Demographic characteristics.
\r\n\t
",isbn:"978-1-83881-922-4",printIsbn:"978-1-83881-921-7",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83881-923-1",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"dcfc52d92f694b0848977a3c11c13d00",bookSignature:"Dr. Fiaz Ahmad and Prof. Muhammad Sultan",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10454.jpg",keywords:"Agricultural Engineering, Technologies, Application, Sustainable Agriculture, Information Technology in Agriculture, Food Security, Renewable Energies, Precision Farming, Smart Agriculture, Farm Mechanization, Robotics, Post Harvest Technologies",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"November 25th 2020",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"December 23rd 2020",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"February 21st 2021",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"May 12th 2021",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"July 11th 2021",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"a month",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Dr. Ahmad is a researcher in the field of agricultural mechanization and agricultural equipment engineering, in-charge of Farm Machinery Design Laboratory at Bahauddin Zakariya University, with expertise in modeling and simulation. He applied for two patents at the national level.",coeditorOneBiosketch:"Renowned researcher with a focus on developing energy-efficient heat- and/or water-driven temperature and humidity control systems for agricultural storage, greenhouse, agricultural livestock and poultry applications including HVAC, desiccant air-conditioning, adsorption, Maisotsenko cycle (M-cycle), and adsorption desalination.",coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"338219",title:"Dr.",name:"Fiaz",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"fiaz-ahmad",fullName:"Fiaz Ahmad",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/338219/images/system/338219.jpg",biography:"Fiaz Ahmad obtained his Ph.D. (2015) from Nanjing Agriculture University China in the field of Agricultural Bioenvironmental and Energy Engineering and Postdoc (2020) from Jiangsu University China in the field of Plant protection Engineering. He got the Higher Education Commission, Pakistan Scholarship for Ph.D. studies, and Post-Doctoral Fellowship from Jiangsu Government, China. During postdoctoral studies, he worked on the application of unmanned aerial vehicle sprayers for agrochemical applications to control pests and weeds. He passed the B.S. and M.S. degrees in agricultural engineering from the University of Agriculture Faisalabad, Pakistan in 2007. From 2007 to 2008, he was a Lecturer in the Department of Agricultural Engineering, Bahauddin Zakariya University, Multan-Pakistan. Since 2009, he has been an Assistant Professor in the Department of Agricultural Engineering, BZ University Multan, Pakistan. He is the author of 33 journal articles. He also supervised 6 master students and is currently supervising 5 master and 2 Ph.D. students. In addition, Dr. Ahmad completed three university-funded projects. His research interests include the design of agricultural machinery, artificial intelligence, and plant protection environment.",institutionString:"Bahauddin Zakariya University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Bahauddin Zakariya University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Pakistan"}}}],coeditorOne:{id:"199381",title:"Prof.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Sultan",slug:"muhammad-sultan",fullName:"Muhammad Sultan",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/199381/images/system/199381.jpeg",biography:"Muhammad Sultan completed his Ph.D. (2015) and Postdoc (2017) from Kyushu University (Japan) in the field of Energy and Environmental Engineering. He was an awardee of MEXT and JASSO fellowships (from the Japanese Government) during Ph.D. and Postdoc studies, respectively. In 2019, he did Postdoc as a Canadian Queen Elizabeth Advanced Scholar at Simon Fraser University (Canada) in the field of Mechatronic Systems Engineering. He received his Master\\'s in Environmental Engineering (2010) and Bachelor in Agricultural Engineering (2008) with distinctions, from the University of Agriculture, Faisalabad. He worked for Kyushu University International Institute for Carbon-Neutral Energy Research (WPI-I2CNER) for two years. Currently, he is working as an Assistant Professor at the Department of Agricultural Engineering, Bahauddin Zakariya University (Pakistan). He has supervised 10+ M.Eng./Ph.D. students so far and 10+ M.Eng./Ph.D. students are currently working under his supervision. He has published more than 70+ journal articles, 70+ conference articles, and a few magazine articles, with the addition of 2 book chapters and 2 edited/co-edited books. 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Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"878",title:"Phytochemicals",subtitle:"A Global Perspective of Their Role in Nutrition and Health",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ec77671f63975ef2d16192897deb6835",slug:"phytochemicals-a-global-perspective-of-their-role-in-nutrition-and-health",bookSignature:"Venketeshwer Rao",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/878.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"82663",title:"Dr.",name:"Venketeshwer",surname:"Rao",slug:"venketeshwer-rao",fullName:"Venketeshwer Rao"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"4816",title:"Face Recognition",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"146063b5359146b7718ea86bad47c8eb",slug:"face_recognition",bookSignature:"Kresimir Delac and Mislav Grgic",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/4816.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"528",title:"Dr.",name:"Kresimir",surname:"Delac",slug:"kresimir-delac",fullName:"Kresimir Delac"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3621",title:"Silver Nanoparticles",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:null,slug:"silver-nanoparticles",bookSignature:"David Pozo Perez",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3621.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"6667",title:"Dr.",name:"David",surname:"Pozo",slug:"david-pozo",fullName:"David Pozo"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"59178",title:"Farmers’ Willingness to Cultivate Traditional Rice in Sri Lanka: A Case Study in Anuradhapura District",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73082",slug:"farmers-willingness-to-cultivate-traditional-rice-in-sri-lanka-a-case-study-in-anuradhapura-district",body:'Rice production in Sri Lanka has grown into a self-sufficiency level during the last two to three decades. Rice being the staple food of Sri Lankans and having 114 kg per capita consumption plays a major role in providing energy, protein and fat to the whole population [1]. Approximately 1,210,140 hectares of lands was devoted for paddy cultivation in 2015 and 2,992,333 metric tons of total rice availability for human consumption from domestic sources exceeded 2,310,321 metric tons of total rice requirement in 2015 while demonstrating the 129.32% of self-sufficiency rate [2]. Many programmes have been implemented in Sri Lanka to fulfill the national demand for rice through the effectively bred high-yielding varieties which are resistant to different stresses [3]. Nonetheless, people are more health conscious and interested in purchasing nutritional good quality products as the level of human health awareness increases among Sri Lankans. Traditional rice is being considered as more healthy and nutritious among Sri Lankans; a considerable demand is generating for traditional rice varieties in both local and international markets.
Sri Lanka is one of Asian countries which had a rich treasure of over 2400 traditional rice varieties [4] with identical nutritional and medicinal values [5]. Besides, these varieties are with varied maturity periods and highly resistant to extreme climatic conditions, pest and disease attacks [1] and adoptable to various soil and geographical conditions in the country. Out of these 2400 varieties, over 400 varieties are popular among Sri Lankan farmers at present. With the introduction of high-yielding newly improved varieties around the 1960s, traditional rice varieties became vanished from the Sri Lankan farming environments [6]. Thanks to the small-scale farmers, seeds of some of these old traditional varieties are still preserved in the gene banks. Moreover, traditional rice cultivation occupies a significant place among the rural communities in dry zone from past to present and even beyond the dry zone mainly due to threatening of people by common health problems like non-communicable diseases. In that scenario, farmers have increased the extent of traditional rice cultivation by adopting indigenous cultivation methods and organic inputs. Some non-governmental organizations have taken initiatives to promote traditional rice cultivation in the country advocating farmers to produce own seed paddy, cultivating rice for own consumption and fulfilling the market demand by selling surplus. Specially, districts like Anuradhapura, Polonnaruwa, Puttalam, Vavuniya, Kurunegala, Kegalle, Matale, Kandy, Rathnapura, Gampaha, Colombo, Galle, Matara, Monaragala, Badulla, Ampara, Batticaloa and Akkaraipattu are predominantly adopted to cultivate traditional rice varieties in the last few decades [7]. Importantly, the tolerance of traditional rice cultivars for submergence and salinity conditions has popularized them among farmers from those problematic areas. Compared to the improved rice varieties, some of traditional rice varieties are capable of being raised in nurseries for 2–3 months and tolerating water scarcities and heavy rainfalls or floods. And also, the strong vigorous stem helps to withstand against the heavy rains, winds and drought conditions. Their vigorous seeds are tolerant to other adverse conditions like waterlogging and drought. Therefore, most of the traditional rice varieties have the potential to cope with the drastic climatic changes which are generally detrimental to paddy cultivation [8]. Further, medicinal values of traditional rice have been experienced by Sri Lankans over few decades [9]. The lower starch hydrolysis rate lowers in vitro digestion rate which is suitable for diabetic patients. Most of the cultivars own officinal properties of preventing diabetic conditions, fatty liver, blood pressure and muscle recovering from free radicals and controlling weight, gallstones and protection against breast cancer. Namely, Suwandel, Madathawalu, Kaluheenati, Suduheenati, Kuruluthuda, Pachchaperumal, Ma wee, Hatadaa wee, Rathdel, Kahamala and Kahawanu are some of the most popular traditional rice varieties among the rice farmers and among traditional rice consumers in present Sri Lanka.
Anuradhapura, one of the largest districts in Sri Lanka, is situated in the North Central Province. The total land area is 6664 km2, and the total human population is 856,232. Moreover, cultivated land extent under paddy is reported as 254,296 hectares including cultivations under major and minor irrigation and rainfed systems which produced 4612 kg of average paddy yield per hectare which was more or less similar to the country’s average paddy production per hectare of 4527 kg. Rice farming is practiced by 65% of the population and nearly 17% of labor force is engaged with related occupations in rice cultivation in Anuradhapura district [10].
At present, there are increasing health threats from non-communicable diseases, namely, diabetes, high blood pressure, renal failures, variety of cancers and high blood cholesterol among both farmers and consumers in dry zone of Sri Lanka where the Anuradhapura district is located specifically and all over the island in general. As both growers and consumers highly believe that these health threats are basically due to unhealthy food habits and poor quality of the food items that they are consuming every day. Therefore, an increasing interest in growing and consuming traditional rice over improved varieties in this district could be observed. Thus, there is an increasing trend of the rice farmers in Anuradhapura district to cultivate traditional rice at least in few perches in their lands to be used for their family consumption, while some farmers are cultivating them in large scale expecting higher price in the market. Different farmers prefer to grow different varieties of traditional rice in their paddy fields, and there is a lack of research and findings on which factors trigger rice farmers to cultivate traditional rice over newly improved or hybrid rice in their paddy lands in different scales and which varieties of traditional rice do they prefer to cultivate over the others. Hence, this study was conducted to identify the factors affecting the willingness to cultivate traditional rice and to select their varieties for cultivation by rice farmers in Anuradhapura district of Sri Lanka.
This experimental study focused on rice farmers who are growing traditional rice varieties compared to nontraditional rice varieties in Anuradhapura district and was conducted in five divisional secretariat (DS) divisions in Anuradhapura district, namely, Padaviya, Medawachchiya, Rambewa, Thalawa and Rajanganaya, where most of the farmers are engaged in traditional rice cultivation (Figure 1).
Map of selected Divisional Secretariat (DS) divisions.
Two hundred paddy farmers were interviewed with a pretested questionnaire for identifying willingness to cultivate traditional rice and factors affecting the selection of traditional rice varieties. Three-stage stratified random sampling method was utilized to select 100 traditional rice growers and 100 nontraditional rice growers. At the first stage, five DS divisions were selected purposely where the highest farmers’ registration under paddy cultivation has been reported. Accordingly, the Grama Niladhari (GN) divisions which reported the highest farmers’ registration pertaining to the above five divisions were selected at the second stage, and at the final stage, both traditional rice farmers and nontraditional rice farmers were randomly selected for the questionnaire survey proportionately to the total farmers registered in the above five DS divisions. Additionally, focus group discussion and key personal interviews were conducted during the study. Secondary data were collected from different publications of Department of Census and Statistics, Central Bank of Sri Lanka and relevant research reports, project reports, journal articles and newspaper articles.
The collected data and information were subjected to logistic regression analysis to analyze the factors affecting willingness to grow traditional rice varieties and factor analysis to identify the factors affecting varietal selection.
Demographic characteristics of the study sample are summarized in Table 1. Mean age of the traditional rice-growing farmers was 48 years, while nontraditional rice-growing farmers have 51 years of mean age. Results revealed insignificant differences in household size (four members) and the number of years attained to a particular formal education (10 years) between these two categories of farmers. Moreover, for both farmer categories, at least two family members are available as family labor mainly consisting of the household head and his/her spouse. The land extent under traditional rice cultivation is smaller (1.34 acres) compared to improved rice cultivation (1.91 acres). The reason is that many of the traditional rice growers tend to cultivate traditional rice in their small paddy plots only for their family consumption as they are more health conscious, affected by non-communicable diseases (65.6%) and more aware (100%) on the nutritional and medicinal value of traditional rice varieties.
Parameter | Traditional rice farmers | Nontraditional rice farmers | ||
---|---|---|---|---|
Mean | ±SD | Mean | ±SD | |
Age of the respondent (years) | 47.87 (48*) | 11.54 | 51.31 (51) | 11.15 |
Household size (number) | 4.10 (4) | 1.26 | 3.74 (4) | 1.43 |
Educational level (years) | 10.19 (10) | 2.31 | 9.33 (9) | 2.87 |
Available family labor (number) | 2.22 (2) | 1.07 | 2.16 (2) | 1.095 |
Land extent (Ac) | 1.34 | 1.90 | 1.91 | 1.713 |
Yield (kg/Ac) | 1199.60 | 521.77 | 1695.88 | 701.38 |
Farm gate price (Rs./kg) | 50.24 | 14.90 | 31.32 | 5.28 |
Farming experience (years) | 22.95 | 12.96 | 5.96 | 7.77 |
Percentage (%) | Percentage (%) | |||
Gender of the respondent | ||||
Male | 67 | 92.6 | ||
Female | 33 | 7.4 | ||
Presence of non-communicable diseases | ||||
Yes | 65.6 | 78.7 | ||
No | 31.4 | 21.3 | ||
Awareness of traditional rice | ||||
Yes | 100 | 55.6 | ||
No | 0 | 44.4 | ||
Farming system | ||||
Organic | 86.5 | 1.9 | ||
Inorganic | 8.1 | 87.0 | ||
Mixed | 5.4 | 11.1 |
Demographic characteristics.
Numbers in parenthesis are rounded numbers.
Compared to nontraditional rice varieties (Rs. 31.00), traditional rice varieties have higher farm gate price (Rs. 50.00) which shows comparatively better potential market for traditional rice. With respect to the existing farming systems, 86.5% of traditional rice farmers are practicing organic farming methods in their rice farms which ensure environmental, social and economic benefits to the society, while majority of the nontraditional rice farmers (87%) apply inorganic fertilizers and agrochemicals in their rice fields expecting a higher yield for better income.
Logistic regression analysis was used to determine the factors affecting willingness to cultivate traditional rice by rice farmers. The binomial logistic analysis of measured variations in the outcome explained by predictors was significant (Pr < 0.001). Awareness of traditional rice, presence of non-communicable diseases in the household, land extent, yield, farm gate price, gender of respondent, age of the respondent, educational level, family labor availability, household size, farming experience and farming system were included in the logistic regression.
Table 2 explains the strength and the direction of the effect of each factor on the willingness to cultivate traditional rice. As revealed by the results, awareness of medicinal and nutritional values of traditional rice (Pr = 0.0062) show strong positive associations with the willingness to cultivate traditional rice compared to nontraditional rice. Land extent of rice cultivation shows a negative significant effect (Pr = 0.0404) on cultivation of traditional rice. It reveals that when farmers are having increased land extents, they are reluctant to cultivate traditional rice varieties. This is mainly due to the lower potential yield of traditional rice varieties over nontraditional (improved or hybrid) rice varieties. Most importantly, farm gate price shows a positive relationship with the willingness to cultivate traditional rice (Pr = 0.0076). Since the selling price is higher, farmers are more willing to go for traditional rice in their paddy fields over nontraditional rice varieties. Age of the respondent (Pr = 0.0141) and farming experience (Pr = 0.0169) positively affected the decisions-making regarding cultivation of traditional rice varieties where farmers are able to ascertain more knowledge on the importance of healthy consumption and food habits, awareness of non-communicable diseases and adverse impact of synthetic fertilizer and other chemicals to human and environment through their maturity with age and cumulative farming experiences. Further, the education level of the farmers shows a positive impact toward getting into traditional rice cultivation which emphasized that when people are more educated, they tend to consider their health and nutrition compared to illiterate people. Both traditional and nontraditional rice farmers practice organic and inorganic farming systems and mixture of these two. As revealed by the results, farming system has significantly negative effect on willingness to cultivate traditional rice.
Maximum likelihood estimates for factors affecting willingness to cultivate traditional rice varieties.
The presence of non-communicable diseases, yield, gender of the respondent, available family labor and household size were not significantly (Pr < 0.05) associated with willingness to cultivate traditional rice.
When farmers enhance their awareness on medicinal and nutritional values of traditional rice (OR = 4.025), nontraditional paddy farmers are also more likely to cultivate traditional paddy varieties (Table 3). The results further prove that when farmers increase their land extent by 1 acre (OR = −4.361), many of the traditional rice farmers tend to be relied on nontraditional rice cultivation. Moreover, the odds of being traditional rice cultivator is higher for higher farm gate price (OR = 1.704), old age of the farmers (OR = 1.17), higher educational level of the farmers (OR = 1.756) and more farming experience of the farmers (OR = 1.317).
Parameter | Point estimates | 95% confidence limits |
---|---|---|
Awareness of traditional rice | 4.205 | 1.105–9.790 |
Presence of non-communicable diseases in household | 2.356 | 0.882–6.290 |
Land extent | −4.361 | 1.066–17.832 |
Yield | 1.002 | 0.999–1.004 |
Farm gate price | 1.704 | 0.544–1.911 |
Gender of the respondent | 1.238 | 0.746–1.882 |
Age of the respondent | 1.17 | 0.948–1.448 |
Educational level | 1.756 | 0.394–1.851 |
Family labor availability | 0.158 | 0.019–1.322 |
Household size | 2.047 | 0.585–7.146 |
Farming experience | 1.317 | 1.051–1.656 |
Farming system | 0.001 | 0.001–0.055 |
Odd ratio of logistic regression analysis.
Factor analysis was executed to determine the factors affecting varietal selection by traditional rice farmers. Principal component analysis (PCA) emphasized that multiple observed variables have similar patterns of responses because of their association with an underlying latent variable [11]. Accordingly, it examines underlying variable in a number of observed variables of factors which affect selection of varieties.
The variance of the independent variables, explained by each principal component, is given by Eigen values. Any factor with an Eigen value ≥ 1 explains more variance than a single observed variable. Figure 2 presents the scree plot used to identify six numbers of factors affecting varietal selection of traditional rice farmers where the first five factors (Eigen value ≥ 1) are highly affected factors loading from scree plot (Table 4).
Scree plot for components.
Total variance explained by factor loadings.
The factor analysis revealed that four factors are affecting selection of varieties of traditional rice by rice farmers (Table 5). The first factor, namely, the varietal attributes, includes tolerance to pest and diseases, tolerance to drought conditions and tolerance to salinity. Factors, namely, presence of non-communicable diseases, gender, age, educational level and farming experience, are consolidated into the second factor which is named as personal factors. The third factor comprises of market-related attributes such as farm gate price and availability of buyers, while the fourth factor includes production-related resources, namely, cultivated land extent, yield, availability of family labor and farming system.
Parameter | Component | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | |
Presence of non-communicable diseases in the household | −0.330 | 0.718 | −0.574 | ||
Land extent | −0.291 | −0.260 | 0.489 | 0.622 | |
Yield | 0.284 | 0.586 | |||
Farm gate price | 0.368 | 0.482 | −0.360 | ||
Gender of the respondent | −0.299 | 0.433 | 0.254 | ||
Age of the respondent | −0.265 | 0.710 | 0.392 | ||
Educational level | 0.447 | −0.553 | |||
Family labor availability | 0.263 | 0.499 | |||
Farming experience | −0.329 | 0.282 | 0.561 | ||
Farming system | 0.434 | 0.603 | |||
Availability of buyers | 0.318 | −0.651 | |||
Tolerance to pest and diseases | 0.578 | 0.302 | |||
Tolerance to drought | 0.576 | −0.351 | |||
Tolerance to salinity | 0.636 | −0.300 |
Component matrix of factor analysis.
Extraction method: principal component analysis.
aFive components extracted.
With the increase of world population and hence the galloping food demand, high-yielding rice varieties were highly popular among the cultivators. This practice hitherto has led to serious “genetic erosion”—the loss of traditional varieties from agroecosystems [12, 13] in the rice production sector. Due to their incredible health benefits, it has made them a pleasing choice for consumers who are suffering from diabetes, overweight or regulating their sugar intake. Cultivation and consumption of traditional rice varieties are not restricted to certain places in Sri Lanka, because consumption of these varieties in both national and international has been very consistent.
People also credit traditional varieties with other health benefits, such as giving sensations of cooling in the body; improving vocal clarity, eyesight and fertility; maintaining body sugar levels; and mitigating rashes. Among the local communities, many of traditional rice varieties are popular due to their inheriting characteristics. For example, Suwandel variety which has a milky taste upon cooking is highly recommended to be eaten by hard-working people. According to Ayurvedic medicine, this variety is known to promote fair and glowing skin, improves the functioning of the excretory system, enhances vocal clarity, increases the male sexual potency and helps to control diabetes and constipation. Likewise, variety Pachchaperumal is a highly nutritious red rice cultivar which helps to cool the body, is preferred by patients who are suffering from diseases like diabetes and cardiovascular complications and is also good for patients with high blood pressure. Another example is that of variety Madathawalu, which is able to remove toxic components especially some cancer causative agents from the human body. This variety can clean the blood circulation system and promote the activity of sweating glands. It strengthens the immune system and adds to the nutritive value of the cooked rice for lactating mothers and infants.
Besides, it is known to all that the paddy production system is extremely vulnerable to climate change impacts. Traditional agricultural practices coupled with indigenous rice varieties have proven to be more successful in facing climate change and its related threats such as droughts, floods, attack of pests and disease outbreaks. These traditional rice varieties have strong characteristics that help them survive climate change impacts compared to newer varieties used in conventional paddy cultivation. Hence, the traditional rice cultivation is not only a solution for health concerns but also a way of achieving sustainability via conservation of agricultural practices which promise more congenial environment for future generation. According to [14], Indian farmers in a district in Uttar Pradesh rediscovered the advantages of traditional rice cultivation which were resistant to drought condition and have not been susceptible to diseases and fetched better market prices. Therefore, traditional rice cultivation does not restrict to a particular region or area. Therefore, findings of this study could be generalized to other areas in Sri Lanka and Asian region as a whole.
It seems logical to conclude from this study that awareness of medicinal and nutritional value of traditional rice varieties, land extent, farm gate price, age of the respondent, education level, farming experience and farming system have significant influence on the willingness of farmers to opt traditional rice cultivation in Anuradhapura district of Sri Lanka. The trend in willingness to grow traditional rice in Anuradhapura district showed that 59% of farmers attached to families with non-communicable disease are willing to grow traditional rice compared to farmers from healthier families. The study further revealed that two of the most vital factors responsible for selection of traditional rice variety are personal choices and varietal attributes. Hence, the study brings few recommendations to enhance the structured organization of traditional rice-growing farmers to make crop agronomic and management information and potential marketing information available through government policy interventions in order to empower the traditional rice-cultivating farmers in Anuradhapura district and throughout the country as a whole.
The effects of climate change on the general environment have been very significant over the years, most especially in agricultural plants grown in these environments. According to Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), stresses are incurred on plants as a result of changes in the climatic conditions of the environment, which has been concluded to be the most influencing factor affecting agricultural production at low lowlands mostly occupied by developing countries [1]. Climate change increases the presence of carbon dioxide in the air and also the temperature of the environment [2]. These are major constraints to food supply and balanced environment, leading most researchers into looking for good adaptation strategies for plants under this condition [3], by developing plant species and smart crops that are resilient to the effect of climate change [4]. Vulnerability to this kind of stresses inhibited on plants due to climate change result to disruption in the plant metabolism processes, thereby incurring reduction in aptness and quality of agricultural crop production [5]. The individual climate change inducing stressors are abiotic in nature [6], and they impose stress on different plant species: these abiotic plant stressors include drought, elevated CO2, temperature (low and high) [7], waterlogging, rainfall and sunshine intensity, chemical factors (heavy metals and pH). The fight against these stress factors are however complex due to how interrelated they are [8], with the major challenge being to understand how these plants react to different stressors, the diversity response pathways elicited by them and their genetic determination [1, 9, 10]. This chapter therefore is aimed at reviewing the effects of climate change on abiotic plant stress, plant responses to the different stress factors, and management strategies.
Development and growth of plants is hinged on the environmental temperature. This varies depending on the crop grown [11]. The effect of temperature on the potentials of plants growth are maximum and minimum daily temperature and variation in the day and night temperature with their respective average temperatures [12]. A significant rise in the temperature due to climate change over time will result in reduced rainfall, wind speed and snow cover which will also lead to a reduced length of growing season for plants, and will affect negatively the quality of the crops and agricultural productivity [13]. Fluctuations in the environmental temperature occur more speedily than changes in stress factors thus exasperating the effects of other stresses on plants [8]. The rise in temperature is a result of the global warming which varies regionally. Prospectively, the developing countries are more vulnerable and this may perhaps result to increased food insecurity in such region. A recent study on the effects of frost and extreme temperatures on wheat production (Triticum aestivum L) showed that frost caused unfruitfulness and abortion of formed grains while excessive heat resulted in reduction in the number of grains formed in the filling period of the grain [14]. With the notable effects of these extreme weather events on crop production which results from climate change, the impending effect of climate variation will endanger the production trend of crops thereby giving room for food insecurity. Djanaguiraman et al. [16] studied the effect of high temperature stress on a pearl millet, and they identified sensitive stages of growth of the plant, with parameters like temperature thresholds, genetic variability and fertility of pollen germination being determined. It was found that exposure to high temperature stress reduces pollen germination, seed yield, and also affects the fertility of the pollen and pistil tissues [15, 16].
The response of plants to this class of stress depends on the type of crop or plant as seen in Figure 1. Broccoli (Brassica oleracea var. italica) growth response to temperature started from 5°C and retired at 25°C while that of maize (Zea mays L.) started from approximately 10°C and retired at approximately at 40°C.
Minimum and maximum temperature response for maize and broccoli [11].
Drought is one of the major abiotic stressors of agricultural plants restraining crops’ return globally [17]. It does not only affect the crops’ growth, but it also affects the quality of yield. In an experiment carried out on miscanthus for biofuel production, drought treatment was observed to have declined plant weight by 45% and the composition of the biomass and cell wall structural rigidity were severely altered due to stress incurred by the plant during the drought period [18]. According to Dhankher [15], drought as an abiotic stress factor is being projected to hinder productivity in more than 50% of the arable lands in the world by the next 50 years. But the availability of saline water might lighten the world’s water problem if plants that are salt tolerant are being developed [15, 19, 20, 21, 22]. However, in response to this kind of plant stress, the need for drought tolerant plant is a necessity to boycott or reduce its negative impacts on food security. Figure 2 shows an extreme case of drought on a land.
Xerohalophytes growing in soil impacted by severe drought [15].
Also according to [23], there is a noticeable variability in soil water content in tropical countries because of the rainfall pattern and distribution in these areas. This is an indication that the soil water content is becoming scarce for plants use. Moreover, in an investigation to know the effect of timing precipitation on grassland and rainforest in USA, the result showed that soil water content available for plant use depends on the amount of precipitation in the study area [24]. That is, when rainfall distribution uniformity is low, the available soil water content would reduce, hence will not uniformly meet the plant’s soil-water-nutrient need, thus inducing stress on plants in those affected areas. This often results due to climate change. According to [25, 26], climate change alternate the timing of rainfall from one season or period to the other either resulting in smaller precipitation event or large one depending on the shift. This sudden shift in the precipitation affect plant growth and causes plant stress by disturbing plant metabolism, arresting photosynthesis, and may finally cause plants to die off.
Change in the soil water content and soil features has a notable impact on the plant and soil processes as indicated in Figure 3. The response in above-ground net primary productivity (ANPP) depends on which season receives extra water and which one receives less. The findings here further showed that the soil water content determines the response of above-ground net primary productivity [27]. Generally effects of drought stress on plants are;
Reduction in seed germination and development
Poor growth in vegetation
Poor reproductive growth
Reduction in leaf weight
Reduced photosynthesis
Reduced stomatal conductance and
A significant reduction in the total dry matter.
The effect of precipitation at extreme level on the above-ground net primary productivity through a rainfall slope [18].
Climate change has altered the hydrological cycle processes which have resulted to impairment or reduction in crop growth in so many areas around the world. Consequently, there is a large scale reduction in agricultural production especially on a flatland or places near the river due to waterlogging [28]. Waterlogging occur as result of leakage from irrigation canals or pure surface drainage but predominantly caused by heavy rainfall in such area [29]. As a result, there is increased soil compaction, also the available oxygen (O2) for plants cells are reduced because the diffusion process of O2 is slow in ponding water [29, 30]. Due to the limited supply in O2, anaerobic bacteria releases venomous amount of iron ion, manganese ion and sulfide [29].
Crops grown in a waterlogged condition undergo different physiological and morphological variations [29]. One of the major response of plant to waterlogging stress is stomatal cessation which impacts not only gas exchange, but also reduces the submissive absorption of H2O, which is harmfully prejudiced by anaerobic conditions in the rhizosphere [28]. Transpiration is also reduced which eventually results to wilting of the leaf and early senescence; consequentially, foliar abscission will become the result [31]. In flood logged area, respiration of roots are not aerated in which gas diffusion are severely reserved, thereby resulting to it changing from aerobic to anaerobic conditions which is dangerous to plants development [31, 32]. Waterlogging also deters the nutrients intake of plants as presented in Table 1 [33]. An investigation to know the effect of waterlogging on growth nutrient concentrations observed that there was high sprout dry weight of wheat in the waterlogged treatments compared to the control. Both in barley and wheat there was an indication of reduction in nutrients such as Nitrogen, Phosphorus, Potassium, Manganese, Copper, Zinc and Magnesium as shown in Table 1.
Nutrients | Wheat | Barley | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Control | Waterlogged | SC | Control | Waterlogged | SC | |
Mg/g dry matter | ||||||
N | 47.1 | 38.1 | 30–45 | 49.9 | 34.8 | 20–40 |
P | 6.2 | 4.9 | 3.5–6.0 | 5.1 | 3.9 | 3.5–6.0 |
K | 57.4 | 48.6 | 33–45 | 63.2 | 45.1 | 30–55 |
Ca | 6.3 | 5.8 | 4–10 | 8.3 | 6.9 | 5–10 |
Mg | 1.9 | 1.4 | 2–3.5 | 2.3 | 1.9 | 1.5–3.0 |
Mg/kg dry matter | ||||||
Mn | 41.8 | 27.5 | 35–100 | 37.9 | 21.9 | 30–100 |
Cu | 12.2 | 10.0 | 7–15 | 10.5 | 7.2 | 6–12 |
Fe | 92.8 | 89.7 | – | 89.9 | 69.1 | – |
Zn | 39.6 | 28.5 | 25–70 | 38.4 | 26.5 | 20–60 |
Mg/g dry matter | ||||||
N | 49.1 | 29.0 | 30–45 | 48.9 | 34.5 | 20–40 |
P | 4.6 | 3.3 | 3.5–6 | 4.4 | 3.6 | 3.5–6.0 |
K | 50.5 | 28.0 | 33–45 | 54.5 | 28.1 | 30–55 |
Ca | 4.9 | 6.2 | 4–10 | 8.1 | 12.2 | 5–10 |
Mg | 3.2 | 2.0 | 2–3.5 | 3.0 | 2.8 | 1.5–3.0 |
Mg/kg dry matter | ||||||
Mn | 53.9 | 35.1 | 35–100 | 63.9 | 47.7 | 30–100 |
Cu | 10.7 | 7.9 | 7–15 | 10.1 | 9.4 | 6–12 |
Fe | 72.1 | 70.0 | – | 69.5 | 71.0 | – |
Zn | 38.6 | 21.4 | 25–70 | 40.5 | 34.1 | 20–60 |
Mineral concentrations of spring barley and spring wheat shoots as related to a 15 days period of waterlogging.
The effect of salinity on agricultural crop production and food supply according to [15] has been on the increase worldwide, with the cultivation of salt-sensitive crops such as rice and wheat being a worldwide practice [34], salinity stress needs to be promptly addressed. Rice according to [34] is one of the crops planted most around the world as it is a major source of food for almost all humanity. Thirty-nine (39) million hectares out of the 130 million hectares of land on which rice is cultivated worldwide contains a certain degree of salinity which varies with the rice cultivar [35, 36]. Salinity is a stressor common to arid and semi-arid regions of the world where evapotranspiration exceeds rainfall, and as a result leads to inadequate rain to filter away the soluble salts from the root zone [37]. Lands with salinity stress problem covered at least 7% of the world land area four decades ago according to [37], and has been seen to double every two decades. Showing that the salinity stress problem is rapidly increasing every day, majorly as a result of climate change [38, 39]. Approximately 1.6 mha of land is being lost to salinity stress every year, with 60% salinization coming from natural sources (weathering of minerals, and soils developed from saline rocks) and 40% coming from secondary sources (irrigation, deforestation, overgrazing or intensive cropping). But ironically majority of the land lost as a result of secondary salinization is caused as an adverse effect of irrigation of the farmland [37] with both normal water and treated sewage effluents. This takes place in at least 20% of irrigated lands in agriculture [38]. The salinity stressor reduces drastically the ability of plants to take up water and other nutrients from the soil, leading to stunted growth; salt deposits find their way into the transpiration stream and damage the cells in leaves thereby causing leaf burn; it also affects the enzyme activity happening within the plant. The salinity of a soil is measured in terms of electrical conductivity (EC), and these soils have a mixture of salts of Sulfate, Sodium, Magnesium, Chlorine and Calcium.
But most often, it is the combination of two more stressor that affect growth of a plant, for example heat and salinity or drought and heat as indicated by the Venn diagram presented in Figure 4 [6]. Several researches have investigated the combine effects of drought and heat stress on maize, sorghum and turf-grasses growth and productivity. The studies showed that the combine effects of the two stressors were higher compared to when the stresses were applied individually [40, 41, 42].
Unique molecular characteristics of drought and heat stress combination [6].
Having seen that abiotic stresses on plants like temperature, flooding, drought, and salinity has a serious effect on crop production, as they cause stunted growth in plants, affect plant metabolism and thus reduce crop yield by as much as 70% [43], it has also been seen that 50% of crop yield losses come as a result of abiotic stress in most crop plants [43]. Also with the constant changes in the climatic conditions of the world, most of these abiotic stresses on plants are made worse than how it was in previous years. For example, the increased presence of CO2, methane, nitrous oxide and chlorofluorocarbons in the atmosphere as a result of industrialization and other human activities have increased drastically the average ambient temperature which causes heat stress [43, 44]. This increase in the ambient temperature of the environment also increases evaporation in water bodies, thereby causing an unexpected decrease in the available water for crop production which in extreme cases leads to drought [4, 34, 43]. Therefore a better understanding of plant responses to these abiotic stresses and their tolerance mechanism will help improve crop resistance and productivity [45, 46].
Plants response to abiotic stresses depends heavily on their developmental stage. Their response to drought and flooding according to [43] is majorly ordered by genetic expression and biochemical metabolism via different physiological processes. Some of the morphological growth indices affected by drought stress is the leaf area of the plant, the plant height, dry matter and biomass production. The photosynthetic efficiency, gas exchange measurements, the stomatal conductance, the phytochemical and the non-phytochemical quenching, malondialdehyde (MDA) and relative water content are the physiological indices put in check during the evaluation of drought stress in plants [47]. Therefore plants undergoing this type of stress gradually losses water from the protoplasm, the plant cell will dehydrates and this affects the structure of the plant cell [43, 45, 48]. When all the free water in the protoplasm of the plant cell is lost, only plants that are desiccation-tolerant (resurrection plants) will remain, and others will die off [43].
Plant’s architecture is altered during flooding, although this is majorly dependent on the type of flood. When the plants are covered completely with floodwater, plant growth is stopped to conserve energy to be used once the level of water goes down. This strategy is important when the plant is completely flooded [43, 45]. In situations whereby the plants are completely flooded for a long period of time, the plant dies off as a result of the food reserve being completely depleted. During this period, there is also low oxygen (O2), and the plants resort to rearranging their anatomy and metabolism so they can be able to function. This rearrangement to create space and a continuous gas channel to facilitate an internal O2 from the canopy to the root of the plant is known as aerenchyma [45]. Adjustment to the metabolic pattern of the plants during flood stress is driven by hormones like the abscisic acid, gibberellin, and ethylene.
In periods of high temperature, there is a very severe damage to the chlorophyll, as heat stress changes the structural arrangement of the thylakoids, thus affecting its functionality, and also reducing the chlorophyll content of the plant. The above adverse effects on the plant reduces the ability of the plant to photosynthesize because by reducing the chlorophyll content, the photosynthetic pigments are reduced, thereby leading to physiological impairment and reduced growth of the plant [49]. The leaf of the plant also loses water under high temperatures thus leading to stomatal closure due to reduced leaf water potential [43, 49]. According to [50] stomatal closure is the major factor affecting photosynthesis in plants. High temperatures according to [51] cause impaired pollen and ovary development which adversely leads to the bad reproductive health of plants. Plants also undergo denaturation of protein and enzymes under extreme temperature conditions which gives rise to the programmed death of the tissues and cells [43, 52].
Managing abiotic stresses in plants is a very is a challenging task because of its multifaceted nature. Comprehensive researches for the development of abiotic stress tolerance in plants are in progress, comprising genes from several pathways like the osmolyte synthesis, ion homeostasis, antioxidative pathways, and regulatory genes [53]. Several attempts have been made to substantiate the role of “single-function” gene(s) in the past ten (10) years, as well as transcription factor(s) for abiotic stress tolerance [53]. Because abiotic stress tolerance is multigenic in nature, the modern trend is moving towards genetic transformation of multiple genes or transcription factors. Generally, abiotic stresses can be managed by genetically improving the genes and transcription factors, or by employing cultural practices which includes modification and adjustment of planting time and crop density in the field so as to contain the effect of these abiotic stresses. Another method is to apply phytohormones, signaling and trace elements and also by applying osmoprotectants [44, 51].
Conventionally, some of the plants tolerant to these abiotic stresses discussed in the previous sections can be recognized when proper screening methods and criteria for selection are employed via cultural field breeding techniques, like modifying planting time and adjusting the compactness of plants cultivated to evade these stress situations [43, 52]. One major limitation in adopting the conventional field screening of these plants is that the screening and identification process of a plant for a particular type of stress-tolerant trait might be severely influenced by other stress factors. For instance, the quality of the screening process of a plant for cultivars tolerant to extreme temperature stresses, might be affected by other stresses either biotic (pests and pathogens) or abiotic (salinity). Therefore [44, 52] was of the opinion that glasshouses screening should be employed as an alternative to field screening [43]. The selection of some stress-tolerant plants for cultivation has notably been hindered by the polygenic nature of the trait, epistasis, and genotype by environment and low heritability [43]. These traits can be identified by carrying out quality trait loci (QTL) analysis. The qualitative trait loci (QTL) analysis according to [43, 44, 52] were carried out on rice, maize and wheat and heat stress tolerant traits were found, although these traits were found to be associated with the reproductive stage of these plants [43, 54, 55]. Some other loci, like the loci for freezing tolerance at vegetative stage, chilling at seedling stage, submergence-tolerance loci was also found in Arabidopsis model plants, maize and rice.
Biotechnological advancement has recently given a way to genetically modify the crop plants to be resistant or tolerant to some stress factors [56]. Advancement in biotechnology and genetic engineering brought out tools and methods of controlling the mechanism of abiotic stress resistance, and for developing crops tolerant to specific stress by introgression of the genes involved in stress response and putative tolerance [57]. This is important as it introduces the modified genes into genomes of elite breeding lines, and as such helps to improve crop varieties [16, 52, 54, 56, 57].
It can be seen that climate change severely intensifies the effect of these abiotic stresses on plants. The stresses not properly managed make it impossible to meet global food demand. The tolerance of plants to abiotic stress is as a result of activities of diverse stress-responsive genes that relate with other elements of stress-transducing pathways. A very good knowledge of the physiological processes in response to different abiotic stress will help design methods and mechanisms to transform in order to improve tolerance of different abiotic stress in plants. Thus, stress-tolerant gene resources from crop plants, model plants and microorganisms need to be identified and developed by making use of appropriate genetic transformation technologies.
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\n\nReaders and Authors can notify us if they find any errors in the works published under Online First. All major errors will be accompanied by a separate correction notice, erratum or corrigendum (Retraction and Correction Policy.)
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