongruent dissolution of a solid is based on the fact that the two equilibrium regions (source and sink) are indeed not independent to each other: In a system of two components
From the considerations follows that the composition of
For a congruent transport equation (200) is valid, too. Obviously, a transfer with constant molar ratio of the components will occur between the equilibrium regions if the ratio of the balance pressures between source and sink is constant. The validity of the flux relation is assumed for
According to Krabbes, Oppermann, and Wolf the steady-state of a transport system involving incongruent dissolution of a solid
The
The statement of the stationarity relation becomes applicable for the description of a chemical vapor transport by equation (203).
Consequently, the fluxes
Calculation of the transport efficiency of gas species and deduction of the prevailing transport reaction(s)
Calculation of the influence of experimental conditions on the deposition of solids with homogeneity range, see FeSx [18-20].
Calculation of the influence of experimental conditions on the deposition of multi-phasic solids, see VnO2n-1 [125 - 127].
Using rather large amounts of a solid as source material together with sufficiently short experiment duration will yield quasi-stationary transport behavior (composition almost independent on time). Thus, deposition of a single phase solid of constant composition will be possible. Non-stationary behavior occurs, if sequential migration of several different solids to the sink will be observed. The vapor transport of solids with homogeneity range, too, might be accompanied by a variation of the composition of the sink solid over time. Experimental evidence for
Reaction between starting material and transport agent.
Thermal decomposition of the starting material at the conditions of the transport experiment.
Reaction between the starting material and the ampoule material (possibly involving the transport agent).
The observations made for the transport of copper(II) oxide by iodine [2, 185] can serve as an example for the complex phase relations and deposition sequences in chemical vapor transports. The transport behavior is characterized by partial thermal decomposition (204, 205) and the formation of condensed metal halides (206) occurring besides the actual transport reaction (207). Directed and reproducible syntheses depend not only on the appropriate molar ratios for the various components (copper, oxygen, iodine). The absolute amounts of starting materials and the ampoule volume are decisive too – since all components are solved at a substantial, however not equal, amount in the gas phase. The presence of multi-phase solids at the source at the beginning of the transport experiment leads to sequential migration of copper(II) oxide and copper(I) oxide, Figure 35.
Non-stationary transport behavior of the CuO/I2 system (1050 → 950 °C; 10 mg iodine), according to [
Subsequent to initial equilibration the source solid consists of CuO and Cu2O, the gas phase of O2 (204, 205) and Cu3I3 (207). After transfer of the gas phase to the sink, cooling to the sink temperature leads to supersaturation of the gas phase, which eventually results in crystallization of the thermodynamically most stable phase, which is under the given conditions copper(II) oxide. Dissolution of copper(II) oxide at the source and its deposition at the sink result in the steady state (section a), which is characterized by constant ratio of fluxes from source to sink:
For this purpose, the equilibrium condensed phase(s) of the source and sink obtained by a calculation cycle are kept at these regions. The source calculation of the subsequent cycle is performed without the molar amounts of the elements deposited at the sink in the preceding cycle. The stepwise (“cyclewise”) transfer of the source solid(s) to the sink is simulated by repeated calculation cycles. The calculation is finished once no condensed phase is left at the source. Alternatively, the calculation is terminated when the source solid’s composition remains stable from one cycle to the next – only the molar number of the solid is decreased. According to the stationarity criterion a steady state has been reached when the gas phase (in the source and sink) remains constant from one calculation cycle to the next. With respect to the mass transfer from the source to the sink, this means that within one calculation cycle the molar numbers of the source solid’s components dissolved in the gas phase and deposited at the sink are equal. If more than one condensed phase is involved in this process, we find simultaneous transport. This procedure gets by without explicit balancing of the fluxes of the individual gas species, in contrast to the flux relation [18 - 21].
Vapor transport experiments can be realized with different complexity. What kind of technique is used depends on the aim of the experiment. As shown in chapter 2.2, the setup as well as the specific parameters (substance amount of transport agent, temperature, temperature gradient) greatly influence the rate of mass transport. Accordingly, a high transport rate usually is chosen for the synthesis of a compound or the purification of it. If crystals are to be grown, the crystal quality is kept in mind and therefore rather smaller transport rates are aspired. In principle, two working methods can be applied for the practical realization in the laboratory: the transport in open or closed systems. In an open system a continuous flow of the transport agent is led over the source material; the solid, which is kept at a certain temperature, deposits at a different place with another temperature under the release of the transport agent. Transport reactions in an open system are often used for substance separation and purification. Due to the loss of the transport agent in the continuous gas flow only time-limited experiments in the range of some hours are realizable. Of course, high transport rates are intended for these experiments. In a closed system, typically a sealed ampoule, the transport agent remains in the system and consistently re-enters the reaction. Thus investigation periods of some days are attainable.
In most cases, transport reactions are executed in tubes or ampoules (diameter 10 to 20 mm) of a suitable glass. Today silica glass is frequently used, which is stable up to 1100 °C and quite inert to corrosive fillings. It is important to note that water is released during the heating of silica glass (water content up to 50 ppm). In order to avoid this, careful baking out of the ampoule in vacuum is recommended. Containers made from ceramic materials or glassy carbon can be integrated in a silica ampoule when highly corrosive materials have to be transported.
Vapor transport reactions take place in a temperature gradient. In order to set up the gradient in a controlled manner, tube furnaces with at least two independent heating zones are used, Figure 36. The transport furnace should be in a horizontal position in order to keep convection as part of the gas motion as small as possible. However, if the aim of the transport is the preparation of large amounts of substance by an endothermic transport, the furnace can be tilted so that the sink side is higher than the source side. This increases the transport rate. These experiments, however, cannot be described by the thermodynamic models that are based on gas motion by diffusion. The so-called
Experimental set up for chemical vapor transport in a conventional two-zone furnace, according to [
Experimental set up for chemical vapor transport in a short-distance two-zone furnace, according to [
The experimental procedures for preparing transport ampoules can be different. Above all, they are dependent on the physical and chemical properties of the transport agent. First, the prepared ampoules are filled with approximately 0.5 up to 1 gram of the initial solid that is to be transported. For this purpose one uses a funnel long enough that the outlet is near the ampoule bottom. In the same way the transport agent can be added. Its amount is often selected so that the pressure (approximately expressed by the initial pressure of the transport agent) in the ampoule is 1 bar at the experiment temperature (calculated using the gas law). The transport ampoule and the vacuum line can be joined with a ground-glass joint. Alternatively, “quick-fit” joints have been established. Usually the contents of the ampoule must be cooled with liquid nitrogen before evacuation in order to avoid vaporization or sublimation of the respective transport agent. If iodine is used as transport agent, cooling is obligatory. If transport agents shall be used, which are already gaseous at room temperature (HCl, HBr, Cl2, Br2), more advanced techniques have to be applied for filling the ampoules [2]. These procedures can be avoided by using the ammonia halides as a source for the hydrogen halides and PtCl2 or CuCl2 for Cl2. Finally, the reaction ampoule is evacuated and sealed under dynamic vacuum.
The prepared transport ampoule is placed in the middle of the furnace reaching both temperature zones. Before the actual transport experiments, usually a back transport or transport in a reverse temperature gradient is applied. This way, the ampoule walls on the sink side are freed of small crystallization seeds. Finishing the experiment the ampoule is taken out carefully. In order to obtain crystals without being contaminated by the condensed gas phase, one has to make sure that the gas phase condenses on the source side.
Determination of time dependent rates of mass transport using a transport balance, according to [2, 197].
For quite simple transport experiments, the determination of the transport rate is realized by weighing the crystals and calculation of an average rate within the total experimental time. More advanced, a transport balance can be applied, which is a measuring device for recording the time dependence of mass transports. In the process, the changes of the tracking force of the balance is recorded and graphically represented during the entire transport experiment. This way, the transport action can be followed online [133].
Due to intensification of small ruminant farming, there is increase in the number of disease outbreaks in the recent years. Among the various infectious diseases, diseases caused by bacterial pathogens contribute to severe economic loss to the goat farmers. Various factors like increase in herd size, reduced ventilation in farm and poor husbandry practices can predispose to diseases. Bacterial diseases like anthrax, enterotoxaemia, tetanus, gas gangrene, caseous lymphadenitis, listeriosis, tuberculosis, Johne’s disease, dermatophilosis, pasteurellosis/mannheimiosis, brucellosis, foot rot, contagious caprine pleuropneumonia, colibacillosis, salmonellosis, etc., affect goats and can cause various ailments and some diseases can cause heavy mortality leading to huge economic loss to the farmer [1]. Different bacterial pathogens affect different organs of goat thereby eliciting various clinical signs based on which a tentative diagnosis can be made (Figure 1).
\nDifferent bacterial diseases of goat and the organ/ tissues affected. Brucellosis affects reproductive tract, dermatophilosis affect the skin, johne’s disease causes corrugation of intestine, pasteurellosis/ mannheimiosis, tuberculosis, contagious caprine pleuropneumonia affects the respiratory system, caseous lymphadenitis affects the lymph nodes and tetanus affects the nervous system. This figure is propriety of the authors.
Antibacterial agents can be used to treat various bacterial diseases but these drugs should be used judiciously due to the risk of development of antimicrobial resistance. Vaccination is the best way to prevent infectious diseases and based on the pattern of the disease annual vaccination should be practiced to prevent disease outbreaks. Diseases like anthrax, brucellosis and tuberculosis pose threat to human since these diseases can be transmitted to human through direct or indirect route of transmission [2]. Due care should be taken while handling infected goats or dead goats in farm as the zoonotic diseases can cause severe aliments in human.
\nThis chapter is a comprehensive summary of important bacterial diseases of goats and this can be a guide to veterinary students, field veterinarians and goat farmers regarding the impact of these bacterial diseases. This chapter also highlights the preventive measures and zoonotic potential associated with the bacterial diseases of goats. Important bacterial diseases that are zoonotic and economically important like anthrax, brucellosis, tetanus, enterotoxaemia, Johne’s disease, Pasteurellosis/ Mannheimiosis, caseous lymphadenitis, contagious caprine pleuropneumonia, dermatophilosis and foot rot are discussed. Each disease is delt with various subsections like definition of the diseases, etiology, epizootiology, transmission clinical signs, diagnosis, treatment, preventive measures and public health significance, if any.
\nAnthrax is a peracute, acute or subacute, often fatal disease of animals including goats. In goats the disease is mainly characterized by septicaemia, splenomegaly and gelatinous infiltration of subcutaneous or subserosal tissues. The disease is commonly known as woolsorter’s disease, splenic fever, charbon, and milzbrand.
\nThe disease is caused by
The disease is worldwide in distribution and is endemic in some countries, while occurs in defined regions of other countries. It was reported to be associated with heavy mortalities in goats and sheep of sub-saharan region in 1960–70s and in other countries. In recent days, through strict vaccination procedures the incidence reduced in most countries, however, sporadic cases are still being reported.
Goats are infected by ingestion of food, water or soil contaminated with spores. The infection can also occur through inhalation or abraded skin and oral mucosa. Mechanical transmission by biting insects is also reported. Wild animals acting as carriers makes the control programme challenging as it is least possible to vaccinate all wild animals.
\nThe incubation period ranges from hours to days. The disease is usually fatal, especially in sheep and goats, after 1–3 days. The peracute case is characterized by sudden death without any premonitory signs. However, there may be fever, dysponea, congestion of mucous membranes, muscular tremors and terminal convulsions in few animals. In acute cases, fever, anorexia, labored breathing, increased heart rate, ruminal stasis and reduce milk production may be observed. There may be bloody discharges from orifices like mouth, nostrils, anus and/or vulva. Diarrhea or dysentery and oedema and swelling of the tongue, throat, flank and perineum (anus, vulva) may be seen. Pregnant animal abort and blood-tinged milk is produced. Animals then collapse with terminal convulsions and die [4].
\nNecropsy of suspected carcass is not recommended, as the vegetative bacteria may get transformed into spore and hence contaminate the environment. The pathological features such as absence of rigor mortis and rapid putrefaction and bloating of the carcass are common clinical features. Oozing of unclotted dark, tarry colored blood from orifices, soft and enlarged spleen, blood-stained fluid in body cavities and widespread ecchymotic hemorrhages are frequently observed post mortem findings.
\nThough clinical signs are highly suggestive, the diagnosis based on clinical signs alone is difficult. Thin smears of blood from ear tip can be stained with polychrome methylene blue stain to reveal short chains of truncated blue color rods, surrounded by pink capsules (McFadyean reaction). The organism can be cultured on Sheep or Ox blood agar which shows flat, dry grayish colonies with ‘ground glass’ appearance after 24–48 hours of incubation (Figure 2). The selective media for the organism is PLET (Polymyxin-lysozyme-EDTA thallous acetate) medium. The Ascoli’s thermo-precipitation test is also commonly used test to detect antigens of
Ground glass appearance
Ailing animals in early stages of infection can be treated with penicillin or oxytetracycline or other long-acting antibiotics. An anthrax antiserum may result in recovery if used in early stages. Vaccination should follow 7–10 days after the conclusion of antibiotic therapy [4].
\nIn endemic areas, annual vaccination is advisable. The goat should be vaccinated with ‘Sterne strain’ live spore vaccine one month before the anticipated outbreaks. In non-endemic areas, movement of animals and their products should be restricted; feed and bedding materials etc., should not be transferred from affected herds. Disinfection of the premises with 5% formalin, 5% sodium hydroxide or 3% peracetic acid and placing foot-baths containing these sporicidal disinfectants at the entrances of the affected farms will help to control the spread of infection. Contaminated building should be fumigated with formaldehyde before removing the bedding materials [5]. Proper disposal of carcasses and the infected materials should be done either by deep burial or incineration.
\n\n
Caprine brucellosis is an infectious zoonotic disease having substantial economic impact on both livestock and human. Caprine brucellosis is reported since ancient days; Hippocrates II first described the human brucellosis in 400 B.C. which was most likely to be associated with consumption of raw milk or derivatives of infected sheep or goats.
\nThe causative agent is
The disease is prevalent worldwide and it remains a major burden in parts of Mediterranean region, the Middle East, Central and Southeast Asia (including India and China), sub-Saharan Africa, and parts of Latin America [8]. Goat herds from USA, Canada, Colombia, Chile, and Uruguay are reported to be free from
Infection occurs primarily through ingestion of the organisms. Goats acquire infection by licking the aborted fetuses, placentas, newborn kids, vaginal discharges, or by consumption of feed contaminated with these infectious materials [9]. Milkers can also spread the infection through unsanitary milking practices.
\nThe disease is more severe in goats and is protracted than in sheep. Clinical manifestations include high abortion rates particularly during the fourth month of pregnancy and retained placentas, orchitis in bucks, arthritis and hygromas. In goats, mastitis and lameness may also be seen. The abortion rate can be high when this bacterium first enters a naive flock or herd [10]. The abortion rates are usually much lower once
Diagnosis is made based on clinical signs, direct examination of MZN-stained smears of fluids or tissues, isolation and identification of
\n
Test and slaughter policy of the infected herd is generally implemented in countries where the disease is considered exotic. This can also reduce the prevalence of disease in endemic areas. In most countries where
\n
Tetanus (Lockjaw) is an acute, highly fatal intoxication of all domestic animals and humans caused by neurotoxin produced by the bacteria
The etiological agent,
Tetanus is worldwide in distribution and occurs sporadically. The organism is normal inhabitant of intestinal tract of animals and persists as resistant spores in soil, manure [16].
\nThe toxemia in tetanus is caused by a specific neurotoxin produced by
The incubation period is usually of 4 days to 3 weeks. The initial signs include muscle stiffness, tremors and prolapse of the third eyelid. This is followed by rigidity and extension of the limbs leading to a stiff gait and abnormal flexion of the joints. Tetany of masseter muscles causes drooling of saliva (lock jaw) and regurgitation through nostrils [17]. The animals may exhibit bloat, an inability to chew, and hyperthermia. Retracted lips, hypersensitivity to external stimuli, and a ‘saw-horse’ stance are frequent signs. The spasms of alimentary and urinary tract muscle may cause constipation and retention of urine [17]. The abnormal muscular contracture may result in opisthotonus, curvature of the spine and bending of the tail. The disease is highly fatal and death occurs within 3–10 days with mortality nearing 100%, primarily as a result of respiratory failure. Necropsy features usually are nonspecific except for the inflammatory reaction associated with the wound.
\nDiagnosis can be made based on clinical features such as muscular spasms, prolapse of third eyelid and based on history of trauma or surgery. The Gram-positive rods with terminal spores can be demonstrated in the smears prepared from necrotic tissue or wound [18]. Anaerobic culture of the bacteria from necrotic tissue may be attempted but is often unsuccessful. PCR and real-time PCR techniques can be employed for the detection of neurotoxin genes of the organism. Mouse inoculation test can be performed to demonstrate circulating neurotoxin from the serum of affected animals.
\nTreatment mainly aimed at wound management, antibiotic therapy, antitoxin administration and vaccination. Wound management consists of surgical debridement of infected wounds and removal of debris, flushing with hydrogen peroxide to produce aerobic condition that helps to inhibit replication of the bacteria at the site of infection. The antibiotics (large doses of Penicillin) can be given both parenterally and flushed into the cleaned wound to prevent further replication of the bacteria and production of toxin [19]. Affected animals must be kept in a quiet and dark environment. Fluid replacement therapy, sedatives and muscle relaxants can minimize clinical discomfort and maintain vital functions. To neutralize unbound toxin, the tetanus antitoxin must be administered on time, either intravenously or into the subarachnoid space for three consecutive days. Vaccination with tetanus toxoid may be given subcutaneously to promote an active immune response even in those animals that are treated with antitoxin.
\nTetanus can be controlled by following good sanitation measures, aseptic surgical and management procedures and vaccination. Goats in a herd must be vaccinated routinely with tetanus toxoid which is very effective for stimulating long-term immunity. They can be vaccinated 2–3 times during the first year of life followed by booster vaccination before parturition to ensure colostral antibodies [20]. Further, a booster dose may be advisable if a vaccinated animal sustains a deep wound.
\nEnterotoxaemia in goats is caused by
\n
The
The peracute condition is characterized by sudden death of younger and healthy kids. This is occasionally preceded by other signs such as loss of appetite, lack of rumen activity and rumination, bloat, depression and a drunken appearance; the animals may show neurological signs such as incoordination, inability to stand, and convulsions. There may be watery diarrhea and glucosuria. In goat’s acute disease is mainly characterized by dysentery, abdominal discomfort and convulsions.
\nIn acute cases of goats, the necropsy findings include pulmonary edema, necrosis of intestinal walls and scattered hyperaemic areas of intestine. Intestinal contents may be green, blood-stained or mucoid, and fibrinous casts may be present in the lumen of the large intestine [22]. Mesentric lymph nodes may be edematous. Fluid accumulation in the pericardial sac, extremely necrotic, soft kidneys (‘pulpy kidneys’), focal encephalomalacia, and petechiae of serosa of the brain, diaphragm, gastrointestinal tract and heart are common findings.
\nDiagnosis of enterotoxaemia depends on epidemiological features, type of diet, clinical and pathological features. Gram positive rods can be demonstrated in the smears of intestinal contents or in the lesions of intestine. The culture of bacteria from fecal samples in cooked meat media may be suggestive of the disease (Figure 4). Organism on blood agar plates show double zone of hemolysis which is suggestive of
Double zone hemolytic colonies of
Treatment generally is ineffective as most cases are acute in nature. A hyperimmune serum, if available, can be used and a combination of hyperimmune serum along with sulphadimidine has been found useful in goats. Chelating agents can be used to neutralize toxins [21].
\nVaccination before the anticipated outbreaks is the primary method of control. Alum precipitated formalin killed whole culture toxoid vaccines are commercially available. In ruminants, maternal antibodies last about 5–6 weeks postpartum and hence, the young animals must be vaccinated at this time. Kids are usually vaccinated twice at 4 weeks interval and then re-vaccinated at once in 6 months. However, several anaphylactic reactions have been reported in Sannen kids re-vaccinated with toxoids [24]. Sudden dietary changes and other predisposing factors to enterotoxaemias must be managed. Feeding regimens and feeding of concentrates even to adult goats should be monitored carefully.
\nA chronic, contagious, granulomatous disease affecting small intestine of adult ruminants and the affected animals show weight loss and intermittent diarrhea [25].
\nJD is caused by
The organism is present in the environment and animals at young are affected either through ingestion of contaminated milk or direct contact. Infected goats may excrete the bacteria in the feces thereby contaminating the environment [26].
\nThe incubation period is usually months to years. Chronic wasting is a characteristic sign in goat and at times pasty feces or diarrhea (in advanced cases) can be witnessed. In advanced cases the animals may lose weight rapidly and will have a hide and bone condition. During PM examination intestine of the affected animals have a corrugated appearance [27].
\nAffected animals can be identified in the herd by intradermal skin testing using Johnin purified protein derivative (PPD). Alternatively, Interferon gamma assay (IGRA) can also be used to assess the cellular immunity. Lymph nodes (Ileal and ileocecal) aspirates, intestinal scrapping can show acid fast bacilli in staining (Figure 5). Organism my shed intermittently in feces and hence, bacilli can be found by acid fast staining [27]. Organism can be detected intestinal tissues, lymph node and feces by culture and PCR. Detection of antibody in the later or final stages of the disease can also be attempted for diagnosis.
\nAcid fast bacilli in intestinal scrapping. This figure is propriety of the authors.
Treating animals with antimycobacterial agents are not fruitful.
\nDue to its chronic nature, it is difficult to identify the disease early hence, it is advised to test a newly purchased animal before letting into the farm. Test and cull policy is better to break the chain of infection. Suspected animals should be separated from the herd and affected animals milk should not be fed to neonates [25]. The organism may survive longer in the pasture hence, once an animal is found positive it is best to change the pasture land.
\nA similar condition in human named as Crohn’s disease has been suspected to be caused by
Pasteurellosis and Mannheimiosis is an acute fatal disease characterized by pneumonia and septicemia.
\n\n
\n
Acute rhinitis or pharyngitis is the common sign noticed in animals. Animals may have high fever, anorexia, and rapid breathing along with profuse mucopurulent nasal/ ocular discharges. Kids are more susceptible than adult goats and death may occur without any clinical signs [30]. PM changes include marbling of lungs, pleural adhesion, sero-fibrinous fluid in the thorax, frothy exudate in trachea and also in bronchi.
\nBipolar organisms of
Bipolar organism in lung impression smear. This figure is propriety of the authors.
Use of antibiotics based on antimicrobial susceptibility testing can be used to control the bacterial propagation and anti-inflammatory agents can be used to control fever [30].
\n\n
Caseous lymphadenitis (CLA) is contagious, subclinical and chronic suppurative condition of sheep and goats, occasionally in cattle and is characterized by the formation of abscesses in lymph nodes and visceral organs [33].
\nCLA is caused by
CLA is worldwide in distribution and the probable dissemination of the disease throughout the world occurred through importation of infected animal [34]. This disease is found in parts of North and South America, Australia, New Zealand, the Middle East, Asia and Africa and is being reported more often in Britain and other European countries.
\nThe bacteria can survive in the environment for about 6 months or more. Transmission can occur either through direct or indirect contact or through wounds contaminated with pus from the abscesses of infected animals. The organism enters through contamination of skin wounds arising from castration, ear tagging or tattooing, docking or shearing operations. Arthropod bites or contaminated dips can also be the source of infection [34]. Goats having traumatized buccal mucosa have more chances of taking the bacterium from contaminated feed. The organism has also been isolated from the milk of affected goats.
\nThe incubation period varies from weeks to months; usually is about 3 months. CLA may be manifested in two forms: in its superficial form it is characterized by infection of peripheral lymph nodes, such as the submandibular, parotid, pre-scapular and supramammary lymph nodes (Figure 7). These peripheral lymph nodes enlarge, may erode and eventually leads to formation of abscess in chronic cases. Visceral form is characterized by abscessation of internal organs, such as lungs, liver, kidneys, uterus, spleen and internal lymph nodes (mainly mediastinal and bronchial lymph nodes) that may not be detectable antemortem [35]. These two forms can co-exist; however, the visceral form is more common among sheep, while superficial form is more frequent among goats with external abscesses in the lymph nodes particularly of the head and neck regions.
\nLymph node enlargement in goats noted in caseous lymphadenitis. This figure is propriety of the authors.
Eventually, the affected animal become exercise-intolerant, anorectic, ill-thrift and debilitated (often known as thin-ewe syndrome in sheep). Fever, increased respiratory rates, and pneumonia may also be noticed. Morbidity up to 15% is common, and morbid animals will often eventually succumb to the disease. The infection can also lead to abortion in doe and orchitis and/or epididymitis in bucks. Though less common, orchitis can be acute in which the buck develops fever, reduced appetite, lack of walking ability and loss of libido. The infected testes appear swollen, hot and painful to touch.
\nDiagnosis is based on clinical signs and lesions and abscessation of both superficial and visceral lymph nodes is typical. Radiographs may be useful in identifying affected central nodes which also must be confirmed by culture of tracheal washings. Gram and Giemsa staining can be used for identification of the bacteria. Isolation of organism from purulent material from abscessed lymph nodes in case of live animals and /or from abscesses of internal organs from dead animals. ELISA tests which detect antibodies directed against either cell wall antigens or the exotoxin (Phospholipase D - PLD) are available [34]. Further, the detection of INF-γ by ELISA, an indicator of cell-mediated immunity, has also been potentially used for demonstration of CLA in eradication programs. Molecular techniques such as PCRs targeting 16S rDNA,
Though
As CLA is contagious in nature, the animals with draining and punctured lesions should be kept isolated until healed. Reducing the environmental contamination, proper sanitation and biosecurity of facilities and instruments and safety measures to prevent injuries are all important in control. The causative agent is sensitive to common disinfectants such as hypochlorite, formalin and cresol; however, the surfaces should be cleaned before disinfection, as organic matter usually interferes with the action of these agents. The control measures vary with the prevalence of infection. In countries with a high incidence, rigorous sanitary procedures must be implemented, along with vaccination. Disease eradication can be achieved in endemically-infected herds by test and disposal policy [36].
\nMost of the commercially available vaccines contain inactivated PLD of either
Human beings are rarely affected, some cases of human infections have been documented as occupational infection in veterinary doctors and assistant as well as farm experts.
\nContagious caprine pleuropneumonia (CCPP) is a highly contagious and rapidly spreading mycoplasmal disease of goat, occasionally sheep and wild ruminants. CCPP is characterized by severe sero-fibrinous pleuropneumonia, very high morbidity (100%), and mortality (80–100%) and results in heavy economic losses.
\nCCPP is caused by
CCPP is becoming a novel emerging and rapidly spreading disease in most parts of the world and at present, goat populations in more than 40 countries are affected with CCPP and sporadic cases of CCPP are also being reported from many more countries [37]. It mostly occurs in countries of Africa, Middle East and Asia.
\nThe disease is highly contagious and main mode of transmission is through inhalation of infected aerosols. The direct contact with affected animals is the main source of transmission. Airborne transmission can result in distant spread of about 50 m distance. However, the shorter survival time (3–14 days) of the organisms in external environment limits transmission of Mccp [38]. Yet under cold, moist and overcrowded environment these bacteria can persists for longer durations and may lead to severe outbreaks mostly in winter.
\nCCPP is strictly a respiratory illness and is characterized by severe dyspnea, nasal discharge, cough, and fever. This can occur in peracute, acute and/or chronic forms in endemic areas. In peracute form, affected goats may die within 1–3 days without premonitory clinical signs. In acute infection, the initial signs are high fever (41–43°C), lethargy and anorexia, followed within 2–3 days by coughing and laboured breathing. The cough is frequent, violent and productive. In the final stages of infection, the goat may not be able to move and stands with its front legs wide apart and its neck stiff and extended [37]. Saliva can drip continuously from the mouth, and the animal may exhibit grunt or bleat in pain. Frothy nasal discharge and stringy saliva may be seen terminally. Pregnant goats may abort. Acutely affected goats generally die within seven to 10 days. In the chronic cases, there is chronic cough, nasal discharge and debilitation. These forms with resembling clinical signs in goats were also reported from captive wild goats.
\nPathological features during necropsy are also limited to respiratory system. Acute form is characterized by unilateral pneumonia and sero-fibrinous pleuritis with straw colored fluid in the thorax. The lung is granular with copious straw-colored exudates oozing out on cut section. Pea-sized, yellow-colored nodules may be noticed in lungs and these nodules are surrounded by areas of congestion. Varying degrees of lung consolidation or necrosis may also be noticed [37]. The regional lymph nodes mainly bronchial lymph nodes are enlarged. Some long-term survivors reveal chronic pleuropneumoniae or chronic pleuritis, with encapsulation of acute lesions and numerous adhesions to the chest wall. The interlobular septa are not usually thickened in domesticated goats.
\nCCPP can be diagnosed based on cultural, biochemical, serological, and molecular methods following a tentative clinical diagnosis. Ultrasonography and X-rays may help in diagnosis and CCPP-associated changes may be evident in lungs, pleura, thorax, and associated structures. Cultural isolation and identification (‘fried egg-like appearance’ of the colonies under microscope), though is conventional but is still considered as standard method for detection of Mccp from lung tissue and/or pleural fluid at necropsy. Due to the difficulty in isolation, PCR is the technique of choice for the diagnosis of CCPP. The agglutination tests, ELISA, FAT, CFT (most widely used), passive or indirect haemagglutination tests (IHT) are the immunological methods employed for diagnosis of CCPP [38]. Latex agglutination test is being increasingly used in diagnostic laboratories as a pen side test. It can used to test whole blood as well as serum.
\nTylosin is considered the drug of choice against Mccp. Further, oxytetracycline is also found effective when administered in early stages of infection. However, some infections are slow to resolve.
\nIn endemic areas, proper care should be taken while introducing new goats into the flock. Flock testing, slaughter, and on-site quarantine may be helpful in controlling the spread of disease. Vaccines available in some areas may help in prevention of the disease. The commercially available CCPP vaccine containing inactivated Mccp suspended in saponin provides protection for over 1 year [37].
\nDermatophilosis is a chronic, exudative and sometimes proliferative dermatitis occurs in domestic ruminants, wild animals and occasionally in human beings. Also known as Cutaneous streptothricosis, Strawberry foot rot or Lumpy wool.
\nDermatophilosis is caused by
The disease occurs worldwide and is more common in tropics and subtropics. The organism is believed to be a saprophyte of soil and persists in dry scabs and crusts, to survive for up to 42 months. It has been reported from many countries, but occurs particularly in humid climates and areas where ticks of the genus
Transmission occurs by direct contact with infected animals. The infection can be transmitted indirectly by mechanical vectors (ectoparasites) and also through intradermal inoculation by contaminated thorny bushes. The pathogenesis may be influenced by factors such as mechanical injury to the skin, rainfall, tick infestation, concurrent diseases and/or stresses that compromise the host’s immune system.
\nThe disease is painful but non-pruritic, and is characterized by exudative, proliferative or hyperkeratotic dermatitis, accompanied by the production of crusts and folliculitis. In sheep, it may be seen in two forms: mycotic dermatitis (lumpy wool) and strawberry foot rot. While in goats and cattle, similar signs of crusty, suppurative dermatitis are seen and are often referred as cutaneous streptothricoses. The skin lesions appear raised, thick, yellow-brown colored discrete or confluents crusts containing matted hair. Sometimes may be seen in nodular form also with discrete encrustation of scab. The whole body may be affected but less hairy parts such as ears, axilla, scrotum, prepuce, ventral abdomen, limbs etc., show severe lesions [40]. Lesions in younger goats are mostly seen along the tips of the ears and under the tail. Most affected animals will recover within 3–4 weeks and lesions have little effect on overall health. In severe generalized infections, the animals often loose condition. If there are lesions at the feet, lips and muzzle, the movement of animals and eating become difficult.
\nDiagnosis of dermatophilosis is mainly based clinical signs particularly based on the appearance of the characteristic skin lesions. The same can be confirmed by the demonstration of the organism from the lesions beneath the scabs. The softened scab materials stained by the Giemsa method, reveal the characteristic branching filaments containing zoospores. The organism can be cultured on blood agar at 37°C under 2.5–10% CO2 for up to 5 days and Haalstra technique based on chemotaxis of the zoospores to CO2 can be employed for efficient recovery of the organism.
\nAnimals can be treated with antibiotics such as high doses of penicillin or long acting tetracyclines. Topical applications alone are ineffective. Antibiotic therapy is augmented by topical treatment with lime sulfur as well as control of ectoparasites and biting flies. Povidone iodine shampoos or chlorhexidine solutions also help in clearing the disease.
\nControl measures are based on minimizing the effects of predisposing factors and prompt treatment of affected goats. Animals with skin lesions must be isolated and treated at the earliest. Minimizing moist conditions (such as providing shelter during rainfall) is helpful in control and prevention. Grazing management especially removal of thorny bushes in pasture land that damages skin will also help. Prophylactic antibiotic therapy can also be given.
\n\n
A contagious, either acute or chronic dermatitis of the hoof and its underlying tissues leading to lameness [41].
\nFoot rot is caused by
The organism
Interdigital region will be moist and will have a foul odor due to necrosis (Figure 8). Lameness is the common sign of foot rot. Based on the severity of the infection animals may lose weight due to anorexia and there will be decrease in production [43].
\nMoist, necrotic interdigital region seen in foot rot condition. This figure is propriety of the authors.
Diagnosis is based on clinical signs and isolation of organism from the foot lesions. Since the organisms are anaerobic isolation is tricky and hence molecular diagnosis like PCR can be used for diagnosis.
\nHooves of the animals should be trimmed so as to remove the necrotic material thereby eliminating the anaerobic environment. Local antibiotics may be applied to the affected hoof after trimming. 10% zinc or copper sulfate or 10% formalin can be used for footbath [44].
\n\n
Goat is called as poor man’s cow but there are various bacterial diseases that cause economic loss to the goat farmers. Serval bacterial diseases cause acute infection hence there will be sudden onset of infection leading to huge mortality. Measures like use of vaccines before onset of disease, good management practices, etc., are essential to prevent the disease outbreaks. Animals with infection or clinical signs should be separated from rest of the animals so that infectious pathogens do not transmit to naïve animals and it is also recommended to quarantine newly purchased animals before admitting them into the farm. These practices can curtail the spread of infectious agents. It is also advisable to screen for diseases before purchasing the animals to the farm. Diseases like TB, JD and brucellosis should be screened before the purchase since these diseases are chronic in nature hence can remain undiagnosed. Animals infected with diseases that can affect human like anthrax, brucellosis, etc., should be handled carefully and better bio-security measures should be followed to prevent spread of disease within herd and also to human beings. Most of the bacterial infection can be treated with antimicrobial agents but these agents should be used judiciously because in the recent times antimicrobial resistance is a major problem.
\nThe authors declare no conflict of interest.
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\n\n\r\n\tSustainable development focuses on linking economic development with environmental protection and social development to ensure future prosperity for people and the planet. To tackle global challenges of development and environment, the United Nations General Assembly in 2015 adopted the 17 Sustainable Development Goals. SDGs emphasize that environmental sustainability should be strongly linked to socio-economic development, which should be decoupled from escalating resource use and environmental degradation for the purpose of reducing environmental stress, enhancing human welfare, and improving regional equity. Moreover, sustainable development seeks a balance between human development and decrease in ecological/environmental marginal benefits. Under the increasing stress of climate change, many environmental problems have emerged causing severe impacts at both global and local scales, driving ecosystem service reduction and biodiversity loss. Humanity’s relationship with resource exploitation and environment protection is a major global concern, as new threats to human and environmental security emerge in the Anthropocene. Currently, the world is facing significant challenges in environmental sustainability to protect global environments and to restore degraded ecosystems, while maintaining human development with regional equality. Thus, environmental sustainability with healthy natural ecosystems is critical to maintaining human prosperity in our warming planet.
",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/94.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!0,hasPublishedBooks:!1,annualVolume:11978,editor:{id:"61855",title:"Dr.",name:"Yixin",middleName:null,surname:"Zhang",slug:"yixin-zhang",fullName:"Yixin Zhang",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYWJgQAO/Profile_Picture_2022-06-09T11:36:35.jpg",biography:"Professor Yixin Zhang is an aquatic ecologist with over 30 years of research and teaching experience in three continents (Asia, Europe, and North America) in Stream Ecology, Riparian Ecology, Urban Ecology, and Ecosystem Restoration and Aquatic Conservation, Human-Nature Interactions and Sustainability, Urbanization Impact on Aquatic Ecosystems. He got his Ph.D. in Animal Ecology at Umeå University in Sweden in 1998. He conducted postdoc research in stream ecology at the University of California at Santa Barbara in the USA. After that, he was a postdoc research fellow at the University of British Columbia in Canada to do research on large-scale stream experimental manipulation and watershed ecological survey in temperate rainforests of BC. He was a faculty member at the University of Hong Kong to run ecological research projects on aquatic insects, fishes, and newts in Tropical Asian streams. He also conducted research in streams, rivers, and caves in Texas, USA, to study the ecology of macroinvertebrates, big-claw river shrimp, fish, turtles, and bats. Current research interests include trophic