Doses according to week’s gestation and kilograms and the sweetener used.
\r\n\t
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Member of Indian Red Cross Society, Association of Pharmaceutical Teachers of India (APTI), Indian Pharmacy Graduate Association.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"319705",title:"Dr.",name:"Rahul",middleName:null,surname:"Shukla",slug:"rahul-shukla",fullName:"Rahul Shukla",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/319705/images/system/319705.jpg",biography:"Currently working as Assistant Professor at Department of Pharmaceutics, NIPER Raebareli, India, did Ph.D. in Pharmaceutical Sciences from CSIR CDRI and J.N.U New Delhi, India, M Pharm from IIT BHU,Varanasi, India and B. Pharm from Jamia Hamdard, New Delhi. He has the past experience of as Research Scientist at Dr Reddys Laboratories, India and D.S Kothari Post-Doctoral Fellow at Panjab University, India. He has more than ten years of research and academic experience. He has more than 100 publications including 40 book chapters to his credit. He has filed 7 Indian Patent and 1 Copyright. Recently he has also published a book in Elsevier,Intech as Editor. His current research interests include targeted drug delivery systems, particle engineering, controlled delivery for neurodegenerative diseases, dendrimer mediated drug delivery, solubilization and bioavailability enhancements.\nEmail id: rahulshuklapharm@gmail.com, rahul.shukla@niperraebareli.edu.in \nhttps://scholar.google.com/citations?hl=en&user=PegtvC0AAAAJ",institutionString:"National Institute of Pharmaceutical Education and Research",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"National Institute of Pharmaceutical Education and Research",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"19",title:"Pharmacology, Toxicology and Pharmaceutical Science",slug:"pharmacology-toxicology-and-pharmaceutical-science"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"478197",firstName:"Veronika",lastName:"Radosavac",middleName:null,title:"Dr.",imageUrl:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",email:"veronika@intechopen.com",biography:null}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophile",surname:"Theophanides",slug:"theophile-theophanides",fullName:"Theophile Theophanides"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"371",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",subtitle:"Mechanisms and Adaptations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"588466f487e307619849d72389178a74",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-mechanisms-and-adaptations",bookSignature:"Arun Shanker and B. 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Althoughthese procedures are performed even in healthy children, they are more common in sick ones who need an admission to the hospital. Treating pain in the newborn is essential; firstly, for ethical reasons and, secondly, because pain can lead to several physiological and psychological effects. Not only such negative consequences are not related to repeated painful procedures but even short-term pain can have lasting negative effects [1]. Young children, including neonates, are more sensitive to nociceptive stimuli than adults [2]. Research findings emphasized that repeated exposure to painful stimuli during early stage of fundamental development of the nervous system leads to persistent behavioral and sensory changes [3]. Despite this fact, the use of appropriate pain relief interventions during potentially painful procedures is unusual in this population [4]. A paradox is still observed between the frequency of conditions that cause pain among young children and the use of appropriate pain relief intervention. The most often cited causes for this paradox are the several myths surrounding the painful experience in the neonatal population, particularly the perception that the newborn is too immature to feel pain [5]. It is known that the knowledge about the presence of pain in newborns has greatly increased among health providers who are responsible for neonatal care [6], but it is not known how each professional puts such knowledge into practice [7]. Young children including neonates do not have the ability to verbalize their pain thus health care providers must recognize their pain. Not only unmanaged pain causes distress and delayed recovery but pain in infancy also has short-term (physiological and behavioral) and long-term developmental consequences (increased or decreased behavioral responses to pain). Although infant’s pain is not expressed as conscious memory, memories of pain may be recorded biologically and alter brain development and subsequent behavior. Some recent studies have reported that simple and benign interventions such as oral sweet solutions [5, 8, 9], milk [10] or sucking a pacifier [11] reduce pain in neonates during procedures. Pain relieving effects of sweet solutions such as sucrose have been examined in term and preterm neonates [12, 13]. Glucose and other sweet tasting solutions have also been found to have pain relieving effects [9]. The effect of sugar on calming a crying baby during painful procedure is not new but there are historical references pertaining to the analgesic and calming benefits of sweet substances dating back to AD 632, when Prophet Mohammed recommended giving infants a well-chewed date [14]. Also Thorek, in his textbook,
The implementation of sweet solution for minor painful and invasive procedures in the NICU has been documented in many studies and extensive review of studies showed that sweet solutions have analgesic effects in young children up to one-year-old [16].
Study findings show that giving sweet solutions to young infants during painful procedures reduces painful responses and crying time tends to be shorter [9]. Different concentrations and dose were examined and showed to have a pain relieving effect. The most widely used sweet solution is sucrose [17]. Glucose is the second most commonly used solution, as it is available as prepared solution at clinics and hospitals [9]. All sweet solutions are administered in the same way, on the infants’ lateral side of the tongue prior to or 2 min before the procedure through a syringe slowly over 30 s [9, 18]. Another administration technique is through the use of non-nutritive sucking using pacifier to improve its effectiveness [11, 19].
Sweet solution is a fast acting pain-relief intervention (within 10 seconds) [20]. Although there is no evidence yet about the dose-response effects [21], dose ranging from 0.5 to 2 mL of 12–24% strength show pain-relief effect [11, 22]. For premature neonates, dose is calculated in accordance to their weight/volume ratio. Table 1 displays the doses according to week’s gestation and kilograms. In preterm neonates, it is recommended to use multiple dose regimens instead of given one dose to reduce any risk of adverse effects such as chocking. Several clinical guidelines included the use of sweet solution for analgesia particularly for minor painful procedures. Heel lance followed by venipuncture were the top benefiting procedures of this analgesic measure [25–27]. Sweet solution may be used in infants aged 27 or more-week gestation. The volume administered for each age group should be as follow: 27–31 weeks’ gestation (0.1–0.5 mL); 32–36 weeks’ gestation (0.5–1 mL) and greater than 37 weeks’ gestation (1–2 mL) [5, 8, 9]. Dosage is usually expressed in mg. It is recommended to record the given dose and time on the neonates’ medication sheet. Sweet solution does not need a doctor’s order but it could be given by a nurse as needed, which is prepared in the pharmacy if not readily available in sterile container at floors. Once the container is open, the solution may be kept at the bedside for 24 hours if not Contaminated. It is important to record the opening date and time on the container. Sweet solution should not be used on infants less than 27-week gestations, infants who have suspected or proven gastrointestinal dysfunction/abnormalities such as ileus, obstruction, necrotizing enterocolitis or who are postoperative. Sweet solution should not be used for unstable or compromised neonates. Table 2 lists the contraindications for the use of sweet solutions for analgesia.
Age group | 27–31 weeks | 32 to terms | 0–3 months |
---|---|---|---|
Suggested doses (single events) | 0.2 mL | 0.2–0.5 mL | 0.2–2 mL |
Suggested doses (24 hours) | 1 mL | 2.5 mL | 5 mL |
Suggested doses (in kg) | 0.5 mL/kg/dose | 0.5 mL/kg/dose | 0.5 mL/kg/dose |
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Around the world more and more hospitals and clinics are implementing the use of sweet substances to reduce pain and discomfort among premature and mature infants. Yet important knowledge and research gaps concerning long-term analgesic effects of repeated administration of sweet solutions still exist. One reason could be related to the fact that the mechanism of sweet-taste-induced analgesia is still not precisely understood, which prevented the uptake of such intervention using research evidence from being used in practice.
Sweet solution as analgesic for painful events performed on premature and full term infants is a true revolutionary, novel and relatively current idea [30, 31]. It took long time for the clinical community to recognize and accept the fact that this special group of people does feel pain and this pain has short- and long-term negative consequences [32]. Moreover, available treatments such as opioids were considered unsafe and fear of their adverse effects lead to under treatment or even no treatment at all even for invasive practices [33]. Another obstacle was the lack of proper pain assessment measures for infants and nonverbal children [34]. Physiological and behavioral responses to pain were observed [34], and this lead to the development of pain assessment tools appropriate for measuring premature and infants pain, one of these tools is the premature infant pain profile (PIPP) that is utilized to assess pain and effectiveness of pain management among premature infants [35].
Sweet solution analgesia has been used for painful procedures performed in the NICU, for immunization, injections and circumcision. Heel lances performed quite often in the NICU provoked less physiological and behavioral responses of pain when proceeded with 2 mL of oral sucrose solution of 50% [36]. Same had been noticed for other routinely applied procedures such as intravenous or arterial line insertion, lumbar puncture, tape removal and venipuncture [37–39]. This analgesic effect also extends to even older infants; sucrose was also effective in lowering pain scores due to immunization for babies aged between 1 and 12 months [23, 40]. Sucrose was beneficial when paired with other analgesic for pain relief during circumcision, probably since circumcision is a more intensely painful procedure than other routine procedures undertaken at NICU, yet it gave a synergistic effect with other analgesic methods [41]. The concentration of the sweet agent also mattered; a more concentrated sugar solution was found to be a more effective analgesic than less concentrated ones [21].
Sucrose is the most widely used agent for sweet solution-induced analgesia, nevertheless, other sweeteners were also tried and found to be effective. Fructose, lactose, milk and non-caloric sweeteners had been used for analgesia, although less frequently [21]. Glucose 20–30% solution is effective for heel lance and venipuncture in preterm and term infants [42, 43]. Fructose was as effective as sucrose and both were more effective than glucose [31]. In humans, fructose is as sweet as sucrose and sweeter than glucose; this might explain why fructose and sucrose were more effective than glucose [44]. Non-caloric sweeteners were also as effective as sucrose in reducing pain due to procedures such as heel lance [45].
The effect of sweet solution in reducing pain and calming crying infants is restricted to oral administration [12], providing evidence that it is the taste of sweetness what causes analgesia and not the sugar itself. Further evidence comes from the observation that different sugars and even artificial sweeteners produce the same effect when given orally into the oral cavity. Activating sensory afferents in the oral cavity leads to pleasurable sensation or effect. This positive hedonic effect of sweet tasting substances induced analgesia further supports the theory that it is the taste of sweetness not the caloric value of the food [46].
The mechanism of this sweet-induced analgesia is not fully elucidated. While animal studies provided more convincing evidence for the involvement of the endogenous opioid system, human studies were equivocal [42, 47, 48]. Tolerance to repeated doses of glucose did not develop, and an opioid antagonist, naloxone, given before glucose did not diminish its analgesic effects. On the other hand, babies born to methadone-addict mothers did not respond to the calming effects of sucrose. Thus, so far the evidence support the idea that the mechanism of analgesia induction might be mediated via opioid and non-opioid pathways [8, 47].
This analgesic effect is short lived and repeat administration is needed for repeated procedures. Furthermore, this effect of sweet tasting solutions does not persist beyond infancy [21].This sweet taste–induced analgesia does not extend to adults, and it seems to be related to the degree of sweetness; thus higher sucrose concentration were preferred by children compared to adults [49]. One explanation is that as we grow, the positive hedonic value of sweet tasting substances decreases thus evoking less pleasure and less analgesia.
Other non-pharmacological methods were also studied, kangaroo mother care KMC was found to be mildly effective at lowering pain responses to heel lance in full and preterm neonates [50]. Skin-to-skin contact between infant and mother alleviated pain occurrence during heel lance as well [51].
Animal studies have shown an analgesic effect of sweet solutions during infancy similar to that of humans [52]. Sweet components of milk including sucrose, glucose or fructose have shown to alleviate neonatal pain [53, 54]. The analgesic effect of sweet solutions is confined to the intraoral route as sucrose reduces pain sensation when administered orally not when applied via gastric gavage [12]. The antinociceptive actions of these solutions are not due to intraoral infusion alone because they are not produced by water or lactose [54, 55].
The most commonly studied is the natural sweetener sucrose. Sucrose has a long history of calming and analgesic effect especially for neonatal pain. The first observation of sucrose pain modulating effects was obtained by Blass et al. 1987 who reported that contact with a small amount of sucrose solution on the tongue of infant rats rapidly increased the paw withdrawal latency (a measure of pain threshold) in a hot-plate test [56]. Sucrose-induced analgesia during infancy develops rapidly and persists for several minutes [57]. In addition, sucrose ingestion for a relatively long period of time produces analgesia [58, 59]. Acute sucrose-induced analgesia is age-dependent that means it occurs mainly during the pre-weaning period in rats [57].
Artificial sweeteners have also shown analgesic actions when administered orally. Chronic saccharin intake decreases pain sensitivity and increases pain threshold as measured in hotplate test [60]. Furthermore, acute saccharin administration for 5 hours resulted in analgesia that persists for 3 hours [61]. Aspartame, another sweetener, decreases pain sensitivity, and has shown to produce analgesic effects comparable with sucrose [62, 63].
Although the mechanisms behind sweet substances-induced analgesia are still not clearly defined; endogenous opioid system is implicated. Sweet palatable solutions augment morphine-induced analgesia [64–67], this has suggested that sweet solutions ingestion is associated with the release of endogenous opioids, a mechanism which involves stimulation of gustatory sweet receptors [68]. This mechanism was supported by the observation that sucrose reduces pain sensation when administered orally not when applied via gastric gavage [12, 69]. Furthermore, naltrexone and naloxone, opioid antagonists, were shown to abolish the analgesic effect of sweet-tasting solutions [56, 70–72] In addition, consuming palatable sweet substances increases endogenous β-endorphin activity in rat brain and in human plasma [69, 73–75]. Besides, endogenous opioid system, other neurotransmitters and receptors are probably involved. One study revealed a major involvement of nicotinic cholinergic receptors in the sweet substance-induced analgesia as atropine (cholinergic antagonist) diminished sucrose-induced analgesia [76]. Other studies have shown the involvement of noradrenaline, serotonin and their receptors in the central modulation sweet substance-induced analgesia [71, 77, 78].
Likewise, sweet solutions ability to prevent, decrease or reverse unfavorable long-term effects of neonatal pain had been explored. Unpublished data and a previous study from our lab indicate that early pain experience increases pain sensitivity and impairs spatial memory during adulthood in rats; the interventions using sucrose or saccharin solution prevented these long-term consequences of neonatal pain [75].
The fear of adverse effects following the use of nutritive sweet solutions for analgesia for premature and mature infants might be a hindrance to implementing this analgesic method. Among possible short-term effects are the fear of effect of sweet intake on milk feeding afterward. Also the effect on body weight, weather an increase due to development of sweet tooth or a decrease due to decrease in appetite for healthy food such as milk. Of the long-term effects are potential negative effects on growth and development. Of more concern would be the neurodevelopmental deficits, such as attention/orientation and motor tasks, that might result of higher intake of sugar during infancy, particularly infants who spend lengthier time at the NICU and are exposed to multiple painful procedures daily, thus requiring several doses of sweet solutions. It has been calculated that the amount of sugar a preterm infant will ingest over a period of a few weeks at the NICU will be equivalent to half a can of coke ingested by a 1-year-old [48]. Since few studies have examined the potential adverse effects of sweet solutions given at infancy, the word is still not out. Despite that, studies have shown no short-term adverse effects, however developmental effects were not examined thoroughly enough to arrive at a conclusive conclusion.
Studies have proclaimed sweet solutions as safe with no or minimum immediate or long-term negative effects [48]. A few on the other hand have challenged this notion and claimed that many long- and short-term adverse effects are associated with the use of sweet solutions for pain management during infancy [79].
In conclusion, oral sucrose (0.5 mL/kg of a 25% solution, 2 min prior to acute painful procedures) for pain relief in preterm neonates was effective and safe, exhibiting no short-term adverse effects in weight gain and feeding patterns, during hospitalization and post discharge [80].
Pain due to procedures applied to premature infants has shown to affect, in a negative way, brain development. Newborns, particularly premature infants have brains and nervous systems that are still under development and are very vulnerable to any insults. The plasticity of the brain at this early age makes it ideal for external stimuli to have long lasting effects [1]. Thus it is logical to put forward the hypothesis that managing this pain will in addition to its pain reducing effects be useful in inhibiting or at least reducing the long term unfavorable effects of untreated pain.
Despite availability of analgesia and knowledge about infants’ pain, a gap still exists between theoretical knowledge and actual practice. Thus the availability of non-pharmacological analgesia is very important and might be the selling point for the use of analgesia for premature and mature infants [4].
In conclusion, using sweet solutions for pain management, particularly, for this special age group is probably effective and safe, and has the potential of reversing or decreasing long-term adverse effects of pain. More studies need to be done to further explore the safety and the dose of sweet solution for pain during infancy.
The interest of using renewable fuels started at the beginning of the 21st century due mainly to: the reduction of fossil fuels consumption and the decrease of carbon footprint of the combustion products. Although biodiesel is the biofuel most widely used in compression engines, bioethanol became in a competitor since its composition presents an oxygen concentration three times higher than biodiesel. Additionally, the production cost is competitive with fossil fuel because it can be produced locally through fermentation of sugar derived from corn or cellulosic biomass [1].
Bioethanol can be used as fuel in diesel engines by means three ways:
Dual fuel system. Apart from the traditional diesel injection system, an additional system for the injection of bioethanol is added which can be located in the intake air manifold [2] or in the cylinder but independently of the injector of diesel fuel [3, 4]. This configuration implies an additional cost but allows to work with a higher ethanol-diesel ratio.
Fumigation. Bioethanol is atomized using a carburation in the intake air manifold and introduced together with air in the cylinder. The main advantage is that the evaporation of ethanol reduces the temperature in the cylinder (increasing the air density) could reach higher engine power [5, 6]. However, the concentration of alcohol is limited to avoid the “knocking” at high engine load and the “misfiring” at low engine load [7, 8].
Bioethanol-diesel blends. No engine modifications are required for blends up to 30% of alcohol concentration, making bioethanol-diesel blends (named as e-diesel) the most common way to use this alcohol as fuel in compression ignition engines. The main drawbacks associated to these blends are the limited miscibility of bioethanol in diesel and their poor lubricity properties.
Reductions in terms of pollutant emissions are associated to the use of e-diesel blends. Ethanol’s oxygen reduces the probability of rich-zone formation and promotes the oxidation of soot nuclei generated, reducing smoke, Particulate Matter (PM) and other pollutant emissions such as Total Hydrocarbons (THC) and Carbon Monoxide (CO). These benefits are even further than those obtained with biodiesel-diesel blends [9, 10].
The effect of e-diesel blends under steady state conditions with different ethanol concentrations has been widely studied, being the alcohol concentrations most used 5%, 7.7%, 10% and 15%. Most of the bibliography remark the reduction of smoke opacity and PM emissions with these blends [11, 12, 13]. However, real driving conditions are majority transient sequences and the effect of fuel under transient conditions could be different since the engine working characteristics are also quite different to the stationary ones. Literature related to the effect of e-diesel blends under transient operation was scarce. Giakoumis et al. [14] reviewed the effect of e-diesel (and butanol-blends) under transient operations i.e., acceleration, load increase, starting process and driving cycles, until 2013. In the introduction of this chapter, this literature is updated and enlarged with studies related to the influence of bioethanol on the durability or wear of different engine parts.
Regarding engine testing, Ahmed et al. [15] carried one of the first works out by where two e-diesel blends (with 10% and 15% of alcohol concentrations) were tested under Federal Test Procedure (FTP) transient cycle of a heavy-duty diesel engine. Reduction up to 41% of PM emissions were recorded, being the decrease proportional to the alcohol concentration, with no penalty in NOx emission (slightly decreases were obtained).
Armas et al. [16] started to evaluate the effect of bioethanol testing an E10 blend under different transient sequences. Subsequently, this research studied the effect of the same percentage of ethanol, and a butanol-diesel blend (But16) under two different engine working conditions: the starting process (under warm and hot temperatures) and reproducing the New European Driving Cycle (NEDC) [17, 18]. Tests were carried out in a test bench with a light-duty diesel engine. Reductions in smoke opacity, PM and CO emissions were reported with e-diesel blend except during the cold starting process, where the high enthalpy of vaporization and low cetane number of bioethanol favor delayed premixed combustion process, increasing PM, NOx and THC emissions under this engine working sequence although the oxygen presence in the fuel.
The aim of the study of van Niekerk et al. [19] was investigating the effect of ethanol-biodiesel-diesel blends tested over the World Harmonized Light Vehicle Test Procedure (WLTP) using an ignition compression engine. Seven binary and ternary blends were selected by means a Design of Experiments (DoE). Pollutant emissions were measured, and different statistical models were used to describe trends obtained. Authors concluded that the ternary blend B2E9, considered as the optimum, showed reductions in CO emissions of 34%, in NOx emissions of 10% and 21% in CO2 emissions compared to diesel.
Regarding vehicles testing, emissions tests were carried out by Randazzo et al. [20] with a light-duty vehicle positioned over a chassis dynamometer under NEDC conditions. In this work, bioethanol was added (at very low concentration, 2% and 5%) of two blends biodiesel-diesel with 20% of biodiesel concentration. Authors concluded that the use of bioethanol reduced NOx and CO2 emissions but, surprisingly, it was unfavorable for CO, THC and PM emissions. Although the higher oxygen concentration of bioethanol (compared to biodiesel fuel), its lower cetane was considered as a factor that favored the PM emissions.
Two busses used for urban transportation were tested by Mata et al. [21] using a bioethanol-diesel blend (7.7% of alcohol) in two cities at different altitudes. Notable reductions in particle concentrations were obtained with e-diesel blend while the trend of NOx emissions depended on the altitude. The engine of other bus (a Cummins B Series) was used to evaluate the effect of two e-diesel blends (10% and 15%) under the 8-mode AVL test cycle conditions [22]. PM emissions decreased 20% and 30% with e-diesel blends but no noticeable effect on the emission of NOx and even small increases in THC and CO were observed.
Regarding non-road engines or vehicles testing (machinery), few works were found about the use of bioethanol as fuel in construction machinery vehicle. Armas et al. [23] evaluated the effect of an e-diesel blend with a 7.7% of ethanol in a vibration roller under four operation engine conditions: engine start, idle, circulation and work. Significant reductions of smoke opacity were obtained during transient engine operation.
Three non-road heavy-duty diesel engines were used in the work of Merrit et al. [24] where three e-diesel blends (E7.7, E10 and E15) were used. The FTP smoke test was reproduced, results being classified into acceleration, lugging, and peak modes. Smoke and particulate matter emissions decreased (up to 20%) as ethanol concentration increased. CO emissions were also lower than those of diesel base fuel while NOx concentration was similar.
As it was commented previously, the main drawback of e-diesel blends is the limited miscibility of both fuels which requires knowing conditions where these blends are stable. Bioethanol’s miscibility in diesel mainly depends on three parameters: water content (hydrous ethanol), temperature and ethanol concentration [25]. The presence of water in ethanol, the low temperatures and the high ethanol concentration difficult the miscibility between both hydrocarbons [25, 26, 27].
To ensure the miscibility between bioethanol and diesel, especially at low temperatures, different additives are usually added: alcohols (butanol, pentanol, octanol, dodecanol) [28, 29], ethers, and different co-solvents [26, 30] or emulsifiers [31, 32] whose composition is, sometimes, not published. One of the most common additives for bioethanol-diesel blends is biodiesel fuel which, in addition to its renewable origin, contributes to improve the cetane number and lubricity of e-diesel blends [33, 34]. Different authors evaluated the stability of bioethanol-biodiesel-diesel (named as e-b-diesel) blends at different temperatures, indicating the different instability areas [9, 35].
Apart from the limited miscibility, easily resolved by the incorporation of additives, the poor lubricity properties of bioethanol could imply wear of the fuel injection system and other engine components. Two types of investigations have been carried out in relation to this topic:
Wear of metallic materials. Wear Scar Mean Diameter (WSMD) of different e-diesel and e-b-diesel blends was evaluated in the work of Lapuerta et al. [36]. The increase of WSMD was not linear with the increase of ethanol concentration. Durability tests of fuel injection system using several experimental techniques were carried out by Armas et al. [37]. A E7.7 blend showed similar effect on durability of the injection pump parts than that the diesel fuel but a reduction (around 20%) of nozzle hole effective sections was produced with the blend. In the rest of literature, wear of the injection system parts with bioethanol-diesel blends is observed [38, 39].
Material degradation/oxidation. Some metals (zinc, plumb, copper, aluminum) and some plastics (rubber and polyvinylchloride, PVC) are oxidized when contacting with bioethanol [40]. To solve this drawback, some authors suggest the use of stainless steel as a substitute for metals (aluminum, magnesium and brass) [41, 42] and, in other work, high-density polyethylene is used instead of rubber or other plastic materials in [40].
The aim of this chapter is to show the main results of several works about the effect of bioethanol-diesel blends on the durability of fuel injection system and on the performance and emissions in diesel engines or vehicles under transient working conditions.
With the objective to evaluate the effects of bioethanol blended with diesel fuel, under transient operation, previously to the direct use in vehicles, an experimental study with an engine mounted on a test bench is recommendable. In this case, Figure 1 shows a general sketch of the experimental installation used for testing the engine under discrete transient sequences. A turbocharged intercooled, direct injection Diesel engine, 4-cylinder, 4-stroke, typically equipped in European light duty vehicles, was employed as experimental unit. In Table 1, main characteristics of the engine tested are listed.
Sketch of the experimental installation for engine testing.
Parameter | Value |
---|---|
Compression ratio | 18:1 |
Swept volume (L) | 2.2 |
Stroke (m) | 0.94 |
Bore (m) | 0.865 |
Cylinders arrangement | 4, in line |
Maximum rated torque (at 2000 min−1) (Nm) | 237.4 |
Maximum rated power (at 4000 min−1) (kW) | 85.2 kW |
Fuel injection system | VP44 pump, electronically controlled |
Main injection pressures (bar) at full load (at 2000 min−1) at idle (750 min−1) | 1100 200 |
Main characteristics of the engine tested.
The engine was coupled to an asynchronous machine Schenck Dynas3 LI 250 (operating as a dynamometer). The dynamometer control system allowed measuring, controlling, and registering the engine speed, accelerator position and effective torque. Instantaneous fuel consumption was registered by means of a PLU 401/116H flow meter, while the air mass flow rate was measured by means of a hot-wire flow meter Siemens 5WK9628, previously calibrated in the 0–718 kg/h range with an accuracy of 2% around the measured value.
The Exhaust Gas Recirculation (EGR) ratio was calculated by comparison of the CO2 gas concentration at the inlet and at the exhaust manifolds using an infrared absorption gas analyzer Environnement MIR2
For assessing the effect of changes in engine load on the smoke opacity and NOx emissions, two discrete transient sequences were tested and compared. In each sequence both, the initial and final conditions of effective torque and engine speed, were the same independently of the fuel tested.
Figure 2 shows these two transient sequences, both with effective torque (Me) increase at relative low engine speed (n) and denoted as AM-AF and A-A’. The aim of this methodology was to evaluate the smoke opacity and NOx emissions behavior under two of the most common transient sequences with fuel consumption demand in any type of vehicles. Under AM-AF sequence, the engine was driven from motored to fired conditions. This test tries to simulate a vehicle acceleration from zero fuel delivery to a given load condition. Meanwhile A-A’ is the typical transient sequence with load increase at constant speed (for example, under a slope positive change in a road profile, remaining constant the vehicle velocity without gear changes). Under both cases, the engine control unit (ECU), tuned by manufacturer, controlled the EGR valve opening.
Engine transient sequences tested.
Initial and final operating modes of the sequences shown in Figure 2 and Table 2 were chosen due to their operation representativeness of that zone on the engine torque-engine speed map (under low load and engine speed) where the pollutant emissions restrictions are very important (typical of urban driving conditions).
Transient sequence | Engine speed (min−1) | Effective torque (Nm) | |
---|---|---|---|
Start | End | ||
Am-Af | 1661 | −40 | 55 |
A-A’ | 26 | 90 |
Steady state operating conditions before and after each transient sequence.
Under engine transient testing, a low Sulfur diesel fuel was used as reference (denoted as Ref). A 10% v/v blend of bioethanol with this diesel fuel, without stabilizing additive, was denoted as E10. This blend was selected because the ambient temperature was higher than 25°C. Under these thermal conditions and, during relative short time period, the blend is stable without additive since Bioethanol used has a purity of 99.94%. The bioethanol concentration of the tested blend was defined attending to the results of previous studies [26]. The main properties, either measured or calculated, of the tested fuels are presented in Table 3.
Property | Fuel | ||
---|---|---|---|
Ref | E10 | E | |
Density (kg/m3)a | 833.5 | 828 | 792 |
Kinematic viscosity (cSt)b | 2.79 | 2.13 | 1.13 |
Gross heating value (MJ/kg) | 45.89 | 43.48 | 28.05 |
Low heating value (MJ/kg)c | 42.84 | 40.44 | 25.18 |
Low heating value (MJ/L)c | 35.70 | 33.49 | 19.94 |
% C (in weight) | 85.23 | 82.08 | 52.17 |
% H (in weight) | 13.92 | 13.83 | 13.04 |
% O (in weight) | 0.74 | 3.98 | 34.78 |
% S (in weight) | 0.026 | 0.024 | 0 |
Molecular weight | 206.9d | 155.2e | 46.06e |
Stoichiometric fuel-air ratioe | 1/14.60 | 1/14.07 | 1/9.01 |
Distillation | |||
Initial Boiling Point (°C) | 182 | 78 | 78 |
T10 (°C) | 204 | 79 | |
T50 (°C) | 266 | 257 | |
T90 (°C) | 348 | 347 |
Fuel properties used under engine testing.
Measured at 15 °C.
Measured at 40°C.
Calculated from composition and gross heating value.
Calculated with software Aspen-Advisor.
Calculated from composition.
Before the extension of the work for assessing the benefits of bioethanol-diesel blends in vehicle captive fleets, two works must be done: a study about the miscibility and stability of the blends with different bioethanol concentrations [26] and the study of the effect of the fuel blend on the integrity of some parts of the engine injection system [37]. Both works are essential for verifying the lubricant capacity of the fuel blend under real driving conditions. This sub-section describes, as example, part of the work done with some pieces of a modern injection system.
The experimental unit used was a Bosch high-pressure injection pump. Normally this pump operates connected to a common rail and this one connected to a fuel injector, electronically controlled. This model of experimental unit equips great number of different models of Mercedes Benz light duty cars. This system also equips great part of diesel engines, with around 2 liters of cylinder displacement, commercialized in Europe. The main characteristics of the injection system studied in this work are shown in Table 4.
Injection system characteristic | Value (unit) and/or information |
---|---|
Pump manufacturer | Bosch |
Pump type | first generation with pistons |
Common rail model | 270 CDI MB/4 injectors |
Common rail length (m) | 0.55 |
Pump-common rail line length (m) | 0.40 |
Common rail-injector line length (m) | 0.15 |
Inner diameter of lines (m) | 0.002 |
Main characteristics of the injection system tested.
Figure 3 shows the scheme of the hydraulic circuit of the experimental installation used for simulating a long-term work of an injection system under demanding operating mode. The injection system worked on an injection test bench (model Asia Diesel). In dark black, the circuit (without modifications) for testing diesel fuel is presented. Those parts modified for testing bioethanol-diesel blends are presented in light gray (valve 2 and tank caps). Those parts were added to remain the water content in the range established by the European fuel quality standard EN-590 and for avoiding the ethanol evaporation to the atmosphere. In addition, the fuel tank was instrumented with a pressure and/or vacuum safety valve, to prevent the pressure variation inside the fuel tank. These modifications were also needed in the fuel tanks of the vehicles tested.
Scheme of the hydraulic circuit of the test bench for simulating long-term work with fuels tested.
Table 5 shows the test conditions for simulating reproduced by the test bench during the long-term work of a new injection system used with each fuel tested.
Parameter | Unit | Value |
---|---|---|
Rotation speed | min−1 | 2500 |
Injection pressure | bar | 1500 |
Injection time | ms | 1 |
Fuel temperature | °C | 40 |
Operation time | hours/day | 10–12 |
Total test time | hours | 600 |
Test conditions for simulating reproduced by the test bench.
Before and after the long-term operation with each fuel, the total fuel delivery was determined using diesel fuel and those conditions presented in Table 5. Selected test conditions (600 work hours at 2500 min−1 and 1500 bar of injection pressure) are equivalent to the driving of a light duty vehicle during more than 120,000 km.
For characterizing, the effect of fuels on the integrity of some parts of the injection system, different techniques can be used. Among these techniques are the following: measurement of the fuel delivery, characterization of the roughness surface of elements, observation of the surface microstructure, weigh of elements and measurement of the nozzle geometry inner shape obtained by casting silicone, determined from images of a Scanning Electronic Microscope (SEM). In this chapter, the effect of E8 fuel blend on the surface roughness of the drive shaft of the fuel high-pressure pump (Figure 4a, surfaces Ds1, Ds2 and Ds3), the geometry of the nozzle (Figure 4b, diameters along the nozzle hole in three positions d1, d2, d3) and the total fuel delivery is compared. Comparison was done, before and after 600 work hours, with diesel fuel.
a) Surfaces of the drive shaft of the high-pressure pump studied and (b) example of a SEM image from the silicone mold of a hole of the injector nozzle.
For determining the effect of the long-term work on the surface roughness a tester Hommel Werke, model T500, was used. This tester has capacity to determine different parameters of surface roughness, along 10 mm of the sampled surface, with 100 microns amplitude and with a precision of 0.01 μm. Diameters along the nozzle hole were determined from images obtained by means of a scanning electronic microscope Philips model XL30 of the hole inner shape obtained by casting silicone [43].
This part of the work and the work done with both busses and with construction machine, as will be explain later, was carried out with a different bioethanol-diesel fuel blend. In these two cases, a low Sulfur diesel fuel was used as reference (denoted as Ref). A 7.7% v/v bioethanol-fuel blend, with 0.62% v/v of a confidential stabilizing additive, was used and denoted as E8. Table 6 shows properties of fuels used in this part of the work. Bioethanol purity was 99.94%. Since the additive composition was not known, all E8 fuel characteristics, dependent on the fuel composition, were determined only from diesel and bioethanol fuels.
Property | Fuel | ||
---|---|---|---|
Ref | E8 | E | |
Density (kg/m3)a | 834.9 | 831 | 792 |
Kinematic viscosity (cSt)b | 2.72 | 2.41 | 1.13 |
Gross heating value (MJ/kg) | 45.54 | 43.82 | 28.05 |
Low heating value (MJ/kg)c | 42.58 | 40.86 | 25.22 |
Low heating value (MJ/L)c | 35.55 | 33.95 | 19.97 |
% C (in weight) | 86.13 | 83.63 | 52.14 |
% H (in weight) | 13.87 | 13.82 | 13.13 |
% O (in weight) | 0 | 2.55 | 34.73 |
% S (in weight) | 0.0034 | 0 | 0 |
Molecular weight | 211.7d | 167.5e | 46.06e |
Stoichiometric fuel-air ratioe | 1/14.67 | 1/14.25 | 1/9.00 |
Distillation | |||
Initial boiling point (°C) | 172 | 78 | 78 |
T10 (°C) | 211 | 178 | |
T50 (°C) | 270 | 256 | |
T90 (°C) | 340 | 337 |
Properties of fuels used in parts durability testing and in busses and construction machinery testing.
Measured at 15 °C.
Measured at 40°C.
Calculated from composition and gross heating value.
Calculated with software Aspen-Advisor.
Calculated from composition.
Two similar busses used for urban transportation were tested. One of the vehicles was a Euro II IVECO Europolis 915 city bus (denoted as IV), around 10 T in weight, equipped with a 6-cylinder, with around 6 L of displacement, direct injection, turbocharged, heavy-duty diesel engine. This bus was equipped with an automatic ZF transmission. The bus length is 9 m. The other vehicle was a Euro II Renault city bus (denoted as RE), around 13 T in weight, equipped with a 6-cylinder, with around 8 L of displacement, also turbocharged, direct injection, heavy-duty diesel engine. This bus was equipped with an automatic Voith transmission and its length is 10 m. Both busses were equipped with injection systems including injection pumps electronically controlled. Both busses operate with single injection and advanced Start of Injection (SoI) and without Exhaust Gas Recirculation (EGR). Both vehicles, with similar mileage, were not equipped with after-treatment devices (Diesel Oxidizer Catalyst (DOC) nor Diesel Particulate Filter (DPF)). This configuration of the exhaust systems allowed studying the effect of fuels on pollutant emissions without influence of after-treatment devices.
As Figure 5 shows, both busses and the construction machine were instrumented with a HORIBA OBS 1300 gas analyzer and with a TSI Engine Exhaust Particle Sizer (EEPS) spectrometer. The first of them includes sensors for measuring and registering the relative fuel-air ratio and ambient conditions (temperature, pressure and humidity). In both cases, vehicle velocity and its position were determined by means of a Global Positioning System (GPS) and an inertial sensor. Although the HORIBA OBS 1300 includes different measurement modules, only the MEXA 720 NOx with a zirconia sensor for nitrogen oxides measuring was used. For characterizing particulate matter, an EEPS spectrometer was used to measure particle size distributions under transient vehicle operation. Figure 5 also shows, the EEPS spectrometer coupled to a Rotating Disk (RD) diluter model MD19-2E, as primary dilutor, and an air supply-thermal conditioner model ASET15–1 with an evaporating tube, as secondary dilutor.
Sketch of the experimental installation for vehicle testing (busses and construction machine).
At Ciudad Real city, the tests were carried out in a route with 14.5 km length (around one hour in time). This route mostly runs throughout the city center, characterized by a low mean velocity. However, it includes some stretches of medium speed (around 50 km/h). The altitude profile is almost constant during the entire route (∼650 m above the sea mean level). The route has 67 stops for passengers, uniformly distributed along the trajectory and it includes 31 traffic lights.
At Sevilla city, the tests were carried out in route with 13 km length (also one hour in time). The route runs mostly throughout the city center with similar mean velocity as occurred at Ciudad Real city. The altitude profile is almost constant during the entire route (∼10 m over the sea level). The route has 35 stops for passengers, uniformly distributed along the trajectory and it includes 21 traffic lights.
The comparison of the results obtained from real driving operation of test vehicles is relatively complex. By this reason, results presented in this chapter were processed following the methodology presented in [44]. In this case, comparison between busses and fuels, based on the obtained mean values from categories, will be presented below. Cycle is the whole data from the beginning to the end of the route while category is that part of the cycle with similar variation of the most important operating parameters (relative fuel-air ratio, denoted as Fr and vehicle velocity, denoted as Vv).
A great number of different categories such as accelerations, decelerations, idle, etc. composes one cycle [44]. In this text only the analysis of part of the events included within the acceleration category is presented. Within the acceleration category, there are three possible situations: a) acceleration coming from idle, b) acceleration coming from deceleration without fuel consumption and c) acceleration coming from deceleration with fuel consumption. As example, Figure 6 shows vehicle velocity and fuel-air ratio profiles, registered during part of a cycle.
Vehicle velocity and relative fuel-air ratio profiles from part of the bus cycle.
Four categories, idle (I), acceleration (A), deceleration with fuel consumption (DwF) and deceleration without fuel consumption (D) [21] were selected as example for this work. In this chapter, as example, only the comparison under acceleration coming from idle sequence is presented.
As experimental unit was used a vibrating roller Lebrero model Rahile 155TT. This machine equips a direct injection Diesel engine, 6-cylinder, 4-stroke turbocharged, typically used during roads and railways construction. Table 7 shows the most important characteristics of its engine.
Parameter | Value |
---|---|
Model | Deutz FL6913 turbocharged |
Rated power highly intermittent at 2500 min−1 (kW) | 109 |
Rated torque at 1700 min−1 (Nm) | 510 |
Compression ratio | 15.5:1 |
Displacement (L) | 6.128 |
Cylinder arrangement | 6, in line |
Bore (m) | 0.102 |
Stroke (m) | 0.125 |
Fuel injection system | Bosch in line injection pump |
Main engine characteristics of the construction machine.
This machine was instrumented with a HORIBA OBS 1300 system as Figure 7 shows. Its connection to the exhaust pipe was similar to that used in public busses. However, the smoke opacity (indicative of the particulate matter emitted), which ranges from zero to 100% and proportional to the total light extinction across the exhaust gas stream, was determined by a smoke opacimeter Wager 6500. This signal was also registered by the OBS system.
View of the experimental installation located on the construction machine.
The comparative analysis of pollutant emissions registered under the operation of a construction machine is complex. As occurred with public busses and regarding the engine work, the work done by the machine can be classified into five categories [23]. These categories are engine start on (denoted as S), idle (denoted as I), circulation (denoted as C) and work (denoted as W).
This categorization allows the daily machine operation without disturbance on its own work. This machine, during the tests, worked under real operating conditions during the construction of a railway. The best option is to register engine parameters and pollutant emissions in different occasions during the selected operation sequences. In result and discussion section, results related to C and W sequences are presented as example.
Time evolution of the smoke opacity (characteristic parameter of particulate matter emission) and NOx concentration, under transient sequence AM-AF, is presented in Figure 8. This behavior can be explained because both relative fuel-air and EGR ratios were zero at the beginning of the transition avoiding, this way, soot depositions on the internal of the manifold walls and thus any further blowing effect. Great reduction of smoke opacity is observed when E10 blend is used compared to reference fuel. The increase of the oxygen content of the fuel blend and the reduction of the aromatic content explain this result. Additionally, as Figure 9 shows, the EGR ratio at the end of the transient sequence with the E10 blend, would hardly reach that of reference fuel. This also would leads to a greater availability of oxygen at the end of the transition, contributing to the smoke opacity reduction registered.
Time evolution of the smoke opacity (a) and NOx concentration (b) during the AM-AF transition.
Time evolution of EGR ratio during the AM-AF transition.
However, the slight increase of NOx concentration registered along the transition with E10 blend (see Figure 8b) can be explained by the initial oscillations of the EGR ratio (due to the sensibility of the EGR valve opening) presented in Figure 9. It is important to take into account two factors: i) manufacturer tuned the engine (included the EGR valve opening) with diesel fuel and ii) under a typical diesel combustion process, increases in EGR ratio generally produce decreases of NOx concentration but increases of smoke opacity, this last as characteristic parameter of particulate matter.
Figure 10 presents the smoke opacity and NOx concentration time evolution along the transition A-A’ registered with both fuels. As Figure 10 shows, the shape of the smoke opacity and NOx concentration curves during their time evolution are similar between both fuels.
Time evolution of the smoke opacity (a) and NOx concentration (b) during the A-A’ transition.
This shape is consistent with the shape of the relative fuel-air ratio (related to the stoichiometric fuel-air ratio) and EGR ratios as Figure 11 presents.
Time evolution of relative fuel-air ratio (a) and EGR ratio (b) during the A-A’ transition.
In this figure, as example, is presented the time evolution of both parameters registered with both fuels. It is important to remember that the engine is forced to reach the same torque value at the beginning and at the end of the transition.
The sudden increase of the relative fuel-air ratio is caused by the delayed response of the turbocharger. As consequence, this produces a time lag between the fresh inlet airflow and the increase of fuel delivery demanded to reach the torque target at the end of transition. Additionally, other contributor factor of the smoke opacity peaks is the release of soot deposited on the pipe walls during the steady operation previously to the transition, which could be blown out as consequence of the increased exhaust gas flow with higher thermal conditions.
As can be seen in Figure 10a, the smoke opacity is clearly lower with E10 blend. The lower viscosity and higher volatility of E10 fuel could favor the fuel spray atomization and its evaporation, just during the transition. Effectively, the reduced content of aromatic compounds and the higher oxygen content of the E10 blend follows being the most important contribution to the reduced smoke peak.
Regarding NOx concentration presented in Figures 8b and 10b, different properties of the bioethanol-blend cause opposite effects on this pollutant emission. First, the low adiabatic flame temperature and the high vaporization heat of the E10 blend reduce the combustion temperature and the NO formation [45]. Second, a low cetane number (leading to longer delay time), the high oxygen content, a fast combustion velocity and an advanced fuel injection (this being a response of the control unit for compensating the longer injection process due to the reduced heating value), are those factors which favor high combustion temperature and NO formation [45, 46, 47, 48]. According to these two groups of factors and depending on the engine operating mode and the type of engine both increases and decreases of NOx with bioethanol-diesel blends have been reported [45, 46, 47, 48].
These results indicate the great potential to obtain important reductions of smoke opacity without penalty of NOx emissions by tuning the engine with a bioethanol-diesel blend.
For the surface roughness analysis, two parameters were used: the arithmetic mean roughness value (Ra) and the mean peak to valley height (Rz), both defined by the DIN4777 and ISO4287 standards. The mean roughness (Ra) is defined as the arithmetic mean of the profile deviation of the filtered roughness profile from the mean line (ML) within the measuring length (L), according to Eqs. (1) and (2) and the representation shown in Figure 12.
Sketch of the surface roughness with peaks and valleys.
The mean peak to valley height (Rz) is defined as arithmetic mean from the peak to valley heights y1 to y5 of five successive sampling lengths in the filtered roughness profile, according to Eq. (3).
The absolute differences ΔRa and ΔRz were calculated by means of the Eqs. (4) and (5) in order to determine the effect on surface roughness of each fuel tested before and after of the long-term work. These differences were obtained between the final and initial mean values of the Ra and Rz parameters of each zone of the drive shaft shown in Figure 4a.
Ra and Rz parameters measured on the drive shaft surfaces Ds1, Ds2 and Ds3, with both fuels, are presented in Figure 4a. In addition, the 95% confidence interval using three measurements at each point is indicated. According to the results presented in Figure 13, the greatest Ra and Rz parameters values were calculated in that surface denoted as Ds3 and this occurred independently of the fuel tested.
Ra and Rz parameters calculated for surfaces Ds1, Ds2 and Ds3 of the drive shaft.
The surface roughness measured on this zone was more pronounced than those measured on Ds1 and Ds2 surfaces were. The zone Ds3 is located on the most loaded section surface of the drive shaft. The measured surface roughness fits in the grade N4 to N2 (N is the surface finish grade as per the standard ISO1302). This classification corresponds to machined surfaces derived from lapping and/or finishing turning operations. It is important to highlight that if the surface roughness of two contact surfaces drastically decreases (below 0.025 mm), it could lead to the blockage of the elements due to surface adherence (lapping effect). In the surface Ds3), the flange transmits a great force to the drive shaft, and this action leads to a high friction value. The values calculated of the parameters Ra and Rz for the surfaces Ds1, Ds2 and Ds3 were similar, prior to and after the durability test, independently of the type of fuel used. Figure 14 shows the maximum ΔRa and ΔRz values that were measured on each point along the drive shaft.
Maximum ΔRa (a) and ΔRz (b) values determined from each surface of the drive shaft.
Results presented in Figures 13 and 14 indicate similar effect of both fuels tested along the drive shaft. The lower lubricity of the E8 fuel blend produces a negligible effect on the surface under a long-term work equivalent to more than 120,000 km.
Table 8 presents diameters (d1, d2 and d3) measured from the silicone casting images taken from two randomly selected nozzle holes used with each fuel, before and after the tests. This table also shows the relative difference (ΔAd) of the effective sections (A) before (denoted as B) and after (denoted as A) the tests, calculated from mean diameters dB and dA, respectively.
Fuel | Hole | dA (μm) (600 h) | Mean dA (μm) | dB (μm) (o h) | Mean dB (μm) | Δ | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
d1 | d2 | d3 | d1 | d2 | d3 | |||||
Ref | 1 | 192.8 | 192.8 | 193.0 | 192.9 | 192.8 | 192.8 | 193.1 | 192.9 | 0 |
2 | 193.0 | 192.8 | 193.2 | 193.0 | 192.8 | 192.7 | 193.0 | 192.8 | −0.2 | |
E8 | 1 | 200.7 | 200.6 | 199.8 | 200.4 | 175.4 | 182.0 | 184.0 | 180.5 | −18.9 |
2 | 201.9 | 200.9 | 202.9 | 201.6 | 172.5 | 178.2 | 179.3 | 176.7 | −23.2 |
Geometrical characterization of sections of nozzle holes.
Differences obtained, section by section, among diameters of a same nozzle used with each fuel is lower than 1.5%. This value is within the dispersion range of Bosch nozzles. Reductions of the effective sections of 18.9% and 23.2% respectively were obtained after using E8 fuel blend. These reductions can be explained by a probable sedimentation and/or oxidation along nozzle holes. This explanation could be justified because of the test bench was not completely hermetic. This situation provoked a slight reduction of ethanol concentration (around 0.2% v/v). Additionally, the water concentration increased in the blend from 243 ppm to 460 ppm, after 600 h. After the test, the experimental installation was checked. One point without a correct sealed was detected: the nozzle tip. This fact could produce the contact between the ambient air with the nozzle tip. The air oxygen could produce a slight oxidation along the holes, causing the reduction of their effective sections (Table 9).
Fuel | Fuel delivery (cm3 per stroke) | ||
---|---|---|---|
Before | After | Relative difference % | |
Ref | 6.0 | 6.2 | +3 |
E8 | 6.1 | 4.3 | −29.5 |
Total fuel delivery before and after the tests with both fuels.
The total fuel delivery determined before and after the tests with each fuel is shown in Table 10. This parameter varied within a narrow range of variation (around 3%), before and after the long-term work with diesel fuel. Contrary, the total fuel delivery decreased approximately 30% after the test with E8 fuel blend.
Sequence | Parameter | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Fuel | Fr | Tamb (°C) | Texh (°C) | υ (km/h) | |||
C | Ref | 0.308 | 9 | 243 | 5444 | 1.221 | 7.6 |
E8 | 0.312 | 0 | 238 | 4025 | 0.950 | 6.6 | |
W | Ref | 0.528 | 2 | 387 | 5905 | 1.750 | 6.7 |
E8 | 0.471 | 3 | 348 | 4638 | 1.340 | 3.5 |
Mean values of engine and/or vehicle operating parameters obtained during the W and C sequences.
In this section, the time analysis of acceleration sequences (A) registered through the test cycles is presented. This analysis has been carried out by comparison of five seconds of those sequences with similar time profiles of the relative fuel-air ratio (Fr). Figure 15 presents the average time evolution of Fr, Vv, NOx concentration and its mass flow rate from both busses and fuels tested respectively.
Relative fuel-air ratio (Fr) and vehicle velocity (Vv) profiles (a) and NOx concentration and mass flow rate profiles (b).
As can be seen in Figure 15, the Fr profiles between vehicles and fuels were similar enough for comparing the effects of fuels. NOx concentrations from E8 fuel were lower compared to diesel fuel when the IV bus was tested, and it was higher when the RE bus was tested. In both cases, the difference between average NOx concentrations produced by fuels, in both vehicles, was practically constant along the sequence.
Low NOx concentration produced by the E8 fuel blend when the IV bus was tested at Ciudad Real city, can be explained as follows: the higher enthalpy of vaporization and its cooling effect, combined with the lower oxygen availability at altitude, lead to a decrease in NOx concentration. This occurred even when the engine compression ratio of IV bus is higher than that of the RE bus. An opposite effect was registered the RE bus tests. The lower altitude of Seville leaded to a higher air oxygen availability during the combustion process that, together with the oxygen content of E8 blend, produced an increase of NOx concentration. This occurred even the lower engine compression ratio of the RE bus and the higher enthalpy of vaporization of E8 fuel blend both compared to the IV bus and the diesel fuel respectively.
Compared along the time analyzed and with each bus, NOx mass flow rates are similar between fuels. NOx mass flow rates differences between busses can be explained by the different engine displacement of busses. The RE engine is two liters larger than the IV engine. More displacement leads to more quantity of gas displaced by the engine.
Figure 16 shows time evolution of particle concentration emitted by busses with both fuels under the acceleration sequence. As shown in this figure, particle concentration evolution followed the time profiles of Fr (see Figure 16a).
Particle concentration profiles.
Maximum particle concentration is reached around the 4th second as occurred with maximum Fr. Particle concentration increases proportionally respect to the Fr increase. As lower the oxygen concentration in the air as higher the particle concentration. Compared to diesel fuel, in both busses, particle concentration produced by E8 fuel blend is lower. Vehicles engines reproduce similar trend seen on the engine test bench. The lower quantity of aromatic compounds and the presence of molecular oxygen in E8 fuel blend lead to a cleaner combustion process and explain the obtained results.
Average values of some characteristic parameters of the work done by the roller engine are listed in Table 8. These are indicative of the engine and/or vehicle operation such as: relative fuel-air ratio (
Figure 17 shows the relative fuel-air ratios, the smoke opacity and NOx concentration mean values registered during sequence C with both fuels. Important reductions of NOx concentration (20%) and smoke opacity (25%) was observed with E8 fuel. Smoke opacity reductions registered are comparable to results presented in [49].
Average values of relative fuel-air ratio, smoke opacity and NOx concentration from test fuels during the sequence C.
Two factors contributed to provide reductions in NOx concentration higher than expected. First, the ambient temperature registered during the test with E8 fuel (9°C) lower than during the diesel tests. Second, machine velocity was 29% lower and thus the fuel consumption (as well as the exhaust gas flow) were lower (24%).
The average values of relative fuel-air ratios, smoke opacity and NOx concentration determined during the sequence W with both fuels are shown in Figure 18.
Average values of relative fuel-air ratio, smoke opacity and NOx concentration from test fuels during the sequence W.
In this sequence NOx concentration and smoke opacity were reduced with E8 fuel blend 8% and 27% respectively. These decreases are in concordance with those presented in Ref.s [16, 47, 49]. During the test of this sequence, the ambient temperature was similar with both fuels. However, the E8 fuel consumption was 33% lower than the consumption of diesel fuel. This can be explained because the vibrating roller packed down harder ground when diesel fuel was used in comparison than when using E8. This difference, together with the lower machine velocity (16%) could partly explain the observed differences in opacity and NOx concentrations.
According to the results exposed in this chapter, most important strengths of the use of bioethanol blended with diesel fuel are the following:
Molecular oxygen content of bioethanol is a key factor for reducing the emission of soot which is the main component of particulate matter emitted by diesel engines. Bioethanol molecular oxygen enables more complete combustion.
Bioethanol, as linear chain alcohol, does not have aromatic compounds in its composition. In this sense, the addition of bioethanol to diesel fuel reduces the probability of soot nuclei formation in locally rich zones.
By the contrary, the use of bioethanol-diesel blends has several weaknesses:
Limited miscibility reduces possibilities of using high percentages of bioethanol blended with diesel fuel. Low temperatures and high bioethanol concentration force the use of additives (such as biodiesel) to ensure the stability of bioethanol-diesel blends.
Low lubricity is a key factor which negatively contributes on the lubrication of the injection systems and different engine parts. As occurred with miscibility, it is necessary the use of additives for improving lubricity properties of these blends.
Bioethanol is highly hygroscopic. This forces to implement actions to avoid the water content increase of the blends. The water increase has double negative effect: decrease the miscibility of bioethanol-diesel blends and decrease their lubricity properties.
Other physicochemical properties of bioethanol can produce positive or negative effects on the engine operation when this alcohol is used blended with diesel fuel. However, the effects will depend on both the engine operating and ambient conditions. The high enthalpy of vaporization of bioethanol decreases the combustion process temperature, favoring lower NOx emissions under high engine load conditions but, under starting process or low engine load, this may provoke misfiring. Bioethanol has low cetane number that delay the start of combustion process which implies longer premixed phase of combustion. Also, bioethanol has low density and viscosity which can affect the fuel spray formation and its mixing with the inlet air. In this sense, the engine tuning should by adapted to fuel properties to maximize the benefits in terms of performance and emissions.
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Contact angle is the main parameter that characterizes the drop shape on the solid surface and is also one of the directly measurable properties of the phase interface. In this chapter, the wettability and its related properties of pristine and modified polymer foils will be described. The wettability depends on surface roughness and chemical composition. Changes of these parameters can adjust the values of contact angle and, therefore, wettability. In the case of pristine polymer materials, their wettability is unsuitable for a wide range of applications (such as tissue engineering, printing, and coating). Polymer surfaces can easily be modified by, e.g., plasma discharge, whereas the bulk properties remain unchanged. This modification leads to oxidation of the treated layer and creation of new chemical groups that mainly contain oxygen. Immediately after plasma treatment, the values of the contact angles of the modified polymer significantly decrease. In the case of a specific polymer, the strongly hydrophilic surface is created and leads to total spreading of the water drop. Wettability is strongly dependent on time from modification.",book:{id:"5319",slug:"wetting-and-wettability",title:"Wetting and Wettability",fullTitle:"Wetting and Wettability"},signatures:"Nikola Slepickova Kasalkova, Petr Slepicka, Zdenka Kolska and\nVaclav Svorcik",authors:[{id:"144929",title:"Prof.",name:"Vaclav",middleName:null,surname:"Svorcik",slug:"vaclav-svorcik",fullName:"Vaclav Svorcik"},{id:"146297",title:"Dr.",name:"Petr",middleName:null,surname:"Slepicka",slug:"petr-slepicka",fullName:"Petr Slepicka"},{id:"147600",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Nikola",middleName:null,surname:"Slepičková Kasálková",slug:"nikola-slepickova-kasalkova",fullName:"Nikola Slepičková Kasálková"},{id:"153983",title:"Dr.",name:"Zdeňka",middleName:null,surname:"Kolská",slug:"zdenka-kolska",fullName:"Zdeňka Kolská"}]},{id:"64392",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.80542",title:"Corrosion Inhibitors",slug:"corrosion-inhibitors",totalDownloads:3427,totalCrossrefCites:22,totalDimensionsCites:34,abstract:"Corrosion is a natural process driven by energy consideration. Inhibition is a preventive measure against corrosive attack on metallic materials. Corrosion inhibitors have been frequently studied, since they offer simple solution for protection of metals against corrosion in aqueous environment. Mineral acids like hydrochloric and sulfuric acids are most widely used in pickling baths to remove the metal oxides formed on the surface. The multidisciplinary aspect of corrosion problems combined with the distributed responsibilities associated with such problems only increase the complexity of the subject. Inhibitors are used in industrial and commercial processes to minimize both the metal loss and acid consumption.",book:{id:"7550",slug:"corrosion-inhibitors",title:"Corrosion Inhibitors",fullTitle:"Corrosion Inhibitors"},signatures:"Geethamani Palanisamy",authors:[{id:"253697",title:"Dr.",name:"Geethamani",middleName:null,surname:"Palanisamy",slug:"geethamani-palanisamy",fullName:"Geethamani Palanisamy"}]},{id:"48822",doi:"10.5772/60808",title:"Wettability of Nanostructured Surfaces",slug:"wettability-of-nanostructured-surfaces",totalDownloads:3196,totalCrossrefCites:11,totalDimensionsCites:33,abstract:"There are many studies in literature concerning contact angle measurements on different materials/substrates. It is documented that textiles can be coated with multifunctional materials in form of thin films or nanoparticles to acquire characteristics that can improve the protection and comfort of the wearer. The capacity of oxide nanostructures to inhibit fungal development and neutralize bacteria is a direct consequence of their wetting behavior [1–6]. Moreover, the radical modification of wetting behavior of nanostructures from hydrophilic to hydrophobic when changing the pulsed laser deposition (PLD) ambient will be thoroughly discussed.",book:{id:"5319",slug:"wetting-and-wettability",title:"Wetting and Wettability",fullTitle:"Wetting and Wettability"},signatures:"L. Duta, A.C. Popescu, I. Zgura, N. Preda and I.N. Mihailescu",authors:[{id:"17636",title:"Prof.",name:"Ion N.",middleName:null,surname:"Mihailescu",slug:"ion-n.-mihailescu",fullName:"Ion N. 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Various types of special wetting surfaces can be constructed by adjusting the topographical structure and chemical composition. In this chapter, recent advance of the super-wetting/antiwetting surfaces with special solid/liquid adhesion has been reviewed, with a focus on the biomimetic fabrication and applications of TiO2-based surfaces. Special super-wettability examples include lotus-leaf-inspired surfaces with low adhesion, rose-petal-inspired surfaces with high adhesion, spider silk bio-inspired surfaces with directional adhesion, fish-scale-inspired underwater superoleophobic surface, and artificial surfaces with controllable or stimuli-responsive liquid adhesion. In addition, we will review some potential applications related to artificial antiwetting surface with controllable adhesion, e.g., self-cleaning, antifogging/anti-icing, micro-droplet manipulation, fog/water collection, water/oil separation, anti-bioadhesion, micro-template for patterning, and friction reduction. 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According to Arrhenius, the acids are the hydrogen-containing compounds which give H+ ions or protons on dissociation in water and bases are the hydroxide compounds which give OH− ions on dissociation in water. This concept is only applicable to those compounds which dissolved in aqueous solution (or you can say where water is the solvent). It covers many common acids, bases and their chemical reactions, but there are also other compounds that have the characteristics of acids and bases but they do not fit into Arrhenius concept.",book:{id:"10050",slug:"corrosion",title:"Corrosion",fullTitle:"Corrosion"},signatures:"Shikha Munjal and Aakash Singh",authors:[{id:"290524",title:"Ms.",name:"Shikha",middleName:null,surname:"Munjal",slug:"shikha-munjal",fullName:"Shikha Munjal"}]},{id:"71924",title:"Technological Background and Properties of Thin Film Semiconductors",slug:"technological-background-and-properties-of-thin-film-semiconductors",totalDownloads:945,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"Especially with the development of nanotechnology and polymer science, interest in research and production of both efficient and lower-cost semiconductor thin film materials is increasing day by day. The use of nano-structured thin films for efficient use of solar cells in production of n-type semiconductor materials is one of the most important sources of energy and new-generation energy. Considering the indicated trends and energy requirements, it has been important to transfer this technology in detail regarding the surface technologies related to the semiconductor materials produced with thin film technologies instead of bulk materials. With this aim, this book chapter “Technological Background and Properties of Thin Film Semiconductors” includes a brief story about semiconductors, band gap theory, thin film applications, and besides traditional thin film processing methods finally a new technology called aerosol deposition technique which allows room temperature processing of several materials for semiconductor applications, respectively. It is thought that it will make important contributions to the relevant field and bring a new perspective and direct scientific research in “process-structure–property-performance” relation.",book:{id:"10061",slug:"21st-century-surface-science-a-handbook",title:"21st Century Surface Science",fullTitle:"21st Century Surface Science - a Handbook"},signatures:"Orkut Sancakoglu",authors:[{id:"177188",title:"Dr.",name:"Orkut",middleName:null,surname:"Sancakoğlu",slug:"orkut-sancakoglu",fullName:"Orkut Sancakoğlu"}]},{id:"60426",title:"Applications of Viscoelastic Fluids Involving Hydrodynamic Stability and Heat Transfer",slug:"applications-of-viscoelastic-fluids-involving-hydrodynamic-stability-and-heat-transfer",totalDownloads:1395,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:"Rayleigh and Marangoni convection and rheology are linked in the thermal convection of viscoelastic fluids to some recent technological applications. Such technology developments as the ones presented here undoubtedly shall be based on interdisciplinary projects involving not only rheology or fluid mechanics but several other disciplines. Three practical applications which use Rayleigh or Marangoni convection in their working principle are presented along with some technical details. This contribution focus mainly on the physical mechanism and the involved hydrodynamics of some lab and industrial applications. 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Singh",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329385/images/system/329385.png",institutionString:"Punjab Technical University",institution:{name:"Punjab Technical University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"8018",title:"Extracellular Matrix",subtitle:"Developments and Therapeutics",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8018.jpg",slug:"extracellular-matrix-developments-and-therapeutics",publishedDate:"October 27th 2021",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Rama Sashank Madhurapantula, Joseph Orgel P.R.O. and Zvi Loewy",hash:"c85e82851e80b40282ff9be99ddf2046",volumeInSeries:23,fullTitle:"Extracellular Matrix - Developments and Therapeutics",editors:[{id:"212416",title:"Dr.",name:"Rama Sashank",middleName:null,surname:"Madhurapantula",slug:"rama-sashank-madhurapantula",fullName:"Rama Sashank Madhurapantula",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/212416/images/system/212416.jpg",institutionString:"Illinois Institute of Technology",institution:{name:"Illinois Institute of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null}]},subseriesFiltersForPublishedBooks:[{group:"subseries",caption:"Proteomics",value:18,count:4},{group:"subseries",caption:"Metabolism",value:17,count:6},{group:"subseries",caption:"Cell and Molecular Biology",value:14,count:9},{group:"subseries",caption:"Chemical Biology",value:15,count:14}],publicationYearFilters:[{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2022",value:2022,count:9},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2021",value:2021,count:7},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2020",value:2020,count:12},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2019",value:2019,count:3},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2018",value:2018,count:2}],authors:{paginationCount:303,paginationItems:[{id:"280338",title:"Dr.",name:"Yutaka",middleName:null,surname:"Tsutsumi",slug:"yutaka-tsutsumi",fullName:"Yutaka Tsutsumi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/280338/images/7961_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Fujita Health University",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"116250",title:"Dr.",name:"Nima",middleName:null,surname:"Rezaei",slug:"nima-rezaei",fullName:"Nima Rezaei",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/116250/images/system/116250.jpg",biography:"Professor Nima Rezaei obtained an MD from Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Iran. He also obtained an MSc in Molecular and Genetic Medicine, and a Ph.D. in Clinical Immunology and Human Genetics from the University of Sheffield, UK. He also completed a short-term fellowship in Pediatric Clinical Immunology and Bone Marrow Transplantation at Newcastle General Hospital, England. Dr. Rezaei is a Full Professor of Immunology and Vice Dean of International Affairs and Research, at the School of Medicine, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, and the co-founder and head of the Research Center for Immunodeficiencies. He is also the founding president of the Universal Scientific Education and Research Network (USERN). Dr. Rezaei has directed more than 100 research projects and has designed and participated in several international collaborative projects. He is an editor, editorial assistant, or editorial board member of more than forty international journals. He has edited more than 50 international books, presented more than 500 lectures/posters in congresses/meetings, and published more than 1,100 scientific papers in international journals.",institutionString:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",institution:{name:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"180733",title:"Dr.",name:"Jean",middleName:null,surname:"Engohang-Ndong",slug:"jean-engohang-ndong",fullName:"Jean Engohang-Ndong",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180733/images/system/180733.png",biography:"Dr. Jean Engohang-Ndong was born and raised in Gabon. After obtaining his Associate Degree of Science at the University of Science and Technology of Masuku, Gabon, he continued his education in France where he obtained his BS, MS, and Ph.D. in Medical Microbiology. He worked as a post-doctoral fellow at the Public Health Research Institute (PHRI), Newark, NJ for four years before accepting a three-year faculty position at Brigham Young University-Hawaii. Dr. Engohang-Ndong is a tenured faculty member with the academic rank of Full Professor at Kent State University, Ohio, where he teaches a wide range of biological science courses and pursues his research in medical and environmental microbiology. Recently, he expanded his research interest to epidemiology and biostatistics of chronic diseases in Gabon.",institutionString:"Kent State University",institution:{name:"Kent State University",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"188773",title:"Prof.",name:"Emmanuel",middleName:null,surname:"Drouet",slug:"emmanuel-drouet",fullName:"Emmanuel Drouet",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/188773/images/system/188773.png",biography:"Emmanuel Drouet, PharmD, is a Professor of Virology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, the University Grenoble-Alpes, France. As a head scientist at the Institute of Structural Biology in Grenoble, Dr. Drouet’s research investigates persisting viruses in humans (RNA and DNA viruses) and the balance with our host immune system. He focuses on these viruses’ effects on humans (both their impact on pathology and their symbiotic relationships in humans). He has an excellent track record in the herpesvirus field, and his group is engaged in clinical research in the field of Epstein-Barr virus diseases. He is the editor of the online Encyclopedia of Environment and he coordinates the Universal Health Coverage education program for the BioHealth Computing Schools of the European Institute of Science.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Grenoble Alpes University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",biography:"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (especially arboviral diseases). He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},{id:"332819",title:"Dr.",name:"Chukwudi Michael",middleName:"Michael",surname:"Egbuche",slug:"chukwudi-michael-egbuche",fullName:"Chukwudi Michael Egbuche",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/332819/images/14624_n.jpg",biography:"I an Dr. Chukwudi Michael Egbuche. I am a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Parasitology and Entomology, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nnamdi Azikiwe University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"284232",title:"Mr.",name:"Nikunj",middleName:"U",surname:"Tandel",slug:"nikunj-tandel",fullName:"Nikunj Tandel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/284232/images/8275_n.jpg",biography:'Mr. Nikunj Tandel has completed his Master\'s degree in Biotechnology from VIT University, India in the year of 2012. He is having 8 years of research experience especially in the field of malaria epidemiology, immunology, and nanoparticle-based drug delivery system against the infectious diseases, autoimmune disorders and cancer. He has worked for the NIH funded-International Center of Excellence in Malaria Research project "Center for the study of complex malaria in India (CSCMi)" in collaboration with New York University. The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. Received the CSIR-SRF (Senior Research Fellow) award-2018, FIMSA (Federation of Immunological Societies of Asia-Oceania) Travel Bursary award to attend the IUIS-IIS-FIMSA Immunology course-2019',institutionString:"Nirma University",institution:{name:"Nirma University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334383",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Simone",middleName:"Ulrich",surname:"Ulrich Picoli",slug:"simone-ulrich-picoli",fullName:"Simone Ulrich Picoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334383/images/15919_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from Universidade Luterana do Brasil (1999), Master in Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology from Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (2002), Specialization in Clinical Microbiology from Universidade de São Paulo, USP (2007) and PhD in Sciences in Gastroenterology and Hepatology (2012). She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"333753",title:"Dr.",name:"Rais",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"rais-ahmed",fullName:"Rais Ahmed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333753/images/20168_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). He was also awarded 'Outstanding Clinician in General Medicine” by Venus International Foundation for his extensive research expertise and services, perform over and above the standard expected in the advancement of healthcare, patient safety and quality of care.",institutionString:"Interfaith Medical Center",institution:{name:"Interfaith Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"93517",title:"Dr.",name:"Clement",middleName:"Adebajo",surname:"Meseko",slug:"clement-meseko",fullName:"Clement Meseko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/93517/images/system/93517.jpg",biography:"Dr. Clement Meseko obtained DVM and PhD degree in Veterinary Medicine and Virology respectively. He has worked for over 20 years in both private and public sectors including the academia, contributing to knowledge and control of infectious disease. Through the application of epidemiological skill, classical and molecular virological skills, he investigates viruses of economic and public health importance for the mitigation of the negative impact on people, animal and the environment in the context of Onehealth. \r\nDr. Meseko’s field experience on animal and zoonotic diseases and pathogen dynamics at the human-animal interface over the years shaped his carrier in research and scientific inquiries. He has been part of the investigation of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza incursions in sub Saharan Africa and monitors swine Influenza (Pandemic influenza Virus) agro-ecology and potential for interspecies transmission. He has authored and reviewed a number of journal articles and book chapters.",institutionString:"National Veterinary Research Institute",institution:{name:"National Veterinary Research Institute",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"94928",title:"Dr.",name:"Takuo",middleName:null,surname:"Mizukami",slug:"takuo-mizukami",fullName:"Takuo Mizukami",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94928/images/6402_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Institute of Infectious Diseases",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"233433",title:"Dr.",name:"Yulia",middleName:null,surname:"Desheva",slug:"yulia-desheva",fullName:"Yulia Desheva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/233433/images/system/233433.png",biography:"Dr. Yulia Desheva is a leading researcher at the Institute of Experimental Medicine, St. Petersburg, Russia. She is a professor in the Stomatology Faculty, St. Petersburg State University. She has expertise in the development and evaluation of a wide range of live mucosal vaccines against influenza and bacterial complications. Her research interests include immunity against influenza and COVID-19 and the development of immunization schemes for high-risk individuals.",institutionString:'Federal State Budgetary Scientific Institution "Institute of Experimental Medicine"',institution:null},{id:"238958",title:"Mr.",name:"Atamjit",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"atamjit-singh",fullName:"Atamjit Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/238958/images/6575_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"252058",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"Sulca",slug:"juan-sulca",fullName:"Juan Sulca",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252058/images/12834_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"191392",title:"Dr.",name:"Marimuthu",middleName:null,surname:"Govindarajan",slug:"marimuthu-govindarajan",fullName:"Marimuthu Govindarajan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/191392/images/5828_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. M. Govindarajan completed his BSc degree in Zoology at Government Arts College (Autonomous), Kumbakonam, and MSc, MPhil, and PhD degrees at Annamalai University, Annamalai Nagar, Tamil Nadu, India. He is serving as an assistant professor at the Department of Zoology, Annamalai University. His research interests include isolation, identification, and characterization of biologically active molecules from plants and microbes. He has identified more than 20 pure compounds with high mosquitocidal activity and also conducted high-quality research on photochemistry and nanosynthesis. He has published more than 150 studies in journals with impact factor and 2 books in Lambert Academic Publishing, Germany. 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Since then, he has been working as an Adjunct Professor in the same Department at the University of Pavia. His research activity during the first years was primarily focused on the purification and structural characterization of enzymes from animal and plant sources. During this period, Prof. Iadarola familiarized himself with the conventional techniques used in column chromatography, spectrophotometry, manual Edman degradation, and electrophoresis). Since 1995, he has been working on: i) the determination in biological fluids (serum, urine, bronchoalveolar lavage, sputum) of proteolytic activities involved in the degradation processes of connective tissue matrix, and ii) on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. 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Recently, bioinspired systems have been successfully employing biomechanics to develop and improve assistive technology and rehabilitation devices. The research topic "Bioinspired Technology and Biomechanics" welcomes studies reporting recent advances in bioinspired technologies that contribute to individuals\' health, inclusion, and rehabilitation. 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Dr. Koprowski has authored more than a hundred research papers with dozens in impact factor (IF) journals and has authored or co-authored six books. Additionally, he is the author of several national and international patents in the field of biomedical devices and imaging. Since 2011, he has been a reviewer of grants and projects (including EU projects) in biomedical engineering.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Silesia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},subseries:[{id:"7",title:"Bioinformatics and Medical Informatics",keywords:"Biomedical Data, Drug Discovery, Clinical Diagnostics, Decoding Human Genome, AI in Personalized Medicine, Disease-prevention Strategies, Big Data Analysis in Medicine",scope:"Bioinformatics aims to help understand the functioning of the mechanisms of living organisms through the construction and use of quantitative tools. 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Possible contributions can address (but are not limited to) the following research topics: Bioinspired design and control of exoskeletons, orthoses, and prostheses; Experimental evaluation of the effect of assistive devices (e.g., influence on gait, balance, and neuromuscular system); Bioinspired technologies for rehabilitation, including clinical studies reporting evaluations; Application of neuromuscular and biomechanical models to the development of bioinspired technology.',annualVolume:11404,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/8.jpg",editor:{id:"144937",title:"Prof.",name:"Adriano",middleName:"De Oliveira",surname:"Andrade",fullName:"Adriano Andrade",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRC8QQAW/Profile_Picture_1625219101815",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Federal University of Uberlândia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"49517",title:"Prof.",name:"Hitoshi",middleName:null,surname:"Tsunashima",fullName:"Hitoshi Tsunashima",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYTP4QAO/Profile_Picture_1625819726528",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nihon University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"425354",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcus",middleName:"Fraga",surname:"Vieira",fullName:"Marcus Vieira",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003BJSgIQAX/Profile_Picture_1627904687309",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Goiás",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"196746",title:"Dr.",name:"Ramana",middleName:null,surname:"Vinjamuri",fullName:"Ramana Vinjamuri",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/196746/images/system/196746.jpeg",institutionString:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institution:{name:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]},{id:"9",title:"Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering",keywords:"Biotechnology, Biosensors, Biomaterials, Tissue Engineering",scope:"The Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering topic within the Biomedical Engineering Series aims to rapidly publish contributions on all aspects of biotechnology, biosensors, biomaterial and tissue engineering. We encourage the submission of manuscripts that provide novel and mechanistic insights that report significant advances in the fields. Topics can include but are not limited to: Biotechnology such as biotechnological products and process engineering; Biotechnologically relevant enzymes and proteins; Bioenergy and biofuels; Applied genetics and molecular biotechnology; Genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics; Applied microbial and cell physiology; Environmental biotechnology; Methods and protocols. Moreover, topics in biosensor technology, like sensors that incorporate enzymes, antibodies, nucleic acids, whole cells, tissues and organelles, and other biological or biologically inspired components will be considered, and topics exploring transducers, including those based on electrochemical and optical piezoelectric, thermal, magnetic, and micromechanical elements. Chapters exploring biomaterial approaches such as polymer synthesis and characterization, drug and gene vector design, biocompatibility, immunology and toxicology, and self-assembly at the nanoscale, are welcome. Finally, the tissue engineering subcategory will support topics such as the fundamentals of stem cells and progenitor cells and their proliferation, differentiation, bioreactors for three-dimensional culture and studies of phenotypic changes, stem and progenitor cells, both short and long term, ex vivo and in vivo implantation both in preclinical models and also in clinical trials.",annualVolume:11405,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/9.jpg",editor:{id:"126286",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",middleName:"Jesús",surname:"Villarreal-Gómez",fullName:"Luis Villarreal-Gómez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/126286/images/system/126286.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Baja California",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"35539",title:"Dr.",name:"Cecilia",middleName:null,surname:"Cristea",fullName:"Cecilia Cristea",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYQ65QAG/Profile_Picture_1621007741527",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Iuliu Hațieganu University of Medicine and Pharmacy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"40735",title:"Dr.",name:"Gil",middleName:"Alberto Batista",surname:"Gonçalves",fullName:"Gil Gonçalves",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYRLGQA4/Profile_Picture_1628492612759",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Aveiro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"211725",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Johann F.",middleName:null,surname:"Osma",fullName:"Johann F. 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