\r\n\tRadiation monitoring deals with the sampling and measurement of different products found in different radiation pathways from the environment ending with consumption in humans. Gamma-spectroscopy is the main tool for measurement of these radiations.
\r\n
\r\n\tThe aim of this book is to investigate the radionuclide concentrations in the most consumable food products, air, water and soil. Particularly, it is essential to investigate the radiations level in the surroundings of a nuclear facility.
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1. Introduction
Supply chain management seeks to improve competitive performance by tightly integrating internal cross-functions within a company and effectively linking them with the external operations of suppliers, customers, and other channel members to be successful [1]. This means that a company pursuing supply chain management practices should pay attention to supply chain integration and teamwork [2], as well as to an open communication climate within the organization to facilitate internal integration of supply management, further to support the influence of social aspects on supply chain integration [3].
To use the supply chain at its maximum level of performance, organizations must integrate their objectives and activities together. Integration becomes the key driving force in supply chain management, explaining that internal optimization will occur until needs of customers are understood and limitations of suppliers are known [4]. In this way, an organization’s ability to improve is closely linked to its ability to understand its supply chain [5].
Integration means sharing information, resources and risks, proactive communication, joint development of supply chain processes and coordinating plan and decision-making within and among supply chain participants. Teamwork means developing a co-operative relationship between supply chain participants as a requirement in creating customer value. An effective communication and teamwork competencies can resolve challenges, can respond to markets with the help of communication skills and technologies [2].
Communication allows firms to transmit persuasive information between themselves, foster participate cooperative decision-making, coordinate joint programs, better known customers and suppliers, and gain partner commitment and loyalty. Research has shown that establishing communication lines across cooperating/collaborating firms is essential to the maintenance of value-enhancing relationships, and leads to enhanced knowledge development, greater understanding of complex interorganizational issues, greater confidence, cooperation, trust and reduced conflict [6].
Paired firms that are highly communicative with each other can lower transaction costs by increasing behavioral transparency, reduce uncertainty between supply chain members, Foster interorganizational learning, facilitate quicker adaptation to change, enlarge the potential for greater joint action, and ultimately increase performance [6].
The food industry sector is one of the most refined sectors that need to generate high integration capacities of its supply chains due to the health and safety characteristics required by its consumers [7]. The security of the food supply chain is essential to ensure a safe and efficient food supply [8]. Being this sector where there are major cultural and technological differences, as well as endless challenges, and barriers.
Non-integrated companies have disconnected product and information flow, limited ability to respond to customer requests, unpredictable product delivery rate, limited visibility into shipment information, and performance based on functional activities [9]. With an integrated supply chain, companies get a greater focus on customer service. They also reduce waste and become faster and more flexible, while maintaining the highest quality standards. In general, they are gaining an advantage over the competition, and they continue to implement continuous improvements to stay in that position [9].
The complexity of a food supply chain network is influenced by the number of participants, interrelated product links and processes, differences in the use of technology by the participants, specific regulations and legislation on food preservation and quality, product characteristics, product assortment, consumer wishes for fresher and more natural products, smaller production batch size, etc. [10]. The sharing of information and knowledge among members of the supply chain; demand information, and inventory status, capacity plans, production schedules, and promotion plans, demand forecast and shipment schedules. Product and process integration across firms within strategic supply chains; allows suppliers to assume responsibility for product engineering activities and product development, understanding of the complexity and scope of coordinated processes.
The purpose of this paper is to analyze the activities that make the integration of the supply chain possible, in order to determine if there is collaboration between the external partners of the supply chain, suppliers and customers of companies in the food industry of Michoacán, to know the level or intensity of information exchange, communication and collaboration between companies and these members of the supply chain.
2. Theoretical background
According to Configuration theory, the alignment of strategy and systems or practices is reflected in the patterns observed in practice. This suggests the need for emerging joint patterns to the supply chain integration. According to Contingency theory, there is no optimal way to manage, but each situation depends on numerous internal and external elements [8, 9].
The literature recognizes that all the value creation potential of the purchasing function (integrated system of suppliers and customers) can only be achieved if decisions, activities, investments and strategy are aligned, as well as the importance of achieving a state of alignment between functional domains and information technology. With the emergence of information technology systems that support the purchasing function, the challenge of aligning them with supply chain strategy and activities has improved [11].
The importance of aligning the information systems function with other business functions is widely recognized and empirical studies have found strategic alignment which is defined as the degree to which the mission, objectives and plans contained in the business strategy are shared and supported by the strategic alignment strategy to influence business performance. Alignment involves applying information technology in an appropriate and timely way and in harmony with business strategies, goals, and needs [12].
Alignment implies a shared vision of, commitment to, and plan for addressing areas considered critical to success. Alignment is related to organizational performance. Alignment between information systems and firm strategic plans should increase a firm’s ability to realize its goals and objectives [13]. It is important to understand the importance of each other’s contributions, communicate regularly and move towards shared goals, to experience improved managerial outcomes. Alignment leads to more focused and strategic use of information systems and, consequently, improved performance [11].
Relational perspective emphasizes that the distinctive competitive advantages will result from the cooperation between companies or networks and not of the organization’s resources as unique or separate activities. From company collaboration, competitive advantages will be generated; the routine sharing of knowledge, complementary data sources, and effective governance.
Thus, it would be difficult for a company to create a competitive advantage by itself, based on the unique resources or ability, but on relational capabilities generated or created through active interaction and coordination among enterprises to achieve a common goal [14].
Company Performance involves Supplier Performance-Oriented, Customer-Oriented Performance and Financial Performance [15]. Supplier-oriented performance measures the performance of the supply chain in the upstream and customer-oriented performance measures the supply chain performance in the downstream. A combination of both is called supply chain performance. Supplier performance-oriented and customer performance-oriented affects the overall performance. Supplier-oriented performance and customer-oriented performance is an operations-oriented measurement which involves a variety of performance measurements [14].
Supply chain integration helps companies reconfigure their resources and capabilities internally and externally to consolidate their supply chain as a whole in an effort to improve long-term performance [2, 12]. It is a collaborative process in which companies work together cooperatively to achieve mutually acceptable results.
Supply Chain Integration is the degree to which a firm can strategically collaborate with its supply chain partners and cooperatively manage intra- and inter-organizational processes to achieve effective and efficient flows of products, services, information, money, and decisions to provide the maximum value to the final customer with low costs and high speed [15].
According to the literature nine integrative activities were chosen to work in this analysis, Table 1 shows them with a definition of each activity and some of the authors that work with the same activities for suppliers and customers.
Integrative Activity
Suppliers
Customers
1. Share Demand Forecasts
To share the demand forecasts, prediction of future demand with their main suppliers and the information provided by the customers to the company about their demand forecast, key to their production planning, and to have real-time information directly from the end customer, to make a common demand forecast in order to avoid disruptions.
Devaraj et al. [16], Krajewski and Wei [17], Flynn et al. [18], Alfalla-Luque et al. [19], Mikalef et al. [11], Lii and Kuo [20], Molina-Quintana [21], Molina-Quintana et al. [22].
Devaraj et al. [16], Flynn et al. [18], Wong et al. [23], Kotcharin et al. [24], Alfalla-Luque et al. [19], De la Calle [25], Mikalef et al. [11], Lii and Kuo [20], Molina-Quintana [21], Molina-Quintana et al. [22].
2. Share Production Plans
To share their production plans with their main suppliers, and their main customers to achieve operational standardization. To have sufficient information to perform the procurement activities that meet real needs.
Frohlich and Westbrook [26], Swink et al. [27], Flynn et al. [18], Won et al. [23], Kotcharin et al. [24], Huo et al. [28], Mikalef et al. [11], Lii and Kuo [20], Molina-Quintana [21], Molina-Quintana et al. [22].
Flynn et al. [18], Mikalef et al. [11], Lii and Kuo [20], Molina-Quintana [21], Molina-Quintana et al. [22].
3. Establish Long-Term Relationships
To establish stable links with supply chain partners to enable mutual trust. The long-term relationship between the organization, its suppliers and its customers. It is designed to leverage the strategic and operational capabilities of individual participating organizations to help them achieve significant ongoing benefits.
Li et al. [29], Alfalla-Luque et al. [19], Otchere et al. [1], Otchere et al. [30], Huo et al. [28], Mikalef et al. [11], Huo et al. [31], Qi et al. [32], Toker and Pinar [33], Molina-Quintana [21], Molina-Quintana et al. [22].
Li et al. [29], Alfalla-Luque et al. [19], Otchere et al. [1], Otchere et al. [30], Qi et al. [32], Toker and Pinar [33], Molina-Quintana [21], Molina-Quintana et al. [22].
4. Joint Planning to Anticipate and Solve Problems
To make available the supply chain members with information that allows joint planning that takes into account the constraints of the companies involved and seek to improve the planning process of comprehensive supply chain. To establish procedures under the normal order of the company against possible environment or business unexpected situations.
Devaraj et al. [16], Wong et al. [23], Alfalla-Luque et al. [19], Molina-Quintana [21], Molina-Quintana et al. [22].
Devaraj et al. [16], Wong et al. [23], Alfalla-Luque et al. [19], Molina-Quintana [21], Molina-Quintana et al. [22].
5. Share Information through Information Technologies
To make compatible the information systems so as to allow access to information concerning the activity of the company from different departments and companies that make up the supply chain. The extend to which supply chain partners strive to make and keep their communication systems compatible with each other to be ready for inter-firm forecasting and planning in addition to routine electronic transactions and information exchange within the supply chain. The extend to which critical and proprietary information is communicated to one’s supply chain partner.
Devaraj et al. [16], Flynn et al. [18], Wong et al. [23], Hosseini et al. [34], Alfalla-Luque et al. [19], Leuschner et al. [35]. Huo et al. [28], Mikalef et al. [11], Saleh [36], Qi et al. [32], Molina-Quintana [21], Molina-Quintana et al. [22], Yu et al. [37].
Devaraj et al. [16], Wong et al. [23], Hosseini et al. [34], Kotcharin et al. [24], De la Calle [25], Mikalef et al. [11], Lii and Kuo [20], Alfalla-Luque et al. [19], Molina-Quintana [21], Molina-Quintana et al. [22], Yu et al. [37].
6. Involvement in Product Development Processes
The extend to which members of the supply chain have developed joint knowledge sharing routines that facilitate use of innovative practices, sharing of new ideas, and working together in identifying and implementing improvement initiatives on new products development.
Li et al. [29], Swink et al. [27], Flynn et al. [18], Wong et al. [23], Hosseini et al. [34], Leuschner et al. [35], De la Calle [25], Huo et al. [31], Lii and Kuo [20], Molina-Quintana [21], Molina-Quintana et al. [22].
Narasimhan and Kim [38], Flynn et al. [18], Wong, et al. [23], Kotcharin et al. [24], De la Calle [25], Molina-Quintana [21], Molina-Quintana et al. [22].
7. Participation in Product Design Processes
To maintain close communication with suppliers and customers about product design change considerations. To guide organizations towards a joint search for the end customer satisfaction.
Thatte [39], Swink et al. [27], Flynn et al. [18], Saleh [36], Huo et al. [31], Lii and Kuo [20], Molina-Quintana [21], Molina-Quintana et al. [22].
Saleh [36], Huo et al. [31], Molina-Quintana [21], Molina-Quintana et al. [22].
8. Set Joint Goals
To involve in the setting of goals the supply chain members to benefit companies and activities.
Li et al. [29], Thatte [39], Alfalla-Luque et al. [19], Molina-Quintana [21], Molina-Quintana et al. [22].
Alfalla-Luque et al. [19], Molina-Quintana [21], Molina-Quintana et al. [22].
9. Develop Joint Responsibilities
To involve the Supply chain members in decision making.
Molina-Quintana [21], Molina-Quintana et al. [22].
Molina-Quintana [21], Molina-Quintana et al. [22].
Table 1.
Integrative activities with suppliers and customers.
Source: Own Elaboration.
3. Method
The measurement instrument applied to 93 companies in the food industry sector of Michoacán, México, collects information on the supply chain integration, referring to the integration of suppliers and customers, through a five-point Likert scale. The measurement instrument, in terms of external measurement with suppliers and customers, coincides in nine activities that are intended to be analyzed, activities of manufacturers towards suppliers and customers, to know the level or intensity of the exchange of information, communication and collaboration. The nine activities are practical on how the business organization has been implementing supply chain management in general.
The variables used for this research are integrative activities referring to demand forecasts, production plans, long-term relationships, joint planning, information through information technologies, involvement in product development processes, participation in processes of production design, joint objectives and joint responsibilities. The activities are the same for both, suppliers and customers, which allow to relate both concepts.
Although food industry sector includes the activity of food for human and animals’ consumption, beverages and tobacco, for the purpose of this research, only the food sector for human will be taken into account, without taking into account prepared animal food, or the beverage or tobacco industry. In this research we will take the description of the food industry from [40, 41], which is comprised of the following subsectors with their respective frequency of companies for this study; 1) grinding grains and seeds (11 companies), 2) obtaining oils and fats (4 companies), 3) confectionery with and without cocoa (21 companies), 4) preserving fruits (7 companies), 5) vegetables and prepared foods (31 companies), 6) dairy products (2 companies), 7) meat and poultry processing (7 companies), 8) preparation and packaging of fish and seafood (1 company), 9) bakery and tortillas (9 companies).
4. Analysis of the integrative activities that make up the supply chain integration
The following Table 2 shows the descriptives for the integrative activities that food companies have with their suppliers and their customers, as well as a test of paired samples.
Suppliers
Integrative Activities
Customers
Paired Samples t-test
Mean
Standard Deviation
Mean
Standard Deviation
t
P Value
2.882
1.552
Share demand forecasts
3.527
1.372
−2.844
0.006
2.419
1.432
Share production plans
2.957
1.474
−2.459
0.017
4.226
1.190
Establish long-term relationships
4.516
0.892
−1.388
0.170
2.140
1.426
Joint planning to anticipate and solve problems
3.161
1.454
−1.248
0.217
2.376
1.481
Share information through information technology
3.065
1.436
−3.536
0.001
2.871
1.408
Involvement in product development processes
3.591
1.369
−6.727
0.000
2.323
1.423
Participation in product design processes
2.591
1.393
−2.200
0.032
2.312
1.459
Set joint goals
2.473
1.388
−2.079
0.042
2.707
1.264
Develop joint responsibilities
3.640
1.199
−1.342
0.185
Table 2.
Statistical summary for integrative activities.
Source: Own Elaboration based on the collected data.
Negative t-values indicate that all variables take higher mean values for customers than for suppliers, which indicates that the difference is always in favor of customers. In the p-value of the significance test, the difference is only statistically significant for six of the nine integrative activities, since the value is less than 0.05.
The following Figure 1 shows the mean differences between suppliers and customers, together with the corresponding 95% confidence intervals, constructed directly with each difference variable, using the Normal approximation of the mean distribution.
Figure 1.
Differences of means (suppliers - customers) of the integrative activities and confidence intervals. Source: Own elaboration based on the collected data.
All mean values are located below the zero level (horizontal line in the graph), indicating that integrating activities have systematically higher values for customers than for suppliers. Only two activities have upper interval limits that exceed the zero level, so the mean is not significantly different from zero with a two-sided contrast in those two cases.
If we apply a one-sided test, more appropriate considering that the negative value of the difference is systematically observed in all cases, the statistical significance of the effect extends to all activities except “develop joint objectives”, as indicated in the following Table 3.
Activity
Integrative Activities
Mean Difference
One-sided p value
1
Share demand forecasts
−0.645
0.0008327
2
Share production plans
−.538
0.005186
3
Establish long-term relationships
−0.29
0.01685
4
Joint planning to anticipate and solve problems
−1.021
0.000001044
5
Share information through information technology
−0.689
0.001149
6
Involvement in product development processes
−0.72
0.000139
7
Participation in product design processes
−0.268
0.04112
8
Set joint goals
−0.161
0.1723
9
Develop joint responsibilities
−0.933
0.000008366
Table 3.
Unilateral contrast for integrative activities.
Source: Own Elaboration based on the collected data.
Table 4 below shows the analysis of individualized associations expressed in percentages or relative frequencies of questions by company for the integrative activities in a recoded form (H = High, M = Medium, L = Low) to understand and interpret the questions easily of the instrument for measuring the activities referring to integrative activities.
Activity 1. Share demand forecasts
Activity 2. Share production plans
How often do your customers provide your company with information about their demand forecast, which is key to your production planning?
How often does your company share its production plans with its main customers to achieve operational standardization?
How often does your company share its demand forecasts (prediction of future demand) with its main suppliers?
H
M
L
Total
How often does your company share its production plans with its main suppliers?
H
M
L
Total
H
10.8
8.6
19.4
38.7
H
26.9
8.6
10.8
46.2
M
5.4
6.5
9.7
39.8
M
3.2
2.2
7.5
12.9
L
18.3
8.6
12.9
21.5
L
12.9
10.8
17.2
40.9
Total
34.4
41.9
23.7
100.0
Total
43.0
21.5
35.5
100.0
Pearson’s Chi-squared test, p-value = 0.3742
Pearson’s Chi-squared test, p-value = 0.05858
Activity 3. Establish long-term relationships
Activity 4. Joint planning to anticipate and solve problems
How often does your company seek a long-term relationship with your clients to achieve operational consolidation?
How often does your company do joint planning with key customers to anticipate and solve problems?
How often does your company establish long-term relationships with your suppliers?
H
M
L
Total
How often do you plan together with your key suppliers to anticipate and resolve issues?
H
M
L
Total
H
47.3
*
14.0
61.3
H
23.7
19.4
5.4
48.4
M
10.8
*
5.4
16.1
M
4.3
7.5
3.2
15.1
L
11.8
*
10.8
22.6
L
11.8
9.7
15.1
36.6
Total
69.9
*
30.1
100.00
Total
39.8
36.6
23.7
100.0
Pearson’s Chi-squared test, p-value = 0.1014 *This variable does not have mean values, since more than two thirds of the respondents marked the maximum value of 5 in that question in a 5 point Likert scale. There are therefore only two groups, those with a value of 5 (high level, H) and those with less than 5, less than a third of the total (low level, L, or medium / low level ML).
Pearson’s Chi-squared test, p-value = 0.02578
Activity 5. Share information through information technology
Activity 6. Involvement in product development processes
How often do you share information with your main customers through information technology?
How often do you involve your customers in your product development processes?
How often does your company and its suppliers share technical, general, relevant, commercial information through information and communication technologies?
H
M
L
Total
How often do you involve your suppliers in joint product development processes?
H
M
L
Total
H
17.2
12.9
4.3
34.4
H
26.9
4.3
4.3
35.5
M
5.4
22.6
7.5
35.5
M
2.2
3.2
6.5
3.2
L
10.8
12.9
6.5
30.1
L
28.0
10.8
14.0
52.7
Total
33.3
48.4
18.3
100.0
Total
57.0
18.3
24.7
100.0
Pearson’s Chi-squared test, p-value = 0.0513
Pearson’s Chi-squared test, p-value = 0.01393
Activity 7. Participation in product design processes
Activity 8. Set join goals
How often do your customers participate in your product design processes?
How often does your company set joint goals with key clients to achieve organizational restructuring?
How often do you communicate closely with your suppliers about design change considerations in joint product development?
H
M
L
Total
How often does your company set joint goals with your key suppliers?
How often do you develop joint responsibilities with key clients to achieve organizational restructuring?
How often does your organization develop joint responsibilities with your key suppliers?
H
M
L
Total
H
24.7
6.5
6.5
37.6
M
7.5
9.7
1.1
44.1
L
11.8
6.5
25.8
18.3
Total
44.1
33.3
22.6
100.0
Pearson’s Chi-squared test, p-value = 0.000006277
Table 4.
Analysis of associations for the integrative activities.
Source: Own Elaboration based on the collected data.
When the p-value is greater than 0.05, we must accept that there is no relationship -for this activities- between suppliers and customers (they behave independently), or more exactly there is not empirical evidence that this relationship exists (perhaps because the sample is not big enough), those are the cases for activities 1, 2, 3 and 5. When the p-value is less than 0.05 it can be accepted that the two characteristics crossed in the table are associated or related to each other, those are the cases for activities 4, 6, 7, 8 and 9.
5. Limitations, future research directions and conclusions
This paper has a number of limitations. First, there were no official institution with the exact number of food companies of Michoacán, so we tried to look on the internet, to visited every store, bazar, event, market, to checked labels of products, and we found that there were a lot of new creation companies, some others that had a lot of years, some others that disappeared but their information remained valid on the internet, some others shell companies with fictitious information, some others that were not legally registered. We also got in touch with leaders of some state and local Institutions but they did not know of the existence of any registry or database for companies in Michoacán, so we took as base the registry of the national statistical directory of economic units, [42] but we found companies that did not belong to the food industry sector, so we had to do a thorough review. Besides the willingness of companies to respond to the measurement instrument due to the insecurity of the state of Michoacán or apathy or lack of availability of time or desire to help research, so an important limitation was the number of companies surveyed.
Future research may consider looking at integrative activities in different industries or different states or countries, in order to make a comparison. The application of new statistical techniques such as multivariate analysis and data mining to the study of the data under investigation. The preparation of a manual of good integration practices that can be used by companies to improve their results.
In general we can conclude that the results were always in favor of customers, maybe because literature and practice always pull through customers trying to understand what customers want, need, how to satisfy them with studies of customer satisfaction, customer loyalty, customer relationship management, marketing that usually works for customers and with customers; but hardly ever work with suppliers or for suppliers, almost never hear of suppliers process, suppliers selection, supplier relationship management, or activities were suppliers are involve, like parties, trainings or events, but is more often to include customers in this kind of activities. Also, it is odd for manufacturers to were asked about their daily activities with suppliers, but so it is with customers too, because normally there is no relationship with them, so this was the case for the food industry companies of Michoacán.
\n',keywords:"Integrative Activities, Supply Chain Integration, Integrative Activities with Suppliers, Integrative Activities with Customers",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/76795.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/76795.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/76795",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/76795",totalDownloads:157,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,totalAltmetricsMentions:0,impactScore:0,impactScorePercentile:44,impactScoreQuartile:2,hasAltmetrics:0,dateSubmitted:"March 12th 2021",dateReviewed:"April 15th 2021",datePrePublished:"May 20th 2021",datePublished:"January 7th 2022",dateFinished:"May 18th 2021",readingETA:"0",abstract:"This paper analyzes nine integrative activities about demand forecasts, production plans, long-term relationships, joint planning, information through technologies, product development processes, product design processes, joint goals, that companies do in their daily activities with suppliers and customers in order to achieve supply chain integration. The objective is to analyze these integrative activities to determine if it exists collaboration among external partners of the supply chain in the food industry companies, to know the level or intensity of the exchange of information, communication and collaboration between companies and their external partners of suppliers and customers. The measurement instrument was applied to 93 companies from the food industry sector of Michoacán, México which are divided into nine sectors; grinding grains and seeds, obtaining oils and fats, confectionery with and without cocoa, preserving fruits, vegetables and prepared foods, dairy products, meat and poultry processing, preparation and packaging of fish and seafood, bakery and tortillas. The Integrative activities are analyzed by means of statistical descriptions, paired samples test, one-sided contrast, mean difference and confidence intervals and associations. The results indicate that the difference is always in favor of customers than for suppliers.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/76795",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/76795",book:{id:"10752",slug:"communication-management"},signatures:"Bertha Molina-Quintana, Antonio Vaamonde-Liste and María Berta Quintana-León",authors:[{id:"353013",title:"Dr.",name:"Bertha",middleName:null,surname:"Molina-Quintana",fullName:"Bertha Molina-Quintana",slug:"bertha-molina-quintana",email:"bertha.molina@umich.mx",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"Universidad Michoacana de San Nicolás de Hidalgo",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"353033",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Vaamonde-Liste",fullName:"Antonio Vaamonde-Liste",slug:"antonio-vaamonde-liste",email:"vaamonde@uvigo.es",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"University of Vigo",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"353034",title:"Dr.",name:"María Berta",middleName:null,surname:"Quintana-León",fullName:"María Berta Quintana-León",slug:"maria-berta-quintana-leon",email:"maria.quintana@umich.mx",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"Universidad Michoacana de San Nicolás de Hidalgo",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Theoretical background",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Method",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4",title:"4. Analysis of the integrative activities that make up the supply chain integration",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5",title:"5. Limitations, future research directions and conclusions",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'A. F. Otchere, J. Annan y E. Quansah, «Assessing the Challenges and Implementation of Supply Chain Integration in the Cocoa Industry: A factor of Cocoa Farmers in Ashanti Region of Ghana,» International Journal of Business and Social Science, vol. 4, n° 5, pp. 112-123, 2013'},{id:"B2",body:'Y. Fernando y P. Wulansari, «Perceived Understanding of Supply Chain Integration, Communication and Teamwork Competency in the Global Manufacturing Companies,» European Journal of Management and Business Economics, 2020'},{id:"B3",body:'G. A. Zsidisin, J. L. Hartley, E. Bernardes y L. W. 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Available: https://www.inegi.org.mx/app/mapa/denue/default.aspx'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Bertha Molina-Quintana",address:"bertha.molina@umich.mx",affiliation:'
Universidad Michoacana de San Nicolás de Hidalgo, Mexico
Universidad Michoacana de San Nicolás de Hidalgo, Mexico
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1. Introduction
Precambrian mafic magmatism and its role in the evolution of Earth’s crust has received particular attention of the geoscientists during the last three decades because it has not only been influenced by progressive secular compositional variation and mantle sources/reservoirs but also by onset of plate tectonics. Study of dykes is useful for recognition of Large Igneous Provinces (LIP) and rebuilding of different continents which may have displaced through geological time [1]. All protocontinents of India such as Aravalli-Bundelkhand, Dharwar, Bastar and Singhbhum retain dykes of varied orientations, therefore, these dykes or dyke swarms represent a main thermal episode during the Proterozoic or Precambrain times [2]. Geochemical and isotope studies of these dykes offer an opportunity in understanding the geochemical evolution of mantle through space and time [3, 4].
Singhbhum Craton is a book that records complex geological and tectonic processes from Paleoarchean to Neoproterozoic [5, 6]. Several dykes of mafic to acidic compositions are intruding the Singhbhum Granitoid Complex, which are collectively referred to as the Newer dolerites dykes (NDD) in the geological literature [7, 8]. Being the latest magmatic episode of the Singhbhum Granitoid Complex, Newer dolerite dykes provide the path in understanding the Proterozoic geodynamic evolution of the Singhbhum Craton [9]. The present work contributes in understanding the mantle source characteristics and tectonic setting of the NDD.
2. General geology
Mahanadi Graben and Sukinda thrust borders the Eastern Indian shield in the west and granulite terrain of Eastern Ghats along with recent alluvium surrounds this shield in the south, whereas, Gangetic alluvium and Quaternary sediments of Bengal basin exist in north and east of this shield (Figure 1). The major divisions of this shield includes: Chotanagpur Granite Gneiss Complex, Singhbhum Mobile Belt and Singhbhum Craton. The general geological features of each of the above geological provinces are briefly discussed in the following sections.
Figure 1.
Simplified geological map of eastern Indian shield illustrating the three geological provinces viz. Chotanagpur granite gneiss complex (CGGC), Singhbhum Mobile Belt (SMB) and Singhbhum craton (SC). SSZ – Singhbhum shear zone [9].
2.1 Chotanagpur granite gneiss complex
Chotanagpur Granite Gneiss Complex (CGCC) exists in West Bengal and Jharkhand states of India and covers an area of about 80,000 km2 (Latitudes 23°00′N to 25°00′N; Longitudes 83°45′E to 87°45′E). It is mostly made of granites, granite-gneisses, migmatites, dolerite dykes and pegmatite, aplite and quartz veins From the structural patterns, worked out in different parts of the CGGC, it is clear that the region has undergone polyphase deformation producing distinctive folds and related linear fabrics [8].
2.2 Singhbhum mobile belt
The formations occurring in between the Singhbhum Granitoid Complex (SGC) and CGGC are collectively recognized either as the Singhbhum Mobile Belt (SMB) or Singhbhum Group. The SMB (Figure 2), has been divided into five litho-stratigraphic domains from north to south [11, 12] like (a) volcano-sedimentary belt, (b) Dalma metavolcanic belt, (c) Chaibasa and Dhalbhum Formations, (d) the rocks occurring in the SSZ and (e) Dhanjori and/or the Ongarbira metavolcanic rocks.
Figure 2.
Simplified geological map of the Singhbhum craton [10].
2.3 Singhbhum craton
The Singhbhum Craton (SC) records a long history of crustal evolution from Mesoarchaean to Mesoproterozoic. It is an extensive terrain of granite and gneissic complex with subordinate metabasic and minor metasedimentary rocks (Figure 2). Some important geological units are briefed below:
2.3.1 Older metamorphic group
Older Metamorphic Group (OMG) occurs near Champua (Latitudes 22°04′N: Longitudes 85°40′E) and as enclaves in the SGC. This group had experienced amphibolite facies metamorphism and is made of pelitic schists, garnetiferous quartzite, calc-magnesian metasediments and sill like mafic rocks [5]. Goswami et al. [13] and Mishra [14], have dated detrital zircons and recognized an older limit of 3.5Ga age for these supra-crustals. On the bases of Pb/Pb whole rock dating, Moorbath and Taylor [15] has established 3378 ± 98 Ma age for these supra-crustals. This age matches with Sm/Nd (TDM model) ages of 3.41, 3.39 and 3.35 Ga [15]. Sharma et al. [16], however, pointed out that protoliths of OMG amphibolites are 3305 ± 60 Ma old and therefore OMTG which intrude OMG cannot be older than 3300 Ma. The younger 3.40, 3.35 and 3.20 Ga ages have been interpreted as metamorphic events [17, 18].
2.3.2 Singhbhum granitoid complex
It has been suggested that SGC (Latitudes 21°00′ and 22°45′ N: Longitudes 85°30′ and 86°30′E) is composed of 12 distinct units that were emplaced in three successive magmatic phases [5]. The K-poor, granodiorite trondhjemite early (phase I) has been dated as 3.25 ± 0.05 Ga [19]. The II and III phases are made of granodiorite that grade to monzogranite and granite and these phases are dated as 3.06 Ga (Pb/Pb whole rock) and 2.9 Ga (Rb/Sr. whole rock) respectively [5]. The other granitic bodies that occur in SC show ages similar to that of SGC, for example, Bonai granites (3369 ± 57 Ma) [20] and Katipada tonalite (3275 ± 81 Ma) [21]. Recent U–Pb zircon studies have revealed that rocks of the SG batholith were emplaced between ~3.45 Ga and ~ 3.32 Ga [22].
2.3.3 Banded iron formations
BIF is considered to have been deposited in three interconnected basins [5]. These basins are: (i) Noamundi (Latitudes 22°09′N: Longitudes 85°31′E) – Koira (Latitudes 21°54′N: Longitudes 85°15′E) basin of west Singhbhum district and Keonjhar, (ii) Gorumahisani (Latitudes 22°18′30′N: Longitudes 86°17′E) – Badampahar (Latitudes 22°04′N: Longitudes 86°07′E) basin along the eastern border of the Singhbhum Granitoid Complex and (iii) Daitari-Tomka basin in the southern parts of the Singhbhum Craton. In the Noamundi– Koira BIF, rocks are made up of shale, phyllite, the middle formation of banded hematite jasper and an upper formation of magniferous shale, chert, manganese formation and shale. A granite body intruding BIF near Sulaipat has been dated as 3.12 ± 0.01 Ga [23]. Some mafic and ultramafic rocks referred to as Gorumahisani Greenstones are associated with this Gorumahisani-Badampahar BIF sequence [24].
2.3.4 Bonai volcanic suite
Bonai volcanics show sub-aerial and sub-marine features in the west and east parts of its extension respectively [24, 25]. These volcanics are made of mafic rocks, tuffs and subordinate silica volcanic clastic interbeds. It has been inferred that these volcanics show island arc basalt characteristics [24].
2.3.5 Jagannathpur volcanic suite
These volcanics are exposed around Noamundi upto Jagannathpur and are younger than BIF of Noamundi-Koira belt [24]. Significantly, NDD are not cutting across the Jagannathpur Suite. It, therefore, appears that it is either equivalent in age or younger than the NDD. Alvi and Raza [26] found these to be calc-alkaline basalts and suggested that these lava flows represent an early arc volcanism. The Jagannathpur lavas have been dated around 1629 ± 30 Ma by K/Ar method [5] and 2250 ± 81 Ma by Pb/Pb whole rock isochron method [27].
2.3.6 Gorumahisani volcanic suite
It is associated with Gorumahisani-Badampahar BIF along the eastern border of SBGC. The rocks of this volcanic suite are intruded by Kumhardubi (Latitude 22° 17′N: Longitude 86°19′30″) - Dublarbera (Latitude 22°29′30″ N: Longitude 86°17′E) gabbro- anorthosite, Rangamatia (Latitude 22°29′15″N: Longitude 86°17′30″E) Leucotonalite, Katupith (Latitude 22°18′N: Longitude 86°17′30′′E) Leucogranite and NDD swarm.
2.3.7 Simlipal complex
Recently Kar et al. [28] suggested that the circular shape of Simlipal complex is only a topography controlled rather than an existence of alternate bands of mafic volcanic and quartzites. Further, they suggested that the Simlipal complex overlies the weakly metamorphosed basement heterolith unit (Lulung Formation) which is overlain by Barehipani Formation and Jurunda Formation. Paleoproterozoic age for this complex has been given by Saha [5]. Further, Iyengar et al. [29] suggested 2084 ± 70 Ma age for Similipal complex by following the Rb-Sr whole rock method.
2.3.8 Kolhan group
This group exists on the western margin of the SBC and its length is around 100 km with a width of about 12 km. Saha [5] correlated Chaniakpur-Keonjhargarh, Mankarchua and Sarpalli-Kamakhyanagar formations with Kolhan Group. The Singhbhum granite Basement, Dongoaposi (Jagannathpur) lavas and the Iron Group surround Kolhan basin on the NE, S-SE and west respectively [30]. The Kolhan shales north of Hat Gamaria are intruded by three parallel sills of the NDD. South west of Jagannathpur, flat lying Kolhan shales overlie the Jagannathpur lava.
3. Petrography
NDD have experienced low grade regional metamorphism in the vicinity of Singhbhum Shear Zone, however they are fresh to least effected in the western and central parts of the Singhbhum Granitiod Complex. NNE–SSW trending ultramafic-mafic dyke exposed near Keshargaria is medium to coarse grained rock with green to dark green color. The ultramafic dykes which consist of olivine (25–52%) and pyroxenes (45–65%) are present. Mafic dykes are mainly massive, sometimes coarse grained and their color varies from black to greenish gray. The essential constituents of dolerite type of dykes includes pyroxenes, plagioclases and quartz with little amphiboles. Clinopyroxene is mainly augite in the form of euhedral to subhedral prismatic phenocrysts and also as granular aggregates in the groundmass. Rarely, clinopyroxene shows alteration to pale-green amphibole and/or biotite around the grain boundaries. Quartz (0.5 to 3%) is present as subhedral to anhedral crystals. Accessory minerals are opaques, apatite, and rutile. Opaque minerals (0.5 to 5%) include magnetite and Cr-Spinel. Norite samples consist dominantly orthopyroxene (hypersthene) and plagioclase (labradorite) together with subordinate diopsidic augite and small amounts of quartz. In Quartz dolerites relatively greater proportion of anhedral quartz is noticed. The major constituents in quartz dolerite are calcic plagioclase, clinopyroxene (diopside-augite) and subordinate amount of orthopyroxene (hypersthene, enstatite). Coarse grained gabbroic variety of the NDD is mostly coarse grained dark colored. Under microscope, they show overall hypidiomorphic texture with local development of subophitic texture. They show subhedral laths of labradorite plagioclase and augite. Orthopyroxene is rarely found within this petrographic variant.
4. Geochemistry
While observing geochemical characteristics, NDD have been classified as (i) ultramafic dykes {having MgO >30.0 wt. %, SiO2 < 45.0 wt. %, Al2O3 < 5.0 wt. % and alkalies <1.0 wt. %; (ii) Group I dykes {having MgO 12–22 wt. %, SiO2 45–53 wt. %, Al2O3 < 11.0% and total alkalies <3.0%; (iii) Group II dykes {having MgO 7.0–19.0 wt.%, SiO2 51–60 wt. %, Al2O3 10–12 wt. % and alkalies 1.0–3.50 wt. %; (iv) Group III {having MgO 6.0–12 wt. %, SiO2 51.0–70.0 wt. %, Al2O3 10.0–12.5 wt. % and total alkalies 2.0–4.5 wt. %. Group I dykes contain lower MgO and MnO and higher SiO2, TiO2, Al2O3, P2O5 and alkalies as compared to Ultramafic dykes. Group II contains high TiO2, Fe2O3, MgO and P2O5 contents and lower SiO2 and Alkalies relative to group III dykes. In Total Alkali-Silica relationships the NDD show chemical variation from ultramafic to dacite through basalt and basaltic andesite (Figure not shown). Some samples show chemical features like MgO > 8%, SiO2 > 52%, TiO2 ≤ 0.5% and CaO/Al2O3 < 1 similar to that found in boninitic rocks [31, 32, 33, 34].
In under investigated samples Mg# (Mg # = molar 100 Mg/Mg + Fetotal) show variation like 89–85, 79–64, 80–43 and 74–49 in ultramafic dykes, group I, II and III dykes respectively. Such a change in Mg# is consistent with the fractional crystallization of ferromagnesian minerals [35]. The presence of normative quartz content in studied dolerite samples (excluding ultramafic samples) having Mg# >70 may indicate their derivation from multiple parental magmas. Mir and Alvi, [36] have suggested more investigation in terms of isotope geochemistry and radiometric data of ultramafic dykes from Keshergarya village, Singhbhum craton. They suspect their relationship with the mafic members of the NDD. Tholeiite and calc-alkaline trends are commonly based on AFM ternary plot (A = Na2O + K2O, FeO* = total iron as FeO, and M = MgO) [37]. In AFM diagram the NDD show tholeiitic trend. Ultramafic dykes concentrate towards MgO corner of AFM diagram (Figure 3).
Figure 3.
K2O + Na2O-Fe2O3t-MgO (AFM) diagram showing theoleiitic trend of NDD. Field lines are after Kuno [37] and Irvine and Baragar [38].
During the partial melting or fractional crystallization the transitional elements like Nickel (Ni) and Cobalt (Co) are compatible with olivine whereas Scandium (Sc), Chromium (Cr) and Vanadium (V) are compatible with clinopyroxene [39], hence these elements are important in petrogenetic studies of basic rocks. These elements are useful to demarcate the primary nature of magma as it has been noted that primary mid ocean ridge basalt (MORB) magmas retain high concentration of Ni (> 250–400 ppm), Cr (> 600 ppm) and Mg # > 70 [35]. Mg#, Ni & Cr varies like {(85–89, 150–304 & 560–2458), (64–79, 45–145 & 255–733), (43–80, 9–73 & 31–524), (49–74, 17–43 & 42–226)} respectively in concern ultramafic dykes, group I, II and III mafic dykes. Such geochemical observations infer that the samples with low Mg #, Cr and Ni values may have evolved through fractional crystallization of olivine and pyroxene [35]. Further, it has been suggested that some dyke samples having similar Mg# with distinct Ni and Cr contents and some samples having distinct Mg# with similar Ni and Cr contents indicates that either the diverse extents of partial melting of the same source or heterogeneous mantle sources are responsible for the generation of different phases of the Newer dolerite dykes. Ti/V values ranging from 20 to 50 indicates the low oxygen fugacity (ƒO2) i.e. reduced condition of magma generation like MORB setting whereas Ti/V values ranging from 10 to 20 are markers of high ƒO2 i.e. oxidizing condition of magma generation like subduction zones or supra-subduction zones settings [40]. In concern Newer dolerite dykes, Ti/V values range from 14 to 30, 9–29, 10–34 and 14–32 in ultramafic dykes, group I, II and III dykes respectively which indicates generation of melts for these dykes had occurred under varied oxidizing conditions.
Mafic intrusions in subduction environments are important for deciphering interaction between subduction slabs and mantle. Such interactions usually result in the mantle wedge being enriched in LILE by introduction of fluids and /melts from the converging lithosphere [41]. Both fluids and melts can be introduced at different depths above a subduction zone [41]. Thus, mafic rocks across subduction zone environments may record variable degrees of mantle source modification by slab derived components [41].
The studied NDD have low K/Rb ratios up to 320 perhaps suggesting the source region of the Newer Dolerites experienced fluid modification [41, 42]. The ratios of elements such as Barium (Ba), Thorium (Th), Zirconium (Zr) and Niobium (Nb) are useful to know about the subduction zone related metasomatism of mantle, hence the values of Ba/Th, Ba/Zr & Ba/Nb in ultramafic dykes, group I, II and III dykes range like {(59–197, 3–6 & 38–119), (35–365; 1–5 & 18–195), (34–231, 1–6 & 10–76) and (37–228, 2–14 & 20–106)} respectively. Such values are higher than that of the average values of the continental crust which in turn points towards the subduction zone related metasomatism of mantle source of these rocks [42]. Two alternative processes could explain the negative Nb anomaly (Figure 4) observed in the NDD: (i) metasomatic enrichment of lithospheric mantle [44] and (ii) chemical interaction between lithospheric mantle and asthenosphere-derived magma having incompatible elements but little Nb [45]. However, high La/Nb and La/Ta of Newer dolerite dykes supports the metasomatic enrichment of lithospheric mantle as a reason for Nb anomalies. Hence, the negative anomalies of Nb and Ti on primitive mantle normalized patterns (Figure 4) [42], abundance of light rare earth elements (LREE) (Figure not shown), nearly flat sub-parallel pattern of heavy rare earth elements (HREE) (Figure not shown), chondrite normalized ratio of Lanthanum to Ytterbium (La/YbN < 12.0) and chondrite normalized ratio of Lanthanum to Samarium (La/SmN < 4.0) of concern NDD supports their affiliation with arc or subduction zone setting [46].
Figure 4.
Primitive mantle normalized multi-element spider diagram of NDD. Normalized values are after Sun and McDonald [43]. CLM- continental lithospheric mantle; E-MORB-enriched mid ocean ridge basalts; N-MORB-Normal mid ocean ridge basalts; OIB-Ocean island basalts.
5. Petrogenesis
The petrogenesis of mantle derived magmatic rocks can commonly be traced by their geochemical and isotopic data. The mafic magmatic activity in the form of dykes at intervals throughout the Proterozoic provides a useful window to monitor mantle evolution [47, 48].
From the mentioned geochemical characteristics, it may be inferred that the NDD having Mg# <60 are evolved members that have been formed through fractional crystallization of Mg-rich minerals like olivine and/or pyroxene [49]. On TiO2 vs. Al2O3/TiO2 (Figure 5a) and CaO/TiO2 diagrams (Figure 5b) NDD plot in MORB, low TiO2 boninite & high-Mg andesite fields which suggests the compatibility of Ti and retention of Al and Ca in residual phases like pyroxenes, garnet, plagioclase and spinel [50]. Further, these relationships indicate that low TiO2 samples were derived from relatively more hydrously fractionated magmas and high TiO2 samples were derived from least hydrously fractionated magmas [51].
Figure 5.
(a) TiO2 vs. Al2O3/TiO2 and (b) TiO2 vs. CaO/TiO2 binary diagrams for NDD. HMA-high Mg Andesites and MORB-Mid Ocean ridge basalts.
Fractional crystallization associated with crustal contamination (AFC) is an important process during magma evolution that may modify both elemental and isotopic compositions [52]. As we know that the concentration of Rubidium (Rb), Barium (Ba), Potassium (K), Sodium (Na) etc. is rich in crustal materials whereas P2O5 and TiO2 is poor in these materials. Hence, any crustal contamination of mafic magma changes the primary geochemistry of magma accordingly [41]. However, in concern samples the low content and range of K2O and NaO2 are indications of least crustal contamination in these rocks. In addition to this, the ratio of Cerium to Lead (Ce/Pb) and Niobium to Uranium (Nb/U) are not changed due to partial melting, hence, these ratios can be applied to know about the effects of alteration or crustal contamination of mafic rocks. In concern samples these ratios are higher than that of upper continental crust (Ce/Pb = 3.2) and (Nb/U = 9) [53]. Therefore, it is suggested that the investigated NDD have least or no contamination of crustal materials.
Trace element ratios, such as La/Yb, Th/Yb, Ba/La and La/Nb are widely used to identify the metasomatic agents and estimate the flux from the subducted slab [54]. All these ratios in case of NDD imply varying inputs of sediment and fluid components from the subducting slab in their formation.
The high (La/Yb)N and (Gd/Yb)N in combination with relatively low HREE abundance of the NDD suggest that they may have formed by low degrees of partial melting of a garnet bearing source. Asthenospheric or deep or plume and lithospheric or shallow or non-plume derived mafic melts or basalts can be differentiated or evaluated by geochemical ratios like Lanthanum (La) /Tantalum (Ta) and La/Nb. Thompson and Morrison [55] suggested that values of La/Ta =10–12 and La/Ta >30 indicates that basaltic rocks may have been derived from asthenospheric mantle and lithospheric mantle respectively. Further, Wang et al. [56] used La/Nb ratio to discriminate asthenospheric mantle and lithospheric mantle sources. They suggested La/Nb <1.5 for asthenospheric mantle derived mafic rocks and La/Nb >1.5 for lithospheric mantle derived mafic rocks. In majority of NDD it has been seen that La/Ta is greater than 30 and La/Nb is greater than 1.5 that reveals their derivation may be from lithospheric mantle source. Moreover, on primitive mantle-normalized multi-element diagram (Figure 4), NDD show patterns differed from that of normal mid ocean ridge basalts, enriched mid ocean ridge basalts, ocean island basalts and continental lithospheric mantle and show depletion of Ba, Nb, Sr., P, Ti and richness of Zr. Such geochemical characteristics are similar to that found in arc or back-arc extension basalts [57, 58].
6. Tectonic setting
Keeping in view the importance of dykes or dyke swarms in identification of large igneous provinces, reconstruction of continents, continental rifting and continental-continental collision events [59], the geochemical studies on NDD may have potential in understanding the geodynamic evolution of Singhbhum craton in Precambrian times. The association of mafic dykes with the initiation of sedimentary basins and their geochemistry retaining long term memories of subduction processes in the lithosphere mantle are too well known [60]. Origin of NDD has been either related to arc/back-arc tectonic setting i.e. non-plume source [42, 61, 62, 63, 64, 65, 66] or plume source [5, 67]. In addition, Boss [68] suggested both depleted and enriched mantle source for Newer dolerite dykes. However, mantle plume model faces some issues in evaluation of origin of the NDD due to following reasons (i) age of NDD varying from 2800 to 1000 Ma [5, 69, 70] suggests that it is hard to tap a uniform magma source for such a long time interval, (ii) absence of large scale mafic lavas in Singhbhum craton having intraplate setting/geochemistry and (iii) further, the occurrence of voluminous hydrous lithospheric mantle across the cratons developed during the Archaean (~3 Ga) and its role in the Proterozoic magmas [48].
7. Conclusions
Reported age of newer dolerite dykes vary from 900 Ma to 2800 Ma and traverse a number of rock types in some regular sets like NNE–SSW and NW-SE trends. Variations in major elements, particularly SiO2, Al2O3, CaO, TiO2 contents, and CaO/TiO2 and Al2O3/TiO2 ratios in these dykes indicates that their Ca and Al are held in the residual mantle phases such as clinopyroxene, plagioclase, spinal and garnet. The overall low Mg #, Cr and Ni values in studied NDD indicate their evolution through fractional crystallization of olivine and pyroxene. A few dyke samples having similar Mg# with distinct Ni and Cr contents and some samples having distinct Mg# with similar Ni and Cr contents indicates that either the diverse extents of partial melting of the same source or heterogeneous mantle sources are responsible for the generation of different phases of the Newer dolerite dykes. In studied NDD low content and narrow range of K2O and NaO2 in addition to higher values of Ce/Pb and Nb/U than that of upper continental crust are indications of least crustal contamination in these rocks.
Values of Ba/Th, Ba/Zr & Ba/Nb in NDD are higher than that of the average values of the continental crust which in turn points towards the subduction zone related metasomatism of mantle source of these rocks. Further, the enriched LREE and flat sub-parallel pattern of HREE along with La/YbN <12.0 and La/SmN <4.0 of concern NDD supports their affiliation with arc or subduction zone setting. Moreover, their primitive mantle-normalized multi-element patterns differed from that of normal mid ocean ridge basalts, enriched mid ocean ridge basalts, ocean island basalts and continental lithospheric mantle and show depletion of Ba, Nb, Sr., P, Ti and richness of Zr. Such geochemical characteristics are similar to that found in arc or back-arc extension basalts.
Acknowledgments
Author is sincerely thankful to the Director, Leh Campus Taru, University of Ladakh for providing facilities in preparation of this book chapter. Author pays thanks to Dr. Malik Zubair A. and Dr. Farooq A. Dar for their valuable suggestions during write up of this book chapter. Constructive comments and valuable suggestions from anonymous reviewers are duly acknowledged.
\n',keywords:"geochemistry, newer dolerite dykes, Singhbhum craton, India",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/81773.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/81773.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/81773",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/81773",totalDownloads:1,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:"March 27th 2022",dateReviewed:"April 6th 2022",datePrePublished:"May 14th 2022",datePublished:null,dateFinished:"May 14th 2022",readingETA:"0",abstract:"Precambrian mafic magmatism and its role in the evolution of Earth’s crust has been paid serious attention by researchers for the last four decades. The emplacement of mafic dyke swarms acts as an important time marker in geological terrains. Number of shield terrains throughout the world has been intruded by the Precambrian dyke swarms, hence the presence of these dykes are useful to understand the Proterozoic tectonics, magmatism, crustal growth and continental reconstruction. Likewise, the Protocontinents of Indian Shield e.g. Aravalli-Bundelkhand, Dharwar, Bastar, and Singhbhum Protocontinent had experienced the dyke swarm intrusions having different characteristics and orientations. In Singhbhum craton, an impressive set of mafic dyke swarm, called as Newer dolerite dyke swarm, had intruded the Precambrian Singhbhum granitoid complex through a wide geological period from 2800 to 1100 Ma. Present chapter focuses on the published results or conclusions of these dykes in terms of their mantle source characteristics, metasomatism of the mantle source, degree of crustal contamination and partial melting processes. Geochemical characteristics of these dykes particularly Ti/Y, Zr/Y, Th/Nb, Ba/Nb, La/Nb, (La/Sm)PM are similar to either MORB or subduction zone basalts that occur along the plate margin. The enriched LREE-LILE and depletion of HFSE especially Nb, P and Ti probably indicate generation of these dykes in a subduction zone setting.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/81773",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/81773",signatures:"Akhtar R. Mir",book:{id:"11139",type:"book",title:"Geochemistry",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Geochemistry",slug:null,publishedDate:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Hosam Saleh and Dr. Amal Ibrahim Hassan Ibrahim",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11139.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:null,isbn:"978-1-80355-775-5",printIsbn:"978-1-80355-774-8",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80355-776-2",isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"144691",title:"Prof.",name:"Hosam",middleName:null,surname:"Saleh",slug:"hosam-saleh",fullName:"Hosam Saleh"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:null,sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. General geology",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"2.1 Chotanagpur granite gneiss complex",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"2.2 Singhbhum mobile belt",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"2.3 Singhbhum craton",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4_3",title:"2.3.1 Older metamorphic group",level:"3"},{id:"sec_5_3",title:"2.3.2 Singhbhum granitoid complex",level:"3"},{id:"sec_6_3",title:"2.3.3 Banded iron formations",level:"3"},{id:"sec_7_3",title:"2.3.4 Bonai volcanic suite",level:"3"},{id:"sec_8_3",title:"2.3.5 Jagannathpur volcanic suite",level:"3"},{id:"sec_9_3",title:"2.3.6 Gorumahisani volcanic suite",level:"3"},{id:"sec_10_3",title:"2.3.7 Simlipal complex",level:"3"},{id:"sec_11_3",title:"2.3.8 Kolhan group",level:"3"},{id:"sec_14",title:"3. Petrography",level:"1"},{id:"sec_15",title:"4. Geochemistry",level:"1"},{id:"sec_16",title:"5. Petrogenesis",level:"1"},{id:"sec_17",title:"6. Tectonic setting",level:"1"},{id:"sec_18",title:"7. 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International Geology Review. 2011a;53(1):46-60'},{id:"B62",body:'Mir AR, Alvi SH, Balaram V. Geochemistry of the mafic dykes in parts of the Singhbhum granitoid complex: Petrogenesis and tectonic setting. Arabian Journal of Geosciences. 2011;4:933-943'},{id:"B63",body:'Mir AR, Alvi SH, Balaram V, Bhat FA, Sumira Z, Dar SA. A subduction zone geochemical characteristic of the newer dolerite dykes in the Singhbhum craton, eastern India. International Research Journal of Geology and Mining. 2013;3(6):213-223'},{id:"B64",body:'Bose MK. Proterozoic dykes from Singhbhum granite pluton. In: Srivastava S, Rao C, editors. Indian dykes. New Delhi: Narosa Publication; 2008. pp. 413-445'},{id:"B65",body:'Sengupta P, Ray A, Pramanik S. Mineralogical and chemical characteristics of newer dolerite dyke around Keonjhar, Orissa: Implication for hydrothermal activity in subduction zone setting. Journal of Earth System Science. 2014;123(4):887-904'},{id:"B66",body:'Dasgupta P, Ray A, Chakraborti TM. Geochemical characterisation of the Neoarchaean newer dolerite dykes of the Bahalda region, Singhbhum craton, Odisha, India: Implication for petrogenesis. Journal of Earth System Science. 2019;128:216'},{id:"B67",body:'Pandey OP, Mezger K, Upadhyay D, Paul D, Singh AK, Söderlund U, et al. Major-trace element and Sr-Nd isotope compositions of mafic dykes of the Singhbhum craton: Insights into evolution of the lithospheric mantle. Lithos. 2021;105959:382-383'},{id:"B68",body:'Bose MK. Mafic–ultramafic magmatism in the eastern Indian craton – A review. Geological Survey of India. 2000;55:227-258'},{id:"B69",body:'Mallick AK, Sarkar A. Geochronology and geochemistry of mafic dykes from Precambrians of Keonjhar, Orissa. Indian Minerals. 1994;48:3-24'},{id:"B70",body:'Kumar A, Parashuramulu V, Shankar R, Besse J. Evidence for a Neoarchean LIP in the Singhbhum craton, eastern India: Implications to Vaalbara supercontinent. Precambrian Research. 2017;292:163-174'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Akhtar R. Mir",address:"mirakhtar.r@gmail.com",affiliation:'
Department of Geology, Leh Campus Taru, University of Ladakh, India
Department of Earth Sciences, University of Kashmir, India
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Definition of Terms:
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Work - a book Chapter (as well as Conference Papers), including any and all content, graphics, images and/or other materials forming part of, or accompanying, the Chapter/Conference Paper.
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With the purpose of protecting Authors' copyright and the transparent reuse of OA (Open Access) content, IntechOpen has developed Rules of Attribution of Works licensed under Creative Commons licenses.
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All Chapters published in IntechOpen books prior to October 2011 are licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported license (CC BY-NC-SA 3.0);
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All rights to Books and other compilations published on the IntechOpen platform and in print are reserved by IntechOpen. The Copyright to Books and other compilations is subject to a separate Copyright from any that exists in the included Works.
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Since you are reusing content that someone else created and allowed you to use freely, you must credit all Authors involved;
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Every single Work that is used has to be attributed in the way described. If you are unsure about proper attribution, please write to permissions@intechopen.com.
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Individual Works originally published in IntechOpen books are licensed under Creative Commons licenses and can be freely used under terms of the respective CC license, if properly attributed. In order to properly attribute the Work you must respect all the conditions outlined below:
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All these rules apply to BOTH online and offline use.
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Parts of the Rules of Attribution are based on Work Attributing Creative Commons Materials published by the Australian Research Council Centre of Excellence for Creative Industries and Innovation, in partnership with Creative Commons Australia, which can be found at creativecommons.org.au licensed under Creative Commons Attribution 2.5 Australia license, and Best practices for attribution published by Creative Commons, which can be found at wiki.creativecommons.org under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 license.
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All the above rules are subject to change, IntechOpen reserves the right to take appropriate action if any of the conditions outlined above are not met.
Work - a book Chapter (as well as Conference Papers), including any and all content, graphics, images and/or other materials forming part of, or accompanying, the Chapter/Conference Paper.
\n\n
Attribution – appropriate credit for the used Work or book.
\n\n
Creative Commons licenses – enable licensors to retain copyright while allowing others to use their Works in an appropriate way.
\n\n
Rules of Attribution for Works Published by IntechOpen
\n\n
With the purpose of protecting Authors' copyright and the transparent reuse of OA (Open Access) content, IntechOpen has developed Rules of Attribution of Works licensed under Creative Commons licenses.
\n\n
\n\t
All Chapters published in IntechOpen books prior to October 2011 are licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported license (CC BY-NC-SA 3.0);
\n\t
All Chapters published in IntechOpen books after October 2011 are licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported license (CC BY 3.0);
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In case you reuse or republish any of the Works licensed under CC licenses, you must abide by the guidelines outlined below:
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1. Rules for reusing of books in their entirety or significant parts of books
\n\n
All rights to Books and other compilations published on the IntechOpen platform and in print are reserved by IntechOpen. The Copyright to Books and other compilations is subject to a separate Copyright from any that exists in the included Works.
\n\n
A Book in its entirety or a significant part of a Book cannot be translated freely without specific written consent by the publisher. Further information can be obtained at permissions@intechopen.com.
\n\n
In instances where permission is obtained from the publisher for reusing or republishing the Book, or significant parts of the Book, all of the following conditions apply:
\n\n
\n\t
Information about the first publisher must be provided – please note the fact that the material was originally published by IntechOpen as an OA (Open Access) publication must be acknowledged;
\n\t
All original Academic Editor(s) must be credited;
\n\t
Since you are reusing content that someone else created and allowed you to use freely, you must credit all Authors involved;
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The type of license that is available for the Works must be indicated, as well as a link to the license provided, so that others can investigate the terms of the license. You will be aware that the material can be used for free in consequence of the CC license attribution, so you must acknowledge that fact. It is not sufficient that the material is Creative Commons, because that says nothing about how the material can actually be used. There are different CC licenses and you have to identify the specific license that is being used;
\n\t
Any original Copyright Notices associated, with the Works which constitute the Book must be kept intact;
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Provision of the original title of the Book, as well as the original titles of any individual Works;
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Provision of the URL where the Book is hosted, with a notice to the effect that the Book is an OA (Open Access) publication;
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Provision of the URL to every individual Work which constitutes the Book with a notice that the Work is an OA (Open Access) publication. As the material has been accessed for free, it is incumbent upon you to provide the source so that others can also access it for free.
\n
\n\n
Every single Work that is used has to be attributed in the way described. If you are unsure about proper attribution, please write to permissions@intechopen.com.
\n\n
2. Rules of attribution for works published by IntechOpen
\n\n
Individual Works originally published in IntechOpen books are licensed under Creative Commons licenses and can be freely used under terms of the respective CC license, if properly attributed. In order to properly attribute the Work you must respect all the conditions outlined below:
\n\n
\n\t
Credit all Authors – since you are reusing contents that someone created and allowed you to use freely, you have to acknowledge authorship;
\n\t
Indicate the type of license under which the Work is available and provide the URL to the license so others can find out the license terms. Preferably keep intact any original Copyright Notice associated with the Chapter (if any). You will be aware that the material can be used for free in consequence of the CC license attribution, so you must acknowledge that fact. It is not sufficient that the material is Creative Commons, because that says nothing about how the material can actually be used. There are different CC licenses and you have to identify the specific license that is being used;
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Provide the URL where the Work is hosted, preferably providing the original title of the Work, as well as the original title of the Book with a notification that the Work is an OA (Open Access) publication. As the material has been accessed for free, it is incumbent upon you to provide the source so that others can also access it for free;
\n\t
Provide information about the first publisher – please note the fact that the material was originally published by IntechOpen as an OA (Open Access) Work must be acknowledged.
\n
\n\n
Every single Work that is used has to be attributed in the way as described. If you are unsure about proper attribution, please contact Us at permissions@intechopen.com.
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In the event that you use more than one of IntechOpen's Works published in one or more books (but not a significant part of the book that is under separate Copyright), each of these have to be properly attributed in the way described.
\n\n
IntechOpen does not have any claims on newly created copyrighted Works, but the Works originally published by IntechOpen must be properly attributed.
\n\n
All these rules apply to BOTH online and offline use.
\n\n
Parts of the Rules of Attribution are based on Work Attributing Creative Commons Materials published by the Australian Research Council Centre of Excellence for Creative Industries and Innovation, in partnership with Creative Commons Australia, which can be found at creativecommons.org.au licensed under Creative Commons Attribution 2.5 Australia license, and Best practices for attribution published by Creative Commons, which can be found at wiki.creativecommons.org under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 license.
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All the above rules are subject to change, IntechOpen reserves the right to take appropriate action if any of the conditions outlined above are not met.
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Policy last updated: 2016-06-09
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Shohel"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},subject:{topic:{id:"954",title:"Thermodynamics",slug:"thermodynamics",parent:{id:"158",title:"Metals and Nonmetals",slug:"metals-and-nonmetals"},numberOfBooks:2,numberOfSeries:0,numberOfAuthorsAndEditors:61,numberOfWosCitations:7,numberOfCrossrefCitations:10,numberOfDimensionsCitations:15,videoUrl:null,fallbackUrl:null,description:null},booksByTopicFilter:{topicId:"954",sort:"-publishedDate",limit:12,offset:0},booksByTopicCollection:[{type:"book",id:"8416",title:"Non-Equilibrium Particle Dynamics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"2c3add7639dcd1cb442cb4313ea64e3a",slug:"non-equilibrium-particle-dynamics",bookSignature:"Albert S. Kim",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8416.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"21045",title:"Prof.",name:"Albert S.",middleName:null,surname:"Kim",slug:"albert-s.-kim",fullName:"Albert S. Kim"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7661",title:"Heat and Mass Transfer",subtitle:"Advances in Science and Technology Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c29b5c2ce24925a935ca52b8344fbb99",slug:"heat-and-mass-transfer-advances-in-science-and-technology-applications",bookSignature:"Alfredo Iranzo",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7661.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"67352",title:"Dr.",name:"Alfredo",middleName:null,surname:"Iranzo",slug:"alfredo-iranzo",fullName:"Alfredo Iranzo"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],booksByTopicTotal:2,seriesByTopicCollection:[],seriesByTopicTotal:0,mostCitedChapters:[{id:"67726",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.86322",title:"CFD Simulation of Heat and Mass Transfer for Climate Control in Greenhouses",slug:"cfd-simulation-of-heat-and-mass-transfer-for-climate-control-in-greenhouses",totalDownloads:1120,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"Greenhouse plant production involves a number of processes such as transpiration, condensation, photosynthesis, and climate control. Such processes, in turn, set off mass and heat transfer phenomena that influence not only the quality and quantity of crop production but also its environmental cost. While these processes have considerably been analyzed in separate, they strongly interact with one another. For instance, increased radiation (mainly thermal infrared) increases temperature, reduces humidity, consequently increases transpiration, and affects CO2 exchange as well as other reaction rates. Computational fluid dynamics (CFD) is a numerical tool with a solid physical basis which allows, through the construction of a computational model, to simulate the fluid flow environment. Heating, ventilation, and condensation have been analyzed in the greenhouse environment with CFD techniques. The current challenge is the interaction of these processes and their impact on the production system. The present work summarizes some CFD investigations carried out in this topic, in order to analyze the processes of heat and mass transfer in a greenhouse for agronomic purposes.",book:{id:"7661",slug:"heat-and-mass-transfer-advances-in-science-and-technology-applications",title:"Heat and Mass Transfer",fullTitle:"Heat and Mass Transfer - Advances in Science and Technology Applications"},signatures:"Cruz Ernesto Aguilar Rodriguez and Jorge Flores Velazquez",authors:[{id:"173578",title:"Dr.",name:"Jorge",middleName:null,surname:"Flores-Velazquez",slug:"jorge-flores-velazquez",fullName:"Jorge Flores-Velazquez"}]},{id:"66158",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.84706",title:"Numerical Solution to Two-Dimensional Freezing and Subsequent Defrosting of Logs",slug:"numerical-solution-to-two-dimensional-freezing-and-subsequent-defrosting-of-logs",totalDownloads:620,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"Two-dimensional mutually connected mathematical models have been created, solved, and verified for the transient non-linear heat conduction in logs during their freezing and subsequent defrosting. The models reflect the influence of the internal sources of latent heat of both the free and bound water on the logs’ freezing process and also the impact of the temperature on the fiber saturation point of wood species, with whose participation the current values of the thermo-physical characteristics in each separate volume point of the subjected to freezing and subsequent defrosting logs are computed. The chapter presents solutions of the models with explicit form of the finite-difference method and their validation towards own experimental studies. Results from experimental and simulative investigation of 2D non-stationary temperature distribution in the longitudinal section of beech and pine logs with a diameter of 0.24 m and length of 0.48 m during their many hours freezing in a freezer and subsequent defrosting at room temperature are presented, visualized, and analyzed.",book:{id:"7661",slug:"heat-and-mass-transfer-advances-in-science-and-technology-applications",title:"Heat and Mass Transfer",fullTitle:"Heat and Mass Transfer - Advances in Science and Technology Applications"},signatures:"Nencho Deliiski and Natalia Tumbarkova",authors:[{id:"43040",title:"Prof.",name:"Nencho",middleName:"Stanev",surname:"Deliiski",slug:"nencho-deliiski",fullName:"Nencho Deliiski"},{id:"284649",title:"Dr.",name:"Natalia",middleName:"Yordanova",surname:"Tumbarkova",slug:"natalia-tumbarkova",fullName:"Natalia Tumbarkova"}]},{id:"67626",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.86738",title:"The Boundary Element Method for Fluctuating Active Colloids",slug:"the-boundary-element-method-for-fluctuating-active-colloids",totalDownloads:920,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"The boundary element method (BEM) is a computational method particularly suited to solution of linear partial differential equations (PDEs), including the Laplace and Stokes equations, in complex geometries. The PDEs are formulated as boundary integral equations over bounding surfaces, which can be discretized for numerical solution. This manuscript reviews application of the BEM for simulation of the dynamics of “active” colloids that can self-propel through liquid solution. We introduce basic concepts and model equations for both catalytically active colloids and the “squirmer” model of a ciliated biological microswimmer. We review the foundations of the BEM for both the Laplace and Stokes equations, including the application to confined geometries, and the extension of the method to include thermal fluctuations of the colloid. Finally, we discuss recent and potential applications to research problems concerning active colloids. The aim of this review is to facilitate development and adoption of boundary element models that capture the interplay of deterministic and stochastic effects in the dynamics of active colloids.",book:{id:"8416",slug:"non-equilibrium-particle-dynamics",title:"Non-Equilibrium Particle Dynamics",fullTitle:"Non-Equilibrium Particle Dynamics"},signatures:"William E. Uspal",authors:[{id:"279308",title:"Prof.",name:"William",middleName:null,surname:"Uspal",slug:"william-uspal",fullName:"William Uspal"}]},{id:"66487",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.85735",title:"Mean Aspects Controlling Supercritical CO2 Precipitation Processes",slug:"mean-aspects-controlling-supercritical-co-sub-2-sub-precipitation-processes",totalDownloads:736,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"The use of supercritical CO2 is an excellent alternative in extraction, particle precipitation, impregnation and reaction processes due to its special properties. Solubility of the compound in supercritical CO2 drives the precipitation process in different ways. In supercritical antisolvent process, mass and heat transfers, phase equilibria, nucleation, and growth of the compound to be precipitated are the main phenomena that should be taken into account. Mass transfer conditions the morphology and particle size of the final product. This transfer could be tuned altering operating conditions. Heat transfer in non-isothermal process influences on mixing step the size of generated microparticles. In rapid expansion of supercritical solution, phenomena as the phase change from supercritical to a CO2 gas flow, rapid mass transfer and crystallization of the compound, and expansion jet define the morphology and size of the final product. These phenomena a priori could be modulated tuning a large number of operating parameters through the experiments, but the correlations and modeling of these processes are necessary to clarify the relative importance of each one. Moreover, particle agglomeration in the expansion jet and CO2 condensation are determinant phenomena which should be avoided in order to conserve fine particles in the final product.",book:{id:"7661",slug:"heat-and-mass-transfer-advances-in-science-and-technology-applications",title:"Heat and Mass Transfer",fullTitle:"Heat and Mass Transfer - Advances in Science and Technology Applications"},signatures:"Antonio Montes, Clara Pereyra and Enrique J. Martínez de la Ossa",authors:[{id:"55991",title:"Mr.",name:"Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Montes",slug:"antonio-montes",fullName:"Antonio Montes"},{id:"55992",title:"Dr.",name:"Clara",middleName:null,surname:"Pereyra",slug:"clara-pereyra",fullName:"Clara Pereyra"},{id:"55993",title:"Dr.",name:"Enrique",middleName:null,surname:"Martinez De La Ossa",slug:"enrique-martinez-de-la-ossa",fullName:"Enrique Martinez De La Ossa"}]},{id:"66317",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.85254",title:"Review Heat Transfer of Non-Newtonian Fluids in Agitated Tanks",slug:"review-heat-transfer-of-non-newtonian-fluids-in-agitated-tanks",totalDownloads:1001,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"The heating and cooling of non-Newtonian liquids in tanks with mechanical impellers are operations commonly employed as chemical reactors, heat exchangers, distillers, extractors, thinners and decanters. In particular, the design of heat exchangers (jackets, helical coils, spiral coils and vertical tubular baffles) in tanks requires the prior knowledge of the rheology of the liquid for the calculation of the convection coefficients and the Reynolds number, in order to obtain the area thermal exchange. This chapter aimed to present the basic concepts of tanks with agitation, non-Newtonian liquids, hydrodynamics, heat transfer and, finally, with a practical design example for engineers and undergraduate students.",book:{id:"7661",slug:"heat-and-mass-transfer-advances-in-science-and-technology-applications",title:"Heat and Mass Transfer",fullTitle:"Heat and Mass Transfer - Advances in Science and Technology Applications"},signatures:"Vitor da Silva Rosa and Deovaldo de Moraes Júnior",authors:[{id:"187128",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Vitor",middleName:null,surname:"Rosa",slug:"vitor-rosa",fullName:"Vitor Rosa"},{id:"188792",title:"Dr.",name:"Deovaldo",middleName:null,surname:"Moraes Júnior",slug:"deovaldo-moraes-junior",fullName:"Deovaldo Moraes Júnior"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"66878",title:"Design of Industrial Falling Film Evaporators",slug:"design-of-industrial-falling-film-evaporators",totalDownloads:1753,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"The high performance evaporators are important for process industries such as food, desalination and refineries. The falling film evaporators have many advantages over flooded and vertical tubes that make them best candidate for processes industries application. The heat transfer area is the key parameter in designing of an evaporator and many correlations are available to estimate the size of tube bundle. Unfortunately, most of the correlation is available only for pure water and above 322 K saturation temperatures. Out of these conditions, the areas are designed by the extrapolation of existing correlations. We demonstrated that the actual heat transfer values are 2–3-fold higher at lower temperature and hence simple extrapolated estimation leads to inefficient and high capital cost design. We proposed an accurate heat transfer correlation for falling film evaporators that can capture both, low temperature evaporation and salt concentration effectively. It is also embedded with unique bubble-assisted evaporation parameter that can be only observed at low temperature and it enhances the heat transfer. The proposed correlation is applicable from 280 to 305 K saturation temperatures and feed water concentration ranges from 35,000 to 95,000 ppm. The uncertainty of measured data is less than 5% and RMS of regressed data is 3.5%. In this chapter, first part summarized the all available correlations and their limitations. In second part, falling film evaporation heat transfer coefficient (FFHTC) is proposed and model is developed. In the last part, experimentation is conducted and FFHTC developed and compared with conventional correlations.",book:{id:"7661",slug:"heat-and-mass-transfer-advances-in-science-and-technology-applications",title:"Heat and Mass Transfer",fullTitle:"Heat and Mass Transfer - Advances in Science and Technology Applications"},signatures:"Muhammad Wakil Shahzad, Muhammad Burhan and Kim Choon Ng",authors:[{id:"174208",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad Wakil",middleName:null,surname:"Shahzad",slug:"muhammad-wakil-shahzad",fullName:"Muhammad Wakil Shahzad"},{id:"249811",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Burhan",slug:"muhammad-burhan",fullName:"Muhammad Burhan"},{id:"254696",title:"Prof.",name:"Kim Choon",middleName:null,surname:"Ng",slug:"kim-choon-ng",fullName:"Kim Choon Ng"}]},{id:"66102",title:"Heat and Mass Transfer of Additive Manufacturing Processes for Metals",slug:"heat-and-mass-transfer-of-additive-manufacturing-processes-for-metals",totalDownloads:1302,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Additive manufacturing (AM), a method in which a part is fabricated layer by layer from a digital design package, provides the potential to produce complex components at reduced cost and time. Many techniques (using many different names) have been developed to accomplish this via melting or solid-state joining. However, to date, only a handful can be used to produce metallic parts that fulfill the requirements of industrial applications. The thermal physics and weld pool behaviors in metal AM process have decisive influence on the deposition quality, the microstructure and service performance of the depositions. Accurate analysis and calculation of thermal processes and weld pool behaviors are of great significance to the metallurgy analysis, stress and deformation analysis, process control and process optimization etc. Numerical modeling is also a necessary way to turn welding from qualitative description and experience-based art into quantitative analysis- and science-based engineering branch. In this chapter, two techniques for producing metal parts are explored, with a focus on the thermal science of metal AM: fluid flow and heat transfer. Selective laser melting (SLM) is the one that is most widely used because it typically has the best resolution. Another is named metal fused-coated additive manufacturing (MFCAM) that is cost competitive and efficient in producing large and middle-complex components in aerospace applications.",book:{id:"7661",slug:"heat-and-mass-transfer-advances-in-science-and-technology-applications",title:"Heat and Mass Transfer",fullTitle:"Heat and Mass Transfer - Advances in Science and Technology Applications"},signatures:"Zhengying Wei and Jun Du",authors:[{id:"47614",title:"Prof.",name:"Zhengying",middleName:null,surname:"Wei",slug:"zhengying-wei",fullName:"Zhengying Wei"},{id:"282052",title:"Dr.",name:"Jun",middleName:null,surname:"Du",slug:"jun-du",fullName:"Jun Du"}]},{id:"66563",title:"Heat and Mass Transfer in Outward Convex Corrugated Tube Heat Exchangers",slug:"heat-and-mass-transfer-in-outward-convex-corrugated-tube-heat-exchangers",totalDownloads:1037,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"Heat and mass transfer in outward convex corrugated tube heat exchangers is of significant importance for the optimization, fabrication, and application of outward convex corrugated tube heat exchangers. This chapter gives a deep investigation of the heat and mass transfer in outward convex corrugated tube heat exchangers. Based on the experimental setup developed, the performances of a novel outward convex corrugated tube heat exchanger are presented. Simulation methods are then used to detail the heat and mass transfer at tube side and shell side of the outward convex corrugated tube heat exchanger, and these include the flow structure, temperature distribution, and turbulence kinetic energy. Heat and mass transfer enhancements of the outward convex corrugated tube heat exchanger are also studied, and they are from tube side, shell side, and overall system aspects. Finally, multi-objective optimization of the outward convex corrugated tube heat exchanger is conducted to obtain the optimal performances through using Response Surface Methodology (RSM) and Non-dominated Sorting Genetic Algorithm (NSGA-II). Main conclusions and future outlook are then briefly stated and summarized. We firmly believe that the contents presented in this chapter can not only enrich the knowledge of heat exchangers but also develop methods for studying heat exchangers.",book:{id:"7661",slug:"heat-and-mass-transfer-advances-in-science-and-technology-applications",title:"Heat and Mass Transfer",fullTitle:"Heat and Mass Transfer - Advances in Science and Technology Applications"},signatures:"Huaizhi Han, Bingxi Li, Yaning Zhang, Quan Zhu and Ruitian Yu",authors:[{id:"23828",title:"Dr.",name:"Quan",middleName:null,surname:"Zhu",slug:"quan-zhu",fullName:"Quan Zhu"},{id:"148369",title:"Prof.",name:"Bingxi",middleName:null,surname:"Li",slug:"bingxi-li",fullName:"Bingxi Li"},{id:"196928",title:"Dr.",name:"Yaning",middleName:null,surname:"Zhang",slug:"yaning-zhang",fullName:"Yaning Zhang"},{id:"281875",title:"Prof.",name:"Huaizhi",middleName:null,surname:"Han",slug:"huaizhi-han",fullName:"Huaizhi Han"},{id:"282268",title:"Mr.",name:"Ruitian",middleName:null,surname:"Yu",slug:"ruitian-yu",fullName:"Ruitian Yu"}]},{id:"66317",title:"Review Heat Transfer of Non-Newtonian Fluids in Agitated Tanks",slug:"review-heat-transfer-of-non-newtonian-fluids-in-agitated-tanks",totalDownloads:1001,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"The heating and cooling of non-Newtonian liquids in tanks with mechanical impellers are operations commonly employed as chemical reactors, heat exchangers, distillers, extractors, thinners and decanters. In particular, the design of heat exchangers (jackets, helical coils, spiral coils and vertical tubular baffles) in tanks requires the prior knowledge of the rheology of the liquid for the calculation of the convection coefficients and the Reynolds number, in order to obtain the area thermal exchange. This chapter aimed to present the basic concepts of tanks with agitation, non-Newtonian liquids, hydrodynamics, heat transfer and, finally, with a practical design example for engineers and undergraduate students.",book:{id:"7661",slug:"heat-and-mass-transfer-advances-in-science-and-technology-applications",title:"Heat and Mass Transfer",fullTitle:"Heat and Mass Transfer - Advances in Science and Technology Applications"},signatures:"Vitor da Silva Rosa and Deovaldo de Moraes Júnior",authors:[{id:"187128",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Vitor",middleName:null,surname:"Rosa",slug:"vitor-rosa",fullName:"Vitor Rosa"},{id:"188792",title:"Dr.",name:"Deovaldo",middleName:null,surname:"Moraes Júnior",slug:"deovaldo-moraes-junior",fullName:"Deovaldo Moraes Júnior"}]},{id:"65692",title:"Advances in Concentrated Solar Power: A Perspective of Heat Transfer",slug:"advances-in-concentrated-solar-power-a-perspective-of-heat-transfer",totalDownloads:1114,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Solar energy has the potential to reduce the dependence on the dwindling supply of fossil fuels through concentrated solar power (CSP) technology. CSP plants utilize solar thermal energy to produce electrical energy based on different thermodynamic power cycles. Solar collectors, reflectors, receivers, thermal fluid, and turbines are the main components of each CSP plant and involve intensive heat transfer at all stages. This chapter illustrates the thermal characteristics of the main components used in CSP technology. In addition, the solar thermal fluid characteristics and its stable operational ranges are discussed in this chapter. Heat capacity, vapor pressure, volume expansion, density and viscosity of the thermal fluid should not differ significantly at different temperatures during various operation stages because these variations can cause failure in the system, which is designed at the fixed material properties. Currently, CSP technology is associated with a higher cost compared to the electricity generated through gas power plants. Many efforts are made to search for sustainable and inexpensive materials to minimize the cost of CSP. One critical issue faced by CSP technology is the intermittent nature of the sun. Modern CSP plants integrate thermal energy storage (TES) unit to smoothen the power production or to shift the production from peak sunshine hours to peak demand hours.",book:{id:"7661",slug:"heat-and-mass-transfer-advances-in-science-and-technology-applications",title:"Heat and Mass Transfer",fullTitle:"Heat and Mass Transfer - Advances in Science and Technology Applications"},signatures:"Fadi Alnaimat and Yasir Rashid",authors:[{id:"151722",title:"Dr.",name:"Fadi",middleName:null,surname:"Alnaimat",slug:"fadi-alnaimat",fullName:"Fadi Alnaimat"},{id:"291252",title:"Mr.",name:"Yasir",middleName:null,surname:"Rashid",slug:"yasir-rashid",fullName:"Yasir Rashid"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"954",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:87,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:98,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:27,numberOfPublishedChapters:286,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:9,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:139,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:0,numberOfUpcomingTopics:2,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:106,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:101,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:11,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:0,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:9,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}},{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",issn:null,scope:"
\r\n\tTransforming our World: the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development endorsed by United Nations and 193 Member States, came into effect on Jan 1, 2016, to guide decision making and actions to the year 2030 and beyond. Central to this Agenda are 17 Goals, 169 associated targets and over 230 indicators that are reviewed annually. The vision envisaged in the implementation of the SDGs is centered on the five Ps: People, Planet, Prosperity, Peace and Partnership. This call for renewed focused efforts ensure we have a safe and healthy planet for current and future generations.
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\r\n\tThis Series focuses on covering research and applied research involving the five Ps through the following topics:
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\r\n\t1. Sustainable Economy and Fair Society that relates to SDG 1 on No Poverty, SDG 2 on Zero Hunger, SDG 8 on Decent Work and Economic Growth, SDG 10 on Reduced Inequalities, SDG 12 on Responsible Consumption and Production, and SDG 17 Partnership for the Goals
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\r\n\t2. Health and Wellbeing focusing on SDG 3 on Good Health and Wellbeing and SDG 6 on Clean Water and Sanitation
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\r\n\t3. Inclusivity and Social Equality involving SDG 4 on Quality Education, SDG 5 on Gender Equality, and SDG 16 on Peace, Justice and Strong Institutions
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\r\n\t4. Climate Change and Environmental Sustainability comprising SDG 13 on Climate Action, SDG 14 on Life Below Water, and SDG 15 on Life on Land
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\r\n\t5. Urban Planning and Environmental Management embracing SDG 7 on Affordable Clean Energy, SDG 9 on Industry, Innovation and Infrastructure, and SDG 11 on Sustainable Cities and Communities.
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\r\n\tThe series also seeks to support the use of cross cutting SDGs, as many of the goals listed above, targets and indicators are all interconnected to impact our lives and the decisions we make on a daily basis, making them impossible to tie to a single topic.
",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/24.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"April 24th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:0,editor:{id:"262440",title:"Prof.",name:"Usha",middleName:null,surname:"Iyer-Raniga",slug:"usha-iyer-raniga",fullName:"Usha Iyer-Raniga",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRYSXQA4/Profile_Picture_2022-02-28T13:55:36.jpeg",biography:"Usha Iyer-Raniga is a professor in the School of Property and Construction Management at RMIT University. Usha co-leads the One Planet Network’s Sustainable Buildings and Construction Programme (SBC), a United Nations 10 Year Framework of Programmes on Sustainable Consumption and Production (UN 10FYP SCP) aligned with Sustainable Development Goal 12. The work also directly impacts SDG 11 on Sustainable Cities and Communities. She completed her undergraduate degree as an architect before obtaining her Masters degree from Canada and her Doctorate in Australia. Usha has been a keynote speaker as well as an invited speaker at national and international conferences, seminars and workshops. Her teaching experience includes teaching in Asian countries. She has advised Austrade, APEC, national, state and local governments. She serves as a reviewer and a member of the scientific committee for national and international refereed journals and refereed conferences. She is on the editorial board for refereed journals and has worked on Special Issues. Usha has served and continues to serve on the Boards of several not-for-profit organisations and she has also served as panel judge for a number of awards including the Premiers Sustainability Award in Victoria and the International Green Gown Awards. Usha has published over 100 publications, including research and consulting reports. Her publications cover a wide range of scientific and technical research publications that include edited books, book chapters, refereed journals, refereed conference papers and reports for local, state and federal government clients. She has also produced podcasts for various organisations and participated in media interviews. She has received state, national and international funding worth over USD $25 million. Usha has been awarded the Quarterly Franklin Membership by London Journals Press (UK). Her biography has been included in the Marquis Who's Who in the World® 2018, 2016 (33rd Edition), along with approximately 55,000 of the most accomplished men and women from around the world, including luminaries as U.N. Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon. In 2017, Usha was awarded the Marquis Who’s Who Lifetime Achiever Award.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"RMIT University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Australia"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:4,paginationItems:[{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/14.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"165627",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosa María",middleName:null,surname:"Martínez-Espinosa",slug:"rosa-maria-martinez-espinosa",fullName:"Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/165627/images/system/165627.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa has been a Spanish Full Professor since 2020 (Biochemistry and Molecular Biology) and is currently Vice-President of International Relations and Cooperation development and leader of the research group 'Applied Biochemistry” (University of Alicante, Spain). Other positions she has held at the university include Vice-Dean of Master Programs, Vice-Dean of the Degree in Biology and Vice-Dean for Mobility and Enterprise and Engagement at the Faculty of Science (University of Alicante). She received her Bachelor in Biology in 1998 (University of Alicante) and her PhD in 2003 (Biochemistry, University of Alicante). She undertook post-doctoral research at the University of East Anglia (Norwich, U.K. 2004-2005; 2007-2008).\nHer multidisciplinary research focuses on investigating archaea and their potential applications in biotechnology. She has an H-index of 21. She has authored one patent and has published more than 70 indexed papers and around 60 book chapters.\nShe has contributed to more than 150 national and international meetings during the last 15 years. Her research interests include archaea metabolism, enzymes purification and characterization, gene regulation, carotenoids and bioplastics production, antioxidant\ncompounds, waste water treatments, and brines bioremediation.\nRosa María’s other roles include editorial board member for several journals related\nto biochemistry, reviewer for more than 60 journals (biochemistry, molecular biology, biotechnology, chemistry and microbiology) and president of several organizing committees in international meetings related to the N-cycle or respiratory processes.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"441442",title:"Dr.",name:"Şükrü",middleName:null,surname:"Beydemir",slug:"sukru-beydemir",fullName:"Şükrü Beydemir",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003GsUoIQAV/Profile_Picture_1634557147521",biography:"Dr. Şükrü Beydemir obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 1995 from Yüzüncü Yıl University, MSc in Biochemistry in 1998, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2002 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He performed post-doctoral studies at Max-Planck Institute, Germany, and University of Florence, Italy in addition to making several scientific visits abroad. He currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Anadolu University, Turkey. Dr. Beydemir has published over a hundred scientific papers spanning protein biochemistry, enzymology and medicinal chemistry, reviews, book chapters and presented several conferences to scientists worldwide. He has received numerous publication awards from various international scientific councils. He serves in the Editorial Board of several international journals. 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He is a member of the Turkish Biochemical Society, American Chemical Society, and German Genetics society. Dr. Ekinci published around ninety scientific papers, reviews and book chapters, and presented several conferences to scientists. He has received numerous publication awards from several scientific councils. 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Since 1983, he has been a faculty member of the RO Perelman Department of Dermatology, NYU School of Medicine, where he is codirector of a training grant in cutaneous biology. Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. He has published more than 100 peer-reviewed research articles and graduated numerous Ph.D. and postdoctoral students.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"New York University Langone Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"7978",title:"Vitamin A",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7978.jpg",slug:"vitamin-a",publishedDate:"May 15th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Leila Queiroz Zepka, Veridiana Vera de Rosso and Eduardo Jacob-Lopes",hash:"dad04a658ab9e3d851d23705980a688b",volumeInSeries:3,fullTitle:"Vitamin A",editors:[{id:"261969",title:"Dr.",name:"Leila",middleName:null,surname:"Queiroz Zepka",slug:"leila-queiroz-zepka",fullName:"Leila Queiroz Zepka",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/261969/images/system/261969.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Leila Queiroz Zepka is currently an associate professor in the Department of Food Technology and Science, Federal University of Santa Maria, Brazil. 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The applications of this research cover many related fields, such as biotechnology and medicine, where, for example, Bioinformatics contributes to faster drug design, DNA analysis in forensics, and DNA sequence analysis in the field of personalized medicine. Personalized medicine is a type of medical care in which treatment is customized individually for each patient. Personalized medicine enables more effective therapy, reduces the costs of therapy and clinical trials, and also minimizes the risk of side effects. Nevertheless, advances in personalized medicine would not have been possible without bioinformatics, which can analyze the human genome and other vast amounts of biomedical data, especially in genetics. The rapid growth of information technology enabled the development of new tools to decode human genomes, large-scale studies of genetic variations and medical informatics. 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