Concentrations of PCR buffers.
\\n\\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\\n\\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:null},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'IntechOpen is proud to announce that 179 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nThroughout the years, the list has named a total of 252 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\nReleased this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"stanford-university-identifies-top-2-scientists-over-1-000-are-intechopen-authors-and-editors-20210122",title:"Stanford University Identifies Top 2% Scientists, Over 1,000 are IntechOpen Authors and Editors"},{slug:"intechopen-authors-included-in-the-highly-cited-researchers-list-for-2020-20210121",title:"IntechOpen Authors Included in the Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020"},{slug:"intechopen-maintains-position-as-the-world-s-largest-oa-book-publisher-20201218",title:"IntechOpen Maintains Position as the World’s Largest OA Book Publisher"},{slug:"all-intechopen-books-available-on-perlego-20201215",title:"All IntechOpen Books Available on Perlego"},{slug:"oiv-awards-recognizes-intechopen-s-editors-20201127",title:"OIV Awards Recognizes IntechOpen's Editors"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-crossref-s-initiative-for-open-abstracts-i4oa-to-boost-the-discovery-of-research-20201005",title:"IntechOpen joins Crossref's Initiative for Open Abstracts (I4OA) to Boost the Discovery of Research"},{slug:"intechopen-hits-milestone-5-000-open-access-books-published-20200908",title:"IntechOpen hits milestone: 5,000 Open Access books published!"},{slug:"intechopen-books-hosted-on-the-mathworks-book-program-20200819",title:"IntechOpen Books Hosted on the MathWorks Book Program"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"5993",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Big Cats",title:"Big Cats",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"In this book, the editors have reviewed the scientific articles from diverse group of scientists from all over the world who are actively participating in the wildlife conservation. 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He is an international reviewer of recognized journals and an expert editor in ad hoc networks, mobile networks, computer technology, telecommunication networks, wearables, Industry 4.0, drones swarms, and algorithms. He has published more than 100 publications of various kind among which are seven books with more than 300,000 downloads.\nDr. Ortiz is also a thesis director for undergraduates and postgraduates in telematics, computer, telecommunication, and electronic engineering programs. Currently, he is a professor at UNAD and CEO of CloseMobile R&D.",institutionString:"CloseMobile R&D",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:null}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"536",title:"Mobile Computing",slug:"communications-and-security-mobile-computing"}],chapters:[{id:"67574",title:"Wireless Communications Challenges to Flying Ad Hoc Networks (FANET)",slug:"wireless-communications-challenges-to-flying-ad-hoc-networks-fanet-",totalDownloads:772,totalCrossrefCites:2,authors:[{id:"290776",title:"Dr.",name:"José",surname:"Jailton",slug:"jose-jailton",fullName:"José Jailton"},{id:"290799",title:"Dr.",name:"Tassio",surname:"Costa Carvalho",slug:"tassio-costa-carvalho",fullName:"Tassio Costa Carvalho"},{id:"298486",title:"BSc.",name:"Miguel Itallo B.",surname:"Azevedo",slug:"miguel-itallo-b.-azevedo",fullName:"Miguel Itallo B. 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From chapter submission and review, to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. 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The technique was developed by the Nobel laureate, Kary Mullis, in 1984. It is an in vitro process to multiply a target molecule of DNA with extreme precision, making it easy to be handled and examined by routine molecular biological methods [1, 2, 3, 4]. Since its inception, PCR has significantly contributed in changing and developing biological sciences. The first PCR machine was introduced in market in 1988. The Human Genome Project has been result of PCR based approaches [5, 6]. Owing to its wide range of applications, numerous variants of PCR techniques have emerged over the past few decades [2, 3, 4].
PCR begins with the separation (denaturation) of the strands of a target DNA molecule (known as template) followed by annealing (hybridization) of oligonucleotide primers to the target template. The annealed primers provide a start for the DNA polymerase point to add new nucleotides (deoxynucleoside triphosphates or dNTPs). The sequence of nucleotides to be added is determined by the template. This entire process of the amplification of template, i.e., separation, annealing, and polymerization, is accomplished in vitro by cyclical alterations of temperature [2, 4, 7, 8, 9, 10]. DNA polymerases used in PCR originate in thermophilic microorganisms, largely archaea, thriving temperature between 41 and 122°C. This ability to withstand high temperature is requited in PCR to melt or separate the double-stranded DNA. Today, PCR has become a main stay in biotechnology, genomics, diagnostics, systematics, and many more areas [2, 3, 4, 5, 6].
PCR typically involves a series of 20–40 repeated temperature changes, called cycles, with each cycle usually comprising three discrete temperature shifts (Figure 3) [2, 4, 7, 8, 9, 10].
Denaturation: 94–96°C
Primer annealing (depending on the primer): 45–60°C
Primer extension: usually 72°C
The cycling steps often start and end with a temperature step called “hold” where product extension is performed at (>90) and (~72°C), respectively. The final product is kept at 4°C before its analysis or storage. The most of PCR methods typically amplify DNA fragments of up to ~10 kilo base pairs (kb). However, some techniques can amplify up to 40 kb.
Setting up a basic PCR requires many ingredients, reagents, and conditions which are described below (Figure 1) [2, 4, 7, 8, 9, 10].
The component of PCR.
The double-stranded DNA molecule amplified by PCR is called the target or template DNA. The template defines the sequence in which new nucleotides are added during the PCR process [11]. This process is carried out in vitro by cyclically varying temperature, enabling separation of DNA strands, hybridization of primers, and polymerization.
DNA isolated from any source can be used as a template for PCR provided that it contains the target sequence. The DNA used in PCR can be isolated from blood, tissue, forensics specimens, paleontological samples, or microbial/tissue cells grown in the lab. Whatever the source, we need to have some information of the target DNA sequence, so that primers for PCR can be designed [2, 12]. The PCR primers can be designed very easily nowadays owing to the plethora of software tools that only requires target sequence information. If the sequence information is not known, the designing of primers becomes very challenging. This problem can be circumvented by using degenerate primers [2].
Primers are single-stranded DNA molecules usually synthesized commercially, i.e., polynucleotides of variable sizes [2, 7, 8, 9, 10]. These short polynucleotide DNA strands have a free 3′ hydroxyl group, also called as 3′ end. The free 3′ hydroxyl group on the primer is needed by the DNA polymerase to add new nucleotides during the polymerization process, thereby synthesizing a new complementary strand [12, 13]. The binding of DNA primer to the target requires the separation of two complementary DNA strands (Denaturation) which is generally achieved by heating process. To perform PCR, two primers are needed to enhance both the strands of the template: a primer for one strand (or sense strand), called the “forward primer,” which is the beginning of the template, and another primer for the complementary strand (or the antisense strand) called the “reverse primer.” Thus, both the primers bind to 5′ ends of the sense and antisense strand.
The length of primers plays an important role in correctly identifying their designated target complementary regions. Increasing the length of primers improves their chances of matching the target (specificity). These primers are usually commercially synthesized with their size ranging between 18 and 25 nucleotides.
Primers should bind (anneal or hybridize) to the template with good specificity and strength to ensure amplification of the correct sequence. The specific temperature that is needed for primer annealing also depends on the primer sequences, e.g., the longer the primer, the higher the annealing temperature. Therefore, the maximum specificity and efficiency of PCR depends on optimal primer sequences and appropriate primer concentrations [2, 7, 8]. This in return depends on the way primers are designed and used. Improper primers may amplify undesired DNA segments (nonspecific products), lower the yield of specific products, or completely fail the results of PCR. These undesired outcomes can be circumvented by designing and validating primers that preferentially bind to their target sequences. The online IDT Sci Tools Software Oligo Analyzer 3.1 and Primer Quest are invaluable aids both in primer design and validation [14]. These software tools also ensure that the two primers do not contain sequences that are complementary to each other. If primers contain self-complementary sequences, then hybridization will occur to each other, and they form “primer-dimmers.” Consequently, the primers will fail to bind to their target template, leading to a compromised PCR efficiency. In addition, presence of complementary sequences within a primer leads to the formation of hairpin loop structures [15].
As the bonding of guanine and cytosine bases (GC) is stronger than that between adenine and thymine (AT) bases, primers having GC at 3′ end should be preferred for a strong bonding with the template [16]. However, the primers should not contain runs of three or more C or G bases, as this may lead to nonspecific binding to G- or C-rich sequences (mispriming) in the DNA which is not the target sequence [17].
Discovery of DNA polymerase in 1955 was the onset of PCR technology, which exploits the ability of bacterial DNA polymerase to make a complementary strand of a target DNA [2, 4, 7, 8, 18]. DNA polymerase starts making a new DNA from the 3′ end of the template. The 3′ end of the two template stands is where the primers bind which are then extended by the DNA polymerase. The most commonly used DNA polymerase is Taq DNA polymerase isolated from Thermus aquaticus, a thermophilic bacterium. Taq polymerase extends the DNA chain by adding ~1.0 kb per min with the enzymatic half-life achieved at 95°C in 40 minutes. Alternatively, the DNA polymerase from Pyrococcus furiosus, called Pfu, is also used widely due to its 3′–5′ exonuclease activity (proofreading) which is not present in Taq DNA polymerase. Proofreading allows Pfu to remove incorrectly added nucleotide during polymerization and therefore to synthesize new DNA with minimum errors. A recombinant DNA polymerase, KOD DNA polymerase, derived from the thermophilic solfatara bacterium Thermococcus kodakarensis KOD1 type strain, functions optimally at 85°C with 3′–5′ exonuclease proofreading activity, resulting in blunt-ended DNA products [19, 20]. KOD DNA polymerase exhibits high fidelity and processivity for small amplicons. However, for the amplicons over 5 kb, the amplification is lowered due to strong 3′–5′ exonuclease activity of the enzyme [5]. This problem can be solved by mixing wild type with the mutant form of the enzyme (with lower 3′–5′ exonuclease activity), which can result in more correct amplification of the amplicons between 5 and 15 kb [21]. Other sources of DNA polymerases used in PCR include thermophilic species like Thermus thermophilus (Tth) and Thermus flavus (Tfl) [18].
PCR requires four different deoxynucleoside triphosphates or dNTPs to synthesize new DNA strands: adenine(A), guanine(G), cytosine(C), thymine(T). The dNTPs are usually provided at a concentration of 200 μM in the reaction mixture [22]. The concentration of these four dNTPs must be equal in the reaction mixture, as unequal concentration of even a single dNTPs leads to misincorporation of nucleotides by the DNA polymerase.
The function of PCR buffer solution is to provide suitable conditions and chemicals to the DNA polymerase for optimal activity and stability [23]. The buffers often contain Tris-Hcl, KCl, and sometimes MgCl2. PCR buffers are often available in 10× concentration and are sometimes Taq formulation-specific including the compounds shown in Table 1.
Component | Function |
---|---|
100 mM Tris-HCl (pH 8.8 at 25 °C) | Maintains reaction pH |
500 mM KCl | Stabilizes primer-template annealing |
15 mM MgCl2 | Cofactor for DNA polymerase |
0.8% (v/v) Nonidet P40 (Optional) | Suppresses secondary structure formation |
Concentrations of PCR buffers.
(Thermo Fisher Scientific™B16:
Potassium chloride (KCl) is normally used in a PCR amplification of DNA fragments at a final concentration of 50 mM [24].
Magnesium ions are needed by the DNA polymerase enzyme as a cofactor. The divalent cations may include magnesium or manganese ions; generally, Mg2+ is used, but Mn2+ can be utilized for PCR-mediated DNA mutagenesis, as higher Mn2+ concentration increases the error rate during DNA synthesis [25].
PCR is performed in a small, thin-walled plastic tube called PCR tube. The tube is specifically designed to permit favorable thermal conductivity equilibration during thermal cycling.
A thermal cycler or thermocycler is a device used to rapidly heat and cool the reaction mixtures and cycle them between the three PCR temperature steps [26]. Many modern thermocyclers employ the Peltier effect to achieve this temperature ramping, which is done by reversing the electric current [11]. Modern thermocyclers are also provided with heated lids to prevent condensation of reaction mixture during PCR operation. Older thermocyclers lacked this feature, and the evaporation was prevented by applying oil or wax balls on the surface of PCR mixture.
Each cycle or round of PCR comprises three major steps, viz., denaturation, annealing, and extension, repeated for 30 or 40 cycles on a thermocycler (Figure 2) [2, 4, 7, 8, 9, 10]. A number of parameters determine the range of temperature and the duration of each cycle step (Figure 3), e.g., the polymerase used for DNA synthesis; melting temperature (Tm) of the primers; and the concentration of reagents used, i.e., divalent ions and dNTPs. The melting temperature depends on the length and specific nucleotide sequence of a primer. At Tm, half of the DNA molecules are in the single-stranded form.
A basic PCR protocol—DNA synthesis cycle.
PCR—a simple thermocycling protocol.
It is the first cycling step that involves heating the reaction mixture to 94–98°C for 20–30 seconds. Such higher temperature disrupts the hydrogen bonding of the two complementary strands to produce the single-stranded DNA templates. Thus, denaturation prepares the DNA template for the binding of primers.
After denaturation, the next cycling step is annealing, in which the temperature of the PCR reaction is decreased to 50–65°C and kept for 20–60 seconds. This promotes hybridization between primers and single-stranded templates. Optimal annealing occurs at temperatures that are 3–5°C less than the primer Tm. The primers should have sufficient length and GC content to strongly bind to their target template during annealing.
DNA polymerase synthesizes (polymerizes) new DNA molecule by adding dNTPs complementary to the template bases in a 5′–3′ direction. The temperature and extension time depend on the type of DNA polymerase used: Taq polymerase performs optimally between 75 and 80°C. However, the enzyme is routinely used at 72°C. The extension time also depends on the length of the template.
A single cycle of PCR comprises the entire processes of denaturation, annealing, and extension/elongation. Under ideal conditions (optimal temperature ramping, presence of substrates/reagents, absence of inhibitors), the quantity of target DNA is doubled at the end of each cycle, resulting in exponential amplification of the specific DNA segment.
Final elongation: This single step is optional and performed at 70–74°C. The final elongation may take for 5–15 minutes after the last PCR cycle and allows any remaining single-stranded DNA to be fully extended.
Final hold: The final step may be employed for short-term storage of the reaction by cooling the reaction chamber to 4–15°C for an indefinite time.
Multiple cycling steps of a PCR can exponentially increase the copies of target DNA template to millions. The number of DNA copies produced by a PCR can be calculated using the formula “2n”, where n is the number of cycles [27, 28]. For example, a PCR set for 36 cycles results in 68 billion copies of the template. Under optimal conditions, even with minimal efficiency, a PCR in 50 ml volume may produce 0.2 mg of 150 bp DNA from 100 template molecules after 35–40 cycles, with the molar weight of the fragment equal to 99,000 Da.
The degree of a PCR success can be determined in many ways [3, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36]:
Ethidium bromide (EtBr) can be used for the staining of amplified DNA product [31, 32]. It has UV absorbance maxima at 300 and 360 nm, and an emission maximum at 590 nm, and being a DNA intercalator, EtBr inserts itself between the base pairs in the double helix. The detection limit of DNA bound to ethidium bromide is 0.5–5.0 ng/band.
A three primer combination approach can provide a more cost-effective end-labeling of PCR products: (i) fluorescently labeled universal primer, (ii) modified locus-specific primers, and (iii) 5′ universal primer sequence tails [34].
Agarose gel electrophoresis: The most commonly employed validating method, gel electrophoresis, makes use of electric current to separate charged molecules like DNA using gel as molecular sieve. Gelling agents can be agarose (for DNA >500 bp) or polyacrylamide (<500 bp). Different DNA sequences are separated out based on their sizes. DNA staining dyes (like EtBr) are applied to the gel to help visualize the DNA bands using UV transilluminator [34, 36]. The presence of a correct size DNA band (confirmed using a DNA ladder) indicates that the target sequence was present and that the PCR has amplified a correct product. Absence of any DNA band indicates that the target DNA was absent, while the presence of incorrect size DNA band indicates production of a spurious product [37].
The direct sequencing is often not practiced due to in accessibility or cost of DNA sequencer or even the time needed to undertake such an analysis. However, restriction enzyme digestion can also be used to assess the sequence of an amplicon indirectly [29].
Owing to ever-growing applications, a wide variety of PCR techniques have emerged over the past few decades [2, 3, 4]. Some of the variants are mere optimization close to the basic PCR to fulfill the specific needs. Others have undergone massive modifications to suit novel applications in different biological, biomedical, agricultural, and environmental fields [6].
This is a standard PCR in which a single-primer pair is used to bind to the two separated target strands. The primers also define the target sequences that will be copied. The PCR generates millions of copies of the target DNA sequences [2, 3, 4].
It is a special type of PCR for the detection of pathogenic microorganisms by using several pairs of primers annealing to different target sequences in a single sample [2, 3, 4, 38]. The multiplex-PCR is mainly used to identify exonic or intronic sequences to detect mutations, deletions, insertions, and rearrangements in pathogenic specimens.
It is used to increase the specificity of DNA amplification by reducing the nonspecific amplification [2, 3, 4, 39]. The two sets of primer pairs are used for a single locus point in two successive PCR reactions. The first round of PCR is performed with a primer pair that anneals to the sequence that flanks the target region. This generates a much larger DNA product that includes the target sequence. The second PCR is performed with a primer pair that precisely anneals to the target sequence, internal to the product of first PCR. This ensures that only the correct product is amplified in the second PCR [7]. Although Nested PCR improves specificity of amplification, it has disadvantage like primer-dimer formations [40].
A qPCR is a technique used to quantify the amplification of a template DNA in real time during the PCR reaction. This type of PCR is commonly employed to estimate the number of DNA targets present in a sample or to study and compare the gene expression [7, 37]. When real-time PCR is used quantitatively (qPCR), the amount of amplification is measured either by using a nonspecific fluorescent dyes or sequence-specific DNA oligonucleotide fluorescent probes [4, 41]. When quantitative PCR is used above/below a certain amount of DNA molecules, it is called semi quantitative real-time PCR. Although the quantitative real-time PCR has many applications, it is more frequently used in basic research and diagnostic purposes. There is a growing industrial use of the technique, e.g., quantification of microbial load in processed foods, detection of GMOs, quantification of pathogenic viruses, etc. [42, 43, 44].
This technique reduces nonspecific amplification during the initial stages of a PCR [4, 7, 45]. To prevent nonspecific amplification at lower temperatures, hybrid polymerases are used which remain inactive at ambient temperature and is only activated at higher temperatures. Inhibition of the polymerase activity at ambient temperature is done by using an antibody or covalently bound inhibitors. Simply, in this technique the reaction components are heated to the DNA melting temperature (e.g., 95°C) before adding the polymerase.
This type of PCR is designed to minimize nonspecific amplification by gradually decreasing the primer annealing temperature in the successive cycles. PCR is started with initial cycles having an annealing temperature 3–5°C higher than the primer Tm. The annealing temperature is then gradually decreased to 3–5°C lower below the Tm. The higher annealing temperature increases the specificity of the primers at initial stages of the reaction, while the lower temperature permits more efficient amplification later at the end [4, 7, 46].
This technique is used for the synthesis of long DNA molecules from long oligonucleotides with short overlapping segments, alternating between sense and antisense directions. The process begins with an initial PCR with primers that have an overlap, followed by a second PCR using the products of the first PCR as the template to generate the final full-length DNA structure [4, 7, 47].
It is a convenient high-throughput technique used to confirm the addition of DNA insert in the recombinant clones and their uptake by the bacterial cell. A single set of insert specific primers are designed for the areas of the vector flanking the site where target DNA fragments are already inserted. This results in the amplification of the inserted sequences. The technique is used for the screening of bacterial colonies transformed with the recombinant vectors and to perform PCR without initially extracting the bacterial genomic DNA [3, 4, 7, 48].
It is a variant of PCR used to identify promoter hyper-methylation at CpG islands in cell lines and clinical samples, including fresh/frozen tissues. The target DNA is first treated with sodium bisulfite, which transforms the unmethylated cytosine bases in to uracil, which pair with adenosine of the PCR primers. The modified DNA is then amplified using two types of primers that only differ at their CpG islands. One primer set anneals to DNA with cytosine (corresponding to methylated cytosine), while the other anneals to DNA with uracil (corresponding to unmethylated cytosine). The MSP technique provides quantitative information about the methylation when used in quantitative PCR [3, 4, 7, 49, 50].
This type of PCR is used to detect the sequences that surround the target DNA (flanking sequences). It involves a series of restriction enzyme digestions and self-ligation. The primers amplify sequences at either end of the target by extending outward from the known DNA segment [4, 7, 51].
In this technique, the PCR is preceded by a reaction converting RNA into cDNA using viral reverse transcriptase. The resulting cDNA is used as a template for a second conventional PCR. The technique is widely used in the detection of RNA viruses and to study gene expression [7, 52, 53]. A variant of the RTP, called differential-display reverse transcription-PCR or RNA arbitrarily primed PCR (RAP-PCR), is used to study and compare the gene expression of organism grown under different conditions. The variant employs the use of short and random 10-mer or 11-mer radio-labeled primers that are annealed at low stringency conditions to promote the extension of random sequences during the first PCR cycle. This is followed by high-stringency cycles to extend the products of first cycle. The resulting products are analyzed using standard sequencing gels, and RAP-PCR fingerprints are visualized by autoradiography. The technique is extremely useful in studying tissue-specific and condition-specific gene expressions [54, 55].
In addition to the above mentioned techniques, numerous other variants of PCR are in use to serve a wide variety of research, diagnostic, and industrial needs, e.g., after exponential PCR, allele specific PCR, asymmetric PCR, arbitrary PCR, core sample PCR, degenerate PCR, dial-out PCR, digital PCR, high-fidelity PCR, hot start PCR, in silico PCR, inter-sequence PCR, ligation-mediated PCR, mini primer PCR, nanoparticle-PCR, overlap-extension PCR, solid-phase PCR, splicing by overlap/overhang extension PCR, suicide PCR, thermal asymmetric interlaced PCR, etc. Some of the important variants of PCR are described below:
In extreme PCR the concentration of primers and polymerase is increased 10–20 times; the amplification rate of instrument reaches about 0.4–2.0 s/. When the primers’ concentration is more than 10 mol/L, the polymerase concentration is 1 mol/L, and the extreme PCR is suitable for rapid detection of virulent infectious and bioterrorism pathogens [56].
It is achieved by fast heating and based on energy conversion, thus shortening the PCR time. The specific process is carried out by using electronic resonance light emitting diode. The energy conversion process is more rapid than the conventional cooling process, causing amplification of target DNA within 5 min and thus making the PCR detection more convenient and fast [57, 58].
It is a low denatured temperature-PCR for enriching mutant genes by reducing the reactive temperature of PCR. The basic principle is founded on the base mismatch in any strand of DNA affecting the denaturation temperature. Therefore, the denaturation temperature of the mutant DNA is often lower than that of wild type DNA. The assay is often used for viral gene mutation [59] detection, cancer associated gene mutations (p53) [60, 61], EGFR, KRAS, etc.), beta globulin (HBB) mutations that cause beta thalassemia [62], etc.
Gold nanoparticles have superior electrical, optical, thermal, and catalytic activities and have the same properties as single-stranded binding proteins (ssb), which bind to single-stranded DNA and do not interact with double-stranded DNA. Therefore, the amplification effect of high GC template can be significantly improved by adding gold nanoparticles as additives to slowdown or touchdown PCR reaction systems [63].
It is an amplification technique for templates with long DNA chains and large numbers of CTG repeats involving the increase in the denaturation temperature of PCR to solve the problem of high content of DNA (G+C) [64].
It generates high concentrations of single-stranded DNA that can be analyzed at the end point using probes which hybridize over a wide temperature range [65].
Digital PCR (dPCR) enables precise and sensitive quantification of nucleic acids in a wide range of applications in both healthcare and environmental analysis. It is based on detection in two discrete optical channels, focused on the quantification of one or two targets within a single reaction [66]. The technique has become a promising quantification strategy that combines absolute quantification with high sensitivity.
The PCR technique and its several advanced variants act as powerful tools with specialized applications which were once impossible by the scientific world [67, 68]. This versatile technique brought enormous benefits and scientific developments such as genome sequencing, gene expressions in recombinant systems, and the study of molecular genetic analysis, including the rapid determination of both paternity and the diagnosis of infectious disease [69, 70]. It enables the in vitro synthesis of nucleic acids through which a DNA segment can be specifically replicated in a semiconservative way. It generally exhibits excellent detection limits [71, 72]. It has significantly transformed the scientific research and diagnostic medicine. Over the years, it has become a vital of clinical and diagnostic research. It has a wide range of applications in almost every field of science, for example, clinicians widely use the technique for disease diagnosis. Biologists, including agriculturists, clone and sequence genes using PCR and rapidly carry out sophisticated quantitative and genomic studies. Now for criminal identification, PCR assays are commonly employed. DNA fingerprinting is also used in paternity testing, where the DNA from an individual is matched with that of his possible children, siblings, or parents [67, 68]. Besides, PCR has enormous role in diagnosing genetic disease, whether inherited genetic changes or as a result of spontaneous genetic mutations, is becoming more common. Diseases can be diagnosed even before birth. Even PCR can also be employed with significant precision to predict cure of diseases [73]. The most important applications of PCR are summarized in Table 2.
Application | Description | Reference |
---|---|---|
Diagnosis of infections | PCR approaches are used to specifically and sensitively diagnose infections (bacterial, viral, protozoan, fungal). They are routinely used in clinical laboratories to confirm and quantify these infectious agents | [71, 74] |
Diagnosis of genetic defects | PCR-based detection systems are used to accurately detect (before disease onset) and confirm (after the onset) many genetic disorders | [74, 75, 76] |
Diagnosis and prognosis of cancers | PCR-based approaches can identify cancer genes and analyze their expression to determine genetic predisposition to certain cancers, confirmation of cancer type, their prognosis, and treatment | [74, 77] |
Phylogenetics | Phylogenetic analysis of organisms routinely relies on PCR amplification of phylogenetic markers to identify and classify them | [78, 79] |
Archeology | Ancient DNA (aDNA) recovered from archeological remains are usually degraded and are in low amounts. Such miniscule quantities of aDNA are amplified using PCR techniques to improve their quality and quantity to make them analyzable for archeological study | [80, 81, 82] |
Recombinant DNA technology | PCR techniques are used to generate hybrid DNA with ease and precision. The techniques are also employed to clone DNA in to specific vectors to get protein expression | [83, 84] |
Metagenomics | Gene-targeted metagenomics combines PCR with metagenomics to identify rarest members of a sampled community and rare genes in the community members | [85, 86] |
Site-directed mutagenesis | PCR-based approaches are commonly used to insert mutations (deletions, additions, and substitutions) at specific locations in a gene to study role of specific amino acids in the structure and function of proteins | [87, 88] |
Personalized medicine | PCR technologies are employed in pharmacogenomics and pharmacogenetics to track genetic markers that determine the response of individuals to treatments and are used to design tailor-made drugs and to prescribe drugs in effective doses | [74, 89] |
Forensics sciences | The power of PCR is employed to amplify poor quality and quantity DNA samples from crime scenes and make them reliably analyzable. | [67, 68, 90] |
DNA profiling | DNA profiling methods utilize PCR-based approaches to exploit the polymorphic nature of DNA (SNPs, DNA repeats, etc.) to study the structure and diversity ecological communities, phylogeny, and population genetics | [90] |
Gene expression profiling | Reverse-transcriptase PCR and qPCR are routinely employed to profile the expression of genes and to validate transcriptome profiles generated through techniques like microarray and RNA-seq | [91, 92, 93] |
Identifying medicinal plants | PCR-based DNA barcoding is a tool that utilizes specific DNA sequences to rapidly and accurately identify medicinal plants species from other morphologically similar plants. This approach is also used by ecologists and conservation biologists to identifying endangered and new species | [94] |
Detecting GMO | PCR techniques are used to quickly and reliably track the presence of genetically modified organism in food and feed to ensure their regulation and protection of consumer rights | [95, 96] |
Meat traceability | PCR methods are used to identifying and quantifying adulteration of meat in raw and processed food. | [97, 98, 99] |
The most important applications of PCR.
Since it discovery in 1980s, the PCR technique has brought about significant changes in biological sciences. Huge scientific undertakings like the Human Genome Project have been possible due to PCR-based approaches [5, 6]. It is a very sensitive and flexible technique to amplify DNA of interest. A very small amount of the target DNA can be used as a starting material. Even old or degraded DNA samples may yield successful amplification. However, there is also a long list of PCR limitations. High-quality DNA amplification needs information about target DNA sequence. The sensitivity of PCR is also its major disadvantage since the very end result of a PCR is highly susceptible to contamination or false amplification. Therefore, amplification of DNA by PCR may not be 100% specific. Moreover, the specificity of amplification is dependent on physicochemical parameter, such as temperature and Mg++ concentration. The PCR is also inhibited by the presence of certain chemicals such as ethanol, phenol, isopropanol, detergent compounds like sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS), high salt concentration, chelators, etc. There is an upper limit to the size of DNA that can be synthesized by PCR. Additionally, analysis and product detection usually take much longer time than the PCR reaction itself.
Social media marketing is now the modern and innovative way of doing business specifically in service marketing, as marketers as move from one strategy (fan accumulation) to another (6-s video) to another (social-local-mobile/SoLoMo), referring to a progressively versatile driven form of the expansion of neighborhood sections to web crawler results to another (messenger bots), looking for the right innovative strategy to improve their brand health [1]. Social media capabilities are the birth of platforms such as YouTube, Facebook, Twitter, WhatsApp, and Pinterest [2]. This has become the new and attractive way as the world has become a global entity and wide coverage of information disseminations shared through social media. The modern-day consumers especially millennials are increasingly using online tools, for example, blogs, “Facebook,” and YouTube to share their opinions about products and services they consume [3]. The rise in Internet accessibility and availability of smartphones has led to the new form of what is known as electronic word of mouth (EWOM) which in this research will be referred to as social media. Peters [4] et al. states that “Of the various social media networks, Facebook alone has 750 million users, Twitter has 250 million users, and LinkedIn and Myspace have 115 million and 50 million users respectively.” Social media has become the new growth strategy for any company that wishes to realize growth and have a mark in this new and uptight market. The generation of millennial consumers is now the largest consumers of goods, and getting their attention has shifted from the traditional methods of advertising to now the new platform of social media. According to Whitler [5], the challenge is that for past years the marketer has been focused more on “collecting” instead of “connecting.” In other words Whitler [5] stated that marketers are focusing on having more fans and forgetting the crucial part which is to connect with the fans and create a loyal customer base of those social media fans one has. The marketer tends to forget that social media can be used as a marketing strategy which has an influence on consumer purchase decisions. In this chapter we review research that has been done related to the role of social media in consumer purchase patterns.
Peters et al. [4, 6] eluded to the fact that companies may use social media as a strategy to gain more customers or to chase customers away form a company’s offerings, stating that a company is able to make or break its image through the social media that is made available to its consumers. Furthermore Suresh et al. [7] pointed out that social media has led to a rise in the consumption of service marketing due to its coverage and influence on consumers of different age groups and different lifestyles, based on their affordability and their consumer behavioral patterns. “What the hell is internet based life and what job does it play in promoting? It is the most widely recognized inquiry that has been inquired.”
Online life speaks to minimal effort instruments that are utilized to consolidate innovation and social collaboration with the utilization of words [6]. These instruments are ordinarily web or versatile based. A small number of firms have incorporated social medial innovation such as Twitter, Facebook, and YouTube. Online life gives advertisers a voice and an approach to speak with companions, clients, and potential customers. It customizes the “brand” and encourages the advertisers to spread your message in a loose and conversational way [6, 7]. The Internet-based life, on the off chance that you could call it, will be that it must be a piece of your regular day-to-day existence to keep the energy and consideration you requirement for it to be fruitful. Online networking is not just for the entrepreneurs that are experimenting with an investigation; however it includes bigger organizations all inclusive. The following are a couple of instances of organizations that have turned out to be associated with web-based social networking:
Absolut Vodka—Online video on YouTube and utilizing Facebook to house their Top Bartender fan page.
BMW—They are utilizing Facebook to advance their 1-series road trip, and they have made a Rampenfest page for fans.
Dunkin Donuts—That is correct; they have discovered an incentive in Internet-based life and have set up a microblogging Twitter account.
Donald Trump—In precedents, we cannot forget President Trump. He has taken the utilization of Twitter to an unheard of level. He has managed strategy that impacted the share trading system and by and large utilized Twitter as an approach to convey specifically to the general population, circumventing the customary news media.
In the USA, there is high usage by adult beverage companies, exotic automobile manufacturers, pastry shops, and US President using social media tool; it is not too hard to figure out that there is something to it that is innovative in the marketing discipline.
The section highlighted and availed the importance of social media innovations in relation to consumer behavior and service marketing. A background to the social media network usage is also given. Importantly, the review chapter also highlights how retail companies may use social media as a strategy to gain more customer base. The following subsection gives a discussion on the role and the significance of social media in service marketing and the consumer buying pattern.
Marketing is viewed as a tool that is used to inform consumers about our products and services, revealing the companies’ identity and brands being offered. Social media does that tool [3]. Online life gives a character to our identity, and the items or administrations that we offer make connections utilizing Internet-based life with customers who may not generally think about the organizations’ items or benefit or what the organizations speak to; social media makes us “genuine” to shoppers [1, 6, 8]. “On the off chance that you need buyers to tail you, don’t simply discuss the most recent item news; however, share your identity with them, and social media can also be used as a platform to peers association that may be serving the same target market and also gives facilitation through communication and interaction that consumers look for.” Social media carries with it a lot of value, but how do you do it right?
Marketers cannot just depend on social media but must be integrated with other vehicles of marketing. While social media creates awareness, marketers need to be convinced that in the beginning, it will sell a million dollars’ worth of product and services [1, 6, 8]. That is not to say that one day once the players have built up their social media “stardom” that it would not, but it probably would not happen tomorrow. And there are no written “right” or “wrong” rules when it comes to social media; only the marketers can determine what will work for them [1, 6, 8].
Examples of overcoming adversity are plenteous when it comes to utilizing web-based social networking from talent scouts that secure a position for candidates to new organizations that need to present another item just as officially settled Fortune 500 organizations that need to fortify their image. The job of online life in showcasing is to use it as a specialized device that makes availability to those inspired by item and benefits and realizes mark mindfulness and perceivability to those purchasers that do not know about the advertiser’s brands [1, 6, 8]. Web-based life can utilize it as an instrument that makes an identity behind the advertiser’s image making connections that generally may never have been picked up. It makes rehash purchasers as well as client reliability [1, 6, 8]. The truth of the matter is online life is diversified to the point that it tends to be utilized in the way that best suits the intrigue and the requirements of the business.
Social media is proving to be an effective tool as a marketing strategy; however, most companies are currently dedicating 11% of their marketing budget to social media, and 44% of those company executives were of the opinion that social media has an insignificant impact on the growth of a company and its brand [8, 9]. Many researchers have conducted studies: Social Media and Negative Word of Mouth: Strategies for Handling Unexpected Comment [10], a study on Factors Determining Social Media on Cosmetic Product [11]. Examining the Beauty Industry’s Use of Social Influencers [12], Young adults and ethical consumption: An exploratory study in the cosmetics market [9, 12], Global beauty industry trends in the twenty-first century [12], A study of the impact of social media on consumers [13], Social Media as a Marketing Tool: A Literature Review by [14], and Effectiveness of Advertising on Social Network Sites A Case Study on Facebook [15, 9]. However there has not been much research done on an analysis of the effects of social media on purchasing or consumer buying decision-making.
According to Chivandi et al. and Donovan [9, 16], many small business are not actively utilizing social media to reach consumers in which she stated that 47% of the small business do not actively use social medial and 25% of the small businesses have no plan to use social media at all.
Despite the fact that buying online is spreading and growing fast in short-term period, some regions and countries have very limited volume of online purchasing transactions, such as the Arab world situation. In the past year, Arab has seem a significant evolution of technology which led to many changes in the norms of doing businesses, practicing governance, and carrying out greater growth. With approximately more than 125 million individuals that are using the Internet, the number of social medial active users is very low and in turn makes most marketers not take up social media as an effective marketing channel [17]. Many businesses have noticed the rise in the use of social media consumers; however, many of the bulk of businesses have not yet taken up social media [18] elucidates that of those businesses that are not yet on social media, a significant number plan on establishing a presence within the next year. The study goes on to highlighting that many businesses sense the risk of being left behind; there is still a gap, though, in how frequently consumers are using and engaging with social media as compared to businesses. The social media platform according to [2] is here to stay and is the revolution that has changed our world and time; Ostrow [2] further alluded to the fact that there is one main social media innovation that in all likelihood will not only endure, but thrive, in the decade ahead. This innovation has embodied most of what we have come to define as social media since 2000, and it is not showing any signs of slowing down, and that innovation is YouTube. Deducing from the aforementioned social media is a necessary tool with some form of influence in the growth of a business’s brand cutting across internationally.
This section discussed the social media roles, importance, and its application to consumer buying decision patterns. Section 2 gives a highlight, reviews discussion on the social media platforms, and depicts information on study done by other authors in relation to social media consumption and how innovation aspect has been implemented through the platforms. It also gives a brief discussion on consumer decision-making process in relation to social media platforms.
The start of the century introduced new technology innovations, and social media platforms, which are but to name a few Twitter, Facebook, YouTube, and Pinterest, provide users with a variety of communication tools at their disposal [19]; social media platforms according to [2] are here to stay and are the revolution that has changed our world and time. Ostrow [2] further alluded to the fact that there is one main social media innovation that in all likelihood will not only endure, but thrive, in the decade ahead. This innovation has embodied most of what we have come to define as social media since 2000, and it is not showing any signs of slowing down, and that innovation is YouTube.
The use of social media platform can be described as the new wave of information and communication technology. Social media innovations are tools that are used by the consumers to give out information as well as to receive the information [20]. Manzini [21] stated that “Social innovation is a value-adding outcome that emanates from a variety of ways that involve interactions between people”; deducing from the aforementioned social media innovations is a media platform in which people creatively come together and share information. These innovations has made it possible for companies to be able to have a more intimate relationship with their consumers; there are currently over more than 300 hours of video uploaded on YouTube every hour and over 350 million Facebook loads daily [22]. Through the innovation of social media, many bloggers and vloggers are able to share their brand tips and secrets to their worldwide audiences. Zolkepli and Kamarulzaman [19] alluded to the fact that consumers need to interact on social media so as to gain value, self-discovery, entertainment stratification, and social enhancement and maintain interpersonal connectivity with different people across the world, satisfying the need that is within humans which is a need of interaction. Zolkepli and Kamarulzaman [19] in Chivandi et al. [9] further pointed out that according to former studies, consumers use media to fulfill interpersonal needs, which include the needs derived from offline media gratification, for example, relaxation, surveillance, pastime, and escape, and new online media needs are sociability, popularity, convenience, and companionship.
This social platform creates the opportunity for the provider of content to target a niche market which is focused on their similar interest and need. “Since launching in 2005, YouTube has played a central role in democratizing video distribution; to present anyone can have their own YouTube channel and become a worldwide sensation” (
Czinkota and Ronkainen [24] were of the view that Facebook was the most popular site around 2012 and had nearly one billion members worldwide, followed by LinkedIn, Twitter, Myspace, and YouTube. Czinkota and Ronkainen [24] further pointed out that more firms are adopting Facebook and other social media to conduct their marketing functions.
This social media platform enables users to share ideas and thought through pinning pictures on a board they create in the account. The board will be a collection of their favorite things and other users’ comment, like, and re-pin of the pictures or visual images on their own boards [25]. Many users find the boards helpful as they are able to discover new products and different brands from the people they follow on Pinterest.
Twitter is an online platform that uses short messages to communicate with other users; the short messages are called tweets. The messages will only be available to those who follow you on Twitter [26]. Consumers usually use Twitter to discover interesting people and companies, and they are usually influenced by what those people say.
Wang and Fesenmaier [27] was of the view that word of mouth is the oldest way to convey information. This method has been used by marketers as a way to advertise their products, in that consumers share communication about a product. Electronic word of mouth has taken over the traditional word of mouth as an informal Internet-based communication where all consumers are exposed to the social media innovations which make it possible. Consumers around the world can now share information regarding a product, and this information is accessible to both active and passive consumers everywhere [27]. The consumers’ use of technology can have both positive and negative effects to a company, and if it is bad publicity regarding a certain product or service, it can spread to uncontrollable levels in which a company may not be able to contain [3]. Social media according to Ioanăs and Stoica [28] influences the consumers from purchase decisions to post-purchase decision behavior through posts such as dissatisfaction statement on product reviews.
Table 1 depicts information on study done by Chivandi et al. [9] on social medial platforms using haircare products on millennials in South Africa. The table also gives the highly used social media platform.
Login frequency of social media platforms, gender, age, and education level.
Source: Ref. [9]
Table 1 reveals that most of the people who frequented the social media platforms are between the age ranges of 18 and 25. This is 93.2 % searching for hair products and has the postgraduate degrees at a % of 97.6.
The pie chart sub figure (a) illustrates the percentage decomposition of usage on different social media platforms, while the sub figure (b) shows that the mostly used social media platform is YouTube (42.0%) followed by Facebook which is 15.2% and Pinterest which is 10.8% (Table 2).
Social media platforms and their usage %.
Source: Ref. [9]
The decision-making process is affected by external environmental factors that affect the process, and these are environmental influence (social class, family, culture, situation, and personal influence); the environment affects the consumer decision-making process as this forms the consumer’s personal influence from the early stage of information search as they also serve as a source of information which will affect the overall decision-making process; despite the environment helping the consumer to come to a purchase decision, their individual differences and influences affect the type of choices that they will make in the end, as they will be able to conduct an internal information search in regard to their personal values, knowledge, and motivations which will help the filter from the environmental influences to scale down their purchase choices to a more personal level. Individual differences and influences include knowledge, value consumer resources, motivation, knowledge, personality, and values) [29]. Psychological processes enable the consumer to conduct both information search and an evaluation of alternatives as they engage in information processing which may have an outcome of a purchase decision which leads to a learning stage and determines whether the individual will engage in repurchase as they enter the post-purchase stage. This external factor includes learning, behavior change, attitude, and information processing. Online environmental aspects include website quality, website experience, and website satisfaction; the online environment now has a huge impact on the consumer decision-making process as it may trigger the problem recognition stage, through a consumer’s online interactions, and affects the whole process up till the post-purchase stage as it provides both information search, evaluation of alternatives, and purchase options. The online environment even provides the consumer with social interactions which may influence a consumer’s final purchase decision [29]. This process is illustrated in Figure 1.
Consumer decision-making process. The five-stage decision-making process [29].
According to McGinn [30], the five-stage decision-making process consumer goes through five stages of decision-making which are problem recognition, information search, evaluation of alternatives, purchase decision, and post-purchase behavior.
This is the first stage where the need is recognized; the need can be triggered by internal needs or stimuli which may be thirst and hunger or externally triggered through external factors or stimuli like the environment, friends, and family. The magnitude of information search will be reliant on the type of problem solving to be addressed; when the problem related to consumption is new and complex, it will lead to the buyer being involved in in-depth external information search; simpler problems usual depend on simple internal information search.
The consumer first conducts an internal memory search for information; however, when they fail to get the information they need or do not have enough information internally regarding the problem, they look for information externally. When searching for information about which product to buy, consumers now turn to social media as a reference point on which product best satisfies their needs.
Consumers go through various social media channels to gain information in regard to a particular purchase decision. McGinn [30] stated that social media influencers should be considered by marketers in regard to a company’s products as their opinion in regard to a product can influence most consumers’ purchase decisions. The brand is the symbol of a company; when a consumer is satisfied with a product, they spread information regarding the brand through word of mouth to other consumers, which will lead to others being interested in the brand and choosing the brand [31].
After information gathering the consumer now begins to weigh his or her options in accordance to the information they would have gathered. MacKenzie et al. [32] stated that that “the improvement of criteria part of the model includes a fundamental thought prompting arrangement of an evoked set, and in accordance with this, advancement of the choice criteria that will later be utilized to assess conceivable arrangements offered by the evoked set.” This aforementioned then leads to the consumer to be able to evaluate the evoked set in which alternative would best suit them. Consumers use different rules at this stage in choosing the product or service they will take up; some of the choices may be affected by brand preference, product quality, and price.
The following stage is purchase decision; the consumer will have made an intention to buy a certain brand; however, their final buying decisions will be affected by other people’s attitudes and unforeseen factors that may affect the consumer’s decision, postpone, or even lead to the withdrawal of the decision [33].
The last stage is the satisfaction or dissatisfaction after the purchase decision. This will determine whether the consumer will consider the similar purchase, especially at the stage of need recognition and information search. The consumer will in turn share their experiences on social media as a feedback to peers or the product manufacturer.
The online environment affects the consumer’s decision-making process from the need of recognition to the final stage which is the post purchase. Social media is now an effective tool which marketers have to consider when positioning product in the consumers’ minds as it now part of the influencers in the decision-making process consumers go through [29]. The theory of the consumer decision-making process is the grounding theory for the social media platform as it relates to consumers and their buying behavior patterns. Deducing from the theory, it is seen that aspects of the environment affect the decision process the consumer goes through; in this case the environment includes social media, and social media influences the decision-making process from problem recognition up to post-purchase decision. Delis [33] pointed out that Greek consumers have adopted social media as a reference point in their decision-making process, and it has influenced their choice of products. However due to the lack of physical contact at times, consumers are not fully confident with the product as compared to one they can touch physically. Bruno et al. [34] was of the view that social media Instagram in particular lead to creation of brand awareness by product users which was authentic and a true reflection of the brand and that users of the social media platform would in turn become loyal to a brand that was being used and spoken about by their peers on social media. Section 3 of the review chapter gives a conclusion based on previous studies and other scholarly contributions on social media innovations.
From previous studies, according to Alharbie [35], social media innovation led to consumer preference for certain products as consumers have a tendency to learn from the influence of other individuals in their social networks which would incline them to prefer a particular brand to another. Bruno et al. [34] also pointed out that peers such as the millennials tend to influence consumption patterns and decisions among each other through social media and therefore cause brand preference and brand love for a particular product. These findings meant that as a company increases, their social media presence in various ways through sites like YouTube and Facebook would in turn have an increase in the level of brand awareness for their products and services as most of the respondents indicated that they discovered new and existing brands through social media [34]. Social media, as a marketing tool, created brand awareness for a company’s product as well as got feedback on how companies were able to improve their products from the consumer’s perspective [29]. The first point of call is that they are able to make both their new and existing brands made known to more consumers through using marketing strategies which utilize YouTube, Facebook, and other social media sites, as it was seen that these platforms lead to an increase in brand preference and purchase buying behavior patterns [35]. Brand preference was also seen to be derived from users using brands that their social media contacts or influences used; therefore, a company may choose to identify influencers on these social media sites, to use their products and services, that are mentioning the products they are using to their social media followers. Another marketing implication is that, it is derived from the fact that social media was also a useful tool in creating repeat purchase and building relationships and customer loyalty, as the study highlighted that social media platforms had an impact in how consumer perceived a product and it was social media innovation that led to them being influenced to prefer one brand over another. The study also adds to the limited body of literature which surrounds social media and the consumption of product and services through social medial platforms and forms bases for further study in regard to the variables looked at in this particular study. The discussion of the study was also in line with the consumer decision-making model which stated that a person’s buying behavior was influenced by their social exposure which is made up of their friends, family, and acquaintances and goes through all the stages [29].
As this section deals with legal issues pertaining to the rights of individual Authors and IntechOpen, for the avoidance of doubt, each category of publication is dealt with separately. Consequently, much of the information, for example definition of terms used, is repeated to ensure that there can be no misunderstanding of the policies that apply to each category.
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\\n\\nAll Works published on the IntechOpen platform and in print are licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License, a license which allows for the broadest possible reuse of published material.
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\\n\\nAnd for any purpose, provided the following conditions are met:
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The CC BY 3.0 license permits Works to be freely shared in any medium or format, as well as the reuse and adaptation of the original contents of Works (e.g. figures and tables created by the Authors), as long as the source Work is cited and its Authors are acknowledged in the following manner:
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\\n\\nRepublishing – More about Attribution Policy can be found here.
\\n\\nThe same principles apply to Works published under the CC BY-NC-SA 3.0 license, with the caveats that (1) the content may not be used for commercial purposes, and (2) derivative works building on this content must be distributed under the same license. The restrictions contained in these license terms may, however, be waived by the copyright holder(s). Users wishing to circumvent any of the license terms are required to obtain explicit permission to do so from the copyright holder(s).
\\n\\nDISCLAIMER: Neither the CC BY 3.0 license, nor any other license IntechOpen currently uses or has used before, applies to figures and tables reproduced from other works, as they may be subject to different terms of reuse. In such cases, if the copyright holder is not noted in the source of a figure or table, it is the responsibility of the User to investigate and determine the exact copyright status of any information utilised. Users requiring assistance in that regard are welcome to send an inquiry to permissions@intechopen.com.
\\n\\nAll rights to Books and all other compilations published on the IntechOpen platform and in print are reserved by IntechOpen.
\\n\\nThe copyright to Books and other compilations is subject to separate copyright from those that exist in the included Works.
\\n\\nAll Long Form Monographs/Compacts are licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0) license granted to all others.
\\n\\nCopyright to the individual Works (Chapters) belongs to their specific Authors, subject to an agreement with IntechOpen and the Creative Common license granted to all others to:
\\n\\nUnder the following terms:
\\n\\nThere must be an Attribution, giving appropriate credit, provision of a link to the license, and indication if any changes were made.
\\n\\nNonCommercial - The use of the material for commercial purposes is prohibited. Commercial rights are reserved to IntechOpen or its licensees.
\\n\\nNo additional restrictions that apply legal terms or technological measures that restrict others from doing anything the license permits are allowed.
\\n\\nThe CC BY-NC 4.0 license permits Works to be freely shared in any medium or format, as well as reuse and adaptation of the original contents of Works (e.g. figures and tables created by the Authors), as long as it is not used for commercial purposes. The source Work must be cited and its Authors acknowledged in the following manner:
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\\n\\nReposting & sharing:
\\n\\nOriginally published in {full citation}. Available from: {DOI}
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\\n\\nEvery reproduction of a front cover image must be accompanied by an appropriate Copyright Notice displayed adjacent to the image. The exact Copyright Notice depends on who the Author of a particular cover image is. Users wishing to reproduce cover images should contact permissions@intechopen.com.
\\n\\nAll Video Lectures under IntechOpen's production are subject to copyright and are property of IntechOpen, unless defined otherwise, and are licensed under the Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0) license. This grants all others the right to:
\\n\\nShare — copy and redistribute the material in any medium or format
\\n\\nUnder the following terms:
\\n\\nUsers wishing to repost and share the Video Lectures are welcome to do so as long as they acknowledge the source in the following manner:
\\n\\n© {year} IntechOpen. Published under CC BY-NC-ND 4.0 license. Available from: {DOI}
\\n\\nUsers wishing to reuse, modify, or adapt the Video Lectures in a way not permitted by the license are welcome to contact us at permissions@intechopen.com to discuss waiving particular license terms.
\\n\\nAll software used on the IntechOpen platform, any used during the publishing process, and the copyright in the code constituting such software, is the property of IntechOpen or its software suppliers. As such, it may not be downloaded or copied without permission.
\\n\\nUnless otherwise indicated, all IntechOpen websites are the property of IntechOpen.
\\n\\nAll content included on IntechOpen Websites not forming part of contributed materials (such as text, images, logos, graphics, design elements, videos, sounds, pictures, trademarks, etc.), are subject to copyright and are property of, or licensed to, IntechOpen. Any other use, including the reproduction, modification, distribution, transmission, republication, display, or performance of the content on this site is strictly prohibited.
\\n\\nPolicy last updated: 2016-06-08
\\n"}]'},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'Copyright is the term used to describe the rights related to the publication and distribution of original Works. Most importantly from a publisher's perspective, copyright governs how Authors, publishers and the general public can use, publish, and distribute publications.
\n\nIntechOpen only publishes manuscripts for which it has publishing rights. This is governed by a publication agreement between the Author and IntechOpen. This agreement is accepted by the Author when the manuscript is submitted and deals with both the rights of the publisher and Author, as well as any obligations concerning a particular manuscript. However, in accepting this agreement, Authors continue to retain significant rights to use and share their publications.
\n\nHOW COPYRIGHT WORKS WITH OPEN ACCESS LICENSES?
\n\nAgreement samples are listed here for the convenience of prospective Authors:
\n\n\n\nDEFINITIONS
\n\nThe following definitions apply in this Copyright Policy:
\n\nAuthor - in order to be identified as an Author, three criteria must be met: (i) Substantial contribution to the conception or design of the Work, or the acquisition, analysis, or interpretation of data for the Work; (ii) Participation in drafting or revising the Work; (iii) Approval of the final version of the Work to be published.
\n\nWork - a Chapter, including Conference Papers, and any and all text, graphics, images and/or other materials forming part of or accompanying the Chapter/Conference Paper.
\n\nMonograph/Compacts - a full manuscript usually written by a single Author, including any and all text, graphics, images and/or other materials.
\n\nCompilation - a collection of Works distributed in a Book that IntechOpen has selected, and for which the coordination of the preparation, arrangement and publication has been the responsibility of IntechOpen. Any Work included is accepted in its entirety in unmodified form and is published with one or more other contributions, each constituting a separate and independent Work, but which together are assembled into a collective whole.
\n\nIntechOpen - Registered publisher with office at 5 Princes Gate Court, London, SW7 2QJ - UNITED KINGDOM
\n\nIntechOpen platform - IntechOpen website www.intechopen.com whose main purpose is to host Monographs in the format of Book Chapters, Long Form Monographs, Compacts, Conference Proceedings and Videos.
\n\nVideo Lecture – an audiovisual recording of a lecture or a speech given by a Lecturer, recorded, edited, owned and published by IntechOpen.
\n\nTERMS
\n\nAll Works published on the IntechOpen platform and in print are licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License, a license which allows for the broadest possible reuse of published material.
\n\nCopyright on the individual Works belongs to the specific Author, subject to an agreement with IntechOpen. The Creative Common license is granted to all others to:
\n\nAnd for any purpose, provided the following conditions are met:
\n\nAll Works are published under the CC BY 3.0 license. However, please note that book Chapters may fall under a different CC license, depending on their publication date as indicated in the table below:
\n\n\n\n
LICENSE | \n\t\t\tUSED FROM - | \n\t\t\tUP TO - | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported (CC BY-NC-SA 3.0) \n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t 1 July 2005 (2005-07-01) \n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t 3 October 2011 (2011-10-03) \n\t\t\t | \n\t\t
Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported (CC BY 3.0) | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t 5 October 2011 (2011-10-05) \n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tCurrently | \n\t\t
The CC BY 3.0 license permits Works to be freely shared in any medium or format, as well as the reuse and adaptation of the original contents of Works (e.g. figures and tables created by the Authors), as long as the source Work is cited and its Authors are acknowledged in the following manner:
\n\nContent reuse:
\n\n© {year} {authors' full names}. Originally published in {short citation} under {license version} license. Available from: {DOI}
\n\nContent adaptation & reuse:
\n\n© {year} {authors' full names}. Adapted from {short citation}; originally published under {license version} license. Available from: {DOI}
\n\nReposting & sharing:
\n\nOriginally published in {full citation}. Available from: {DOI}
\n\nRepublishing – More about Attribution Policy can be found here.
\n\nThe same principles apply to Works published under the CC BY-NC-SA 3.0 license, with the caveats that (1) the content may not be used for commercial purposes, and (2) derivative works building on this content must be distributed under the same license. The restrictions contained in these license terms may, however, be waived by the copyright holder(s). Users wishing to circumvent any of the license terms are required to obtain explicit permission to do so from the copyright holder(s).
\n\nDISCLAIMER: Neither the CC BY 3.0 license, nor any other license IntechOpen currently uses or has used before, applies to figures and tables reproduced from other works, as they may be subject to different terms of reuse. In such cases, if the copyright holder is not noted in the source of a figure or table, it is the responsibility of the User to investigate and determine the exact copyright status of any information utilised. Users requiring assistance in that regard are welcome to send an inquiry to permissions@intechopen.com.
\n\nAll rights to Books and all other compilations published on the IntechOpen platform and in print are reserved by IntechOpen.
\n\nThe copyright to Books and other compilations is subject to separate copyright from those that exist in the included Works.
\n\nAll Long Form Monographs/Compacts are licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0) license granted to all others.
\n\nCopyright to the individual Works (Chapters) belongs to their specific Authors, subject to an agreement with IntechOpen and the Creative Common license granted to all others to:
\n\nUnder the following terms:
\n\nThere must be an Attribution, giving appropriate credit, provision of a link to the license, and indication if any changes were made.
\n\nNonCommercial - The use of the material for commercial purposes is prohibited. Commercial rights are reserved to IntechOpen or its licensees.
\n\nNo additional restrictions that apply legal terms or technological measures that restrict others from doing anything the license permits are allowed.
\n\nThe CC BY-NC 4.0 license permits Works to be freely shared in any medium or format, as well as reuse and adaptation of the original contents of Works (e.g. figures and tables created by the Authors), as long as it is not used for commercial purposes. The source Work must be cited and its Authors acknowledged in the following manner:
\n\nContent reuse:
\n\n© {year} {authors' full names}. Originally published in {short citation} under {license version} license. Available from: {DOI}
\n\nContent adaptation & reuse:
\n\n© {year} {authors' full names}. Adapted from {short citation}; originally published under {license version} license. Available from: {DOI}
\n\nReposting & sharing:
\n\nOriginally published in {full citation}. Available from: {DOI}
\n\nAll Book cover design elements, as well as Video image graphics are subject to copyright by IntechOpen.
\n\nEvery reproduction of a front cover image must be accompanied by an appropriate Copyright Notice displayed adjacent to the image. The exact Copyright Notice depends on who the Author of a particular cover image is. Users wishing to reproduce cover images should contact permissions@intechopen.com.
\n\nAll Video Lectures under IntechOpen's production are subject to copyright and are property of IntechOpen, unless defined otherwise, and are licensed under the Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0) license. This grants all others the right to:
\n\nShare — copy and redistribute the material in any medium or format
\n\nUnder the following terms:
\n\nUsers wishing to repost and share the Video Lectures are welcome to do so as long as they acknowledge the source in the following manner:
\n\n© {year} IntechOpen. Published under CC BY-NC-ND 4.0 license. Available from: {DOI}
\n\nUsers wishing to reuse, modify, or adapt the Video Lectures in a way not permitted by the license are welcome to contact us at permissions@intechopen.com to discuss waiving particular license terms.
\n\nAll software used on the IntechOpen platform, any used during the publishing process, and the copyright in the code constituting such software, is the property of IntechOpen or its software suppliers. As such, it may not be downloaded or copied without permission.
\n\nUnless otherwise indicated, all IntechOpen websites are the property of IntechOpen.
\n\nAll content included on IntechOpen Websites not forming part of contributed materials (such as text, images, logos, graphics, design elements, videos, sounds, pictures, trademarks, etc.), are subject to copyright and are property of, or licensed to, IntechOpen. Any other use, including the reproduction, modification, distribution, transmission, republication, display, or performance of the content on this site is strictly prohibited.
\n\nPolicy last updated: 2016-06-08
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Today his focus is on defining the growth and development strategy for the company.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",middleName:null,surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/19816/images/1607_n.jpg",biography:"Alexander I. Kokorin: born: 1947, Moscow; DSc., PhD; Principal Research Fellow (Research Professor) of Department of Kinetics and Catalysis, N. Semenov Institute of Chemical Physics, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow.\r\nArea of research interests: physical chemistry of complex-organized molecular and nanosized systems, including polymer-metal complexes; the surface of doped oxide semiconductors. He is an expert in structural, absorptive, catalytic and photocatalytic properties, in structural organization and dynamic features of ionic liquids, in magnetic interactions between paramagnetic centers. The author or co-author of 3 books, over 200 articles and reviews in scientific journals and books. He is an actual member of the International EPR/ESR Society, European Society on Quantum Solar Energy Conversion, Moscow House of Scientists, of the Board of Moscow Physical Society.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Semenov Institute of Chemical Physics",country:{name:"Russia"}}},{id:"62389",title:"PhD.",name:"Ali Demir",middleName:null,surname:"Sezer",slug:"ali-demir-sezer",fullName:"Ali Demir Sezer",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62389/images/3413_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ali Demir Sezer has a Ph.D. from Pharmaceutical Biotechnology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Marmara (Turkey). 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