Application of chemically modification starches in foods.
\\n\\n
More than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\\n\\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\\n\\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\\n\\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\\n\\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\\n\\n\\n\\n
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"IntechOpen Maintains",originalUrl:"/media/original/113"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
Simba Information has released its Open Access Book Publishing 2020 - 2024 report and has again identified IntechOpen as the world’s largest Open Access book publisher by title count.
\n\nSimba Information is a leading provider for market intelligence and forecasts in the media and publishing industry. The report, published every year, provides an overview and financial outlook for the global professional e-book publishing market.
\n\nIntechOpen, De Gruyter, and Frontiers are the largest OA book publishers by title count, with IntechOpen coming in at first place with 5,101 OA books published, a good 1,782 titles ahead of the nearest competitor.
\n\nSince the first Open Access Book Publishing report published in 2016, IntechOpen has held the top stop each year.
\n\n\n\nMore than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\n\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\n\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\n\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\n\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\n\n\n\n
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-supports-asapbio-s-new-initiative-publish-your-reviews-20220729",title:"IntechOpen Supports ASAPbio’s New Initiative Publish Your Reviews"},{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"8140",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Modern Cryptography - Current Challenges and Solutions",title:"Modern Cryptography",subtitle:"Current Challenges and Solutions",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Cyber security is taking on an important role in information systems and data transmission over public networks. This is due to the widespread use of the Internet for business and social purposes. This increase in use encourages data capturing for malicious purposes. To counteract this, many solutions have been proposed and introduced during the past 80 years, but Cryptography is the most effective tool. Some other tools incorporate complicated and long arithmetic calculations, vast resources consumption, and long execution time, resulting in it becoming less effective in handling high data volumes, large bandwidth, and fast transmission. Adding to it the availability of quantum computing, cryptography seems to lose its importance. To restate the effectiveness of cryptography, researchers have proposed improvements. This book discusses and examines several such improvements and solutions.",isbn:"978-1-78984-471-9",printIsbn:"978-1-78984-470-2",pdfIsbn:"978-1-78984-365-1",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.78088",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"modern-cryptography-current-challenges-and-solutions",numberOfPages:128,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"a0278340394333d416e5860e5b1e1c69",bookSignature:"Menachem Domb",publishedDate:"November 27th 2019",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8140.jpg",numberOfDownloads:4460,numberOfWosCitations:1,numberOfCrossrefCitations:3,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:6,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:10,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"October 24th 2018",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"December 10th 2018",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"February 8th 2019",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"April 29th 2019",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"June 28th 2019",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"222778",title:"Prof.",name:"Menachem",middleName:null,surname:"Domb",slug:"menachem-domb",fullName:"Menachem Domb",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/222778/images/10963_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Domb is currently an Associate Professor at the Computer Science Department of the Ashkelon Academy College in Israel. Graduated from the Technion with a DSc degree in Operations Research, holds an MSc from New York University (NYU) Currant Institute of Mathematical Sciences, and an MBA from Tel-Aviv University. Post doctorate was received at Washington University in St. Louis. He has over 25 years of academic lecturing and research experience. \r\nIn parallel, he worked in the IT industry for over 30 years and has experience in various technical and executive positions in large international IT companies, in the Telecom, Health, Security, Finance and Government domains.",institutionString:"Ashkelon Academy College",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"6",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Ashkelon Academic College",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Israel"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"531",title:"Cryptography",slug:"cryptography"}],chapters:[{id:"67057",title:"Implementing Symmetric Cryptography Using Sequence of Semi-Bent Functions",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.85023",slug:"implementing-symmetric-cryptography-using-sequence-of-semi-bent-functions",totalDownloads:800,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Symmetric cryptography is a cornerstone of everyday digital security, where two parties must share a common key to communicate. The most common primitives in symmetric cryptography are stream ciphers and block ciphers that guarantee confidentiality of communications and hash functions for integrity. Thus, for securing our everyday life communication, it is necessary to be convinced by the security level provided by all the symmetric-key cryptographic primitives. The most important part of a stream cipher is the key stream generator, which provides the overall security for stream ciphers. Nonlinear Boolean functions were preferred for a long time to construct the key stream generator. In order to resist several known attacks, many requirements have been proposed on the Boolean functions. Attacks against the cryptosystems have forced deep research on Boolean function to allow us a more secure encryption. In this work we describe all main requirements for constructing of cryptographically significant Boolean functions. Moreover, we provide a construction of Boolean functions (semi-bent Boolean functions) which can be used in the construction of orthogonal variable spreading factor codes used in code division multiple access (CDMA) systems as well as in certain cryptographic applications.",signatures:"Samed Bajrić",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/67057",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/67057",authors:[{id:"288175",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Samed",surname:"Bajric",slug:"samed-bajric",fullName:"Samed Bajric"}],corrections:null},{id:"67685",title:"Survey of RSA Vulnerabilities",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.84852",slug:"survey-of-rsa-vulnerabilities",totalDownloads:981,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Rivest et al. patented (US) RSA. RSA forms the basis of most public encryption systems. It describes a public key encryption algorithm and certification process, which protects user data over networks. The patent expired in September 2000 and now is available for general use. According to Marketsandmarkets.com, the global network encryption market size is expected to grow from USD 2.9 billion in 2018 to USD 4.6 billion by 2023, at a compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of 9.8%. Major growth drivers for the market include increasing adoption of optical transmission, an increasing demand to meet various regulatory compliances and a growing focus on shielding organizations from network security breaches. In short, RSA forms the basis of almost all public encryption systems. This, however, is not without risk. This chapter explores some of these vulnerabilities in a mathematical context and provides the reader with an appreciation of the strength of RSA.",signatures:"Anthony Overmars",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/67685",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/67685",authors:[{id:"285451",title:"Dr.",name:"Anthony",surname:"Overmars",slug:"anthony-overmars",fullName:"Anthony Overmars"}],corrections:null},{id:"67351",title:"A Survey of Fast Scalar Multiplication on Elliptic Curve Cryptography for Lightweight Embedded Devices",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.86584",slug:"a-survey-of-fast-scalar-multiplication-on-elliptic-curve-cryptography-for-lightweight-embedded-devic",totalDownloads:427,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Elliptic curve cryptography (ECC) is one of the most famous asymmetric cryptographic schemes which offers the same level of security with much shorter keys than the other widely used asymmetric cryptographic algorithm, Rivest, Shamir, and Adleman (RSA). In ECC, the main and most heavily used operation is the scalar multiplication kP, where the scalar value k is a private integer and must be secured. Various methods for fast scalar multiplication are based on the binary/ternary representation of the scalar. In this chapter, we present various methods to make fast scalar multiplication on ECC over prime field for lightweight embedded devices like wireless sensor network (WSN) and Internet of Things (IoT).",signatures:"Youssou Faye, Hervé Guyennet and Ibrahima Niang",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/67351",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/67351",authors:[{id:"286958",title:"Dr.",name:"Youssou",surname:"Faye",slug:"youssou-faye",fullName:"Youssou Faye"},{id:"288029",title:"Prof.",name:"Herve",surname:"Guyennet",slug:"herve-guyennet",fullName:"Herve Guyennet"},{id:"294909",title:"Prof.",name:"Ibrahima",surname:"Niang",slug:"ibrahima-niang",fullName:"Ibrahima Niang"}],corrections:null},{id:"66352",title:"Numerical Problem Encryption for High-Performance Computing Applications",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.85565",slug:"numerical-problem-encryption-for-high-performance-computing-applications",totalDownloads:775,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Recent years witnessed the diffusion of cloud-based services. Cloud services have the interesting advantage that they can provide resources (CPU, disk space, etc.) that would be too expensive to deploy and maintain in-house. A major drawback of cloud-based services is the problem of handling private data and—possibly—intellectual property to a third party. With some service (e.g., data storage), cryptography can provide a solution; however, there are some services that are more difficult to protect. An example of such services is the renting of CPU to carry out numerical computation such as differential equation solving. In this chapter, we discuss the problem of encrypting numerical problems so that their solution can be safely outsourced. The idea is to transform (encrypt) a given numerical problem into a different one whose solution can be mapped back to the solution of the original problem if the key used at the encryption stage is known.",signatures:"Riccardo Bernardini",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/66352",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/66352",authors:[{id:"219317",title:"Prof.",name:"Riccardo",surname:"Bernardini",slug:"riccardo-bernardini",fullName:"Riccardo Bernardini"}],corrections:null},{id:"67069",title:"Overlay Security: Quantum-Safe Communication over the Internet Infrastructure",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.86179",slug:"overlay-security-quantum-safe-communication-over-the-internet-infrastructure",totalDownloads:805,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The need for a quantum-safe Internet is emerging, and this is a great opportunity to re-examine the legacy of public key infrastructure. There is a need for perspective on the evolution of cryptography over the years, including the perfect information-theoretical secure schemes and the computationally secure schemes, in particular. There is also a need to examine the evolving Internet infrastructure to identify efficient design and secure cryptographic schemes over the existing Internet infrastructure. 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These are special linear groups SL(d, q), orthogonal groups O(d, q), and symplectic groups Sp(d, q). The family O(d, q) splits into two different families of Chevalley groups depending on the parity of d. The MOR cryptosystem over SL(d, q) was studied by the second author. In that case, the hardness of the MOR cryptosystem was found to be equivalent to the discrete logarithm problem in \n\n\nF\n\nq\nd\n\n\n\n. In this chapter, we show that the MOR cryptosystem over Sp(d, q) has the security of the discrete logarithm problem in \n\n\nF\n\nq\nd\n\n\n\n. However, it seems likely that the security of the MOR cryptosystem for the family of orthogonal groups is \n\n\nF\n\nq\n\nd\n2\n\n\n\n\n. 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\r\n\tMass production companies are facing new challenges in the fourth industrial revolution that could have a major impact on their market position. Increasingly dynamic customer demand requires the implementation of new mass-production solutions to meet specific customer needs with the efficiency of mass production. Mass production is not only a technological challenge, but the related logistical solutions also play a major role in the improvement of efficiency. In addition to the automation and robotization of technological and logistical processes, the role of human resources in mass production cannot be neglected. Based on these facts, this book intends to contain studies that cover five major disciplines related to mass production. The first of these areas is the Sustainability of Mass Production Systems, which focuses on energy efficiency, greening, emission reduction, and the environmental impact of mass production. The second topic will cover the logistics and material handling processes of mass production from automation, supply chain design and operation, autonomous material handling, and logistics 4.0 solutions point of view. The third topic will include the main topics of technologies in mass production, while the fourth part will focus on the importance of human resources. The fifth part will include the state-of-the-art IT solutions for mass production.
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The 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl coenzyme A reductase inhibitors or statins are potent inhibitors of cholesterol biosynthesis, and most of the benefits of statin therapy are owing to the lowering of serum cholesterol levels. Reduction of LDL-cholesterol leads to upregulation of the LDL receptor and increased LDL clearance. Statins are the principal drugs in the primary and secondary prevention of coronary heart disease. Recent evidence also shows that more intensive lowering of LDL-cholesterol by statins is associated with greater clinical benefits. The mechanisms attributed to lipid lowering with statin therapy include atheromatous plaque stabilization, modification of the atherosclerosis progression and improved endothelial functions.
Statins reduce cardiovascular events in not only hypercholesterolemic but also normocholesterolemic patients with coronary heart disease (CHD) or cardiovascular risks.
Moreover, clinical trials and clinical benefits have shown that statins’ effects involved other pharmacological activities and not only changes in lipid levels. “Pleiotropic" effects of statins involve improving endothelial function, decreasing vascular inflammation and oxidative stress, and inhibiting the thrombogenic response. Moreover, some works shows statins’ beneficial extrahepatic effects on the immune system, CNS, and bone. Many of these pleiotropic effects are mediated by inhibition of isoprenoids, which serve as lipid attachments for intracellular signaling molecules. In particular, inhibition of small GTP-binding proteins, Rho, Ras, and Rac, whose proper membrane localization and function are dependent on isoprenylation, may play an important role in mediating the pleiotropic effects of statins. By inhibiting the conversion of HMG-CoA to L-mevalonic acid, statins prevent the synthesis of the important isoprenoids mentioned above, and also farnesyl pyrophosphate (FPP) and geranylgeranyl pyrophosphate (GGPP), which are precursors of cholesterol biosynthesis. Isoprenylated proteins can modify diverse cellular functions, therefore, statins have additional effects cholesterol-independent. Indeed, recent studies suggest that statins might be involved in immunomodulation, neuroprotection, and cellular senescence.
Therefore, statins might exert cholesterol-independent or “pleiotropic” effects through direct inhibition of these small GTP-binding proteins.
The 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl coenzyme A reductase inhibitors or Statins (Figure 1) are potent inhibitors of cholesterol biosynthesis, and most of the benefits of statin therapy are owing to the lowering of serum cholesterol levels. Because 60-70% of serum cholesterol is derived from hepatic synthesis and HMG-CoA reductase is the crucial rate-limiting enzyme in the cholesterol biosynthetic pathway, inhibition of this enzyme by statins results in a dramatic reduction in circulating low-density lipoprotein (LDL)-cholesterol. Reduction of LDL-cholesterol leads to up-regulation of the LDL receptor and increased LDL clearance. Moreover, statins increases HDL levels and decreases triglyceride levels. Statins are the principal drugs in the primary and secondary prevention of coronary heart disease for more than 25 million people at risk of cardiovascular disease worldwide. The Scandinavian Simvastatin Survival Study (4S) was the first randomized controlled trial to show significant risk reduction in cardiovascular mortality in patients with coronary-artery disease. Many studies,, such as 4S, Cholesterol and Recurrent Events (CARE), Long-term Intervention with Pravastatin in Ischemia Disease (LIPID), West of Scotland Coronary Prevention Study (WOSCOPS), Air Force/Texas Coronary Atherosclerosis Prevention Study (AFCAPS/TexCAPS), and the Heart Protection Study (HPS), have demonstrated the beneficial effects of statins in the prevention of cardiovascular disease. These works have shown significant risk reduction in cardiovascular mortality in patients with coronary artery disease, due to reduction in cholesterol levels and, therefore, reduction in atherosclerotic lesion development. The mechanisms attributed to lipid lowering with statin therapy include atheromatous plaque stabilization, modification of the atherosclerosis progression, and improved endothelial functions. The lowering of serum cholesterol levels is therefore thought to be the primary mechanism underlying the therapeutic benefits of statin therapy in cardiovascular disease. As 60-70% of serum cholesterol is obtained from hepatic synthesis mediated by HMG-CoA reductase, inhibition of this enzyme by statins is a principal way of reducing circulating low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol [1, 5, 7, 11, 10, 13, 16, , 24, 27, 30, 36, 39].
Statins in use today are: lovastatine, simvastatine, pravastatine, fluvastatine, athorvastatine and rosuvastatine. Lovastatine, simvastatine, and pravastatine are natural compounds, obtained from the fungi
Another statin used in the past was cerivastatine, but it produced some fatal adverse effect of rhabdomyolysis. Therefore, this drug was discontinued in 2000 [4].
Chemical structure of statins [
However, the overall clinical benefits observed with statin therapy appear to be greater than what might be expected from changes in lipid profile alone, suggesting that the beneficial effects of statins may extend beyond their effects on serum cholesterol levels.
Statins reduce cardiovascular events in not only hypercholesterolemic but also normocholesterolemic patients. Because of the effects of lipid lowering on atherosclerosis, statins reduce morbidity and mortality in patients with ischemic heart failure. Statins also improve heart function and survival in patients with non-ischemic heart failure. Indeed, statins improve neurohormonal imbalance and idiopathic dilated cardiomyopathy. Thus, the improvements in heart function by statins might be owing to cholesterol-independent mechanisms [2, 5, 7, 11, 13, 19, 22, 24, 29, 30, 32].
Moreover, clinical trials and clinical benefits had shown that statins’ effects involved other pharmacological activities and not only changes in lipid levels. Cholesterol-independent or "pleiotropic" effects of statins involve improving or restoring endothelial function, decreasing oxidative stress and vascular inflammation, enhancing the stability of atherosclerotic plaques, inhibiting the thrombogenic response, and lowering oxidative stress. Moreover, some works shows statins beneficial extrahepatic effects on the immune system, CNS, and bone.
Statins might exert cholesterol-independent or pleiotropic effects by inhibiting the conversion of HMG-CoA to L-mevalonic acid and, in this manner, prevent the synthesis of important isoprenoids, such as farnesylpyrophosphate (FPP), geranylgeranyl pyrophosphate (GGPP) and ubiquinone, which are precursors of cholesterol biosynthesis and of lipid attachments for intracellular signaling molecules. In particular, inhibition of small GTP-binding proteins, Rho, Ras, and Rac, whose proper membrane localization and function are dependent on isoprenylation, may play an important role in mediating the direct cellular effects of statins on the vascular wall. These isoprenylated proteins constitute approximately 2% of total cellular proteins, and isoprenylated proteins might control diverse cellular functions, as signal transduction, growth of vascular smooth muscle, apoptosis and in the regulation of the vascular activity of NAD(P) H oxidase.
Ras and Rho isoprenylation by statins, lead to increase of the amount to both compounds in the cytoplasm cells. As Rho is the more important target in the geranylgeranylation way, inhibition of Rho y de Rho-kinasa is an very important mechanism for the pleiotropic effects of statins at the vascular wall [8, 19, 25] (Figures 2 and 3).
Hypocholesterolemic effects of statins can be explained by hepatic HMG-CoA reductase inhibition, whereas the independent cholesterol effects can be found in all kinds of cells.
As isoprenylated proteins might control diverse cellular functions, we can explain that statins might have additional effects beyond lipid lowering [3, 4, 8, 17, 20, 23, 25, 37] (Li et al., 2002].
Biological actions of isoprenoids [
Regulation of the Rho GTPase cycle. Rho proteins cycle between a cytosolic, inactive GDP-bound state and a, membrane, active, GTP-bound state [
Indeed, recent studies suggest that statins might be involved in immunomodulation, neuroprotection, and cellular senescence [2, 5, 7, 11, 13, 18, 22, 24, 29, 30, 31, 32, 35].
Finally, statin therapy can be used for patients with autoimmune diseases, such as multiple sclerosis [26, 34, 35]. Furthermore, in a 6 month, randomized, double-blind placebo-controlled clinical trial, patients with rheumatoid arthritis who received atorvastatin showed a reduction in disease activity [21]. However, it is too early to predict whether these promising data can translate into clinical benefit by statins in patients with autoimmune disease.
The potential clinical implications of statin pleiotropy suggests that perhaps other biomarkers, in addition to lipid levels, should be used to gauge the full efficacy of statin therapy in patients with cardiovascular risks or that statin therapy may be effective in disease states, such as inflammatory conditions, ischemic stroke, or cancer, where elevated cholesterol levels have not been shown to be a strong epidemiological risk for these diseases [2, 5, 7, 8, 11, 12, 13, 19, 20, 22, 24, 25, 29, 30] (Vaughan et al., 2003).
Some clinical trials, such as MIRACL (Myocardial Ischemia Reduction with Aggressive Cholesterol Lowering), TNT (Treating to New Targets), PROVE IT-TIMI 22, and SPARCL (Stroke Prevention by Aggressive Reduction in Cholesterol Levels), have shown that statins, when used in high doses, can reduce vascular risks better than when used in low doses. Although high doses, adverse effects are relatively low, except atorvastatin 80-mg, that is associated with higher rates of elevated hepatic transaminase, and simvastatin 80-mg with higher rates of myopathy and rhabdomyolysis. A challenge today is to discover if high-dose statin therapy provides greater benefits due to lower cholesterol levels or due to statin pleiotropic effects [2, 5, 7, 11, 13, 18, 19, 22, 24, 29, 30, 31, 35] (Vaughan et al., 2003).
Hypercholesterolemia impairs endothelial function, and endothelial dysfunction is one of the earliest manifestations of atherosclerosis. When endothelial dysfunction appears, its principal sign is the impaired synthesis, release, and activity of endothelial-derived nitric oxide (NO). Endothelial NO inhibits several components of the atherogenic process, such as vascular relaxation and platelet aggregation, vascular smooth muscle proliferation, and endothelial-leukocyte interactions. [9, 15, 17, 19, 28, 38].
Statins could restore endothelial function, in part, by lowering serum cholesterol levels. Indeed, statins increase endothelial NO production by action over NO synthase (eNOS). Also, statins restore eNOS activity in hypoxia condition. Statins also inhibit the expression of endothelin-1, a potent vasoconstrictor and mitogen [6, 14].
Oxidative stress is defined as tissue injury resulting from a disturbance in theequilibrium between the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) also known as free radicals and antioxidant defense mechanisms [3].
ROS have been implicated in many disease states, including neurodegenerative disease like Alzheimer and Parkinson disease, atherosclerosis, inflammatory conditions, certain cancers, diabetes mellitus (DM), cataract in the eye, pulmonary, renal, heart diseases, and the process of aging.
NADPH oxidase is an important signaling mediator in the signaling pathway mediated alpha-1-AR, stimulating hypertrophy in adult rat cardiac myocytes. Moreover, recently had been identified calmodulin, Ras and Raf-1 as the upstream signaling molecules in this pathway. In addition, the role of NAD (P) H oxidase in the development of cardiac hypertrophy has been demonstrated. This indicated an interesting new direction in the research of alpha-1-AR signaling mechanisms.
Polyunsaturated lipid acids (PUFAS) in plasma are susceptible to the oxidation process mediated by EROs. This leads to the transformation of the native LDL (LDLn) to oxidative LDL (oxLDL). The oxLDLs does not bind to the LDLn hosts; however oxLDLs bind to the scavenger hosts in monocytes / macrophagues, endothelium and vascular smooth muscle cells, with the consequence of the increase of these compounds and the intracellular generation of the foam cells, an important sign of early atherosclerotic damage [2, 4, 6, 8, 9, 14, 15, 17, 18, 28, 29, 33, 38].
The proliferation of vascular smooth muscle cells is a central event in the pathogenesis of vascular lesions, including post-angioplasty restenosis, transplant arteriosclerosis and veinous graft occlusion.
Statins possesses antioxidant properties by reducing lipid generation and its peroxidation and ROS production by the vascular NAD (P) H oxidase pathway, the susceptibility of lipoproteins to oxidation both in vitro and in vivo, i.e. they decrease the LDL oxidation, especially simvastatine, pravastatine, and lovastatine [4, 6, 9, 14, 15, 17, 24, 27, 28, 33, 36, 38, 39], decrease the pro-oxidant effects of Angiotensin II and of Endothelin-1 (peptides that stimulate vasoconstriction and increase of vascular smooth muscle cells), decreasing the NAD(P)H oxidase activity and the generation of superoxide anion as in vascular cells as in phagocytes, and increase the vascular synthesis of nitric oxide. Moreover statins inhibit vascular SMC proliferation by arresting cell cycle between the G1/S phase transition, decrease inflammatory cytokines, C-reactive protein C, and adhesion molecules, stimulate NO release, and stimulate activated hosts by PPAR, therefore decrease plasma lipid peroxidation products [4, 9, 14, 15, 17, 24, 27, 28, 33, 36, 38].
Recent epidemiological reports suggest that statins might be protective for Alzheimer’s disease and for other types of dementia, as cerebrovascular disease. Alzheimer’s disease is related to the effects of β-amyloid, and some experimental and clinical trials have shown that there is a pathophysiologic relation between β-amyloid and cholesterol levels. Statins, regardless of their brain availability, have been suggested to induce alterations in cellular cholesterol distribution in the brain. However, major studies are necessary to establish a relationship between statin therapy and Alzheimer disease [19].
HPS and ASCOT showed that the relative risk reduction by statin was independent of the treatment for lipid levels. Also, other studies suggest that the risk of myocardial infarctions in patients treated with statins is significantly lower compared to individuals with other cholesterol-lowering agents [18].
Statins reduce cardiovascular events in not only hypercholesterolemic but also normocholesterolemic patients. Moreover, clinical trials and clinical benefits have shown that statins’ effects involved other pharmacological activities and not only changes in lipid levels. Cholesterol-independent or “pleiotropic” effects of statins involve improving or restoring endothelial function, decreasing oxidative stress and vascular inflammation, enhancing the stability of atherosclerotic plaques, inhibiting the thrombogenic response, and lowering oxidative stress. Moreover, some works show that statins have a beneficial extrahepatic effects on the immune system, CNS, and bone.
Statins might exert cholesterol-independent or pleiotropic effects by inhibiting the conversion of HMG-CoA to L-mevalonic acid and, in this manner, prevent the synthesis of important isoprenoids, which are precursors of cholesterol biosynthesis and of lipid attachments for intracellular signaling molecules. Inhibition of Rho GTPases in vascular cellwalls by statins improves expression of atheroprotective genes and inhibition of vascular SMC proliferation.
Starch also known as amylum, is an important food product and biomaterial used world-wide for different purposes. Though traditionally used in the food industry, technological advancement has led to its steady relevance in many other sectors such as health and medicine, textile, paper, fine chemicals, petroleum engineering, agriculture, and construction engineering [1]. It is used in the food industry either as food products or additives for thickening, preservation and quality enhancer in baked foods, confectioneries, pastas, soups and sauces, and mayonnaises. Starch is a polysaccharide of glucose made of two types of α-d-glucan chains, amylose and amylopectin. Starch molecules produced by each plant species have specific structures and compositions (such as length of glucose chains or the amylose/amylopectin ratio), and the protein and fat content of the storage organs may vary significantly. Therefore, starch differs depending on the source. This inherent functional diversity due to the different biological sources enlarges its range of industrial uses [2, 3].
\nThe structural and compositional differences in starches from different sources determine its properties and mode of interactions with other constituents of foods that gives the final product the desired taste and texture. In the food industry, starch can be used as a food additive to control the uniformity, stability and texture of soups and sauces, to resist the gel breakdown during processing and to raise the shelf life of products [2]. Starch is relatively easily extractable and does not require complicated purification processes. It is considered to be available in large quantities in major plant sources such as cereal grains and tubers. These sources are generally considered inexpensive and affordable and serve as raw materials for commercial production [4].
\nStarch from
Corn (A) and potato tuber (B) [
The stability of native starch under different pH values and temperatures varies unfavorably. For instance, native starch granule is insoluble in water at room temperature and extremely resistant to hydrolysis by amylase. Hence native starch has limited functionality. In order to enhance properties and functionality such as solubility, texture, viscosity and thermal stability, which are necessary for the desired product or role in the industry, native starches are modified. The widening vista of application possibilities of starches with different properties has made research in non-conventional starches and other native starches more imperative [2, 6, 7]. Recent studies on the relationship between the structural characteristics and functional properties of starches from different sources have continued to provide important information for optimizing industrial applications.
\nModification has been achieved mostly by physical and chemical means. Enzymic and genetic modifications are biotechnological processes which are increasingly being explored [8]. While physical modification methods seemed simple and cheap, such as superheating, dry heating, osmotic pressure treatment, multiple deep freezing and thawing, instantaneous controlled pressure-drop process, stirring ball milling, vacuum ball milling, pulsed electric fields treatment, corona electrical discharges, etc., chemical modification involves the introduction of new functional moieties into the starch molecule via its hydroxyl groups, resulting in marked change in its physicochemical characteristic. The functional characteristics of chemically modified starch depends on a number of factors including the botanic origin of the native starch, reagent used, concentration of reagent, pH, reaction time, the presence of catalyst, type of substituent, degree of substitution, and the distribution of the substituents in the modified starch molecule. Modification is generally achieved through chemical derivatization, such as etherification, esterification, acetylation, cationization, oxidation, hydrolysis, and cross-linking [7]. This chapter discusses the chemical properties of starch and how they determine its application in the food industry.
\nThe chemical behaviour of starch is dependent on the nature of its constituent compounds. Starch is a homopolysaccharides made up of glucose units. However, the homopolysaccharide are of two types namely: amylose, which is a linear chain consisting of about 500–2000 glucose units, and amylopectin, which is highly branched and consist of over 1,000,000 glucose units. The two types of homopolysaccharides constitute approximately 98–99% of the dry weight of starch [2]. The ratio of the two polysaccharides usually varies depending on the botanical origin of the starch. Botanic source reports that starch chain generally consist of 20% amylose and up to 80% amylopectin by mass. It is believed that starch with up to 80% amylose can exist [7]. Some classification categorize starch containing <15% amylose as ‘waxy’, 20–35% as ‘normal’ and greater ≥40% as ‘high’ amylose starches [9].
\nAmylose and amylopectin have different physiochemical properties which impact on the overall properties of the starch. Hence it is often important to determine the concentration of each individual component of the starch, as well as the overall starch concentration [10]. The physicochemical (e.g., gelatinization and retrogradation) and functional (e.g., solubility, swelling, water absorption, syneresis and rheological behaviour of gels) properties determine the potential uses of starches in the food industry. These properties depend on the molecular and structural composition of amylose and amylopectin, percent composition and arrangement of these two homopolysaccharides in starch granules which often determine the granule size and shape depending on other genetic factors as a result of the particular species of plant [2].
\nIn food products, the functional roles of starch could be as a thickener, binding agent, emulsifier, clouding agent or gelling agent. In the food industry, native starch is usually reprocessed and modified through chemical processes to improve its functionality for the desired purpose. Chemical modification involves the introduction of new functional groups into the starch molecule which produces in a modified starch with markedly altered physicochemical properties. Such modified starch shows profound change in functionality such as solubility, gelatinization, pasting and retrogradation [11].
\nThe chemical reactivity of starch is dependent on the reactivity of the constituent glucose units [11]. The chemical and functional properties achieved following such modification depends largely on the reaction conditions such as modifying reagent(s), concentration of the reactants, reaction time, type of catalyst used, pH, and temperature. The type of substituents, degree of substitution and distribution of substituents in the starch molecule affects the functional properties.
\nAmylose is a linear polymer of α-d-glucose units linked by α-1,4 glycosidic bonds (Figure 2). The linear nature of amylose chain and its percentage content in starch, and the relative molecular arrangement with amylopectin affect the overall functionality of the starch. Hence starch varies greatly in form and functionality between and within botanical species and even from the same plant cultivar grown under different conditions. This variability provides starches of different properties, which can create challenges of raw materials inconsistency during processing [12].
\nChemical structure of amylopectin chain and amylose chain.
Amylopectin is a branched polymer of α-d-glucose units linked by α-1,4 and α-1,6 glycosidic bonds (Figure 2). The α-1,6 glycosidic linkages occurs at the branching point while the linear portions within a branch are linked by α-1,4 glycosidic bonds. In comparison to amylose, amylopectin is a much larger molecule with a higher molecular weight and a heavily branched structure built from about 95% (α-1,4) and 5% (α-1,6) linkages. Amylopectin unit chains are relatively short with a broad distribution profile, compared to amylose molecules. They are typically, 18–25 units long on average [13, 14].
\nPhysical properties are those properties exhibited without any change in chemical characteristics of starch and do not involve the breaking and creation of chemical bonds such as solubility, gelatinization, retrogradation, glass transition, etc. On the other hand, chemical properties changes due to chemical reactions and usually involve the breakage and creation of new bonds. Examples of such chemical processes in starch include hydrolysis, oxidation, esterification and etherification. Research strongly indicates that the molecular weight and branching attributes of starch which play important roles in the shape and size of granules can potentially be used for predicting some of its functionality such as texture, pasting, retrogradation, etc. [12, 15]. Amylose has more proportional relationships with pasting and gel textural properties, while amylopectin which are predominant in regular and waxy corn starches, has higher proportional relationship with firmness.
\nWhen unprocessed or native starch granules which are relatively inert are heated in the presence of adequate water, usually during industrial processes, swelling of the granules occur and the amylose dissolves and diffuses out of the swollen granules which upon cooling forms a homogenous gel phase of amylose-amylopectin. The swollen amylopectin-enriched granules aggregate into gel particles, generating a viscous solution. This two-phase structure, called starch paste, is desirable for many food applications where processed starches are used as thickeners or binders [2, 16].
\nRetrogradation of starch is a phenomenon that occurs when the disordered arrangement of the polymer molecules of gelatinized starch begins to re-align into an ordered structure in the food product [15]. Preventing retrogradation affects the freeze-thaw stability and textural characteristics and helps to elongate the shelf life of the food product. Starch modification through chemical means, such as, hydrolysis and esterification are generally used to produce starches that can withstand retrogradation. Preventing retrogradation of starch is important for starch used in frozen foods because it is accelerated at cold temperatures, producing an opaque, crystallized, coarse texture as a result of the separation of the liquid from the gel or syneresis [17, 18]. Crosslinked oxidized starches have been reported be more stable against retrogradation [15].
\nAmylose linear chain dissolves in water at 120–150°C and is characterized by high thermostability, resistance to amylase, high crystallinity and high susceptibility to retrogradation. Amylopectin, which is the branched chain is however, slow to retrogradation, with crystalline forms appearing only on the outside of the globule and characterized by a significantly lower re-pasting temperature of 40–70°C and an increased susceptibility to amylases activity than amylose. Retrogradation of starch is affected botanical origin of the starch, amylose content, length of the amylopectin chains, density of the paste, paste storage conditions, physical or chemical modifications and the presence of other compounds. Recrystallization of starch applies only to amylose chains, and it occurs most readily at temperatures around 0°C, and also at temperatures above 100°C [8]. Physical modification process such as repeated freezing and thawing of the starch paste aggravate retrogradation. The resulting starch thus produced is resistant starch that exhibit resistance to digestibility by amylase enzymes and can be used as an alternative nutrient source for diabetic patients and as a rate controlling polymer coat in controlled drug delivery systems [8].
\nStarch granules swollen with water are predisposed to fragmentation if exposed to physical severe pressure change. This becomes of major concern where the integrity of the granules is required to maintain viscosity. Shear is the disintegration phenomenon of swollen starch granules or gel. Starch shear arises from the shear stress which builds up during the process of retrogradation and/or gel drying of the gelatinized starch [19]. The stress acting in opposite directions creates a fault-line that causes the material to open up or tear apart. Shearing generally depends on the fluid (gel) viscosity and flow velocity [20]. Starch granules in their raw unswollen forms are not susceptible to damage by shear even in the slurry before cooking. But once cooked or gelatinized, starch granules becomes susceptible to shear, resulting in loss of viscosity and textural stability [19].
\nThe chemical properties of starch are dependent on the reactivity of starch which is a function of the polyhydroxyl functional groups in the constituent glucose monomers. The hydroxyl groups at position C-2, C-3 and C-6 which are free from the glycosidic bond linkages and pyranose ring formation, are usually free for substitution reactions involving either the attached hydrogen or the entire hydroxyl group. While the ▬OH at C-6 is a primary alcoholic hydroxyl group, those at C-2 and C-3 are secondary alcoholic hydroxyl group. Hence starch can undergo hydrolytic cleavage of its chains at the glycosidic bonds; oxidative reaction with the ▬OH or C▬C bond creating carbonyl groups; and other reactions with various functional and multifunctional reagents to produce esterified and etherified starches. Most of the reactions require activation of the hydroxyl of glucose units in acidic or basic media [7].
\nThe reactivity of starch is dependent on the hydroxyl functions of the constituent α-D-glucan polymers (Figure 2). Thus starch is able to undergo the following reactions.
\nHydrolysis is an addition reaction and simply involves the addition of a water molecule across a bond resulting in the cleavage of that bond and formation of the cleavage products, usually with hydroxyl group or alcohol functionality. Hydrolysis of starch can be achieved by chemical or enzymatic process. Chemical process of hydrolysis usually employs heating starch in the presence of water or dilute hydrochloric acid (Figure 3). Hydrolysis is also used to remove fatty substances associated with native starches. Hydrolysis under acidic condition is called roasting, resulting in acid modified starch. Treatment of starch with sodium or potassium hydroxide results in alkaline modified starch. Hot aqueous alkaline solutions can be used, and this improves the reducing value of that starch [21, 22, 23].
\nHydrolysis of α(1 → 4) glycosidic bond.
The products of starch hydrolysis include dextrin or maltodextrin, maltose and glucose. Dextrins are mixtures of polymers of d-glucose units linked by α-(1 → 4) or α-(1 → 6) glycosidic bonds. The percentage of products obtained depends on the conditions used for the reaction such as duration and strength/amount of reagents used. Enzymic hydrolysis uses the enzyme malto-amylase to achieve hydrolysis and this is the process that usually occurs in starch digestion in the gastrointestinal tract [9]. Dextrins are white, yellow, or brown water-soluble powder which yield optically active solutions of low viscosity. Most of them can be detected with iodine solution, giving a red coloration. White and yellow dextrins from starch roasted with little or no acid are called British gum. The properties of dextrinized starch is dependent upon the reaction conditions (moisture, temperature, pH, reaction time) and the products characteristics vary in its content of reducing sugar, cold water solubility, viscosity, color and stability.
\nHydrolytic processes have been used in the food industry to produce starch derivatives with better functional properties and processing applications [2]. Acid and alkali steeping are the two most widely used methods for starch isolation in the food industry, with numerous modifications. Thermo-alkali isolation method known as nixtamalization has been used in Central America since pre-Hispanic times. Acid and alkali isolation processes affect the amylose/amylopectin, protein and lipid content as well as the granule size and shape of the final product [23].
\nThe condensation of an alcohol and carboxylic acid usually under acidic condition, to produce an ester and water, is called esterification [24]. Basically, the reaction is between the carboxylic acid group and the alcohol group with the elimination of a water molecule (Figure 4). When the acid anhydride is used, an alkaline condition is preferred in the reaction.
\nEsterification reaction of carboxylic acids and alcohols.
The reaction is usually reversible and the forward reaction is favoured under low pH and excess of alcohol while the reverse is favoured under high pH. Remover of one of the product during the reaction will also favour the forward reaction.
\nFor starch, the reaction is between the carboxylic acid group (▬COOH) of fatty acids or ▬COCl of fatty acid chlorides and the alcohol group (▬OH) of the glucose units. Esterification is generally used to introduce more lipophilic groups into the starch molecule making it more lipophilic and for producing crosslink starch when polyfunctional compounds or multifunctional or reagents capable of esterification or etherification are used [15]. Esterification weakens the inter-molecular bonding that holds the granules together and hence alter the granule shape and sizes as well as other functional properties of the starch. The degree of substitution (DS) is dependent on the concentration of reagent used, the type of reagent used, the catalyst and the duration of reaction [25].
\nStarch can be acetylated by reacting it with acetic anhydride to produce acetylated starch (Figure 5). The hydroxyl group of the glucose units are esterified with the acetyl groups from the acetic anhydride to give starch with glucose units with acetate function. The DS of the hydroxyl group with acetate group is dependent on the reaction conditions. Acetylated corn starch of DS 0.05, 0.07 and 0.08 have been obtained using 4, 6 and 8% (starch d.w.) acetic anhydride respectively and aqueous sodium hydroxide as catalyst [25].
\nAcetylation of starch with acetic anhydride.
The introduction of the more bulky acetyl group compares with hydroxyl group causes steric hindrance to the alignment of the linear chains. This allows for easy water percolation between chains thus increasing the granule swelling power and solubility resulting in lower gelatinization temperature [25]. The steric hindrance of less polar acetyl group also reduces the amount of inter-molecular hydrogen bond formation, and weakens the granule structure, preventing molecular re-association and realignment required for retrogradation. However, depending on the DS and the interplay between the a weakened granular structure as result of interruption of the inter- and intra-molecular bonds, and reduced bonding with water molecules as a result of the hydrophobicity of the acetyl groups, the viscosity of the final product can be enhanced.
\nAcetylation improves paste clarity and freeze-thaw stability of starch. Starch acetates of low DS are commonly used in the food industry for quality consistency, and as texture and stability enhancers. The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) maximum DS of acetylated starches for food application is 0.1 [19]. Starch acetate of high DS exhibit high degree of hydrophobicity and thermoplasticity and are soluble in organic solvents like chloroform and acetone, and are mostly used in non-food applications [25]. At 0.0275 DS, corn starch exhibit lower paste gelling, which is practically lost at 0.05 DS. Most commercial starch acetates have <0.05 DS [19].
\nAcetylated distarch adipate, is a monosubstituted starch obtained by treating starch with acetic anhydride and adipic anhydride (Figure 6). It has been used since the 1950s due to desire for improved stability of product in cold and freezing weather conditions. It is a good temperature change resistant agent used in foods as a bulking agent, stabilizer and thickener. It improves smoothness and sheen of soups and sauces [19]. The improved freeze-thaw stability of acetylated cross-linked waxy maize starch has led to its use in frozen sauces in vegetables, appetizers and pastries. Hydroxypropylation of cross-linked starch also dramatically improves the stability quality of puddings and frozen sauces [19].
\nEsterification of starch with acetic anhydride and adipic anhydride.
When starch granule is esterified with succinic anhydride, it produces succinyl starch, and the process is commonly referred to as succinylation of starch. Succinylation of starch was earlier achieved in the presence of aqueous pyridine and under reflux at 115°C (Figure 7). However, environmental concerns have led to the development of more green synthetic routes. Thus succinic ester of starch have been prepared by mixing starch with succinic anhydride solution in acetone and refluxing at 110°C for 4 h [25]. Sui et al. [26] was also able to induce a reaction by drop-wise addition of succinic anhydride to a water suspension of starch while maintaining pH at 8.5 by drop-wise addition of sodium hydroxide.
\nSuccinylation reaction of starch.
Succinyl group weakens the inter-molecular bonding of starch polymeric chains in the granules, facilitating swelling, solubilisation and gelatinization at lower temperatures. Paste clarity is enhanced and retrogradation is reduced. However, there may be reduced stability against shear at high temperature and during cooling. Starch succinate is ionic and acts as polyelectrolytes. At low degree of substitution (DS), the succinate makes the starch more hydrophilic and viscos in solution [8, 25]. For its viscosity enhancing effect, succinylated starches could find application in production of non-gelling custard creams, and for its increased hydrophilicity, it could be used for enhancing the juicy/smooth taste of meat and fried products. Starch succinates can also be used in soups, snacks, and frozen/refrigerated food products as thickening or stabilizing agents.
\nEsterification of starch with octenylsuccinic anhydride (OSA) or octenylsuccinic acid in the presence of an alkali yields starch octenylsuccinate (Figure 8), while esterification with dodecyl succinic acid yield starch dodecyl succinate. The octenyl or dodecyl group introduce a reasonable level of lipophilicity to the product making it have dual functionality which can be used in emulsification and flavours encapsulation. OSA treated starches are used to stabilize oil-in-water food emulsions associated with beverage concentrates containing flavor and clouding oils [19]. It helps to protect emulsified and spray dried flavour oils against oxidation during storage. FDA allows a DS of 0.02.
\nEsterification of starch with octenylsuccinic acid anhydride.
Commercial production of acetylated starch dodecyl succinate, di-substituted starch of low dodecyl succinate residue employs acetic anhydride reagent at alkaline pH [15]. An alkali-starch complex forms first, which then interacts with the carboxylic anhydride to form a starch ester with the elimination of carboxylate ion and one molecule of water [15]. Starch succinate offers freeze-thaw stability, high-thickening, low-gelatinization temperature, clarity of paste, good film-forming properties and resistance to retrogradation.
\nInorganic esters also exist, for instance, esters of phosphorous acid (H3PO3) and phosphoric acid (H3PO4). When starch granules are reacted with phosphorylating agents such as phosphoric acid, mono- or di-starch phosphate is formed (Figure 9). The resulting starch has increased stability at high and low temperatures, more resistant against acidic condition, and is applicable as a thickening agent. Orthophosphate and pyrophosphate has been used to achieve phosphorylation of starch under slightly acidic and high temperature conditions [27].
\nPhosphorylation reaction of starch.
Phosphoryl trichloride (Figure 10), sodium tripolyphosphate (Figure 11) and sodium trimetaphosphate (Figure 12) have also been used under higher pH to obtain monostarch phosphate and di-starch phosphate [15, 28]. Phosphorylation reactions produce either monostarch phosphate or distarch phosphate which is a cross-linked derivative. However this depends on the reagents and reaction conditions. Usually, monoesters, rather than diesters, are produced with a higher degree of substitution [8]. Steric hindrance as a result of the introduced phosphate groups inhibits the linearity of amylose or the outer branch of the amylopectin chain where it reacted. This weakens the inter-molecular association and creates chains disaggregation, which leads to better paste clarity [8].
\nPhosphorylation of starch with phosphoryl trichloride.
Phosphorylation of starch with sodium tripolyphosphate.
Phosphorylation of starch with sodium trimetaphosphate.
Distarch phosphate has the phosphate group esterified with two hydroxyl groups of two neighbouring starch polymer chains [29]. The phosphate bridge or cross-linking strengthens the mechanical structure of the starch granules. Phosphate cross-linked starches exhibit stability against high temperature, low pH and shear, and improved firmness of the swollen starch granule as well as improved viscosity and textural characteristic. Distarch phosphate is used as thickener and stabilizer and provides stability against gelling and retrogradation and high resistance to syneresis during storage [8].
\nIn solution, several specie of the phosphate ion can exist and anyone may be responsible for the phosphorylation reaction depending on the reaction conditions. Phosphorylation has been demonstrated to mostly occur at the C-3 and C-6 of the glucose units, and the degree of phosphorylation depends on distribution of the chain length of the starch polymers [30]. Blennow et al. [31] also demonstrated that phosphate groups may play important role in the size distribution of the amylopectin side chains of phosphorylated starches. Some researchers have reported that about 60–70% of total phosphorus of starch monophosphate is located at C-6 while the rest is located at C-3 of anhydroglucose units. Most phosphate groups (88%) are on chain β of amylopectin [9].
\nLanderito and Wang [32] reported that phosphorylated starch prepared by the slurry treatment exhibited a lower gelatinization temperature, a higher peak viscosity, a lesser degree of retrogradation, and improved freeze-thaw stability compared with those prepared by the dry-mixing treatment. They believed that phosphorylation probably occurred in both amylose and amylopectin chains, and the amount and location of incorporated phosphate groups varied with starch types, which may be due to their different amylose and amylopectin contents. Waxy starch was more prone to phosphorylation, followed by common and high-amylose starches. Enzymic phosphorylation of starch has been reported [33]. Extrusion condition of 200°C, sodium tripolyphosphate concentration of ≥1.4 g/100 ml and pH 8.5 have been used to obtain starch phosphate with high degree of substitution [34].
\nGenerally, alcohols (▬OH) groups condenses with one another at high temperatures under acidic conditions to form ethers (Figure 13). The reaction mechanism is through a proton transfer from the catalyst to one of the molecule to form a cation, which loses the proton by extracting the ▬OH of the second molecule to form an ether and water.
\nEtherification reaction.
Etherification of starch is usually done by use of epoxide reagents as depicted in Figures 14 and 15. The epoxides are first reduced to diols through a nucleophilic ring opening of the epoxide (cleaving the C▬O bond under aqueous, acidic or alcoholic condition) before the eventual condensation of one of the ▬OH group with that of starch [24]. Some etherification reactions occur under alkaline condition. Like esterification, etherification helps to mostly introduce lipophilic alkyl groups into the starch chains thereby reducing the hydrophilicity and the degree of inter- and intra-molecular hydrogen bonding [8].
\nEtherification of starch with propylene oxide.
Etherification of starch with ethylene oxide.
This reaction process produces hydroxypropylated starch (HPS), which is a starch ether produce by reaction of starch with propylene epoxide in the presence of an alkaline catalyst (Figure 14). HPS is used for enhancing stability and viscosity of food products. The hydroxypropyl groups introduced into the starch chains affect the inter- and intra-molecular hydrogen bonds, thereby allowing for more ease of displacement of starch chains in the amorphous regions [8]. HPS is more stable to prolonged high temperatures than starch acetate especially at pH 6, and has improves freeze-thaw stability. It is mostly used in refrigerated or frozen foods and in the dairy industry. The FDA allowable DS for HPS is 0.2 [19].
\nHydroxyethylation of starch is performed by reacting starch with epoxyethane or ethylene oxide to produce the starch ether, hydroxyethylated starch (HES) (Figure 15). The health concerns of hydroxyethylated starch are limiting its use in the food industry. However they are mostly used in medicine and pharmaceuticals as plasma volume expander and extracorporeal perfusion fluids [35].
\nThis is an etherification reaction process where starch is reacted with sodium chloroacetate or chloroacetic acid under certain conditions to produce carboxymethylated starch (CMS) (Figure 16). The reaction involves refluxing chloroacetic acetic acid with dry starch (anhydroglucose units) in the presence of sodium hydroxide in a solvent mixture of ethanol/isopropanol (ratio 3:5). Anhydroglucose unit can be obtained from acid hydrolysed starch [36].
\nEtherification of starch with sodium chloroacetate.
Another etherification reaction is cationization of starch in which starch react with electrophiles or electron-withdrawing reagents such as ammonium, amino, imino, sulfonium, or phosphonium groups to produce cationic starches (Figures 17–19), which are important industrial derivatives [15]. Cationic starches are usually prepared under alkaline conditions, and they exhibit higher dispersibility and solubility with better transparency and stability.
\nReaction of starch with aziridine to produce amino-ethylated starches [
Reaction of starch and dialkyl cyanamides to produce aminoalkyl starches [
Etherification of starch with sulfonium salt to produce a sulfonium cationic starch.
Cationic starches containing tertiary amino or quaternary ammonium groups are the most important commercial derivatives, however they are mostly used in the textile and paper industry.
\nFor the production of sulfonium starch, halogenoalkyl sulfonium salts (e.g., 2-chloroethyl-methyl-ethyl sulfonium iodide or any β-halogenoalkyl sulfonium salt), vinyl sulfonium salts and the epoxy alkyl sulfonium can be used (Figure 19). Usually R1 is unsaturated group like alkylene, hydroxyalkylene, aralkylene, cycloalkylene, and phenylene group, while each of R2 and R3 can be alkyl, aryl, aralkyl, cycloalkyl and alkylene sulfonium groups and may also contain ether oxygen linkages and amino groups [37]. Factors such as reagent used and temperature, affect the reaction period which usually takes about 16–20 h.
\nSulfonium starch display positive charge and can be used as thickeners in the form of aqueous dispersions or pastes. These dispersions are made by heating the suitable amount of sulfonium starch and water to a temperature of approximately 93°C. Upon cooling, the resulting dispersion becomes considerably clearer and more resistant to viscosity change compared to the untreated starch. Starch succinate and starch citrates which are obtained through esterification reactions have also been observed to exhibit high cationic properties [8].
\nOxidation of starch with strong oxidizing agents mimics reaction of primary alcohols and diols. Primary alcohol ▬OH functions are oxidized (Figure 20) to its corresponding carbonyls (aldehydes and carboxylic acid), while vicinal diols (Figure 21) are cleaved by strong oxidants like periodic acid into its corresponding carbonyl compounds (aldehyde and/or ketones) [24]. Oxidation of secondary alcohol ▬OH produces ketones (Figure 22). Oxidation may result in breakage of some intra- and inter-molecular bonds and partial depolymerization of the starch chains [38].
\nOxidation reaction of primary hydroxyl groups of alcohols.
Oxidation reaction of vicinal hydroxyl groups of alcohols.
Oxidation reaction of secondary hydroxyl groups of alcohols.
Starches treated with oxidants fall into two broad classes: oxidized and bleached.
\nOxidized starches are starches treated with oxidizing agents like sodium hypochlorite (NaOCl). The oxidizing agent can attack the glycosidic bonds hydrolysing them to alcohol (▬OH) functions or/and C▬C bonds of the glucose unit, oxidizing them to carbonyl functions of aldehydes, ketones and carboxylates (Figure 23). Higher pH favors formation of carboxylate groups over aldehydes and ketones. Some depolymerization usually occurs in the process. Introduction of carboxylate groups provides both steric hindrance and electrostatic repulsion. Oxidation is usually carried out on whole granules and it causes the granule to dissolve, rather than swell and thicken [19]. The reaction can introduce up to 1.1% of carboxyl groups in the granule [39]. Oxidation with chlorine or sodium hypochlorite reduces the tendency of amylose to associate or retrograde. The reaction rate of starch with hypochlorite is remarkably affected by pH, which tend to be higher at about pH 7 but becomes very slow at pH 10 [40]. Oxidized starches are used where intermediate viscosity and soft gels are desired, and where the instability of acid-converted starches is unacceptable [41]. Hence, pastes of oxidized starches have a lower tendency to gel compared to those of thin-boiling (or acid hydrolized) starches of comparable viscosity.
\nOxidation reaction of starch to produce oxidized starch.
Other oxidants such as chlorine, hydrogen peroxide and potassium permanganate, dichromates and chlorochromates, etc. are less commonly used. Oxidized starches are reported to give batters improved adhesion to meat products and are widely used in dough and baked foods [41].
\nBleached starch is obtained from oxidation of starch with lower concentrations of oxidizing agents like hydrogen peroxide, sodium hypochlorite, potassium permanganate or other oxidants used to remove color from naturally occurring pigments. Bleaching is done to improve the whiteness and/or eliminate microbial contamination. Reagent levels of about 0.5% are usually used, and loss of some starch viscosity due to hydrolysis usually occurs.
\nCross-linking of the starch polymer chains with reagents that could form bonds with more than one hydroxyl group of molecule results in cross-linked starch. Such reactions randomly add inter- and intra-molecular bonds at different locations in the starch granule which helps to strengthen and stabilize the polymers in the granule. Such processes may employ hydrolysis, oxidation, esterification, etherification, phosphorylation or combinations of these methods in a sequential or one-mix procedure to achieve the desired product that meets the required physicochemical characteristic of gelatinization, viscosity, retrogradation, and textural properties for food applications. In some instances, multifunctional reagents capable of forming either ether or ester inter-molecular linkages between hydroxyl groups on starch molecules are used. Reactions usually take place at the primary ▬OH group of C-6 and secondary ▬OH of C-2 and C-3 of the glucose units. Epichlorohydrin monosodium phosphate, phosphoryl trichloride, sodium trimetaphosphate, sodium tripolyphosphate, a mixture of adipic and acetic anhydride, and vinyl chloride are the main agents used to cross-link food grade starches [15]. Di-starch phosphate (Figure 12) which is a phosphorylated starch is an example of a crosslinked starch. Acetylated distarch adipate (Figure 6), hydroxypropyl distarch phosphate, hydroxypropyl distarch glycerol are other examples of crosslinked starch [8]. The FDA specify that not more than 0.1, 1 and 0.12% DS (w/w of starch) of phosphoryl chloride, sodium trimetaphosphate and adipic-acetic mixed anhydride, respectively, should be used for food grade starch [19].
\nCross-linked starch exhibit increased resistance to processing conditions such as high or low temperatures and pH. Cross-linking reduces granule rupture, loss of viscosity and the formation of a stringy paste during cooking, providing a starch suitable for canned foods and products. Cross-linked starch shows smaller swelling volume, lower solubility and lower transmittance than native starch [15]. While oxidation may increase retrogradation, crosslinking reduces it. Hence a combination of the two chemical modification methods can be used to get the starch with desired balanced characteristics.
\nAs mentioned in the introductory section, native starches are modified to improve their physicochemical properties due to different reasons. Different approaches have been reported including physical, chemical, enzymatic and genetic approach. But the most widely used is the chemical approach. For instance, since starch must be gelatinized for it to be digestible in human diet and nutrition, and the process of gelatinizing native starches usually takes appreciable amount of time for granule to swell and form paste of gel as obtained in cooking rice and corn flour porridge, it can be modified to reduce gelatinization time by physical methods such as extrusion, spray-drier and drum dryer, which promote fast starch gelatinization to produce pregelatinized starch [42, 43, 44]. Pre-gelatinized starch exhibit reduced gelatinization temperature and time. The modified starches are usually dries to obtain flours and/or pre-gelatinized starches of long-term stability and quick preparation [9]. Pregelatinized starches are partially or totally soluble in cold water and readily form pastes [45]. It absorbs more water and disperses readily in water than the untreated starch, forming gel at room temperature and less prone to deposit [46]. Using gelatinized starch in food products affects the food qualities and properties, such as, bread volume and crumb [47]; pastas elasticity and softness, lusciousness and digestibility, tolerance in the properties of beating and cake mixtures, ice creams, doughnuts, growth of sugar crystals in food products [48]; texture, volume, shelf-live and stability during thawing of cakes and breads [49]. Liquefaction, partial hydrolysis and dextrinization may occur during pregelatinization depending on the processing conditions [42, 43, 44].
\nThe process of physical modification does not involved any chemical reaction of starch with a modifying reagent and is referred to as physical modification of starch and the products are known as physically modified starches. However, most modifications of starches are performed through chemical processes. The chemical reactions of starch (hydrolysis, esterification, etherification, oxidation and cationization) are generally exploited in the industry to produce converted or modified starches fit for different purposes in the industry.
\nAccording to the Food and Nutrition Program (FNP) of the FAO [50], a modified starch is a food starch which has one or more of its original physicochemical characteristics altered by treatment in accordance with good manufacturing practice by one of the reaction procedures such as hydrolysis, esterification, etherification, oxidation and cross-linking. For starches subjected to heating in the presence of acid or with alkali, the alteration (mainly hydrolysis) is considered a minor fragmentation. Bleaching is also essentially a process resulting in the colour change only. However, oxidation involves the deliberate creation of carboxyl groups. Treatment of starch with substituting reagents such as orthophosphoric acid etc., results in partial substitution in the 2-, 3- or 6-position of the anhydroglucose unit (AGU) unless the 6-position is occupied for branching in amylopectin chain. For cross-linked starch, where polyfunctional substituting agent, such as phosphorus oxychloride, connects two chains, the structure can be represented by Starch▬O▬R▬O▬Starch, where R is the cross-linking group and Starch refers to the linear and/or branched structure [50].
\nEvolving biotechnological innovations are progressing with enzymatic and genetic modification of starch as a greener alternative to chemical modification due to environmental concerns. Enzymatic modifications basically employ hydrolytic enzymes found in certain bacteria. For instance amylomaltases or α-1,4-α-1,4-glucosyl transferases from
The reactions of starch explained above are exploited to create different types of modified or converted starched to obtain starches with appropriate physicochemical characteristics such as gelatinization, retrogradation, heat stability, solubility, transmittance, colour, texture, etc., for different industrial applications. The food industry is very mindful of safety of chemical residues hence not all types of modified starched are used in foods. Generally, modified starches are used for adhesion and as binder in battered and breaded foods, formed meat and snack seasonings; as dustings for chewing gum and products produced in the bakery; as crisping cover for fried snacks; fat replacer and juiciness enhancement in ice cream and salad dressings; flavour encapsulating agents in beverage clouds; emulsion stabilizers in beverages, creamers and canned foods; foam stabilizer in marshmallows; gelling agents in gum drops and jelly gum; and as expanders in baked snacks and cereal meals [19]. Table 1 gives a summary of the chemical modification processes and their food application.
\nChemical process | \nSpecific treatment | \nProducts | \nFunction | \nFood application | \nReferences | \n
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Hydrolysis | \nAcid treatment | \nAcid-hydrolized starch, acid thinned or thin-boiling and fluidity starches | \nReduced hot-paste viscosity, improved gelling or gel strength. Enhanced textural properties | \nGum, pastilles, jellies | \n[19] | \n
Acid treatment | \nDextrinized starch | \nIncreased solubility and gel stability, reduced viscosity and improved emulsification properties. Encapsulate volatiles aromatic compound such as limonene, isoamyl acetate, ethyl hexanoate and β-ionones | \nFat replacer in bakery and dairy products, bakery glazes, protective coating in confectionery. Flavour encapsulator in seasonings | \n[1, 19] | \n|
NaOH or KOH treatment | \nAlkaline hydrolysed starch | \nIncrease viscosity | \n\n | [22] | \n|
Oxidation | \nSodium hypochlorite oxidized starch | \nOxidized starch | \nLower viscosity, improved whitening of granules, high paste clarity, low temperature stability, and increased adhesion. Reduces retrogradation of cooked starch pastes | \nAs binder in battered meat and breading, film former and binder in confectionery, crispy coating in various fried food stuffs, texturizer in dairy products | \n[15] | \n
Esterification | \n\n | Monosubstituted starch (starch acetates, starch hydroxypropyl ethers, starch monophosphate esters) | \nFreeze-thaw stability, improved emulsification properties | \nAs emulsion stabilizers and for flavor encapsulation in refrigerated and frozen foods | \n[15, 19] | \n
Acetylation with acetic acid anhydride | \nStarch acetate | \nIncreased lipophilicity emulsion stabilizer. Improves quality of any fat/oil-containing products. Reduces rancidity by preventing oxidation. Increase viscosity | \nBulking agent in snack foods, stabilizer and thickener in most foods, improves smoothness and sheen of soups and sauces. Cholesterol-free salad dressings, and flavor encapsulating agents in clouding agents, creamer and beverage. Substitute to gum arabic, egg yolk and caseinates | \n[1, 15, 19] | \n|
Succinylation with succinic acid anhydride | \nStarch succinate | \nImproved viscosity and juice taste. Freeze-thaw stability | \nSoups, snacks, and frozen/refrigerated food products. As thickener and in non-gelling custard creams. Meat and fried products to improve juicy or smooth taste and retain flavour | \n[25] | \n|
\n | \nSuccinylation with OSA | \nOSA starch | \nIncreased paste viscosity, emulsion stabilizer and lower gelatinization temperature. Reduces glycemic response after consumption of beverages | \nBeverage emulsion stabilizers, and mayonnaises. Flavour encapsulating agent for battered meat and meat products | \n[19, 25, 53, 54] | \n
Treatment with adipic anhydride | \nStarch adipate | \nHigher paste viscosity, clarity and stability | \nThickening agent in foods | \n[25] | \n|
Phosphorylation | \nStarch phosphate | \nBetter paste clarity, lower gelatinization temperature, higher viscosity, reduced retrogradation, and improved freeze-thaw stability | \nFrozen foods | \n[8] | \n|
\n | Distarch phosphate | \nStability against high temperature, low pH and shear, and improved firmness of the swollen starch granule as well as improved viscosity and textural characteristic, resistance to syneresis during storage | \nAs a thickener and stabilizer in foods such as soups and sauces | \n[8] | \n|
Etherification | \n\n | Etherified starches | \nImproved clarity of starch paste, greater viscosity, reduced syneresis and freeze-thaw stability | \nAs stabilizer in wide range of food applications such as gravies, dips, sauces, fruit pie fillings and puddings. Flavour encapsulating agent in beverages clouds | \n[15] | \n
Carboxymethylation | \nCMS | \nCold-water solubility | \nCandy foods, sweets | \n[1] | \n|
Hydroxypropylation | \nHPS | \nImproves freeze-thaw stability, water-holding properties, lowers the swelling/pasting temperature, increases paste clarity and reduces gel formation. More stable to prolong high temperatures. Increase solubility | \nSalad dressing, ice creams, refrigerated and frozen foods, and dairy products | \n[19] | \n|
Cationization | \nSulfonium starch | \nHigher dispersibility and solubility with better paste clarity and stability | \n\n | [19] | \n|
Crosslinking | \n\n | Crosslinked starches | \nHigher stability to granules swelling, high temperature, high shear and low pH. Better viscosity and freeze-thaw stability. Volume expander. Delays retrogradation and reduce paste clarity | \nAs thickener and texturizers in soups, sauces, gravies, bakery and dairy products. Filling in fruit pies and canned foods. In bread and dough products as expander and to improve rheological properties | \n[9, 15, 53, 55] | \n
\n | Crosslinked-hydroxypropylated starch | \nA smooth, viscous, clear thickener and freeze-thaw stability | \nGravies, dips, sauces, fruit fillings and puddings | \n[15] | \n|
Pre-gelatinized starch | \n\n | \n | Cold-water solubility and thickening | \nInstant soups, sauces, dressing, desserts and bakery mixes. Thickener in food that receive minimal heat processing such as pastas | \n[15, 19] | \n
Application of chemically modification starches in foods.
Baked products like biscuits, pies, bread, cakes wafers and sausages are high density products requiring heat resistant starches. Hence crosslinked starches are used since they are more resistant to oven baking temperatures of 120 ≥ 230°C. Gelatinized starches are also used in ready-to-eat cereal meals such as corn-flakes, etc. The temperature, humidity and degree of stirring determine the texture and quality of the product.
\nOxidized starches have high clarity or transmittance, low viscosity and low temperature stability. It is frequently used in confectioneries for coating candies and sweets since they easily melt.
\nEtherified and crosslinked starches are mostly used. Crosslinked starched have higher stability for granules-swelling, high temperature resistant, high shear stability and acidic conditions stability. They are used as viscosifiers and texturizers in soups, sauces, gravies, bakery and dairy products. Etherified starches have improved clarity of starch paste, greater viscosity, reduced syneresis and freeze-thaw stability. Crosslinked starches are used in wide range of food applications such as gravies, dips, sauces, fruit pie fillings and puddings.
\nHydrolyzed and esterified starches are mostly used in salad dressing and beverages. Hydrolyzed starch (acid-modified starches) has lower paste viscosity under cold and hot conditions. Hence they are used in mayonnaises and salad dressing [19]. Esterified starches have lower gelatinization temperature and retrogradation, lower tendency to form gels and higher paste clarity, and are used in refrigerated and frozen foods, as emulsion stabilizers and for encapsulation of beverage clouds. OSA starch is used as emulsifiers in mayonnaises and salad dressings.
\nPregelatinized and crosslinked starches are mostly used in pastas. Gelatinized starch affects pastas elasticity and softness, delectableness and digestibility. Crosslinking gives the needed structural firmness to the pasta.
\nPregelatinized starches are used in puddings, instant lactic mixtures and breakfast foods to achieve thickening or water retention without employing heat. They are also used in ready-to-use bread mixtures. They are used where little or no heat is required and the increased absorption and retention of water improves the quality of the product; as an agglutinant in the meat industry; and as a filling for fruit pies [9, 49].
\nThe importance of starch as a biopolymer continues to be on the upward trend due to its versatility. It has transformed from its traditional use as energy-source food to more sophisticated food and non-food applications. Its growing relevance in modern technological application is as a result of its susceptibility to modification, which transforms the native properties into more desirable and malleable characteristics fit for different purposes. These modifications are only possible due to the chemical reactivity of the constituent glucose monomers of the starch chains. Though the starch granule is inherently almost unreactive, it is however easily activated for reaction by certain conditions such as high or low pH, higher temperature, presence of a catalyst, etc. Under the right condition, starch molecules can undergo hydrolysis, oxidation, esterification and etherification reactions to produced products of improved organoleptic, textural, mechanical and thermoplastic properties of desirable foods and non-foods application. Modified starches like starch acetate, starch phosphate, HPS, CMS, sulfonium starches and their crosslinked derivatives are used for various applications in the food industry. However, concerns for chemical residues in these products and environmental considerations for hazardous chemicals used in some of the process, have led to more studies for greener modification processes. Though biotechnology has evolved enzymic and genetic modification processes for production of some modified starches, they are still highly limited and sometimes uneconomical, hence chemical modification remains the most versatile and mostly used.
\nThe author declares no conflict of interest.
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Case contrast analysis is used to highlight three variables affecting successful programme implementation, namely: consistent and regular exposure to phonological and phonic instruction to provide a foundation of basic skills on which the fluency interventions in the programme can be built; consistent implementation of methods designed to improve both reading fluency, and writing and spelling fluency, to produce the greatest likelihood of positive effects; and consistent support from parents in programme implementation to produce the greatest likelihood of positive effects.",book:{id:"5878",slug:"learning-disabilities-an-international-perspective",title:"Learning Disabilities",fullTitle:"Learning Disabilities - An International Perspective"},signatures:"Charles Potter",authors:[{id:"93190",title:"Prof.",name:"Charles",middleName:null,surname:"Potter",slug:"charles-potter",fullName:"Charles Potter"}]},{id:"57054",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.70862",title:"Specific Learning Disabilities: Response to Intervention",slug:"specific-learning-disabilities-response-to-intervention",totalDownloads:2153,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"The content included in the current chapter centers around the screening and identification of students who experience learning challenges in an educational setting in the United States of America. 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Legislation that brought about concepts such as response to intervention (RTI) is discussed in detail. The various levels of intensity of interventions, or tiers, provided to students are explained by more than one discipline. The new regulations guiding access to special education services are based on the identification, intervention, and close monitoring of student progress. The overarching goal of RTI is to provide support to students who may be experiencing difficulty, before they experience failure by falling too far behind their peers.",book:{id:"5878",slug:"learning-disabilities-an-international-perspective",title:"Learning Disabilities",fullTitle:"Learning Disabilities - An International Perspective"},signatures:"Kimberly A. Heinemann, Heather Bolanos and Jennifer S. 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Therefore, there is a need to address these issues. The objective of the study was to ascertain the psychosocial and clinical features predicting suicide and NSSI in adolescents with major depression. Increased number of suicidality and impaired family function at entry is autonomously connected with a suicidal attempt. NSSI are connected at base line and apply additive effect on likelihood, one keeping on through treatment period. Poor family functions, as well as family problems and social problems, were the causative agents for adolescent’s high suicidality and NSSI. A history of NSSI treatment is a clinical marker for suicidality. The previous suicidal attempts should be evaluated in depressed juvenile patients as indicators of future suicidal intent and behavior. Both suicidal and NSSI adolescents during the therapy and after treatment endure to be depressed when they are engaged in study. Major causes of suicide among our study participants were lost friend(s), drug abuse, living alone, disturbed parental marriage, sexual abuse, and other domestic problems.",book:{id:"10910",slug:"learning-disabilities-neurobiology-assessment-clinical-features-and-treatments",title:"Learning Disabilities",fullTitle:"Learning Disabilities - Neurobiology, Assessment, Clinical Features and Treatments"},signatures:"Fahad Hassan Shah, Song Ja Kim, Laiba Zakir, Aqsa Ehsan, Sohail Riaz, Muhammad Sulaiman and Saad Salman",authors:[{id:"418086",title:"Dr.",name:"Saad",middleName:null,surname:"Salman",slug:"saad-salman",fullName:"Saad Salman"},{id:"439291",title:"Dr.",name:"Fahad Hassan",middleName:null,surname:"Shah",slug:"fahad-hassan-shah",fullName:"Fahad Hassan Shah"},{id:"439292",title:"Dr.",name:"Song Ja",middleName:null,surname:"Kim",slug:"song-ja-kim",fullName:"Song Ja Kim"},{id:"439293",title:"Dr.",name:"Laiba",middleName:null,surname:"Zakir",slug:"laiba-zakir",fullName:"Laiba Zakir"},{id:"439294",title:"Dr.",name:"Aqsa",middleName:null,surname:"Ehsan",slug:"aqsa-ehsan",fullName:"Aqsa Ehsan"},{id:"451112",title:"Dr.",name:"Sohail",middleName:null,surname:"Riaz",slug:"sohail-riaz",fullName:"Sohail Riaz"},{id:"451113",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Sulaiman",slug:"muhammad-sulaiman",fullName:"Muhammad Sulaiman"}]},{id:"79900",title:"Dyslexia, Dysgraphia and Dyscalculia: A Response to Intervention Approach to Classification",slug:"dyslexia-dysgraphia-and-dyscalculia-a-response-to-intervention-approach-to-classification",totalDownloads:182,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"This chapter provides a model for classification of dyslexia, dysgraphia and dyscalculia through analysis of the response of children to treatment. The model is discussed with reference to the types of multivariate treatment applied in a particular programme which works interactively online using an electronic data-base for linking functional difficulties in learning to treatment, and through this to firm diagnosis and classification. In applying the model, initial diagnosis of learning disabilities is treated as provisional, based on functional indicators as well as test data. Firm classification becomes possible through longitudinal assessment, analysis of response to multivariate intervention as well as response to specific programmes. Diagnosis can then be linked both to concessions as well as ongoing treatment.",book:{id:"10910",slug:"learning-disabilities-neurobiology-assessment-clinical-features-and-treatments",title:"Learning Disabilities",fullTitle:"Learning Disabilities - Neurobiology, Assessment, Clinical Features and Treatments"},signatures:"Charles Potter",authors:[{id:"93190",title:"Prof.",name:"Charles",middleName:null,surname:"Potter",slug:"charles-potter",fullName:"Charles Potter"}]},{id:"78359",title:"Self-Regulation, Self-Efficacy, and Learning Disabilities",slug:"self-regulation-self-efficacy-and-learning-disabilities",totalDownloads:345,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"This chapter will discuss the roles of self-regulation and self-efficacy in students with learning disabilities. The guiding conceptual framework is based in social cognitive theory. 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He also obtained an MSc in Molecular and Genetic Medicine, and a Ph.D. in Clinical Immunology and Human Genetics from the University of Sheffield, UK. He also completed a short-term fellowship in Pediatric Clinical Immunology and Bone Marrow Transplantation at Newcastle General Hospital, England. Dr. Rezaei is a Full Professor of Immunology and Vice Dean of International Affairs and Research, at the School of Medicine, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, and the co-founder and head of the Research Center for Immunodeficiencies. He is also the founding president of the Universal Scientific Education and Research Network (USERN). Dr. Rezaei has directed more than 100 research projects and has designed and participated in several international collaborative projects. He is an editor, editorial assistant, or editorial board member of more than forty international journals. He has edited more than 50 international books, presented more than 500 lectures/posters in congresses/meetings, and published more than 1,100 scientific papers in international journals.",institutionString:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",institution:{name:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"180733",title:"Dr.",name:"Jean",middleName:null,surname:"Engohang-Ndong",slug:"jean-engohang-ndong",fullName:"Jean Engohang-Ndong",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180733/images/system/180733.png",biography:"Dr. Jean Engohang-Ndong was born and raised in Gabon. After obtaining his Associate Degree of Science at the University of Science and Technology of Masuku, Gabon, he continued his education in France where he obtained his BS, MS, and Ph.D. in Medical Microbiology. He worked as a post-doctoral fellow at the Public Health Research Institute (PHRI), Newark, NJ for four years before accepting a three-year faculty position at Brigham Young University-Hawaii. Dr. Engohang-Ndong is a tenured faculty member with the academic rank of Full Professor at Kent State University, Ohio, where he teaches a wide range of biological science courses and pursues his research in medical and environmental microbiology. Recently, he expanded his research interest to epidemiology and biostatistics of chronic diseases in Gabon.",institutionString:"Kent State University",institution:{name:"Kent State University",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"188773",title:"Prof.",name:"Emmanuel",middleName:null,surname:"Drouet",slug:"emmanuel-drouet",fullName:"Emmanuel Drouet",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/188773/images/system/188773.png",biography:"Emmanuel Drouet, PharmD, is a Professor of Virology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, the University Grenoble-Alpes, France. As a head scientist at the Institute of Structural Biology in Grenoble, Dr. Drouet’s research investigates persisting viruses in humans (RNA and DNA viruses) and the balance with our host immune system. He focuses on these viruses’ effects on humans (both their impact on pathology and their symbiotic relationships in humans). He has an excellent track record in the herpesvirus field, and his group is engaged in clinical research in the field of Epstein-Barr virus diseases. He is the editor of the online Encyclopedia of Environment and he coordinates the Universal Health Coverage education program for the BioHealth Computing Schools of the European Institute of Science.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Grenoble Alpes University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",biography:"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (especially arboviral diseases). He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},{id:"332819",title:"Dr.",name:"Chukwudi Michael",middleName:"Michael",surname:"Egbuche",slug:"chukwudi-michael-egbuche",fullName:"Chukwudi Michael Egbuche",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/332819/images/14624_n.jpg",biography:"I an Dr. Chukwudi Michael Egbuche. I am a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Parasitology and Entomology, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nnamdi Azikiwe University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"284232",title:"Mr.",name:"Nikunj",middleName:"U",surname:"Tandel",slug:"nikunj-tandel",fullName:"Nikunj Tandel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/284232/images/8275_n.jpg",biography:'Mr. Nikunj Tandel has completed his Master\'s degree in Biotechnology from VIT University, India in the year of 2012. He is having 8 years of research experience especially in the field of malaria epidemiology, immunology, and nanoparticle-based drug delivery system against the infectious diseases, autoimmune disorders and cancer. He has worked for the NIH funded-International Center of Excellence in Malaria Research project "Center for the study of complex malaria in India (CSCMi)" in collaboration with New York University. The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. Received the CSIR-SRF (Senior Research Fellow) award-2018, FIMSA (Federation of Immunological Societies of Asia-Oceania) Travel Bursary award to attend the IUIS-IIS-FIMSA Immunology course-2019',institutionString:"Nirma University",institution:{name:"Nirma University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334383",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Simone",middleName:"Ulrich",surname:"Ulrich Picoli",slug:"simone-ulrich-picoli",fullName:"Simone Ulrich Picoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334383/images/15919_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from Universidade Luterana do Brasil (1999), Master in Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology from Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (2002), Specialization in Clinical Microbiology from Universidade de São Paulo, USP (2007) and PhD in Sciences in Gastroenterology and Hepatology (2012). She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"333753",title:"Dr.",name:"Rais",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"rais-ahmed",fullName:"Rais Ahmed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333753/images/20168_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). He was also awarded 'Outstanding Clinician in General Medicine” by Venus International Foundation for his extensive research expertise and services, perform over and above the standard expected in the advancement of healthcare, patient safety and quality of care.",institutionString:"Interfaith Medical Center",institution:{name:"Interfaith Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"93517",title:"Dr.",name:"Clement",middleName:"Adebajo",surname:"Meseko",slug:"clement-meseko",fullName:"Clement Meseko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/93517/images/system/93517.jpg",biography:"Dr. Clement Meseko obtained DVM and PhD degree in Veterinary Medicine and Virology respectively. He has worked for over 20 years in both private and public sectors including the academia, contributing to knowledge and control of infectious disease. Through the application of epidemiological skill, classical and molecular virological skills, he investigates viruses of economic and public health importance for the mitigation of the negative impact on people, animal and the environment in the context of Onehealth. \r\nDr. Meseko’s field experience on animal and zoonotic diseases and pathogen dynamics at the human-animal interface over the years shaped his carrier in research and scientific inquiries. He has been part of the investigation of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza incursions in sub Saharan Africa and monitors swine Influenza (Pandemic influenza Virus) agro-ecology and potential for interspecies transmission. He has authored and reviewed a number of journal articles and book chapters.",institutionString:"National Veterinary Research Institute",institution:{name:"National Veterinary Research Institute",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"94928",title:"Dr.",name:"Takuo",middleName:null,surname:"Mizukami",slug:"takuo-mizukami",fullName:"Takuo Mizukami",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94928/images/6402_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Institute of Infectious Diseases",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"233433",title:"Dr.",name:"Yulia",middleName:null,surname:"Desheva",slug:"yulia-desheva",fullName:"Yulia Desheva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/233433/images/system/233433.png",biography:"Dr. Yulia Desheva is a leading researcher at the Institute of Experimental Medicine, St. Petersburg, Russia. She is a professor in the Stomatology Faculty, St. Petersburg State University. She has expertise in the development and evaluation of a wide range of live mucosal vaccines against influenza and bacterial complications. Her research interests include immunity against influenza and COVID-19 and the development of immunization schemes for high-risk individuals.",institutionString:'Federal State Budgetary Scientific Institution "Institute of Experimental Medicine"',institution:null},{id:"238958",title:"Mr.",name:"Atamjit",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"atamjit-singh",fullName:"Atamjit Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/238958/images/6575_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"252058",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"Sulca",slug:"juan-sulca",fullName:"Juan Sulca",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252058/images/12834_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"191392",title:"Dr.",name:"Marimuthu",middleName:null,surname:"Govindarajan",slug:"marimuthu-govindarajan",fullName:"Marimuthu Govindarajan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/191392/images/5828_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. M. Govindarajan completed his BSc degree in Zoology at Government Arts College (Autonomous), Kumbakonam, and MSc, MPhil, and PhD degrees at Annamalai University, Annamalai Nagar, Tamil Nadu, India. He is serving as an assistant professor at the Department of Zoology, Annamalai University. His research interests include isolation, identification, and characterization of biologically active molecules from plants and microbes. He has identified more than 20 pure compounds with high mosquitocidal activity and also conducted high-quality research on photochemistry and nanosynthesis. He has published more than 150 studies in journals with impact factor and 2 books in Lambert Academic Publishing, Germany. 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