Growth conditions of the samples S1, S1′, S1″, S2, S2′ and S2″.
\r\n\t
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For example, (311) A and (311) B are not acquired as compared to the used (001) surface due to their remarkable characteristics [1]. In addition, InAlAs semiconductor layers grown on (311) A/B-oriented InP substrates give several unique characteristics compared to those grown on InP (100). Indeed, in (311) plane, the strain and hydrostatic deformations are discovered to be improved compared to those on (100) plane [1, 2, 3]. The primary reasons for this are: (i) the presence of a built-in electric field, produced through the piezoelectric effect in the layer [1, 4, 5] and (ii) the difference in arsenic segregation at the inverse interface. It is expected that these factors will be heavily dependent on growth conditions such as substrate orientation, V/III ratio.
InAlAs-InP materials have attracted tremendous interest over the past decades due to a variety of potential applications such as optical, optoelectronic and electronic devices [6, 7] due to its large direct band-gap energy, high electron mobility and the type II nature of the interface [8]. These advancement efforts were appointed by the fabrication and commercialization of a variety of devices such as Quantum cascade lasers (QCLs) [9, 10], Avalanche Photodiodes (APDs) [11] and high-electron-mobility transistor (HEMT) [12, 13, 14]. The heterostructures of InxAl1−xAs/InP have a type II transition [1, 15] which becomes a promising contender for the optical telecommunication light source. Different techniques such as Molecular Beam Epitaxy (MBE) and Metal-Organic Chemical Deposition (MOCVD) have developed this type of structure. However, the InAlAs material itself suffered from a large density of hetero-epitaxy-inherent defects [1, 6]: I Al content, (ii) phase separation, and (iii) InAlAs growth spinodal decomposition. Despite all this, the full potential of devices based on InAlAs/InP has still been obtained.
These issues are expected to be highly dependent on growth conditions (substrate polarity, V/III ratio, etc.) due to the large difference in bond energy between Al-As and In-As [15]. To date, most study work on the optical and electrical properties of InAlAs was performed on the conventional (100) planes, but little is known for the non-conventional (n11) planes. Different substrate orientations show various surface states, which are expected to influence the growth mode and even the optical and electrical properties of epilayers.
The existence of aluminum in the InAlAs layer, therefore, prompts the existence of the In- and Al-rich clusters, which is the consequence of the non-uniformity in the alloy composition. As a result, it contributes to the undulation of the InAlAs bandgap from which the localized energy level is present. In addition, the substrate polarity [A or B] in our nanostructures alters the containment of electrons-holes by changing the strain and the existence of piezoelectric (PZ) field within the structure. Similar heterostructures such as In0.21Ga0.79As/GaAs (311) A MQWs [16] and heterostructures AlGaAs/GaAs grown on (100), (311) A and (311) B-oriented substrates [17] have seen the carrier localization phenomenon. The previous investigation will be constrained to those samples implanted at high index (11N). We have shown in our latest study [18] that the presence of localized carriers has been attributed to the energy potential modulation related to the existence of Indium clusters and PZ-field.
The aim of our chapter is to study the effect of PZ-field on the optical properties of InAlAs/InP (311) with different substrate polarity, elaborated by MOCVD. The research of their optical characteristics by PR and PL spectroscopy is a significant step to demonstrate the possibility of incorporating our structure into optoelectronic applications such as 1.55 μm devices.
The studies are conducted on InP/InAlAs/InP (311) double heterostructures, marked as S1, S1′, S1″, S2, S2′ and S2″, which are cultivated at different V/III ratios by low-pressure metal-organic chemical vapor deposition (MOCVD). More information about development is summarized in Table 1. The source materials for the growth process are trimethylindium (TMIn), trimethylaluminum (TMAl) and (AsH3). At a substrate temperature of 600°C, an InP layer of 100 nm thickness was developed. The growth rate of InP is approximately 0.17 nm/s. A 270 nm thick layer of InxAl1–xAs was subsequently deposed. Each sample was finally capped with an InP layer of 10 nm.
Samples | Substrate orientation | V/III ratio molar |
---|---|---|
S1 | (311) B | 25 |
S1′ | (311) B | 50 |
S1″ | (311) B | 125 |
S2 | (311) A | 25 |
S2′ | (311) A | 50 |
S2″ | (311) B | 125 |
Growth conditions of the samples S1, S1′, S1″, S2, S2′ and S2″.
The source of excitation is the 514.5 nm line of the continuous-wave Ar+ laser with an excitation density of 80 W/cm2 in PL measurements. Spectral analysis of the luminescence measurements was performed out using JOBIN YVON HRD1 monochromatic and identified by a cooled Ge diode detector with a built-in amplifier. PR measurements were performed using a standard setup with the 514.5 nm line of Ar+ laser as the pump light, which was mechanically chopped at 970 Hz. The probe light was acquired from a 250 W tungsten halogen lamp dispersed with a 275 mm focal length monochromatic. The reflectance signal is detected by an InGaAs and silicon photodiodes.
PL spectra were registered at low temperature to confirm the effect of PZ-field on the optical properties of InAlAs/InP (311) A/B:
Figure 1 illustrates the 10K-PL spectra of InAlAs/InP samples grown on (311) B and (311) A, respectively denoted S1 and S2. A higher energy side, both emissions at around 1.13 and 1.23 eV, for the samples S1 and S2, can be related to the interfacial defects between the InAlAs and InP layers [1, 19]. Both PL bands occur at about 0.8 and 1.03 eV for S1 and S2, respectively, on the lower energy side. A gradual InAsxP1−x layer formation at the interface between InP and InAlAs (see Figure 2) was explained by Hallara et al. [6]. For sample S1, an emission situated at around 1.27 eV may be related to acceptor-band recombination [1].
(a) and (b) Low temperature PL spectra of InAlAs on InP (311) A and on InP (311) B, respectively. The green solid line is the Gaussian-fitting curve.
(a) Schematic band diagrams for sample of InAlAs on InP (100), (b) on InP (311) A, and (c) on InP (311) B.
To analyze the origin of the inverted interface (InP/InAlAs), we suggested a model based on arsenic segregation (some atomic monolayers) and linked the theoretical calculations with the experimental results.
We can conclude that the radiative recombination around the inverse interface with emission 1.03 eV for the polarity A is due to the appearance of a gradual layer for 3ML of InAsxP1−x. In this case, the arsenic content of xAs is about 40%, but in the inverted transition for polarity B, it is in the order of 70%. It is possible to estimate the band offset between InP and In0.513Al0.487As layers based on this reference [20]. In fact, the interface between InP and InAsxP1−x layers is type I, although it is type II for In0.513Al0.487As and InAsxP1−x, where the xAs content ranged from 0 to 0.78.
There are two Gaussian peaks in the PL spectrum (see Figure 1). For the type II transition, an asymmetric band tail appeared in both S1 and S2 samples, resulting from unintentional thin strained InAs layers created at the InAlAs-InP interface [1, 18]. To explain more, this layer’s smaller band gap can conduct a quantum well at the interface, resulting in a mixed type I–II transition [21]. We notice that the difference in energy between the two transitions type II corresponds to the difference in arsenic atoms surface segregation. Thus, depending on the growth axis, this energy shift can be attributed to the piezoelectric field [1, 5]. In addition, the existence of defect states may function as non-radiative centers resulting in a decrease in PL intensity. We should note that as mentioned at the beginning of this chapter, these defects originated from the development process as well as doping. Added to this, the sample cultivated on the (311) B surface has a greater residual impurity concentration than the samples cultivated on the (311) A surface [17]. For the (311) A sample, therefore, the interface quality is considered better than that for the (311) B sample.
To verify the impact of V/III ratio on the optical properties of InAlAs/InP (311) A/B, PL spectra were recorded at low temperature.
Figure 3 shows PL spectra at 10 K of the studied samples on different oriented InP substrate and at various V/III molar ratio. PL spectra are normalized and deconvoluted into various Gaussian curves for the convenience of comparison and to identify the different emission peaks. The spectra show four significant emission peaks marked as P1, P2, P3 and P4 for the (311) B sample. The P1 position is attributed to the type II emission across the interface between the two-dimensional electron states in thin InAsxP1−x graded layer at the inverted interface and holes located on top of the InAlAs valence band [1]. The intermediate layer of InAsP consists of the higher coefficient of incorporation of As compared to P [1, 5, 18]. Numerous investigations have shown that the type II emissions in InAlAs-InP heterostructures observed in the 0.8–1.25 eV range [1, 20, 22]. This very broad variety conceals some general patterns that appear to be related to conditions of growth. Whereas, the peak P2 emission is associated with a mixed type I–II transition and else P3 peak can be related to the interfacial defects in InAlAs/InP emission [1]. Finally, the P4 peak situated in the PL spectrum at a greater energy side for (311) B samples can be ascribed to acceptor-band recombination [5]. See our first part above for more information.
Low-temperature (10 K) PL for samples S1, S1′, S1″, S2, S2′ and S2″. In order to identify the different emission peaks, the spectra are normalized and deconvoluted by a multiple Gaussian curve fitting. Inset shows the schematic band diagram showing the radiative transitions from the type II transition (P1).
On the other hand, for (311) A plane, the peak P4 of all samples is not observed in PL spectra, which may be attributed to the existence of composition modulation in the epitaxial layer of InAlAs with varying molar ratio and substrate polarity. Sayari et al. [23] performed a Raman research study of the impact of the V/III flux ratio in heterostructures of InP/InAlAs/InP. The research demonstrates that the quantity of clustering is envisaged to depend on conditions of development such as substrate polarity, V/III ratio, etc.
Figure 4 exhibits the variation in the type II transition energy as a function of the V/III molar ratio for samples cultivated on (311) A and (311) B. For the (311) orientation, the peak position depends upon whether the substrate is In terminated (A-face) or P terminated (B-face). The variation of type II transition energy (P1) was acting differently with the V/III ratio, according to the substrate polarity. For the B-face (samples S1, S1′ and S1), the P1 emission peak energy tends to increase as the V/III ratio decreases [5]. Whereas for the A-face (samples S2, S2′ and S2′), we noted a decrease in the P1 emission peak as the V/III ratio increases (i.e. a blue shift is observed for (311) B samples [5], while red shift is noted for (311) A samples). These findings could possibly be clarified by the meaning of a piezoelectric field in InAlAs/InP heterostructures resulting from the difference between the atomic terminated surface [A or B] in InP substrate differences in interface reconstructions [1]. The PL shift can simply be attributed to the type of atoms present on the surface, resulting in different levels of confinement. There are two types of sites on the surface (311): one is the double bond site found in the direction [100] and the other is a single bond site found in the direction [111], their densities being precisely the same [5]. On a (311) A surface, the double dangling bond sites are In sites and the single dangling bond sites are P sites, but on a (311) B surface the double dangling bond sites are P sites and the single dangling bond sites are In sites (see Figure 5) [19, 24, 25]. These completely distinct configurations of plane bonding are eventually responsible for the meaning of the PZ field on the different planes. Furthermore, the study of the impacts of InP substrate polarity shows that As incorporation (arsenic diffusion) may be improved on (311) A samples but may be decreased on (311) B samples with an increased V/III ratio. It can be shown from Ref. [20] that the increase in arsenic composition (InAsP) will reduce the transition energy of type II.
Variation of the type-II transition energy as a function of V/III ratio for the (311) A and (311) B substrate orientation.
Illustration of (311) A and (311) B planes of InP.
We studied the evolution of the PL peak energy as PDPL, as shown in Figure 6, to verify these assignments. The energy blue changes with increased excitation power intensity for type transition. This conduct is associated with recombination of type II via an interface with other material structures such as GaAsSb/InP [26, 27] and GaSb/InGaAs [28].
The PL emission energy for the type II transition of all samples as a function of excitation power densities.
The following Eq. (1) was used to estimate the nature of the recombination around the InP/InAlAs inverse interface [1]:
where Pexc is the power excitation, IPL is the integrated PL intensity and n is an exponent.
We found that the exponent n close to the unity. At higher power of excitation, there is no saturation. This shows that this PL transition is not attributable to impurity or defects, but is intrinsic recombination (band-to-band) [1]. Figure 6 indicates a logarithmic linear dependence of the PL peak energy of the inverse interface with the density of excitation power. Hallara et al. [6] noted this behavior. Additionally, Figure 6 display that the blue-shifted with the increase of the excitation power density. The offset is approximately 7 meV. This shows that the change of emission energy with increasing excitation power is also proof to verify our hypothesis (carrier localization) and PZ-filed presence in our structures [18].
A final analysis based on the PL temperature was created to further verify our hypothesis. In both samples, we can gain greater insight into the carrier localization and the mechanism of luminescence.
Scientific study shows that two factors are noted for conventional orientation (100), at low temperature 10 K and with aspect ratio V/III equivalent to 50, two factors are observed: (i) clusters formation and (ii) composition modulation leading to natural superlattice [6]. Some scientists discovered that the latter factor disappears and if the ratio V/III changes [5, 6, 22], the clustering impact remains only.
It related to the phenomenon of exciton location. Carefully research as a function of PL temperature is conducted to demonstrate our hypothesis.
In both samples (S1 and S2) mentioned above, the PL peak energy-temperature reliance obtained from PL spectra is shown in Figure 7(a) and (b). The PL spectrum (inset Figure 7) is revealed between 10 and 300 K. The so-called S-shaped temperature dependence of emission energy is obviously shown as a successive reform to low-high-low energy. It displays anomalous behavior as a temperature function. This behavior is characteristic of localization effects, and has been already observed in InAlAs alloys on InP [29, 30], GaAsSb/InP layers [31], BGaAs/GaAs layers [32, 33] and In0.21Ga0.79As MQWs on GaAs (311) A [16].
(a) and (b) experiment data for the temperature dependence of Transition type II emission in In0.513Al0.487As grown on InP (311) B and on InP (311) A substrates, respectively.
The S-shaped shape in PL peak energy can be separated into three primary intervals of temperature and is interpreted as follows: at the low-temperature range, the excitons should be situated in the levels whose distribution goes into the material’s prohibited band. This is called band tails, associated with cluster appearance in the InAlAs [18]. With growing temperature, the excitons get enough thermal energy to reach deeper localized states and recombine primarily from low energy levels, resulting in a dramatic red shift (part I). Indeed, when the temperature increases, the thermal energy becomes adequate for the excitons in the tails to attain the corners of the stripes, where they are delocalized to high levels of energy. A blue shift is noted as a consequence (part II). All carriers are delocalized to the continuum at the high-temperature region, where band-band transitions are favored (part III) [18].
Another main parameter of the presence of the localization phenomenon is the Full width at Half Maximum (FWHM) behavior. Indeed, compared to the classic IIIV semiconductor alloys, it demonstrates atypical behavior. It shows an inverted “N-shape” (decrease-increase-decrease) (see Figure 8). The excitons are localized in the potential minima at cryogenic temperature. The carriers gain more thermal energy at intermediate temperatures to overcome the tiny energy barriers and attain greater energy states. As the temperature increases further, the FWHM broadening is described as the interaction of the electron-phonon. Finally, up to room temperature, the line width decreases continuously. It demonstrates the inverse trend of expanding optical phonons [1, 18]. This behavior can be clarified by the thermo-activation of the carriers and their transfer between nearby fluctuation potentials induced by the inhomogeneous distribution. Indeed, the carriers that are being thermally activated into a small potential can be further retrapped by the large one [18].
(a) and (b) Evolution of the FWHM dependence of transition type II emission in In0.513Al0.487As grown on InP (311) B and on InP (311) A substrates, respectively.
As a function of temperature, the S-shape in PL peak energy is not clear in polarity B as polarity A. The reason for this distinction can be clarified by considering the polarity of the surface [In-rich (A) or P-rich (B)] from which the distinction of the PZ field within both structures [1, 18]. In the growth of the high index plane (311), the PZ field and an internal field are along the same direction (polarity A) [18, 19]. In fact, carriers can be easily delocalized due to the strong phonon coupling carrier, which is an important channel for carrier transfer in-plane hopping effect [24]. In comparison, field direction is opposite in polarity B (see Figure 3) [25, 34]. Due to the PZ field effect, the impact of localization is affected by interface undulation in this phase. Furthermore, the amount of alloy fluctuations in the composition of the material and the exchange of P-As.
PR measurements were performed at room temperature to explore the evolution of the optical properties of the InAlAs/InP heterostructures during the development phase. The received PR spectra are described in Figure 9, with a distinct V/III ratio and substrate polarity. The PR spectra show a transition varying between 1.18 and 1.21 eV for samples S1, S1′, S2 and S2′. We suggest that this peak is related to the emission (1e–1h) between electron sub band and light-hole sub-band of quantum well (QW) InAsP [5]. While the spin split-off band of the InAsP layers lies at about 1.32 eV. On the other side, for the samples (S1′, S2′), these two peaks totally disappear with a V/III ratio of 50 [5]. This result can be related during the growth to the uniformity of the inverse interface between InAlAs and InP. Furthermore, we noted that PR spectra of all samples show an additional above-band-gap (
Room-temperature PR spectra for InAlAs layers grown on (311) B (samples S1, S1′ and S1″) and (311) A (samples S2, S2′ and S2″) InP substrates with different V/III ratio molar.
In order to assess the electrical field quality of each InP substrate, the FKO period is evaluated using an asymptotic expression for the PR spectrum provided in [36, 37]. In this strategy, InP FKO is indicated by:
where
According to the asymptotic Franz-Keldysh model [37], the energy of oscillation extrema is given by:
where
Noting that
Thus, by plotting
Plotted in Figure 10 is the intercept
FKO analysis for samples S1, S1′, S1″, S2, S2′, and S2″. Symbols are the energies of the FKO Extrema En as a function of
Samples | Substrate orientation | ||
---|---|---|---|
S1 | (311) B | 1.352 | 36.27 |
S1′ | (311) B | 1.396 | 20.53 |
S1″ | (311) B | 1.361 | 8.11 |
S2 | (311) A | 1.351 | 25.44 |
S2′ | (311) A | 1.349 | 32.86 |
S2″ | (311) A | 1.340 | 38.49 |
Summary of energy gap (Eg) and the piezoelectric field (Fpz) values obtained from photoreflectance PR with different V/III ratio molar.
From Eq. (3), a plot of
The values acquired from the above-explained FKO evaluation of the built-in electrical field strength are provided in Table 2. We discovered that when the orientation of the substrate changes, the
Figure 11 shows the dependency of the PZ field in the studied samples on the polarity of the InP substrate and the V/III ratio. It is obviously noted that the PZ field drops with increasing the V/III ratio molar for the orientation (311) B [5]. The S1 sample indicates a comparatively powerful PZ field. As the V/III ratio increases, the PZ field decreases rapidly to reach 20.53 KV/cm for sample S1′ (V/III = 50) and 8.11 KV/cm for sample S1″ (V/III = 125). In comparison, for (311) A-surface, we noted an increase in the PZ field as the V/III ratio increases. It increases from 25.44 to 32.86 KV/cm when the V/III ratio increases almost twice [5].
Piezoelectric field dependence on the V/III ratio molar for (311) A (closed circles blue) and (311) B (closed circles red) substrate orientation.
From the surface kinetics aspect, it is possible to understand this difference in the variation of the PZ field with the V/III ratio for (311) A and (311) B orientation. The sign of the PZ charge is based on the atomic composition of the interfaces [38, 39, 40]. Therefore, it is necessary to distinguish between the substrates In planes, alluded to as (N11) A plane, and the planes P, alluded to as (N11) B-planes. The single-bond sites on a (311) surface are P sites and the double-bond sites are In locations. On the contrary, the surface (311) B has an inverse bonding arrangement as shown in Figure 5 [5, 19]. Therefore, for (311) A-face, less As atoms appear to close the cultivated surface at a small V/III ratio. Because of the stronger bond strength of Al-As than In-As, additional As atoms bond to Al statistically, bringing about more AlAs. Therefore, when V/III decreases, the coefficient of incorporation decreases [5]. By contrast, if the V/III ratio increases, though the tendency of As to combining with Al is still high, because of this oversupply, In atoms have more opportunity to bond with As atoms. In this way, the In incorporation coefficient increases with V/III ratio [5], which creates an increase in the PZ field with V/III ratio for the (311) A-oriented samples (S2 and S2′). Furthermore, we noted the opposite phenomenon of what is occurring for (311) B-face. The PZ field in our samples cultivated on (311) A substrate has the opposite direction than for (311) B [5].
We plotted the type II transition energy with the field for both the A and B polarity substrates in order to estimate the role of the PZ field (see Figure 11). The shift in energy owing to the PZ field has a distinct impact on the termination of the substrates A and B [1, 5]. This is because the PZ field may increase or decrease the space separation of the electron/hole that already exists because of the strain [41]. Consequently, the band structures of the InP/InAlAs/InP samples are plotted schematically of the inset of Figure 2. Based on the orientation of the substrate, the band diagrams are shifted to the left side while for (311) A and shifted to the right side for (311) B due to the presence of the PZ field [1, 5]. Finally, based on the discourse in previous parts, it can be concluded that the red shift in the type II recombination for the (311) A and the blue shift for the (311) B orientation with an increasing V/III ratio is related to the meaning of the PZ field. Another possible raison for the shift of type-II transition is the difference of exchange As/P at the InAlAs/InP interface resulting from a different polarity of InP [1, 5].
In summary, InAlAs/InP type-II heterostructures with a varying V/III ratio grown successfully on (311) A or B Fe-doped InP substrates by MOCVD were investigated and the optical properties of the grown structures were examined. The different optical properties of the samples grown on (311) A or B substrates are caused from the difference of their plane-bonding configurations. In particular, the optical properties of InAlAs-InP interface display a significant reliance on AsH3 overpressure and substrate polarity. PL and PR measurements indicated that substrate orientation and V/III ratio molar have an important impact on the quality of inverted interface. The measurements of excitation power density PL confirm the intrinsic transition of type II. A red shift of the type-II transition was noted at low temperature with an increased V/III ratio of the polarity A samples and a blue shift for polarity B samples. These findings could be clarified by the opposite field of PZ at the heterostructures of InAlAs/InP resulting from distinct polarity of the InP substrate. We acquired the InP field built-in PZ in the heterostructures from an assessment by the FKO. We have made an explanation of the transition shift from these values. Additionally, the temperature variety shows an anomalous S-shaped dependence that is typical of carrier localization in the material. The optical properties are significantly influenced by the PZ field in our samples. Therefore, the impact of the PZ field on the design and manufacture of greater quality instruments should be taken into consideration.
The complexity of tax systems around the world, as well as their constant changes, has demanded increasing attention from companies and their managers to avoid undesirable cash disbursements for payment of infringement notices arising from questioning by tax authorities related to improper procedures of companies when paying taxes. Additionally, it has required them to be diligent in identifying lawful tax planning alternatives to optimize the tax burden on their operations [1].
In the case of Brazil the complexity and dynamism of the its tax system is growing in sophistication, especially after the implementation of the Public Digital Bookkeeping System (SPED) and has occasioned the need for companies to organize their business under appropriate tax governance for effective and efficient tax compliance, in order to maximize the legitimate economy of taxes and minimize the risk of possible questioning by the tax authorities, which may result in identification of tax contingencies and the consequent issuance of notices of violation (infringement notification), with a corresponding recovery of punitive fines and penalty interest [2].
SPED was established by Presidential Decree No. 6022/2007 and regulated by Normative Instruction of Internal Revenue Service of Brazil No. 787/2007, such as a smart tool that unifies the activities of receipt, validation, storage, and authentication of books and documents that comprise the commercial and fiscal bookkeeping companies through unique and computerized information flow.
The globalization, a typical feature of modern society, made the concept of risk society that, from the perspective of taxation and in relation to its aspects of ambivalence, indeterminacy, and uncertainty, affects taxpayers, creating juridical insecurity and confusion in meeting their tax obligations [3].
Risk can simply be defined as exposure to change. It is the probability that some future event or a set of events will occur. Therefore, risk analysis involves identifying potential adverse changes and the expected impact as a result in the organization [4].
The term ‘risk’ comes from the word
When investors buy stock, surgeons perform operations, engineers design bridges, entrepreneurs open their businesses, and politicians run for elected office, the risk is an unavoidable partner. However, their actions reveal that the risk need not be so feared today: managing it has become synonymous with challenge and opportunity [6].
The objective of the study contained in this chapter is to demonstrate the importance of tax risk management in mergers and acquisitions processes by conducting an investigative work called due diligence.
To achieve this objective, bibliographic and documentary research was used, as part of exploratory research, since information and previous knowledge were collected about the problem for which the answer was sought, as well as materials that have not yet received analytical treatment, such as laws, regulations, and official decrees [7].
So, in this topic 1 it is evidenced that the complexity of tax systems around the world has demanded increasing attention from companies to avoid undesirable cash disbursements for payment of infringement notices arising from questioning by tax authorities related to improper procedures of companies when paying taxes. Additionally, it has required them to be diligent in identifying lawful tax planning alternatives to optimize the tax burden on their operations.
In topic 2 the responsibility of company administrators in the management of tax risks is exposed. This topic initially demonstrates that good corporate governance practices attributed to the board of directors and, in its absence, the senior management of the organization, the fundamental task of identifying, prioritizing, and ensuring effective management of various risks that may affect its business and even its continuity. It points out that through tax governance, the company aims to identify the most beneficial tax incidence hypothesis, to allow their activities may be lawfully benefited by the reduction in tax burden or inserted in the context of no tax levy. The company should also minimize the generation of tax contingencies. Finally, it points out that managers—in compliance with the guidelines and limits set by the board—should choose the appropriate and specific techniques of risk management, especially those related to minimization, immunization, and transferring these risks.
Topic 3 explains the importance of accounting, tax and legal due diligence in merger and acquisition processes. He points out that the due diligence work has some important functions. Firstly, it serves to uncover risks of various natures and helps in the decision-making process in terms of shaping the agreement and finding a realistic price for the acquisition, because it allows for a better assessment of the target object. The slighting of asymmetries of information may be seen as a direct effect of due diligence. Then, he comments on the relationship between the parties involved, the need to hire a multidisciplinary team of specialists, the areas to be examined, the preparation of the pro forma balance sheet, the writing of the report and the sizing of the guarantees.
Topic 4 analyzes the main aspects of due diligence in the tax area. It highlights issues to be observed as measurement of liabilities and assets accounted for, identification of unaccounted assets and liabilities and disclosure of contingencies not quantified.
Regarding ‘risk management’, there are regulations in Brazil, for example, that are in line with the Sarbanes–Oxley Act (SOX) and the Basel Agreement (for financial institutions). The SOX was published in 2002 in the USA, in response to some corporate scandals. It introduced important changes for the regulation of financial practice and corporate governance of companies. It emphasized the critical role of internal controls [8].
Internal controls include the organization plan and all methods and measures adopted in the company to safeguard its assets, verify the accuracy and fidelity of accounting data, develop efficiency in operations and stimulate the follow-up of prescribed executive policies [9].
This is one of the reasons the administration, notably of the large companies, have become more complex and difficult, requiring professionals with expertise in various areas of knowledge, causing the separation of ownership (owners) and management (executives) to allow business to be conducted in a more professional manner [10].
The Organization for Economic Co-Operation and Development (OECD) emphasizes that a good corporate governance system enables corporations to operate for the benefit of the community, with investor confidence, and attract stable long-term capital. It stands out for the range of topics dealt with and their influence on the global dissemination of the principles of good corporate governance practices. According to the OECD, governance fixes as a link of development of bond markets, corporations, and nations [11].
The adoption in 2002 of US Law SOX, printing new coherence to the rules of corporate governance, as renewal element of good practices of legal compliance, provision accounts (accountability), transparency (disclosure), and sense of justice (fairness) [12].
Good corporate governance practices attributed to the board of directors and, in its absence, the senior management of the organization, the fundamental task of identifying, prioritizing, and ensuring effective management of various risks that may affect its business and even its continuity. In this vein, the responsibility of the board and the senior management members—from both a corporate and a tax perspective—loomed in the risk society. From the tax point of view, there may be the extent of the responsibility of the legal entity to its partners, directors, officers, or legal representatives in some situations, which may even result in the blocking of their personal property, including their bank accounts, among other measures [13].
For example, the article 135 of the Brazilian tax code prescribes that “they are personally responsible for claims relating to tax liabilities arising from acts performed with excess of power or violation of law, article of incorporation or bylaw: directors, managers, or representatives of legal persons of private law”.
A species of the genus corporate governance, tax governance is the way in which organizations are led, directed, and managed to optimize their tax burden, identifying opportunities for their reduction, and minimizing the possibility of tax contingencies (risks) [14].
Through tax governance, the company aims to identify the most beneficial tax incidence hypothesis, to allow their activities may lawfully be benefited by the reduction in tax burden or inserted in the context of no tax levy. The company should also minimize the generation of tax contingencies [15].
The tax governance considers all aspects of the issue, from a legal, tax, accounting, financial, and economic outlook considering domestic and international experience in order to minimize risks and maximize the legitimate tax savings, following high ethical standards and in full compliance with the letter and spirit of applicable laws [16].
The international surveys by large accounting firms indicate that the management of tax risks has been gaining more importance on the board. Senior executives are increasingly looking for information about taxes, because of its potential material impact on the financial statements and the tax issue can no longer focus exclusively on tax compliance and managing the effective rate of taxes. CEOs and board members are doing more complex questions about how your organization manages its exposure to tax risk [17].
The OECD has stressed the importance of the involvement of the board in tax strategies of multinational companies: ‘Encourage the board, the CEO, and the audit committees from the large companies to have more interest and responsibility for their tax’s strategies’. There is a clear expectation that the OECD will expand its guidelines on corporate governance for the tax area of the companies soon [18].
Tax risks include the risk of paying more or less tax than legally required. Damage to reputation resulting from such errors may cause additional costs which are difficult to measure. Errors in assessing the tax effects of transactions may lead to wrong business decisions. For many companies, the tax is a cost factor which may be important for their competitiveness. Tax risks consist primarily of compliance, transactional, operational, and reputational risks. These are good reasons for the board is involved in the management of tax risk [19].
The risk appetite is associated with the level of risk that the organization can accept in the pursuit and achievement of its mission/vision (activity more associated with prior risk analysis). The risk tolerance is in line with acceptable levels of variability in achieving the goals and objectives defined (activity more associated with risk monitoring). Together, these two components defining the organization’s risk profile, in relation to the exposure to the risk that it accepts, as Figure 1 displays [20].
Corporate risk management model resulting from appetite and tolerance to risk.
Managers—in compliance with the guidelines and limits set by the board—should choose the appropriate and specific techniques of risk management, especially those related to minimization, immunization, and transferring these risks [21].
The tax governance will have to cover the tax philosophy and strategy of the company, internal policies, and procedures regarding tax risks and external communication regarding all tax matters. The board of directors will be responsible for defining a direction, the implementation of a tax system of governance and of course for enhancement of company value, through tax reduction [22].
Therefore, efficient, and sustainable company from the tax point of view (regardless in which country it is located) is one that seeks to identify with the requisite notice the legal and tax alternatives less costly to achieve their business objectives and adopt a set of coordination procedures, control and review in order to minimize the possibility of generating tax contingencies. We remind you that from the owners’ point of view the obligation of senior management of the company to plan its business, to increase—in a continuous, permanent, and sustainable manner—its revenues and reduce their costs (including taxes), to make it increasingly profitable [23].
The corporate sustainability can be defined as the ability of companies of creating value for its owners over the long term, through proper management of risks associated with economic, social, and environmental factors, as shown in Figure 2. Soon, the company, concerned with sustainability, investing in its continued ability to continue growing. There is a natural convergence between sustainability and implementation of corporate governance practices. From an economic standpoint, we can say that there is no sustainability without profitability [24].
Convergence between sustainability and implementation of corporate governance practices.
Intangible liabilities (mentioned in the above Figure 2) mean the requirement whose information about its existence remains hidden from the user of the financial statements and, in some cases, even from its managers [25].
Because of all that has been exposed so far in this chapter, considering the responsibility of company administrators in the management of risks it is especially important do carry out a due diligence procedure, on which we come to deal with in the next topic.
It is usual in commercial practice, mainly in mergers & acquisitions, to carry out a procedure for collecting information and reviewing and analyzing documents, with the function of verifying the legal and economic situation of the companies involved in the business, called due diligence [26].
Due diligence, used in mergers and acquisitions processes, as one of the last stages of the transaction, from the accounting, tax, and legal point of view, aims primarily to identify contingencies that are capable of affecting the value of the assets involved in the business, as is outlined in Figure 3. It is not too much to remember that, in the legislation of several countries, there are several situations in which the buyer becomes responsible for the seller’s liabilities [27].
Verifying procedure company’s situation from several angles. Source prepared by the author.
From a tax perspective, the economic advantage of an M&A transaction depends on the potential tax risks and opportunities of the targeted transaction that are identified during the transaction stage, the costs that are incurred on account of conducting the due diligence itself, as well as the tax savings that may be realized when consuming the target transaction, minus the requisite restructuring costs that are incurred during the integration stage. The latter are determined by the extent of pre-acquisition and post-acquisition measures [28].
From the seller’s point of view, due diligence, prior to the signing of the closing of the transaction, may be used as a defense against future (any) claims by the buyer. Thus, it aims to ensure that the information has been audited by the buyer, serving to protect the seller from any claim of ignorance from the part of the buyer [29].
Due diligence is of the buyer’s priority interest, as it is verified, at this stage, whether the data provided in the information memorandum are compatible with the reality. Buyers seek to protect themselves from optimistic projections from sellers through earn out mechanisms and possible non-compliance of current and past data through due diligence. Due diligence grants the acquirer access to sensitive information about the object to be acquired, for the purpose of being able to conduct a comprehensive audit [30].
Due diligence is conducted by the buyer and accompanied by the seller. The latter should be diligent in the provision of information so that the earn out mechanisms are not applicable at a future date. It is therefore advisable to conduct the work in such a way as to ensure that the parties have extensive knowledge of what is being negotiated and the risks involved [31].
In that regard, due diligence has some important functions. Firstly, it serves to uncover risks of various natures and helps in the decision-making process in terms of shaping the agreement and finding a realistic price for the acquisition, because it allows for a better assessment of the target object. The slighting of asymmetries of information may be a direct effect of due diligence [32].
The opposition of interests between the parties involved ends up being reflected in the performance of due diligence work. Generally, the due diligence is interested in detailing the legal, accounting, tax, labor, social security, financial, etc. situation of the target company. On the other hand, the latter always has the interest to protect itself [33].
The wear and tear in the relationship can be minimized through the establishment of confidentiality agreements, agreed before the start of the due diligence work, as well as by the stipulation of rules for the flow of documents and information between the parties, to avoid delays and conflicts [34], as summarized in Figure 4.
The relationship between the parties involved.
Given the scope and diversity of aspects to be observed during due diligence for the purpose of conducting a work of this nature, it is necessary to hire a multidisciplinary team of professionals, usually composed of auditors, tax consultants and lawyers (specialized in the most diverse areas of law) [35], as show in Figure 5.
The role of accounting auditors, objectively speaking, is to verify how the operations of the investigated company are processed (through its accounting system, which gives rise to the financial statements), from the point of view of meeting the fundamental principles of accounting and accounting agreements. For this, they will perform, among others, the following steps: examination of corporate documentation, operational plans, product description, financial statements, contracts, accounts relating to suppliers and customers, physical inspection of facilities, etc., addressing of matters to be analyzed in more detail by tax consultants and legal advisors, as well as receipt of inputs from the latter, which may represent adjustments for the purposes of the pro forma balance sheet [36].
Speaking specifically of the due diligence work in the tax area, it can be said that the primary objective of tax consultants will be to identify - through the review of the tax procedures adopted by the company under review (compliance) - potential tax contingencies not yet identified by the company itself, since the contingencies already effectively identified will be analyzed and confirmed by the lawyers who will participate in the due diligence process [37].
The main role of legal advisors will be to discuss, analyze and confirm judicial issues and contingencies already effectively identified and known by the company investigated. They must comply, among others, with the following steps: verification of the nature, validity and adequacy of existing contracts, analysis and confirmation of active debts, lawsuits, infringement notices, installments, etc., verification and review of operating licenses, registration certificates, tax authority negative certificates, etc. [38].
Multidisciplinary team of specialists.
The multidisciplinary team will examine from the various angles of observation that their academic background and professional experience allow to evaluate, the following aspects of the target company, among others, as Figure 6 displays:
Areas of the target company to be examined.
Counsel for the buyer will invariably undertake a careful review of the organizational documents and general corporate records of the target company, including (among others): charter documents (certificate of incorporation, bylaws, etc.), good standing and (if applicable) tax authority certificates, list of subsidiaries and their respective charter documents, list of jurisdictions in which the company and its subsidiaries are qualified to do business, stockholder and voting agreements, minutes of stockholders’ meetings since inception, including written consents to action without a meeting and minutes of board of directors and any board committees since inception, including written consents to action without a meeting [39].
It refers to the examination of contracts signed by the company, which have their execution in progress, with emphasis on financial and operational contracts, with a view to identifying possible default clauses in the event of disposal of controlling interest or other clauses that may affect the business. Legal proceedings involving the discussion of contracts should also be analyzed, with a view to identifying and quantifying possible contingencies [40].
The buyer will be concerned with all the target company’s historical financial statements and related financial metrics, as well as the reasonableness of the target’s projections of its future performance. One of the most time-consuming (but critical) components of a due diligence inquiry is the review of all material contracts and commitments of the target company. The categories of contracts that are important to review and understand include the following: guaranties, loans, and credit agreements, customer and supplier contracts, agreements imposing any restriction on the right or ability of the company (or a buyer) to compete in any line of business or in any geographic region with any other person, equity finance agreements and non-competition agreements [41].
A review of all property owned by the target company or otherwise used in the business is an essential part of any due diligence investigation, with such review including deeds, leases of real property, deeds of trust and mortgages, title reports, other interests in real property, financing leases and sale and leaseback agreements, conditional sale agreements and operating leases [42].
This is the assessment of the documentary regularity of the main assets and the possible costs for the correction of irregularities found. Identification of the burden and encumbrances (mortgages, penhoras, servitudes, disposals, etc.) that fall on the properties. Supporting documents of the ownership of the main movable property should be analyzed to identify contingencies, burdens and encumbrances that may fall on them [43].
Environmental due diligence is the other common workstream in a typical due diligence approach and focus on exposure in this area, as well as potential changes in run rate costs post-acquisition [44]. The buyer will want to analyze any potential environmental issues the target company may face, the scope of which will depend on the nature of its business [45].
The situation of environmental permits required for the exercise of the activity of the target undertaking should be examined. It is also necessary to analyze the judicial and administrative proceedings, to identify possible responsibilities for the repair of damage caused by it to the environment, as well as the regularity of the practices adopted in the context of its operations [46].
It is necessary to verify the situation of the relations maintained by the company with its consumers and with the consumer protection agencies. The existing cases against the company, whether in the administrative or judicial sphere, should also be analyzed to establish contingencies and the effects arising from possible irregular practice [47].
Human resources due diligence typically includes a detailed review of the company’s relationships with its employees, such as union agreements, regular benefits, executive compensation, and post-employment obligations. In addition to flushing out exposures, it can help identify cost structure changes that can occur if the target’s employees join the buyer’s benefit plans post-acquisition [48].
It refers to the evaluation of administrative and judicial processes, their routines adopted to identify possible contingencies and possible problems that may arise from the changes arising due to the proposed operation [49].
Tax due diligence may or may not be critical, depending on the historical operations of the target company, but even for companies that have not incurred historical income tax liabilities, an understanding of any tax carryforwards and their potential benefit to the buyer may be important [50].
This is the analysis of administrative and judicial processes, their tax and social security routines, to verify any problems, and those that may arise from the changes made with the implementation of the business [51].
Thus, in addition to the legal aspects, financial, strategic, technical, operational issues are analyzed, among others, so that, at the end of the entire analysis, a report is prepared that reflects the combination of the results found in all these different matters [52].
After the completion of the exams by the multidisciplinary team engaged in the due diligence work, it is necessary to propose the appropriate adjustments in order to arrive a pro forma balance sheet, which will serve as the basis for financial projections (which will feed the business plan), the negotiation of the acquisition price, as well as the establishment of guarantees and escrow-account (in the case of acquisition), or for the determination of the exchange of shares (in the case of merger). A pro forma balance sheet is a financial document that discloses a business’s assets, liabilities, and equity at a specific point in time. This financial statement is not prepared in accordance with Generally Accepted Accounting Standards (GAAP). It is considered more of a balance sheet projection [53].
Due diligence work usually results in the preparation of a report, the form of which may vary depending on the interests of its recipient. Should the report describe the contingencies found, including, where possible, an estimate of theirs.
A due diligence report is the final report of the review conducted by the company in which the summary of the research done by the company is included [54].
Among the main objectives of due diligence are the identification of the main characteristics of the company; identification of possible obstacles to the conduct of the business and the quantification of existing contingencies; risk assessment; assistance in setting the price of the business; and assistance in the negotiation of contractual clauses [55].
Due diligence report is one of the most important records of conducting due diligence as it will be the final report that you will send to members of the executive team who will evaluate it. Without proper due diligence reporting, all the effort that you have put in conducting the due diligence will go astray [56].
It is necessary to highlight the agreed upon procedures scope used in the evaluation of the analyzed information, since the content of the report involves the evaluation of possible future effects of the situations, in fact, found, which rarely allows absolutely accurate estimates [57].
The agreed upon procedures scope differs from that of an annual audit [58]. A due diligence inspection must be quite separate from the annual audit because it is less profound [59].
Agreed upon procedures engagement is a type of engagement which auditor performs certain procedures that are agreed upon in advance. In this engagement, the auditor and specified parties agree that the auditor will perform specific procedures and report the findings. Likewise, there are usually three parties involved in the engagement, including the auditor, the client, and another third party. Unlike an audit, auditors do not give an opinion on subject matters in the agreed upon procedures. Auditors only report of findings based on the agreed procedures performed on the subject matter. Hence, the clients need to make their own conclusion on the subject matter [60].
Often, the interested party ends up assuming the risks of a limitation of scope due to its budget constraints or even the obligation to comply with time limits – an important fact, because due diligence is a time-consuming procedure, although it must be subject to the imposition of relatively short deadlines. Due diligence is also expensive for the party that must bear its costs, which increase in proportion to the size of the business and the number of problems found in it [61].
The report shall indicate what guarantees would be required in the final contract to be signed between the parties. Thus, contingencies that are not quantifiable can be subject to specific guarantees, with a view to specifying value references to them, to be subject to subsequent adjustments, if they prove to be inaccurate. Those quantifiable can be directly deducted from the price, or in the event of uncertain occurrence, may be the subject of escrow accounts – a kind of deposit account, administered by a third party, whose values are released in the circumstances that the parties agreed to [62].
Where the purchaser determines that the seller is unlikely to have the resources to meet potential liability claims in connection with the transaction, the purchaser may seek the ability to hold-back (or escrow) a portion of the purchase price until the indemnity period (or as is more likely the case, a portion of the indemnity period) has expired [63].
Escrows are another common feature of transaction document, both the amount and duration of which can be increased as necessary to provide protection. Sometimes potential exposures can be so significant or clear as to the outcome if the target is audited that escrows will not provide a sufficient remedy. In these circumstances, alternate transaction structures, purchase price reductions, installment sales, and earn outs can all provide effective protection to a buyer.
The earn out clauses are defined by the parties and are detailed in the final contract. The payment method is detailed, and the use of escrow account can be established to ensure that if the earn out mechanisms are triggered, the buyer will obtain the adjustment in the amount to be paid [64].
Alternatively, when none of these remedies are sufficient, desirable, or obtainable (due to seller objections), buyers can consider purchasing tax risk insurance [65].
Thus, we can summarize the due diligence process through the flow shown in Figure 7 above.
Due diligence process flow.
In today’s corporate environment, acquisition transactions often occur on an aggressive time schedule or not at all. In addition, tax practitioners are often not consulted with respect to the tax sensitive aspects of the transaction until the final stages of the transaction, i.e., at the closing. For these reasons, familiarity with the basic tax framework for analyzing acquisition documents is essential [66].
Tax due diligence has its own importance, for two reasons. Firstly, tax risks often present significant hindrances for transactions [67]. Uncovering tax risks must be of special interest to the management of the corporation. Secondly, contrary to other fields of due diligence, tax law is subject to frequent, dynamical changes and puts rather complex demands on the inspection. It may not only have to deal with significantly different past, current and future tax regimes, but, in the case of international concern structures, it also must take the tax requirements of other countries into account. Therefore, efficient inspecting and auditing is of paramount importance in the tax arena.
Tax is one of the most important components that determine the overall profitability of a company. It is so important that it has its own place in the company’s financial report in the name of items such as net profit before tax, net profit after tax, deferred tax, etc. Therefore, it goes without saying that the tax aspect cannot be overlooked in the due diligence during mergers and acquisitions [68].
Specifically, regarding the aspects to be observed in a due diligence work in the tax area, to be conducted by tax consultants, we could highlight the following.
This is the due diligence of a research work, whereby the procedures and strategies of the tax area of the company under examination are evaluated, to verify whether the assets and tax liabilities accounted for are properly measured or if they are undervalued or overvalued [69].
It seeks due diligence, also, to identify and measure unaccounted liabilities (hidden liabilities). Although it is not the main object of the work, attention should be paid to the possibility of identifying possible unaccounted or recognized tax assets that may be relevant to the negotiation process [70].
Due diligence should report all tax procedures and strategies adopted by the company under investigation that may result in contingencies, but which, for various reasons (usually, lack of information and data), could not be quantified [71].
In view of the foregoing, it can be noted that the accounting, tax and legal due diligence consists of a work of investigation and analysis of the procedures, practices and strategies of the company under examination in several areas, carried out within the scope and materiality agreed upon procedures, in order to determine whether the assets and liabilities were properly recognized, the degree of realization of these assets, the degree of risk of these liabilities, as well as identifying the existence of other unrecognized liabilities or unidentified assets, thus providing the company that is demanding due diligence, with the elements necessary for a correct pricing, negotiation and overall assessment of the merger or acquisition operation [72].
The tax review essentially begins with the following question: “Has the seller paid all its tax liabilities on a current basis, and has a reasonable reserve been accrued for known and anticipated adjustments likely to arise in current and future audits by various taxing authorities?” Although the procedures used to examine these questions will vary depending on the size of the deal and the complexity of the target’s particular tax situation, these inquiries will generally entail a review and analysis of tax returns for all open years with special emphasis on the reconciliation between financial statement and taxable income and analysis of book and tax basis balance sheets, together with a review of the most recent revenue agent’s reports made by relevant taxing authorities [73].
Once completed, these results are then compared to reserves for taxes, or the so-called “cushion”, to determine whether the seller has adequately provided for any tax exposures. When representing financial buyers, another analysis that will often need to be done is a determination of when contingent tax liabilities may become due and payable. This obviously can tie into determining whether the buyer’s cash flow projections with respect to the target are correct [74].
Succession to the seller’s tax attributes is also an important area to review. Many companies today have net operating loss carryforwards and unutilized investment tax, foreign tax, and other credits. Depending on the type of acquisition structure, these tax attributes can represent significant cash savings to the buyer after the acquisition [75].
In view of all the exposed in this chapter, it remains clear the importance of the tax due diligence of the target company, as a way to minimize risks in the decision-making process of the managers of the purchasing company that may compromise the success of the merger and acquisition operation, as well as subjecting them to administrative and judicial processes, for non-compliance with their fiduciary duties of diligence and loyalty in relation to the company of which they are executives.
Additionally, the study’s results suggest that companies—in compliance with the guidelines and limits set by the board—choose the appropriate and specific techniques of risk management, especially those related to minimization, immunization, and transferring these risks. The recommendations derive from the need to identify and manage tax risks, from the point of view of good corporate governance practices.
This study may serve as a reference to companies in general, when studying, developing, and implementing recommendations for the identification and minimization of tax risks, as well as in the development of a work program that allows them to conduct due diligence work in target companies.
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It updates the reader with the scientific progress of the current use of graphene as sensors and biosensors. There is still much room for the scientific research and application development of graphene-based theory, materials, and devices. Despite the vast amount of research already conducted on graphene for various applications, the field is still growing and many questions remain to be answered.",book:{id:"4624",slug:"biosensors-micro-and-nanoscale-applications",title:"Biosensors",fullTitle:"Biosensors - Micro and Nanoscale Applications"},signatures:"Nada F. Atta, Ahmed Galal and Ekram H. El-Ads",authors:[{id:"30072",title:"Prof.",name:"Nada",middleName:null,surname:"F. Atta",slug:"nada-f.-atta",fullName:"Nada F. 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Here, we present the general concept and the classification of biosensors, their advantages and drawbacks, the main strategies in electrochemical biosensor technology and the materials used in electrochemical sensors, such as electrodes and supporting substrates, materials for improved sensitivity and selectivity, materials for bioreceptor immobilization, and biological recognition elements. Various nanomaterials, such as carbon-based materials (carbon nanotubes, graphene, carbon nanoparticles), inorganic and organic nanoparticles (magnetic and metal nanoparticles, nanosized clays), conductive and insulating polymers (nanosized and nanostructured polymers, molecularly imprinted polymers), and hybrid materials, etc., have been successfully applied for the enhancement of the electroanalytical performance of biosensors and for the immobilization of biorecognition elements. Among these, due to their unique physiochemical features, carbon-based materials, such as carbon nanotubes and graphenes, have received special attention in recent years, and examples of surface functionalization using various types of nanoparticles are presented. The future trends in sensor research activities and areas of development that are expected to have an impact in biosensor performance, like immobilization techniques, nanotechnology, miniaturization and multisensor array determinations, are also examined.",book:{id:"4624",slug:"biosensors-micro-and-nanoscale-applications",title:"Biosensors",fullTitle:"Biosensors - Micro and Nanoscale Applications"},signatures:"Robert Săndulescu, Mihaela Tertiş, Cecilia Cristea and Ede Bodoki",authors:[{id:"28983",title:"Prof.",name:"Robert",middleName:"Valentin",surname:"Sandulescu",slug:"robert-sandulescu",fullName:"Robert Sandulescu"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"72990",title:"Nanoprecipitation: Applications for Entrapping Active Molecules of Interest in Pharmaceutics",slug:"nanoprecipitation-applications-for-entrapping-active-molecules-of-interest-in-pharmaceutics",totalDownloads:835,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"Nanoprecipitation technique, also named solvent injection, spontaneous emulsification, solvent displacement, solvent diffusion, interfacial deposition, mixing-induced nanoprecipitation, or flash nanoprecipitation, is recognized as a useful and versatile strategy for trapping active molecules on the submicron and nanoscale levels. Thus, these particles could be intended among others, for developing innovative pharmaceutical products bearing advantages as controlled drug release, target therapeutic performance, or improved stability and organoleptic properties. On this basis, this chapter offers readers a comprehensive revision of the state of the art in research on carriers to be used for pharmaceutical applications and developed by the nanoprecipitation method. In this sense, the starting materials, the particle characteristics, and the in vitro and in vivo performances of the most representative of these carriers, i.e., polymer, lipid, and hybrid particles have been analyzed in a comparative way searching for a general view of the obtained behaviors.",book:{id:"10116",slug:"nano-and-microencapsulation-techniques-and-applications",title:"Nano- and Microencapsulation",fullTitle:"Nano- and Microencapsulation - Techniques and Applications"},signatures:"Oscar Iván Martínez-Muñoz, Luis Fernando Ospina-Giraldo and Claudia Elizabeth Mora-Huertas",authors:[{id:"320030",title:"Prof.",name:"Claudia Elizabeth",middleName:null,surname:"Mora Huertas",slug:"claudia-elizabeth-mora-huertas",fullName:"Claudia Elizabeth Mora Huertas"},{id:"326041",title:"Prof.",name:"Luis Fernando",middleName:null,surname:"Ospina Giraldo",slug:"luis-fernando-ospina-giraldo",fullName:"Luis Fernando Ospina Giraldo"},{id:"326042",title:"Mr.",name:"Oscar Iván",middleName:null,surname:"Martínez Muñoz",slug:"oscar-ivan-martinez-munoz",fullName:"Oscar Iván Martínez Muñoz"}]},{id:"71786",title:"Microemulsion Formulation of Botanical Oils as an Efficient Tool to Provide Sustainable Agricultural Pest Management",slug:"microemulsion-formulation-of-botanical-oils-as-an-efficient-tool-to-provide-sustainable-agricultural",totalDownloads:853,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"Microemulsion formulation is among the most suitable carrier for the delivery of bioactive and, therefore, has excellent potential for industrial applications. The microemulsion system is thermodynamically and kinetically stable. Due to the smaller droplet size of the microemulsion system, the bioactive covers a larger surface of the target pest. Botanicals and essential oils, in particular, are green options to control various soil and seed-borne pathogens. Each oil contains several bioactive constituents that practically avoid microbe-resistance against it. Nevertheless, to improve the handling and shelf-life of botanicals, microemulsion formulation is the best option available. The current chapter provides the insight of a microemulsion system and explores the possibility of botanical oil-based biopesticides for a sustainable agro-ecosystem. We believe that botanical oil microemulsion could be a better alternative to synthetic pesticides and opens a new corridor for the promotion of the greener way of plant protection in India and across the globe.",book:{id:"10116",slug:"nano-and-microencapsulation-techniques-and-applications",title:"Nano- and Microencapsulation",fullTitle:"Nano- and Microencapsulation - Techniques and Applications"},signatures:"Abhishek Sharma, Saurabh Dubey and Nusrat Iqbal",authors:[{id:"314853",title:"Dr.",name:"Abhishek",middleName:null,surname:"Sharma",slug:"abhishek-sharma",fullName:"Abhishek Sharma"},{id:"315502",title:"Dr.",name:"Saurabh",middleName:null,surname:"Dubey",slug:"saurabh-dubey",fullName:"Saurabh Dubey"},{id:"317856",title:"Ms.",name:"Nusrat",middleName:null,surname:"Iqbal",slug:"nusrat-iqbal",fullName:"Nusrat Iqbal"}]},{id:"48359",title:"Immunosensors",slug:"immunosensors",totalDownloads:3056,totalCrossrefCites:7,totalDimensionsCites:20,abstract:"Immunosensors are solid-state devices in which the immunochemical reaction is coupled to a transducer. They form one of the most important classes of affinity biosensors based on the specific recognition of antigens by antibodies to form a stable complex, in a similar way to immunoassay. Depending on the type of transducer there are four types of immunosensor: electrochemical, optical, microgravimetric and thermometric. The most commonly used bioelements for the development of electrochemical immunosensors are antibodies (Ab), followed by aptamers (Apt) and, in the last five years, microRNA (miRNA). In order to perform an early diagnosis, a method that is able to measure peptides and proteins directly in a sample, without any sample pre-treatment or any separation, is preferred. This direct detection can be performed with methods making use of the specific interaction of proteins with Ab, Apt and miRNA. The recent developments made in the immunosensor field, regarding the incorporation of nanomaterials for increased sensitivity, multiplexing or microfluidic-based devices, may have potential for promising use in industry and clinical analysis. Some examples of assays for several commercially available biomarkers will be presented. The main application fields, beside biomedical analysis, are drug abuse control, food analysis and environmental analysis.",book:{id:"4624",slug:"biosensors-micro-and-nanoscale-applications",title:"Biosensors",fullTitle:"Biosensors - Micro and Nanoscale Applications"},signatures:"Cecilia Cristea, Anca Florea, Mihaela Tertiș and Robert Săndulescu",authors:[{id:"28983",title:"Prof.",name:"Robert",middleName:"Valentin",surname:"Sandulescu",slug:"robert-sandulescu",fullName:"Robert Sandulescu"}]},{id:"48575",title:"Impedimetric Sensors for Bacteria Detection",slug:"impedimetric-sensors-for-bacteria-detection",totalDownloads:3645,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:20,abstract:"The application of electrochemical biosensors based on impedance detection has grown during the past years due to their high sensitivity and rapid response, making this technique extremely useful to detect biological interactions with biosensor platforms. This chapter is focused on the use of electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) for bacterial detection in two ways. On one hand, bacteria presence may be determined by the detection of metabolites produced by bacterial growth involving the media conductivity changes. On the other hand, faster and more selective bacterial detection may be achieved by the immobilization of bacteria on a sensor surface using biorecognition elements (antibodies, antimicrobial peptides, aptamers, etc.) and registering changes produced in the charge transfer resistance (faradic process) or interfacial impedance (nonfaradic process). Here we discuss different types of impedimetric biosensors for microbiological applications, making stress on their most important parameters, such as detection limits, detection times, selectivity, and sensitivity. The aim of the paper was to give a critical review of recent publications in the field and mark the future trends.",book:{id:"4624",slug:"biosensors-micro-and-nanoscale-applications",title:"Biosensors",fullTitle:"Biosensors - Micro and Nanoscale Applications"},signatures:"Sergi Brosel-Oliu, Naroa Uria, Natalia Abramova and Andrey Bratov",authors:[{id:"174122",title:"Dr.",name:"Andrey",middleName:null,surname:"Bratov",slug:"andrey-bratov",fullName:"Andrey Bratov"},{id:"175939",title:"MSc.",name:"Sergi",middleName:null,surname:"Brosel-Oliu",slug:"sergi-brosel-oliu",fullName:"Sergi Brosel-Oliu"},{id:"175940",title:"Dr.",name:"Naroa",middleName:null,surname:"Uria",slug:"naroa-uria",fullName:"Naroa Uria"},{id:"175941",title:"Dr.",name:"Natalia",middleName:null,surname:"Abramova",slug:"natalia-abramova",fullName:"Natalia Abramova"}]},{id:"58296",title:"Recent Advances in Bioimaging for Cancer Research",slug:"recent-advances-in-bioimaging-for-cancer-research",totalDownloads:1420,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:"Molecular imaging techniques as well as nanoparticle applicable to molecular imaging are being explored to improve the cancer detection accuracy, which help to manage efficiently at the early stage. Among the various imaging technologies, optical imaging is a highly sensitive detection technique that allows direct observation of specific molecular events, biological pathways, and disease processes in real time through imaging probes that emit light in a range of wavelengths. Recently, nanoparticles have provided significant progresses that can be simultaneously used for cancer diagnosis and therapy (cancer theranostics). Theranostics aims to provide “image-guided cancer therapy,” by integrating therapeutic and imaging agents in a single platform. In addition, molecular imaging techniques facilitate “image-guided surgery” enabling maximization of tumor excision and minimization of side effects. The optical signals generated by fluorescence nanoparticles offer the possibility to distinguish tumor sites and normal tissues during surgery by real-time guidance, thereby increasing the long-term patient survival. These techniques will considerably contribute to reducing cancer recurrence and developing more effective cures. In this chapter, we will introduce diverse research on nanomaterials-based optical imaging for effective cancer therapy.",book:{id:"6398",slug:"state-of-the-art-in-nano-bioimaging",title:"State of the Art in Nano-bioimaging",fullTitle:"State of the Art in Nano-bioimaging"},signatures:"Jae-Woo Lim, Seong Uk Son and Eun-Kyung Lim",authors:[{id:"217456",title:"Dr.",name:"Eun-Kyung",middleName:null,surname:"Lim",slug:"eun-kyung-lim",fullName:"Eun-Kyung Lim"},{id:"226257",title:"Mr.",name:"Jae-Woo",middleName:null,surname:"Lim",slug:"jae-woo-lim",fullName:"Jae-Woo Lim"},{id:"226259",title:"Mr.",name:"Seong Uk",middleName:null,surname:"Son",slug:"seong-uk-son",fullName:"Seong Uk Son"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"205",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:86,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:96,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:27,numberOfPublishedChapters:283,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:9,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:138,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:128,numberOfOpenTopics:0,numberOfUpcomingTopics:2,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:105,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:100,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:11,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:0,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:9,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",issn:"2633-1403",scope:"Artificial Intelligence (AI) is a rapidly developing multidisciplinary research area that aims to solve increasingly complex problems. In today's highly integrated world, AI promises to become a robust and powerful means for obtaining solutions to previously unsolvable problems. This Series is intended for researchers and students alike interested in this fascinating field and its many applications.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/14.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"May 14th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:8,editor:{id:"218714",title:"Prof.",name:"Andries",middleName:null,surname:"Engelbrecht",slug:"andries-engelbrecht",fullName:"Andries Engelbrecht",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRNR8QAO/Profile_Picture_1622640468300",biography:"Andries Engelbrecht received the Masters and PhD degrees in Computer Science from the University of Stellenbosch, South Africa, in 1994 and 1999 respectively. He is currently appointed as the Voigt Chair in Data Science in the Department of Industrial Engineering, with a joint appointment as Professor in the Computer Science Division, Stellenbosch University. Prior to his appointment at Stellenbosch University, he has been at the University of Pretoria, Department of Computer Science (1998-2018), where he was appointed as South Africa Research Chair in Artifical Intelligence (2007-2018), the head of the Department of Computer Science (2008-2017), and Director of the Institute for Big Data and Data Science (2017-2018). In addition to a number of research articles, he has written two books, Computational Intelligence: An Introduction and Fundamentals of Computational Swarm Intelligence.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Stellenbosch University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"South Africa"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:6,paginationItems:[{id:"22",title:"Applied Intelligence",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/22.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"27170",title:"Prof.",name:"Carlos",middleName:"M.",surname:"Travieso-Gonzalez",slug:"carlos-travieso-gonzalez",fullName:"Carlos Travieso-Gonzalez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/27170/images/system/27170.jpeg",biography:"Carlos M. Travieso-González received his MSc degree in Telecommunication Engineering at Polytechnic University of Catalonia (UPC), Spain in 1997, and his Ph.D. degree in 2002 at the University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria (ULPGC-Spain). He is a full professor of signal processing and pattern recognition and is head of the Signals and Communications Department at ULPGC, teaching from 2001 on subjects on signal processing and learning theory. His research lines are biometrics, biomedical signals and images, data mining, classification system, signal and image processing, machine learning, and environmental intelligence. He has researched in 52 international and Spanish research projects, some of them as head researcher. He is co-author of 4 books, co-editor of 27 proceedings books, guest editor for 8 JCR-ISI international journals, and up to 24 book chapters. He has over 450 papers published in international journals and conferences (81 of them indexed on JCR – ISI - Web of Science). He has published seven patents in the Spanish Patent and Trademark Office. He has been a supervisor on 8 Ph.D. theses (11 more are under supervision), and 130 master theses. He is the founder of The IEEE IWOBI conference series and the president of its Steering Committee, as well as the founder of both the InnoEducaTIC and APPIS conference series. He is an evaluator of project proposals for the European Union (H2020), Medical Research Council (MRC, UK), Spanish Government (ANECA, Spain), Research National Agency (ANR, France), DAAD (Germany), Argentinian Government, and the Colombian Institutions. He has been a reviewer in different indexed international journals (<70) and conferences (<250) since 2001. He has been a member of the IASTED Technical Committee on Image Processing from 2007 and a member of the IASTED Technical Committee on Artificial Intelligence and Expert Systems from 2011. \n\nHe has held the general chair position for the following: ACM-APPIS (2020, 2021), IEEE-IWOBI (2019, 2020 and 2020), A PPIS (2018, 2019), IEEE-IWOBI (2014, 2015, 2017, 2018), InnoEducaTIC (2014, 2017), IEEE-INES (2013), NoLISP (2011), JRBP (2012), and IEEE-ICCST (2005)\n\nHe is an associate editor of the Computational Intelligence and Neuroscience Journal (Hindawi – Q2 JCR-ISI). He was vice dean from 2004 to 2010 in the Higher Technical School of Telecommunication Engineers at ULPGC and the vice dean of Graduate and Postgraduate Studies from March 2013 to November 2017. He won the “Catedra Telefonica” Awards in Modality of Knowledge Transfer, 2017, 2018, and 2019 editions, and awards in Modality of COVID Research in 2020.\n\nPublic References:\nResearcher ID http://www.researcherid.com/rid/N-5967-2014\nORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4621-2768 \nScopus Author ID https://www.scopus.com/authid/detail.uri?authorId=6602376272\nScholar Google https://scholar.google.es/citations?user=G1ks9nIAAAAJ&hl=en \nResearchGate https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Carlos_Travieso",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"23",title:"Computational Neuroscience",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/23.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"14004",title:"Dr.",name:"Magnus",middleName:null,surname:"Johnsson",slug:"magnus-johnsson",fullName:"Magnus Johnsson",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/14004/images/system/14004.png",biography:"Dr Magnus Johnsson is a cross-disciplinary scientist, lecturer, scientific editor and AI/machine learning consultant from Sweden. \n\nHe is currently at Malmö University in Sweden, but also held positions at Lund University in Sweden and at Moscow Engineering Physics Institute. \nHe holds editorial positions at several international scientific journals and has served as a scientific editor for books and special journal issues. \nHis research interests are wide and include, but are not limited to, autonomous systems, computer modeling, artificial neural networks, artificial intelligence, cognitive neuroscience, cognitive robotics, cognitive architectures, cognitive aids and the philosophy of mind. \n\nDr. Johnsson has experience from working in the industry and he has a keen interest in the application of neural networks and artificial intelligence to fields like industry, finance, and medicine. \n\nWeb page: www.magnusjohnsson.se",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Malmö University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Sweden"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"24",title:"Computer Vision",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/24.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"294154",title:"Prof.",name:"George",middleName:null,surname:"Papakostas",slug:"george-papakostas",fullName:"George Papakostas",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002hYaGbQAK/Profile_Picture_1624519712088",biography:"George A. Papakostas has received a diploma in Electrical and Computer Engineering in 1999 and the M.Sc. and Ph.D. degrees in Electrical and Computer Engineering in 2002 and 2007, respectively, from the Democritus University of Thrace (DUTH), Greece. Dr. Papakostas serves as a Tenured Full Professor at the Department of Computer Science, International Hellenic University, Greece. Dr. Papakostas has 10 years of experience in large-scale systems design as a senior software engineer and technical manager, and 20 years of research experience in the field of Artificial Intelligence. Currently, he is the Head of the “Visual Computing” division of HUman-MAchines INteraction Laboratory (HUMAIN-Lab) and the Director of the MPhil program “Advanced Technologies in Informatics and Computers” hosted by the Department of Computer Science, International Hellenic University. He has (co)authored more than 150 publications in indexed journals, international conferences and book chapters, 1 book (in Greek), 3 edited books, and 5 journal special issues. His publications have more than 2100 citations with h-index 27 (GoogleScholar). His research interests include computer/machine vision, machine learning, pattern recognition, computational intelligence. \nDr. Papakostas served as a reviewer in numerous journals, as a program\ncommittee member in international conferences and he is a member of the IAENG, MIR Labs, EUCogIII, INSTICC and the Technical Chamber of Greece (TEE).",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"International Hellenic University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"25",title:"Evolutionary Computation",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/25.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"136112",title:"Dr.",name:"Sebastian",middleName:null,surname:"Ventura Soto",slug:"sebastian-ventura-soto",fullName:"Sebastian Ventura Soto",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/136112/images/system/136112.png",biography:"Sebastian Ventura is a Spanish researcher, a full professor with the Department of Computer Science and Numerical Analysis, University of Córdoba. Dr Ventura also holds the positions of Affiliated Professor at Virginia Commonwealth University (Richmond, USA) and Distinguished Adjunct Professor at King Abdulaziz University (Jeddah, Saudi Arabia). Additionally, he is deputy director of the Andalusian Research Institute in Data Science and Computational Intelligence (DaSCI) and heads the Knowledge Discovery and Intelligent Systems Research Laboratory. He has published more than ten books and over 300 articles in journals and scientific conferences. Currently, his work has received over 18,000 citations according to Google Scholar, including more than 2200 citations in 2020. In the last five years, he has published more than 60 papers in international journals indexed in the JCR (around 70% of them belonging to first quartile journals) and he has edited some Springer books “Supervised Descriptive Pattern Mining” (2018), “Multiple Instance Learning - Foundations and Algorithms” (2016), and “Pattern Mining with Evolutionary Algorithms” (2016). He has also been involved in more than 20 research projects supported by the Spanish and Andalusian governments and the European Union. He currently belongs to the editorial board of PeerJ Computer Science, Information Fusion and Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence journals, being also associate editor of Applied Computational Intelligence and Soft Computing and IEEE Transactions on Cybernetics. Finally, he is editor-in-chief of Progress in Artificial Intelligence. He is a Senior Member of the IEEE Computer, the IEEE Computational Intelligence, and the IEEE Systems, Man, and Cybernetics Societies, and the Association of Computing Machinery (ACM). Finally, his main research interests include data science, computational intelligence, and their applications.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Córdoba",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"26",title:"Machine Learning and Data Mining",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/26.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"24555",title:"Dr.",name:"Marco Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Aceves Fernandez",slug:"marco-antonio-aceves-fernandez",fullName:"Marco Antonio Aceves Fernandez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/24555/images/system/24555.jpg",biography:"Dr. Marco Antonio Aceves Fernandez obtained his B.Sc. (Eng.) in Telematics from the Universidad de Colima, Mexico. He obtained both his M.Sc. and Ph.D. from the University of Liverpool, England, in the field of Intelligent Systems. He is a full professor at the Universidad Autonoma de Queretaro, Mexico, and a member of the National System of Researchers (SNI) since 2009. Dr. Aceves Fernandez has published more than 80 research papers as well as a number of book chapters and congress papers. He has contributed in more than 20 funded research projects, both academic and industrial, in the area of artificial intelligence, ranging from environmental, biomedical, automotive, aviation, consumer, and robotics to other applications. He is also a honorary president at the National Association of Embedded Systems (AMESE), a senior member of the IEEE, and a board member of many institutions. His research interests include intelligent and embedded systems.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Queretaro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"27",title:"Multi-Agent Systems",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/27.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"148497",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:"Emin",surname:"Aydin",slug:"mehmet-aydin",fullName:"Mehmet Aydin",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/148497/images/system/148497.jpg",biography:"Dr. Mehmet Emin Aydin is a Senior Lecturer with the Department of Computer Science and Creative Technology, the University of the West of England, Bristol, UK. His research interests include swarm intelligence, parallel and distributed metaheuristics, machine learning, intelligent agents and multi-agent systems, resource planning, scheduling and optimization, combinatorial optimization. Dr. Aydin is currently a Fellow of Higher Education Academy, UK, a member of EPSRC College, a senior member of IEEE and a senior member of ACM. In addition to being a member of advisory committees of many international conferences, he is an Editorial Board Member of various peer-reviewed international journals. He has served as guest editor for a number of special issues of peer-reviewed international journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of the West of England",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null}]},overviewPageOFChapters:{paginationCount:26,paginationItems:[{id:"81791",title:"Self-Supervised Contrastive Representation Learning in Computer Vision",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104785",signatures:"Yalin Bastanlar and Semih Orhan",slug:"self-supervised-contrastive-representation-learning-in-computer-vision",totalDownloads:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Pattern Recognition - New Insights",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11442.jpg",subseries:{id:"26",title:"Machine Learning and Data Mining"}}},{id:"79345",title:"Application of Jump Diffusion Models in Insurance Claim Estimation",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99853",signatures:"Leonard Mushunje, Chiedza Elvina Mashiri, Edina Chandiwana and Maxwell Mashasha",slug:"application-of-jump-diffusion-models-in-insurance-claim-estimation-1",totalDownloads:2,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Data Clustering",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10820.jpg",subseries:{id:"26",title:"Machine Learning and Data Mining"}}},{id:"81557",title:"Object Tracking Using Adapted Optical Flow",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102863",signatures:"Ronaldo Ferreira, Joaquim José de Castro Ferreira and António José Ribeiro Neves",slug:"object-tracking-using-adapted-optical-flow",totalDownloads:10,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Information Extraction and Object Tracking in Digital Video",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10652.jpg",subseries:{id:"24",title:"Computer Vision"}}},{id:"81558",title:"Thresholding Image Techniques for Plant Segmentation",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104587",signatures:"Miguel Ángel Castillo-Martínez, Francisco Javier Gallegos-Funes, Blanca E. 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The motor of the society is the industry and the research of this topic has to be empowered in order to increase and improve the quality of our lives.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/22.jpg",keywords:"Machine Learning, Intelligence Algorithms, Data Science, Artificial Intelligence, Applications on Applied Intelligence"},{id:"23",title:"Computational Neuroscience",scope:"Computational neuroscience focuses on biologically realistic abstractions and models validated and solved through computational simulations to understand principles for the development, structure, physiology, and ability of the nervous system. This topic is dedicated to biologically plausible descriptions and computational models - at various abstraction levels - of neurons and neural systems. This includes, but is not limited to: single-neuron modeling, sensory processing, motor control, memory, and synaptic plasticity, attention, identification, categorization, discrimination, learning, development, axonal patterning, guidance, neural architecture, behaviors, and dynamics of networks, cognition and the neuroscientific basis of consciousness. Particularly interesting are models of various types of more compound functions and abilities, various and more general fundamental principles (e.g., regarding architecture, organization, learning, development, etc.) found at various spatial and temporal levels.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/23.jpg",keywords:"Single-Neuron Modeling, Sensory Processing, Motor Control, Memory and Synaptic Pasticity, Attention, Identification, Categorization, Discrimination, Learning, Development, Axonal Patterning and Guidance, Neural Architecture, Behaviours and Dynamics of Networks, Cognition and the Neuroscientific Basis of Consciousness"},{id:"24",title:"Computer Vision",scope:"The scope of this topic is to disseminate the recent advances in the rapidly growing field of computer vision from both the theoretical and practical points of view. Novel computational algorithms for image analysis, scene understanding, biometrics, deep learning and their software or hardware implementations for natural and medical images, robotics, VR/AR, applications are some research directions relevant to this topic.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/24.jpg",keywords:"Image Analysis, Scene Understanding, Biometrics, Deep Learning, Software Implementation, Hardware Implementation, Natural Images, Medical Images, Robotics, VR/AR"},{id:"25",title:"Evolutionary Computation",scope:"Evolutionary computing is a paradigm that has grown dramatically in recent years. This group of bio-inspired metaheuristics solves multiple optimization problems by applying the metaphor of natural selection. It so far has solved problems such as resource allocation, routing, schedule planning, and engineering design. Moreover, in the field of machine learning, evolutionary computation has carved out a significant niche both in the generation of learning models and in the automatic design and optimization of hyperparameters in deep learning models. This collection aims to include quality volumes on various topics related to evolutionary algorithms and, alternatively, other metaheuristics of interest inspired by nature. For example, some of the issues of interest could be the following: Advances in evolutionary computation (Genetic algorithms, Genetic programming, Bio-inspired metaheuristics, Hybrid metaheuristics, Parallel ECs); Applications of evolutionary algorithms (Machine learning and Data Mining with EAs, Search-Based Software Engineering, Scheduling, and Planning Applications, Smart Transport Applications, Applications to Games, Image Analysis, Signal Processing and Pattern Recognition, Applications to Sustainability).",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/25.jpg",keywords:"Genetic Algorithms, Genetic Programming, Evolutionary Programming, Evolution Strategies, Hybrid Algorithms, Bioinspired Metaheuristics, Ant Colony Optimization, Evolutionary Learning, Hyperparameter Optimization"},{id:"26",title:"Machine Learning and Data Mining",scope:"The scope of machine learning and data mining is immense and is growing every day. It has become a massive part of our daily lives, making predictions based on experience, making this a fascinating area that solves problems that otherwise would not be possible or easy to solve. This topic aims to encompass algorithms that learn from experience (supervised and unsupervised), improve their performance over time and enable machines to make data-driven decisions. It is not limited to any particular applications, but contributions are encouraged from all disciplines.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/26.jpg",keywords:"Intelligent Systems, Machine Learning, Data Science, Data Mining, Artificial Intelligence"},{id:"27",title:"Multi-Agent Systems",scope:"Multi-agent systems are recognised as a state of the art field in Artificial Intelligence studies, which is popular due to the usefulness in facilitation capabilities to handle real-world problem-solving in a distributed fashion. The area covers many techniques that offer solutions to emerging problems in robotics and enterprise-level software systems. Collaborative intelligence is highly and effectively achieved with multi-agent systems. Areas of application include swarms of robots, flocks of UAVs, collaborative software management. Given the level of technological enhancements, the popularity of machine learning in use has opened a new chapter in multi-agent studies alongside the practical challenges and long-lasting collaboration issues in the field. It has increased the urgency and the need for further studies in this field. We welcome chapters presenting research on the many applications of multi-agent studies including, but not limited to, the following key areas: machine learning for multi-agent systems; modeling swarms robots and flocks of UAVs with multi-agent systems; decision science and multi-agent systems; software engineering for and with multi-agent systems; tools and technologies of multi-agent systems.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/27.jpg",keywords:"Collaborative Intelligence, Learning, Distributed Control System, Swarm Robotics, Decision Science, Software Engineering"}],annualVolumeBook:{},thematicCollection:[],selectedSeries:{title:"Artificial Intelligence",id:"14"},selectedSubseries:null},seriesLanding:{item:{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",issn:"2631-5343",scope:"Biomedical Engineering is one of the fastest-growing interdisciplinary branches of science and industry. The combination of electronics and computer science with biology and medicine has improved patient diagnosis, reduced rehabilitation time, and helped to facilitate a better quality of life. Nowadays, all medical imaging devices, medical instruments, or new laboratory techniques result from the cooperation of specialists in various fields. The series of Biomedical Engineering books covers such areas of knowledge as chemistry, physics, electronics, medicine, and biology. This series is intended for doctors, engineers, and scientists involved in biomedical engineering or those wanting to start working in this field.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/7.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"May 7th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfPublishedChapters:96,numberOfPublishedBooks:12,editor:{id:"50150",title:"Prof.",name:"Robert",middleName:null,surname:"Koprowski",fullName:"Robert Koprowski",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYTYNQA4/Profile_Picture_1630478535317",biography:"Robert Koprowski, MD (1997), PhD (2003), Habilitation (2015), is an employee of the University of Silesia, Poland, Institute of Computer Science, Department of Biomedical Computer Systems. For 20 years, he has studied the analysis and processing of biomedical images, emphasizing the full automation of measurement for a large inter-individual variability of patients. Dr. Koprowski has authored more than a hundred research papers with dozens in impact factor (IF) journals and has authored or co-authored six books. Additionally, he is the author of several national and international patents in the field of biomedical devices and imaging. Since 2011, he has been a reviewer of grants and projects (including EU projects) in biomedical engineering.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Silesia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},subseries:[{id:"7",title:"Bioinformatics and Medical Informatics",keywords:"Biomedical Data, Drug Discovery, Clinical Diagnostics, Decoding Human Genome, AI in Personalized Medicine, Disease-prevention Strategies, Big Data Analysis in Medicine",scope:"Bioinformatics aims to help understand the functioning of the mechanisms of living organisms through the construction and use of quantitative tools. The applications of this research cover many related fields, such as biotechnology and medicine, where, for example, Bioinformatics contributes to faster drug design, DNA analysis in forensics, and DNA sequence analysis in the field of personalized medicine. Personalized medicine is a type of medical care in which treatment is customized individually for each patient. Personalized medicine enables more effective therapy, reduces the costs of therapy and clinical trials, and also minimizes the risk of side effects. Nevertheless, advances in personalized medicine would not have been possible without bioinformatics, which can analyze the human genome and other vast amounts of biomedical data, especially in genetics. The rapid growth of information technology enabled the development of new tools to decode human genomes, large-scale studies of genetic variations and medical informatics. The considerable development of technology, including the computing power of computers, is also conducive to the development of bioinformatics, including personalized medicine. In an era of rapidly growing data volumes and ever lower costs of generating, storing and computing data, personalized medicine holds great promises. Modern computational methods used as bioinformatics tools can integrate multi-scale, multi-modal and longitudinal patient data to create even more effective and safer therapy and disease prevention methods. Main aspects of the topic are: Applying bioinformatics in drug discovery and development; Bioinformatics in clinical diagnostics (genetic variants that act as markers for a condition or a disease); Blockchain and Artificial Intelligence/Machine Learning in personalized medicine; Customize disease-prevention strategies in personalized medicine; Big data analysis in personalized medicine; Translating stratification algorithms into clinical practice of personalized medicine.",annualVolume:11403,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/7.jpg",editor:{id:"351533",title:"Dr.",name:"Slawomir",middleName:null,surname:"Wilczynski",fullName:"Slawomir Wilczynski",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000035U1loQAC/Profile_Picture_1630074514792",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Medical University of Silesia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"5886",title:"Dr.",name:"Alexandros",middleName:"T.",surname:"Tzallas",fullName:"Alexandros Tzallas",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/5886/images/system/5886.png",institutionString:"University of Ioannina, Greece & Imperial College London",institution:{name:"University of Ioannina",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},{id:"257388",title:"Distinguished Prof.",name:"Lulu",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",fullName:"Lulu Wang",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRX6kQAG/Profile_Picture_1630329584194",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Shenzhen Technology University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"225387",title:"Prof.",name:"Reda",middleName:"R.",surname:"Gharieb",fullName:"Reda Gharieb",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/225387/images/system/225387.jpg",institutionString:"Assiut University",institution:{name:"Assiut University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}}]},{id:"8",title:"Bioinspired Technology and Biomechanics",keywords:"Bioinspired Systems, Biomechanics, Assistive Technology, Rehabilitation",scope:'Bioinspired technologies take advantage of understanding the actual biological system to provide solutions to problems in several areas. Recently, bioinspired systems have been successfully employing biomechanics to develop and improve assistive technology and rehabilitation devices. The research topic "Bioinspired Technology and Biomechanics" welcomes studies reporting recent advances in bioinspired technologies that contribute to individuals\' health, inclusion, and rehabilitation. Possible contributions can address (but are not limited to) the following research topics: Bioinspired design and control of exoskeletons, orthoses, and prostheses; Experimental evaluation of the effect of assistive devices (e.g., influence on gait, balance, and neuromuscular system); Bioinspired technologies for rehabilitation, including clinical studies reporting evaluations; Application of neuromuscular and biomechanical models to the development of bioinspired technology.',annualVolume:11404,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/8.jpg",editor:{id:"144937",title:"Prof.",name:"Adriano",middleName:"De Oliveira",surname:"Andrade",fullName:"Adriano Andrade",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRC8QQAW/Profile_Picture_1625219101815",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Federal University of Uberlândia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"49517",title:"Prof.",name:"Hitoshi",middleName:null,surname:"Tsunashima",fullName:"Hitoshi Tsunashima",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYTP4QAO/Profile_Picture_1625819726528",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nihon University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"425354",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcus",middleName:"Fraga",surname:"Vieira",fullName:"Marcus Vieira",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003BJSgIQAX/Profile_Picture_1627904687309",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Goiás",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"196746",title:"Dr.",name:"Ramana",middleName:null,surname:"Vinjamuri",fullName:"Ramana Vinjamuri",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/196746/images/system/196746.jpeg",institutionString:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institution:{name:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]},{id:"9",title:"Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering",keywords:"Biotechnology, Biosensors, Biomaterials, Tissue Engineering",scope:"The Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering topic within the Biomedical Engineering Series aims to rapidly publish contributions on all aspects of biotechnology, biosensors, biomaterial and tissue engineering. We encourage the submission of manuscripts that provide novel and mechanistic insights that report significant advances in the fields. Topics can include but are not limited to: Biotechnology such as biotechnological products and process engineering; Biotechnologically relevant enzymes and proteins; Bioenergy and biofuels; Applied genetics and molecular biotechnology; Genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics; Applied microbial and cell physiology; Environmental biotechnology; Methods and protocols. Moreover, topics in biosensor technology, like sensors that incorporate enzymes, antibodies, nucleic acids, whole cells, tissues and organelles, and other biological or biologically inspired components will be considered, and topics exploring transducers, including those based on electrochemical and optical piezoelectric, thermal, magnetic, and micromechanical elements. Chapters exploring biomaterial approaches such as polymer synthesis and characterization, drug and gene vector design, biocompatibility, immunology and toxicology, and self-assembly at the nanoscale, are welcome. Finally, the tissue engineering subcategory will support topics such as the fundamentals of stem cells and progenitor cells and their proliferation, differentiation, bioreactors for three-dimensional culture and studies of phenotypic changes, stem and progenitor cells, both short and long term, ex vivo and in vivo implantation both in preclinical models and also in clinical trials.",annualVolume:11405,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/9.jpg",editor:{id:"126286",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",middleName:"Jesús",surname:"Villarreal-Gómez",fullName:"Luis Villarreal-Gómez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/126286/images/system/126286.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Baja California",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"35539",title:"Dr.",name:"Cecilia",middleName:null,surname:"Cristea",fullName:"Cecilia Cristea",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYQ65QAG/Profile_Picture_1621007741527",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Iuliu Hațieganu University of Medicine and Pharmacy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"40735",title:"Dr.",name:"Gil",middleName:"Alberto Batista",surname:"Gonçalves",fullName:"Gil Gonçalves",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYRLGQA4/Profile_Picture_1628492612759",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Aveiro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"211725",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Johann F.",middleName:null,surname:"Osma",fullName:"Johann F. 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