Computational efficiencies of TS strategy.
\\n\\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\\n\\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"Highly Cited",originalUrl:"/media/original/117"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'IntechOpen is proud to announce that 191 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nThroughout the years, the list has named a total of 261 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\nReleased this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
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Tabu search is a meta heuristic problem solving approach used to solve combinatorial optimization problems. It was first proposed by Glover [1] and further developed by Hansen [2]. TS has now become an established search procedure and has been successfully applied to solve a wide spectrum of optimization problems [3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9].
TS uses a memory which allows it to remember the current best solution and also enables it to explore the previous solutions and to direct the search moves. The features of memory adaptation and exploration facilitate TS to find better solutions and discover new potential regions in the search space. The memory adaptation feature helps to realize its course of action to exploit the search space efficiently. The ability of TS to explore good solutions enables it to assimilate the intelligent search mechanisms to search for good solutions and to discover new potential regions. The use of adaptive memory helps TS to learn and creates a more flexible and effective search strategy compared with memory less methods, such as simulated annealing (SA) and genetic algorithms (GA).
The components of TS are explained as follows.
To optimize the function
The tabu list in TS maintains the data of the previously visited solutions. The list is included with the latest moves and it is altered dynamically as the search proceeds. The data in the tabu list helps to direct the move from the present solution to the next solution. At each iteration, the search process is maintained by updating the tabu list. The tabu list also avoids re-visiting of recent neighbors recorded in the list and thus save computational time.
The information is stored in tabu list as recency-based short-term memory (RSM) and a frequency-based long-term memory (FRM). When the search proceeds, the nearly better solution to the present solution is sorted as tabu, and added to the recency-based tabu list. As fresh solutions enter the list, older solutions are removed from the bottom. Long-term memory relies on the frequency of a solution that is visited. When the tabu list is filled with the highest number of elements in the frequency based tabu list, the solution with the smallest frequency index will be replaced.
These strategies are used to create neighbors that have higher likelihood of finding optimal solutions based on the data in the tabu list. Intensification strategies are used to search potential areas in detail around the areas that are found good in the past. Intensification strategies are generally employed based on long term memory whose components are used to create neighbors for search intensification [4, 6, 10]. Diversification strategies are used to search the complete viable region, thus restricting the search getting trapped in local optima. These strategies promote probing unvisited regions by creating solutions radically different from those searched earlier [4]. A frequency-based tabu list is used to keep track of the search area.
During the generation of neighbor solutions, the difference between the present and fresh neighbor solution is managed by using a coefficient,
Here
The TS conditions at times prevent moves leading to unvisited solutions. Aspiration criterion is a condition that can override the tabu status of a certain move. To avoid certain missing solutions during the search, the aspiration criterion in certain cases may invalidate the tabu property and maintains an appropriate balance between diversification and intensification [4, 10, 11].
An aspiration criterion that is designed based on a sigmoid function as given by
where
A stopping criterion is needed to terminate the search when the optimum is reached. The stopping criterion can be in the form of fixing the number of iterations or specifying a threshold for convergence of solution. The criteria like the maximum time termination [6] and termination-on convergence criteria [10] are also used as stopping criteria for the search process. The termination-on-convergence criteria is expressed by Lin and Miller [10] as.
where
The flow chart of TS algorithm is shown in Figure 1. Tabu Search begins with an initial solution
Flow chart of the TS algorithm.
TS is implemented using the following steps.
Starts with an initial solution xo
Find the best solution, x* and define tabu list
Neighbor’s generations and neighborhood search
Define a neighborhood structure with respect to the solution space
Change the present solution to form a neighborhood of possible solutions
TS explore neighbor solution at each iteration
Searches entire neighborhood and select enhanced solution
Tabu list
Majority of the recent solutions are in tabu list
Older solutions are discarded
Short-term memory and long-term memory
Recency-based short-term memory (RSM)
Frequency-based long-term memory (FRM)
Intensification and Diversification
To search potential areas
To search whole feasible region
Aspiration criterion
To explore unvisited solutions
To evade feasible missing solutions
Stopping criteria
According iterations
Stopping on convergence
The determination of open-loop time varying control policies that maximize or minimize a given performance index is referred as optimal control. The optimal control policies that guarantee the product property requirements and the operational constraints can be computed off-line, and are executed on-line in such a way that the process is operated in accordance with these control policies. Achievement of product quality is a major issue in polymerization processes since the molecular or morphological properties of a polymer product majorly influences its physical, chemical, thermal, rheological and mechanical properties as well as polymer applications. In a free radical copolymerization, composition drifts caused by variations in reactivities of comonomers can be mitigated by continuous addition of more reactive monomer while maintaining a constant mole ratio. The end use properties of the polymer product such as flexibility, strength and glass transition temperature are affected by the copolymer composition. Further, the molecular weight (
In the past, various methods have been reported for optimal control of polymerization reactors [12, 13, 14, 15, 16]. Most of the studies are based on classical methods of optimization such as Pontryagin’s maximum principle [17], which has been applied to solve the optimal control problems of different polymerization reactors [18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23]. However, the classical methods have certain limitations for optimal control of polymerization reactors and these drawbacks have been discussed in literature [24]. The stochastic and evolutionary optimization methods are found beneficial over the conventional gradient-based search techniques because of their ability in locating the global optimum of multi-modal functions and searching design spaces with disjoint feasible regions.
The general open-loop optimal control problem of a lumped parameter batch/semi-batch process with fixed terminal time can be stated as follows. Find a control vector
Subject to
In the above,
A multistage optimization results due to the natural extension of a single stage optimization. In a system involving multiple stages, the output from one stage becomes the input to the subsequent stage. The multistage dynamic optimization procedure can be referred elsewhere [24]. This type of optimization needs special techniques to split the problem into computationally manageable units. In multistage dynamic optimization, the optimal control problem of the entire batch duration is divided into finite number of time instants referred to as discrete stages. The control variables and the corresponding state variables that satisfy the objective function are evaluated in stage wise manner.
In this work, a multistage dynamic optimization strategy with sequential implementation procedure is presented for optimal control of polymerization reactors. The procedure for solving the optimal control problem is similar to that of the dynamic programming based on the principle of optimality [25]. The meta heuristic features of tabu search (TS) are exploited by implementing this strategy on a semi-batch styrene–acrylonitrile (SAN) copolymerization reactor. The procedure involves in discretizing the process into
1. The optimum value of the objective function,
2. The value of the objective function,
3. Recursive generalization of the above procedure for the
In this procedure,
The solution copolymerization of styrene and acrylonitrile taking place in a semi-batch reactor is considered as a test bed for sequential implementation of the dynamic optimization strategy. The xylene is the solvent and AIBN is the initiator for the reaction. The feed which is a mixture of monomers, solvent, and initiator enters the reactor in semi-batch mode. The reactor initial volume is 1.01 L. The initially set design parameters are the solvent mole fraction
Initiation:
Propagation:
Combination termination:
Disproportionation termination:
Chain Transfer:
where
The molecular weight (
where
More details on modeling equations, reaction kinetics and numerical data pertaining to this system can be referred elsewhere [24].
The polymerization process model [24] is in the form of the general expression in Eq. (5). The set of state variables,
and
In the above,
The desired values of copolymer composition (
Here
These constraints on operating variables are selected by taking into consideration of reaction rate, heat transfer limitation and reactor safety. Determination of temperature policy,
The design and implementation of tabu search for optimal control of copolymerization reactor is explained as follows. The total span of reaction time in SAN copolymerization reactor is split into finite number of time instants referred to discrete stages. The total time of reaction is fixed at 300 min. The duration of reaction time is divided into 19 stages with 20 time points, each stage having a duration of 15 min. Thus the discrete control sequences of feed flow rate,
The control sequences are located at equal distances. Initially, the control vector is specified as constant value at each of the discrete stages. The control input at the beginning of the first stage is chosen as the lower bound of the input space. The elements of tabu search for computing the optimal control policies are specified as follows. The sizes of both recency and frequency based tabu lists are set as 50. The sizes of these lists are chosen such that they prohibit revisiting of un-prosperous solutions in the search process. An intensification procedure in the form of a sine function is used. The oscillation period
Multistage dynamic optimization of copolymerization reactor using tabu search.
Tabu search (TS) is designed and applied to compute the optimal control policies that meet the single and multiple objectives of SAN copolymerization reactor. The dual control policies of
Dual control policies and objectives: (a) Temperature policy, (b) Feed rate policy, (c) Molecular weight as an objective, and (d) Copolymer composition as an objective.
Strategy | Control Policy | Computational efficiency | Normalized absolute error | Memory storage, k | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Convergence time (sec) | Implementation time (sec) | ||||
TS | T | 1.89 | 16.83 | 0.000566 | 2224 |
U | 2.19 | 13.81 | 0.01379 | 2076 | |
T & u | 4.25 | 19.21 | 0.007535 | 3084 |
Computational efficiencies of TS strategy.
Tabu search is applied to determine the parameters of kinetic and film thickness models through the validation of the mathematical models of the process with the help of measured data acquired from an experimental fixed bed anaerobic biofilm reactor used in the treatment of pharmaceutical industry wastewater.
The schematic of a laboratory scale fixed bed biofilm reactor setup used for industry waste water treatment is shown in Figure 4. The description of the experimental unit, its auxiliary items and the packing specifications are given as follows.
Experimental biofilm reactor setup.
The reactor consists of a QVF glass column of 1 m height and 0.1016 m internal diameter. A Teflon perforated plate of thickness 3 mm is provided at the base of the column to support the packing material. Two openings fitted with valves made of Teflon are provided at the bottom of the reactor so that one valve is used to control the flow rate of influent pumped into the reactor and the other valve is used to discharge the excess sludge accumulated. The top of the column has a provision to place a thermometer to measure the temperature. Three sampling ports are placed at equal distances along the side of the column to withdraw samples. The temperature of the column is maintained by varying the voltage through the 0.2 kW heating tape connected to a dimmer-stat. The column is insulated with 1.0 in. asbestos rope. The entire setup is supported by a 1.0 in. M.S. pipeline structure. The column and the packing specifications are given elsewhere [27].
The experimental setup shown in Figure 4 is used to conduct experiments for anaerobic treatment of pharmaceutical industry wastewater involving different packing materials with varying organic loading rates and feed rates, and different hydraulic retention times. The influent kept in a 2
The wastewater procured from a typical pharmaceutical industry is a complex medium and its composition is reported elsewhere [28]. Substrates of varying COD concentrations are prepared using the wastewater in order to use them as feed solutions for biofilm reactor experiments. Once the biological activity of the bed is detected, the diluted industry wastewater solution equivalent to three bed volumes is sent to the reactor by an electronic dosing pump. NaHCO3 is added to maintain the pH of the feeding solution at 7.2. Different experiments are conducted for treating the pharmaceutical industry wastewater using the feed solutions having the COD concentrations of 4,980 mg/l, 11,860 mg/l, 23,460 mg/l and 40,720 mg/l. The hydraulic retention time (HRT) of each experiment is varied from 2 to 12 days based on the substrate concentration of the feed solution. Each experimental run subsequent to attainment of its HRT is allowed to continue for 13 days so as the operation reaches stable state condition by that time.
Thirteen experiments are conducted using the different feed solutions prepared from the pharmaceutical industry wastewater. The reactor is provided with the sampling ports to withdraw samples at bed heights of 0.25 m, 0.5 m and 0.75 m from the bottom. Samples collected from the three sampling ports of the column as well as from the effluent water are analyzed for COD, BOD, TVA, TA, pH etc. The stable state condition of each experiment is observed with respect to the minimal variation in reactor effluent pH, alkalinity and COD concentrations. Thus 13 experiments are conducted under different feed stream conditions. The data corresponding to the influent and effluent COD concentrations, HRT and OLR of all experiments are given elsewhere [28].
The application of mathematical models to biofilm reactors suffers due to lack of availability accurate kinetic models and uncertainty in model parameters. Therefore, appropriate selection of kinetic model and accurate determination of its parameters is required for successful modeling of biofilm reactors. The biological reaction rates are generally represented by Monod kinetics and also occasionally by Contois and Haldane models. In the past, efforts have been made to determine the parameters of kinetic models of biofilm reactors, mostly experimentally [29, 30, 31]. Various researchers [32, 33, 34, 35] have reported that numerical evaluation of kinetic parameters is an attractive alternative to the experimental methods for biofilm processes. By numerical approach, the parameters of the kinetic models of biofilm processes are determined as a consequence of the validation of their mathematical models with the aid of measured data. The approach of determining the model parameters such that the behavior of the process model approximates the observed process behavior is known as inverse modeling.
Mathematical models of varying complexities involving different types of kinetic and film thickness models are used to represent the wastewater treatment process in the biofilm reactor.
This model accounts the rate of mass transfer to be proportional to the concentration difference between the interface and the bulk fluid. This model assumes no accumulation of the component at the interface under steady state condition. The differential equation governing the fluid phase is given by.
with the boundary condition:
In this model, the substrate concentration in the bulk fluid varies only in the axial direction.
The differential equation governing the solid phase is given by.
with the boundary conditions:
The superscript ‘
This model considers the variation of the substrate concentration in bulk fluid in both the axial and radial directions. The substrate transfer occurring through the biofilm is characterized by physical diffusion and reaction, and this process is described by second order differential equation. Pressure losses along the length of the reactor are neglected. The differential equation governing the bulk fluid phase is given by.
where
The substrate mass transport occurring from the bulk fluid to the biofilm surface across the diffusion layer is defined by
where Sc is Schmidt number (
where
Various kinetic models can be used to represent the bioprocess kinetics [28], of which the Haldane and Edward models are given as follows.
This rate expression is generally valid when the substrate concentration is high. According to this model, the substrate consumption rate,
where
This model considers substrate inhibition, according to which the substrate consumption rate,
The biofilm thickness (
where
To facilitate the solution of mathematical models, the height of the column (1 m) is divided into 50 equal steps, each step representing 0.02 m. In one dimensional model, the fluid phase equation (Eq. (27)) along with its boundary condition (Eq. (28)) is solved for each height step in the axial direction by using Runge–Kutta (RK) 4th order method. The solid phase equation for the biofilm (Eq. (29)) is solved for each segment using orthogonal collocation on finite elements (OCFE) [36]. Two finite elements, each with four internal collocation points are considered for OCFE implementation. In two dimensional model, the fluid phase equation (Eq. (31)) is transformed to ODE by finite difference technique and the resulting equation along with its boundary condition is solved by using 4th order RK method for each height step of the axial direction. The solution for solid phase equation of this model is same as in one dimensional model.
The implementation procedure of tabu search is given in Section 1.3. In this work, tabu search is used to determine the parameters of kinetic and film thickness models in association with the validation of the mathematical models using the data of measurements obtained from an experimental fixed bed anaerobic biofilm reactor. The parameter estimation via inverse modeling is carried out by defining an objective function,
where
Parameter estimation by tabu search is performed by devising different modeling configurations to represent the biofilm reactor. These configurations involve the Edward kinetics and Haldane kinetics with substrate inhibition along with the two and three parameter film thickness expressions. The modeling configuration that is formed by 1D model along with Haldane kinetics and two parameter film thickness expression is referred to 1D-Haldane-2film. Other modeling configurations are formed and abbreviated in the same manner. The effectiveness of these modeling configurations are assessed by comparing the model predictions with experimental data and further by means of performance measures such as cost function (CF) and model efficiency (ME) [28]. A conventional optimization method called Nelder–Mead optimization (NMO) [37, 38] is also employed for comparison with the tabu search. The results are analyzed to find the better suitability of mathematical models using the quantitative performance measures (CF and ME). These results evaluated for 1D and 2D models with Haldane and Edward kinetics involving two film and three film expressions indicate the better suitability of 2D model over 1D model. When the results are analyzed to assess the better suitability optimization algorithm, the analysis of results of different modeling configurations indicate the effectiveness of TS over NMO. The results evaluated to find the usefulness of kinetic models indicate the better suitability of Edward kinetics over Haldane kinetics. The results analyzed to assess the film thickness expressions indicate the appropriateness of the three parameter film thickness expression over two parameter expression. The iterative convergence of parameters estimated by TS and NMO are shown in Figure 5. The comparison of the prediction results of 2D model with Edward kinetics and three parameter film thickness expression evaluated using TS and NMO with those of experimental results are shown in Figure 6. The analysis of the results show the better performance of TS over NMO for inverse modeling of biofilm reactor. From these results, it is found that the TS involving 2D model, Edward kinetics and three parameter film thickness expression better represents the fixed bed biofilm reactor involved in the treatment of pharmaceutical industry wastewater.
Iterative convergence of parameter estimates by TS and NMO: (a) kinetic parameters, (b) film thickness parameters.
Comparison of experimental results with model predicted substrate conversions of 2D model with Edward kinetics.
Tabu search is a stochastic optimization method used to solve global optimization problems. The effectiveness of tabu search for modeling and optimization is explored with the applications concerning to chemical and environmental systems of varying complexities. The meta heuristic Tabu search (TS) is designed and applied to determine the optimal control policies of a SAN copolymerization reactor and inverse modeling of a biofilm reactor. The computational efficiencies of TS are evaluated in terms of execution times, normalized absolute error values and memory storage requirements. The results of polymerization reactor show the usefulness of TS in determining the optimal temperature and feed rate policies to maintain the objectives
This is a brief overview of the main steps involved in publishing with IntechOpen Compacts, Monographs and Edited Books. Once you submit your proposal you will be appointed a Author Service Manager who will be your single point of contact and lead you through all the described steps below.
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\n\nPlease complete the publishing proposal form. The completed form should serve as an overview of your future Compacts, Monograph or Edited Book. Once submitted, your publishing proposal will be sent for evaluation, and a notice of acceptance or rejection will be sent within 10 to 30 working days from the date of submission.
\n\n2. SUBMIT YOUR MANUSCRIPT
\n\nAfter approval, you will proceed in submitting your full-length manuscript. 50-130 pages for compacts, 130-500 for Monographs & Edited Books.Your full-length manuscript must follow IntechOpen's Author Guidelines and comply with our publishing rules. Once the manuscript is submitted, but before it is forwarded for peer review, it will be screened for plagiarism.
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Thus, more studies are needed to know the relations and mechanisms involved in clonal variation, sensitivity, and development, which can be all assessed by state-of-the-art procedures.",book:{id:"5101",slug:"invertebrates-experimental-models-in-toxicity-screening",title:"Invertebrates",fullTitle:"Invertebrates - Experimental Models in Toxicity Screening"},signatures:"Roberto Rico-Martínez, Mario Alberto Arzate-Cárdenas, Daniel\nRobles-Vargas, Ignacio Alejandro Pérez-Legaspi, Alvarado-Flores\nJesús and Gustavo Emilio Santos-Medrano",authors:[{id:"96153",title:"Dr.",name:"Roberto",middleName:null,surname:"Rico-Martinez",slug:"roberto-rico-martinez",fullName:"Roberto Rico-Martinez"},{id:"177852",title:"Dr.",name:"Mario Alberto",middleName:null,surname:"Arzate-Cárdenas",slug:"mario-alberto-arzate-cardenas",fullName:"Mario Alberto Arzate-Cárdenas"},{id:"177853",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniel",middleName:null,surname:"Robles-Vargas",slug:"daniel-robles-vargas",fullName:"Daniel Robles-Vargas"},{id:"177854",title:"Dr.",name:"Ignacio Alejandro",middleName:null,surname:"Pérez-Legaspi",slug:"ignacio-alejandro-perez-legaspi",fullName:"Ignacio Alejandro Pérez-Legaspi"},{id:"177855",title:"Dr.",name:"Jesús",middleName:null,surname:"Alvarado-Flores",slug:"jesus-alvarado-flores",fullName:"Jesús Alvarado-Flores"},{id:"177856",title:"Dr.",name:"Gustavo Emilio",middleName:null,surname:"Santos-Medrano",slug:"gustavo-emilio-santos-medrano",fullName:"Gustavo Emilio Santos-Medrano"}]},{id:"49050",doi:"10.5772/60216",title:"Immunotoxicological Threats of Pollutants in Aquatic Invertebrates",slug:"immunotoxicological-threats-of-pollutants-in-aquatic-invertebrates",totalDownloads:1864,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:17,abstract:"Immunology deals with the physiological activity of organisms to defend against pathogen and toxin invasion. Invertebrates residing in aquatic ecosystems often face toxicological threat arises from habitat pollution. The aquatic habitat of invertebrates is in the precarious risk of pollution caused by diverse groups of environmental toxins. Immunotoxins have been considered as a special group of pollutants capable of affecting the immunological profile of organisms. Invertebrates residing in water bear ecological, economical, medicinal, industrial, nutritional and biotechnological significance. Global aquatic bioresource is largely composed of invertebrates belonging to multiple Phyla. These organisms, including insects, snails, clams, mussels, crabs and sponges, are physiologically dependent on innate immunological response for defense against pathogen and environmental contaminants. External physicochemical barriers of invertebrates act as primary line of defen against toxin entry. Principal barriers have been identified as shell, tunic, test, carapace, mucus, etc., in diverse species. Toxin-induced morphological damage of specialized immunocytes of invertebrates has been reported. Toxin-induced shift in density, surface adhesion efficacy and aggregation of blood cells or haemocytes have been identified as major xenobiotic stress in invertebrates. Various environmental toxins are capable of initiating alteration in the innate phagocytic response and cytotoxicity of blood cells. Lysosomes of invertebrate haemocytes are functionally involved in intracellular destruction of environmental pathogens. Toxins like arsenic, pyrethroid pesticides, azadirachtin and washing soda were reported to increase the relative fragility of lysosomal membranes of immunocytes. This often leads to impairment in the efficacy of invertebrates to destroy pathogen under the exposure of pollutants. Xenobiotics like pyrethroid pesticides have been recorded to affect apoptosis and necrosis of invertebrate immunocytes. Selected toxin-induced morphological damages of heart, gill, digestive gland, mantle and antennae may result in the overall impairment in homeostatic levels of invertebrates inhabiting the polluted environment. Global environment, in recent times, is under the serious threat of contamination by diverse chemical compounds of unknown or less known toxicity. A thorough ecotoxicological analysis at cellular and molecular levels needs to be carried out in invertebrates occupying the different realms of the planet in future.",book:{id:"4606",slug:"emerging-pollutants-in-the-environment-current-and-further-implications",title:"Emerging Pollutants in the Environment",fullTitle:"Emerging Pollutants in the Environment - Current and Further Implications"},signatures:"Sajal Ray, Soumalya Mukherjee, Niladri Sekhar Bhunia, Anindya\nSundar Bhunia and Mitali Ray",authors:[{id:"173697",title:"Prof.",name:"Sajal",middleName:null,surname:"Ray",slug:"sajal-ray",fullName:"Sajal Ray"},{id:"175476",title:"Dr.",name:"Soumalya",middleName:null,surname:"Mukherjee",slug:"soumalya-mukherjee",fullName:"Soumalya Mukherjee"},{id:"175477",title:"Mr.",name:"Niladri Sekhar",middleName:null,surname:"Bhunia",slug:"niladri-sekhar-bhunia",fullName:"Niladri Sekhar Bhunia"},{id:"175478",title:"Mr.",name:"Anindya Sundar",middleName:null,surname:"Bhunia",slug:"anindya-sundar-bhunia",fullName:"Anindya Sundar Bhunia"},{id:"175479",title:"Dr.",name:"Mitali",middleName:null,surname:"Ray",slug:"mitali-ray",fullName:"Mitali Ray"}]},{id:"49867",doi:"10.5772/62228",title:"Overview of the Standard Methods for Soil Ecotoxicology Testing",slug:"overview-of-the-standard-methods-for-soil-ecotoxicology-testing",totalDownloads:2674,totalCrossrefCites:7,totalDimensionsCites:13,abstract:"This chapter briefly describes the importance of the services provided by soil invertebrates in terrestrial ecosystems and highlights the role of soil fauna in the risk assessments of potentially polluting substances for the terrestrial environment, considering the sensitivity of these organisms, when compared to other indicators of soil quality (e.g., chemical and physical). The main invertebrate groups used in laboratorial ecotoxicological assays are presented and, based on its physiological characteristics and habit requirements, the advantages and disadvantages of using certain taxonomic groups in laboratory assessments are also discussed. The most frequently used methods to perform this type of toxicity tests are summarized, highlighting the fundamental steps of the assays with the species Eisenia fetida/Eisenia andrei, Folsomia candida, Enchytraeus albidus/Enchytraeus crypticus, and Hypoaspis aculeifer, as well as the possible adjustments that are being carried out in tropical countries. Finally, the future prospects, related to the challenge of increasing the realism of laboratory ecotoxicological analyses, are discussed to show the main needs of this study at global and regional perspectives.",book:{id:"5101",slug:"invertebrates-experimental-models-in-toxicity-screening",title:"Invertebrates",fullTitle:"Invertebrates - Experimental Models in Toxicity Screening"},signatures:"Paulo Roger Lopes Alves and Elke Jurandy Bran Nogueira Cardoso",authors:[{id:"176887",title:"Dr.",name:"Paulo Roger",middleName:null,surname:"Lopes Alves",slug:"paulo-roger-lopes-alves",fullName:"Paulo Roger Lopes Alves"},{id:"177015",title:"Prof.",name:"Elke Jurandy",middleName:null,surname:"Bran Nogueira Cardoso",slug:"elke-jurandy-bran-nogueira-cardoso",fullName:"Elke Jurandy Bran Nogueira Cardoso"}]},{id:"48714",doi:"10.5772/60887",title:"The Relevance of ATR-FTIR Spectroscopy in Semiconductor Photocatalysis",slug:"the-relevance-of-atr-ftir-spectroscopy-in-semiconductor-photocatalysis",totalDownloads:3105,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:12,abstract:"Attenuated total reflection Fourier-transform infrared (ATR-FTIR) spectroscopy has a high potential for investigating a wide range of samples and systems. In photocatalysis, various interfacial phenomena can be studied using this technique, including pH-dependent adsorption and photodegradation of probe molecules. The analysis of the processes occurring at the interface of thin particle films deposited on the surface of an ATR crystal, either in the liquid or the gas phase, is perhaps the best way to elucidate the mechanism of adsorption and heterogeneous photocatalytic reactions. This chapter summarizes the recent advances and applications of ATR-FTIR techniques in semiconductor photocatalysis. A brief outlook at some of the possible investigations in this area is provided and the different proposed adsorption and photocatalytic degradation mechanisms are discussed.",book:{id:"4606",slug:"emerging-pollutants-in-the-environment-current-and-further-implications",title:"Emerging Pollutants in the Environment",fullTitle:"Emerging Pollutants in the Environment - Current and Further Implications"},signatures:"Mohamed Faycal Atitar, Hamza Belhadj, Ralf Dillert and Detlef W.\nBahnemann",authors:[{id:"100553",title:"Prof.",name:"Detlef",middleName:null,surname:"Bahnemann",slug:"detlef-bahnemann",fullName:"Detlef Bahnemann"},{id:"173632",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Mohamed Faycal",middleName:null,surname:"Atitar",slug:"mohamed-faycal-atitar",fullName:"Mohamed Faycal Atitar"},{id:"173812",title:"Dr.",name:"Ralf",middleName:null,surname:"Dillert",slug:"ralf-dillert",fullName:"Ralf Dillert"},{id:"175502",title:"MSc.",name:"Hamza",middleName:null,surname:"Belhadj",slug:"hamza-belhadj",fullName:"Hamza Belhadj"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"48714",title:"The Relevance of ATR-FTIR Spectroscopy in Semiconductor Photocatalysis",slug:"the-relevance-of-atr-ftir-spectroscopy-in-semiconductor-photocatalysis",totalDownloads:3104,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:12,abstract:"Attenuated total reflection Fourier-transform infrared (ATR-FTIR) spectroscopy has a high potential for investigating a wide range of samples and systems. In photocatalysis, various interfacial phenomena can be studied using this technique, including pH-dependent adsorption and photodegradation of probe molecules. The analysis of the processes occurring at the interface of thin particle films deposited on the surface of an ATR crystal, either in the liquid or the gas phase, is perhaps the best way to elucidate the mechanism of adsorption and heterogeneous photocatalytic reactions. This chapter summarizes the recent advances and applications of ATR-FTIR techniques in semiconductor photocatalysis. A brief outlook at some of the possible investigations in this area is provided and the different proposed adsorption and photocatalytic degradation mechanisms are discussed.",book:{id:"4606",slug:"emerging-pollutants-in-the-environment-current-and-further-implications",title:"Emerging Pollutants in the Environment",fullTitle:"Emerging Pollutants in the Environment - Current and Further Implications"},signatures:"Mohamed Faycal Atitar, Hamza Belhadj, Ralf Dillert and Detlef W.\nBahnemann",authors:[{id:"100553",title:"Prof.",name:"Detlef",middleName:null,surname:"Bahnemann",slug:"detlef-bahnemann",fullName:"Detlef Bahnemann"},{id:"173632",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Mohamed Faycal",middleName:null,surname:"Atitar",slug:"mohamed-faycal-atitar",fullName:"Mohamed Faycal Atitar"},{id:"173812",title:"Dr.",name:"Ralf",middleName:null,surname:"Dillert",slug:"ralf-dillert",fullName:"Ralf Dillert"},{id:"175502",title:"MSc.",name:"Hamza",middleName:null,surname:"Belhadj",slug:"hamza-belhadj",fullName:"Hamza Belhadj"}]},{id:"49472",title:"Nanotoxicity in Aquatic Invertebrates",slug:"nanotoxicity-in-aquatic-invertebrates",totalDownloads:2188,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:12,abstract:"Due to their unique properties, nanomaterials (NMs) are being incorporated in several applications including consumer products, electronics, pesticides and the pharmaceutical industry. As such, the rapid development and large-scale production of NMs has inspired concerns regarding their environmental health risks. In order to address these concerns, there has been a rapid development in the methods of toxicity testing of NMs, specifically in aquatic organisms. Understanding the unique properties of nanoscale materials has proven to be a particular important aspect of their toxicity. Properties such as surface area, surface coating, surface charge, particle reactivity, aggregation and dissolution may affect cellular uptake, in vivo reactivity and distribution across tissues. The behaviour of NPs is influenced by both the inherent properties of the NP as well as environmental properties (such as temperature, pH, ionic strength, salinity, organic matter). As such, this chapter describes methodologies of NM characterization in exposure media and NM in vivo toxicity experimental procedures under variable environmental conditions (with special emphasis on temperature).",book:{id:"5101",slug:"invertebrates-experimental-models-in-toxicity-screening",title:"Invertebrates",fullTitle:"Invertebrates - Experimental Models in Toxicity Screening"},signatures:"Chavon Walters, Edmund Pool and Vernon Somerset",authors:[{id:"6648",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Vernon",middleName:null,surname:"Somerset",slug:"vernon-somerset",fullName:"Vernon Somerset"},{id:"176939",title:"Dr.",name:"Chavon",middleName:null,surname:"Walters",slug:"chavon-walters",fullName:"Chavon Walters"},{id:"177116",title:"Prof.",name:"Edmund",middleName:null,surname:"Pool",slug:"edmund-pool",fullName:"Edmund Pool"}]},{id:"49635",title:"Rotifers as Models in Toxicity Screening of Chemicals and Environmental Samples",slug:"rotifers-as-models-in-toxicity-screening-of-chemicals-and-environmental-samples",totalDownloads:2734,totalCrossrefCites:7,totalDimensionsCites:24,abstract:"An important objective of aquatic ecotoxicology is to determine the effects of toxic compounds in organisms that play a central role in aquatic communities where rotifers have a large impact on several important ecological processes. The contribution of the rotifers to secondary production in many aquatic communities is substantial as they are often the larger fraction of zooplankton biomass at certain times of the year. In addition to the importance of their ecological roles in aquatic communities, the rotifers are attractive organisms for ecotoxicological studies by its short life cycles and rapid reproduction, their small size, and little volumes needed for culture and toxicity assays. The main end points used in ecotoxicological studies are mortality, reproduction, behavior, and biomarkers. Such parameters are included in international regulations from all over the world, where different species are used to evaluate the effect of environmental samples or chemical compounds. The high diversity of rotifers is an important issue because it can modify their relative susceptibility to toxicants. Thus, more studies are needed to know the relations and mechanisms involved in clonal variation, sensitivity, and development, which can be all assessed by state-of-the-art procedures.",book:{id:"5101",slug:"invertebrates-experimental-models-in-toxicity-screening",title:"Invertebrates",fullTitle:"Invertebrates - Experimental Models in Toxicity Screening"},signatures:"Roberto Rico-Martínez, Mario Alberto Arzate-Cárdenas, Daniel\nRobles-Vargas, Ignacio Alejandro Pérez-Legaspi, Alvarado-Flores\nJesús and Gustavo Emilio Santos-Medrano",authors:[{id:"96153",title:"Dr.",name:"Roberto",middleName:null,surname:"Rico-Martinez",slug:"roberto-rico-martinez",fullName:"Roberto Rico-Martinez"},{id:"177852",title:"Dr.",name:"Mario Alberto",middleName:null,surname:"Arzate-Cárdenas",slug:"mario-alberto-arzate-cardenas",fullName:"Mario Alberto Arzate-Cárdenas"},{id:"177853",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniel",middleName:null,surname:"Robles-Vargas",slug:"daniel-robles-vargas",fullName:"Daniel Robles-Vargas"},{id:"177854",title:"Dr.",name:"Ignacio Alejandro",middleName:null,surname:"Pérez-Legaspi",slug:"ignacio-alejandro-perez-legaspi",fullName:"Ignacio Alejandro Pérez-Legaspi"},{id:"177855",title:"Dr.",name:"Jesús",middleName:null,surname:"Alvarado-Flores",slug:"jesus-alvarado-flores",fullName:"Jesús Alvarado-Flores"},{id:"177856",title:"Dr.",name:"Gustavo Emilio",middleName:null,surname:"Santos-Medrano",slug:"gustavo-emilio-santos-medrano",fullName:"Gustavo Emilio Santos-Medrano"}]},{id:"48738",title:"Impact of Oil Spills on Marine Life",slug:"impact-of-oil-spills-on-marine-life",totalDownloads:4870,totalCrossrefCites:14,totalDimensionsCites:32,abstract:"Petroleum contamination is a growing environmental concern that harms both terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems. However, the public and regulatory and scientific communities have given more attention to the contamination of marine habitats. This is because marine oil spills can have a serious economic impact on coastal activities, as well as on those who exploit the resources of the sea. Thus, communities that are at risk of oil disasters must anticipate the consequences and prepare for them.",book:{id:"4606",slug:"emerging-pollutants-in-the-environment-current-and-further-implications",title:"Emerging Pollutants in the Environment",fullTitle:"Emerging Pollutants in the Environment - Current and Further Implications"},signatures:"Ismail M.K. Saadoun",authors:[{id:"173457",title:"Prof.",name:"Ismail",middleName:null,surname:"Saadoun",slug:"ismail-saadoun",fullName:"Ismail Saadoun"}]},{id:"49867",title:"Overview of the Standard Methods for Soil Ecotoxicology Testing",slug:"overview-of-the-standard-methods-for-soil-ecotoxicology-testing",totalDownloads:2674,totalCrossrefCites:7,totalDimensionsCites:13,abstract:"This chapter briefly describes the importance of the services provided by soil invertebrates in terrestrial ecosystems and highlights the role of soil fauna in the risk assessments of potentially polluting substances for the terrestrial environment, considering the sensitivity of these organisms, when compared to other indicators of soil quality (e.g., chemical and physical). The main invertebrate groups used in laboratorial ecotoxicological assays are presented and, based on its physiological characteristics and habit requirements, the advantages and disadvantages of using certain taxonomic groups in laboratory assessments are also discussed. The most frequently used methods to perform this type of toxicity tests are summarized, highlighting the fundamental steps of the assays with the species Eisenia fetida/Eisenia andrei, Folsomia candida, Enchytraeus albidus/Enchytraeus crypticus, and Hypoaspis aculeifer, as well as the possible adjustments that are being carried out in tropical countries. Finally, the future prospects, related to the challenge of increasing the realism of laboratory ecotoxicological analyses, are discussed to show the main needs of this study at global and regional perspectives.",book:{id:"5101",slug:"invertebrates-experimental-models-in-toxicity-screening",title:"Invertebrates",fullTitle:"Invertebrates - Experimental Models in Toxicity Screening"},signatures:"Paulo Roger Lopes Alves and Elke Jurandy Bran Nogueira Cardoso",authors:[{id:"176887",title:"Dr.",name:"Paulo Roger",middleName:null,surname:"Lopes Alves",slug:"paulo-roger-lopes-alves",fullName:"Paulo Roger Lopes Alves"},{id:"177015",title:"Prof.",name:"Elke Jurandy",middleName:null,surname:"Bran Nogueira Cardoso",slug:"elke-jurandy-bran-nogueira-cardoso",fullName:"Elke Jurandy Bran Nogueira Cardoso"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"846",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:0,limit:8,total:null},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:90,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:108,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:33,numberOfPublishedChapters:330,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:14,numberOfPublishedChapters:145,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:141,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:123,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:112,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:22,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:11,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-6580",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}},{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",issn:"2631-6188",scope:"This series will provide a comprehensive overview of recent research trends in various Infectious Diseases (as per the most recent Baltimore classification). Topics will include general overviews of infections, immunopathology, diagnosis, treatment, epidemiology, etiology, and current clinical recommendations for managing infectious diseases. Ongoing issues, recent advances, and future diagnostic approaches and therapeutic strategies will also be discussed. This book series will focus on various aspects and properties of infectious diseases whose deep understanding is essential for safeguarding the human race from losing resources and economies due to pathogens.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/6.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"August 12th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:13,editor:{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",biography:"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (especially arboviral diseases). He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:4,paginationItems:[{id:"3",title:"Bacterial Infectious Diseases",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/3.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"205604",title:"Dr.",name:"Tomas",middleName:null,surname:"Jarzembowski",slug:"tomas-jarzembowski",fullName:"Tomas Jarzembowski",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRKriQAG/Profile_Picture_2022-06-16T11:01:31.jpg",biography:"Tomasz Jarzembowski was born in 1968 in Gdansk, Poland. He obtained his Ph.D. degree in 2000 from the Medical University of Gdańsk (UG). After specialization in clinical microbiology in 2003, he started studying biofilm formation and antibiotic resistance at the single-cell level. In 2015, he obtained his D.Sc. degree. His later study in cooperation with experts in nephrology and immunology resulted in the designation of the new diagnostic method of UTI, patented in 2017. He is currently working at the Department of Microbiology, Medical University of Gdańsk (GUMed), Poland. Since many years, he is a member of steering committee of Gdańsk branch of Polish Society of Microbiologists, a member of ESCMID. He is also a reviewer and a member of editorial boards of a number of international journals.",institutionString:"Medical University of Gdańsk, Poland",institution:null},editorTwo:{id:"484980",title:"Dr.",name:"Katarzyna",middleName:null,surname:"Garbacz",slug:"katarzyna-garbacz",fullName:"Katarzyna Garbacz",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003St8TAQAZ/Profile_Picture_2022-07-07T09:45:16.jpg",biography:"Katarzyna Maria Garbacz, MD, is an Associate Professor at the Medical University of Gdańsk, Poland and she is head of the Department of Oral Microbiology of the Medical University of Gdańsk. She has published more than 50 scientific publications in peer-reviewed journals. She has been a project leader funded by the National Science Centre of Poland. Prof. Garbacz is a microbiologist working on applied and fundamental questions in microbial epidemiology and pathogenesis. Her research interest is in antibiotic resistance, host-pathogen interaction, and therapeutics development for staphylococcal pathogens, mainly Staphylococcus aureus, which causes hospital-acquired infections. Currently, her research is mostly focused on the study of oral pathogens, particularly Staphylococcus spp.",institutionString:"Medical University of Gdańsk, Poland",institution:null},editorThree:null},{id:"4",title:"Fungal Infectious Diseases",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/4.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"174134",title:"Dr.",name:"Yuping",middleName:null,surname:"Ran",slug:"yuping-ran",fullName:"Yuping Ran",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bS9d6QAC/Profile_Picture_1630330675373",biography:"Dr. Yuping Ran, Professor, Department of Dermatology, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China. Completed the Course Medical Mycology, the Centraalbureau voor Schimmelcultures (CBS), Fungal Biodiversity Centre, Netherlands (2006). International Union of Microbiological Societies (IUMS) Fellow, and International Emerging Infectious Diseases (IEID) Fellow, Centers for Diseases Control and Prevention (CDC), Atlanta, USA. Diploma of Dermatological Scientist, Japanese Society for Investigative Dermatology. Ph.D. of Juntendo University, Japan. Bachelor’s and Master’s degree, Medicine, West China University of Medical Sciences. Chair of Sichuan Medical Association Dermatology Committee. General Secretary of The 19th Annual Meeting of Chinese Society of Dermatology and the Asia Pacific Society for Medical Mycology (2013). In charge of the Annual Medical Mycology Course over 20-years authorized by National Continue Medical Education Committee of China. Member of the board of directors of the Asia-Pacific Society for Medical Mycology (APSMM). Associate editor of Mycopathologia. 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