Factors influencing poultry meat color [58].
\r\n\tGlobalization does not represent a pure and generous process for humanity or other species, but rather it implies social exclusion and also provokes situations of vulnerability in groups of people, forced exclusion, and apartheid: poor job opportunities, lack of access to education, worse socio-sanitary conditions. Specifically, it can be said that social segregation entails the apartheid of social groups of different ages, genders, and ethnicities; these groups live a reality manifested through the deepening of poverty, in terms of increased vulnerability of the poor and groups with little economic, social, cultural, labor and health stability.
\r\n\r\n\tThis book aims to talk about some topics that are neglected in the discourses of academic communities and political elites. The inequality process is deeply rooted among humans and is part of many people's lives in the form of modern apartheid, gender segregation, lack of health access, and cultural gap. All those structural inequality processes are the product of the biopower perpetuated and produced in the macrosystem, exosystem, mesosystem, and microsystem. For many people from the academy, the information-consuming public, and the society in general, it is a problem to talk about these processes, since they have either lost interest or have normalized the structural and social inequity. For this reason, we see it as transcendental to explain how this situation occurs from the most internal fibers to the most evident processes, intending to make it more visible and thus expose the situation for possible solutions.
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Nevertheless there are a small number of persons with Autism or Asperger\'s Syndrome who do show lethal violence. I have described these as Criminal Autistic Psychopathy [11]. The rate of these problems in special hospitals and prisons is almost twice the general population prevalence of Autism and Asperger\'s Syndrome. Originally, these conditions were called Autistic Psychopathy by Hans Asperger 1938 and 1944. [9] I am suggesting that we bring back the diagnosis of Autistic Psychopathy for those persons with Autism and Asperger\'s Syndrome who engage in criminal activities with the new diagnosis Criminal Autistic Psychopathy. These persons have the dual features of Autism and Psychopathy. The seriousness of this condition is often missed with the sole diagnosis of Autism or Asperger\'s Syndrome. There are overlapping features but also differences from General Psychopathy as described in these examples of school killers in the literature.
In relation to the school shooting at Sandyhook School, Solomon (214) noted that from his conversation with Peter Lanza that his son Adam who shot 26 people at his school showed poor eye contact, problems with social relationships, preservation of sameness, narrow interests, poor communication skills and sensory issues. These are the classic features of Asperger\'s Syndrome DSM IV or the sub group of Asperger\'s Syndrome called Criminal Autistic Psychopathy [11].
Father [16] p.38) described him as showing "social awkwardness" and one of his psychiatrists Robert King [16] p.39) noted that he declined "to shake hands" when he met him. Adam was extremely controlling and dominating and had very little capacity for social reciprocity. He became very withdrawn and isolated as he grew up. Father said [16] p.40) that his son "was not open to therapy" and "did not want to talk about problems". Poor concentration is central to Asperger\'s Syndrome and Criminal Autistic Psychopathy. He showed problems in that area. He had major empathy deficits in relation to other people. According to [16] when his mother "asked Adam whether he would feel sad if anything happened to her, he replied "no". He found it much easier to communicate online. It\'s online that the true state of affairs of people with dangerous thoughts and fantasies particularly those with Asperger\'s Syndrome, Criminal Autistic Psychopathy sub type can be noticed. He felt hostile to people particularly females. On his computer he wrote "why females are inherently selfish" [16] misogynism is very common in these conditions. Father [16] states that "Adam would have killed me in a heartbeat, if he\'d had the chance". He shot his mother "four times". [16].
In relation to social relationships the State Attorney [16] stated that he "was more likely to be victimised than to act in violence against another". This is usually what happens to people with Asperger\'s Syndrome. He once asked his father "why do you need friends?" [16].
[16] describes him as showing "sclerotic orderliness". He found changing classes during the school day very stressful. His psychiatrist King also noted that "if mother walks in front of him in the kitchen, he would insist she re-do it" [16]. He had evidence of OCD and according to [16] "washed his hands excessively".
He would spend hours playing with lego with his brother [16] and indeed "invented his own board games". [16]. He wrote violent stories. [16]. He was "fascinated with guns and with the second world war, and showed an interest in joining the military". [16]. He became pre-occupied with "mass murder". [16] and "left a photograph of himself with a gun to his head". [16]. He created his own private autistic world. He loved hi-tech matters and "was a member of his school hi-tech club". [16]. Mother tried to fit in with his special interests for example taking him to the shooting range. She did her best. His interest in violence was best seen in his essays and online.
He showed poor eye contact and the psychiatrist Robert King described him as "pale, gaunt, awkward, young, adolescent standing rigidly with downcast gaze". [16].
He suffered from sensory overload, which of course made school much more difficult for him. [16] noted that he "showed hyper-sensitivity to physical touch that tags had to be removed from his clothing and "sometimes he smelled things that weren\'t there". I don\'t agree with this as he had hyper-sensitivity to smell and could smell things that the average person would be unable to do so. In relation to visual hyper-sensitivity "colour graphics" upset him. [16]. He probably also had clumsiness with a "stiff lumbering gait” [16]. His father stated that he had an "awkward walk" [16] pointed out that he was "intolerant of his mother brushing by his chair and objected to her new high heels, high heel boots, because they were "too loud". This was according to psychiatrist King.
King [16] also noted that he "had relatively little spontaneous speech but he responded in a flat tone with little inflection and almost mechanical prosody". And when King asked about his three wishes he replied "that whatever was granting the wishes would not exist".
He suffered from anxiety and depression and was prescribed Lexopro an anti-depressant but got side effects and stopped it. Father described him as suffering from "uncomfortable anxiety" [16]. He had negative thinking, low self-esteem and mother noticed that "he was exhausted and lethargic all day" and had a "sense of hopelessness". [16]. He was tearful and his mother described his "escalating misery". [16].
He was a bright boy nevertheless school was experienced as a challenge for him both socially and academically which led to some home schooling. He was an autodidact. There was evidence of symptoms of Attention Deficit Disorder in terms of poor concentration. He showed poor school progress and his mother reported that he was in despair "when faced with some course work in German" [16]. Nevertheless he set himself very high standards.
Eric had Criminal Autistic Psychopathy with a Narcissistic Personality and Depression.
He was a highly intelligent child. He loved fishing with his father and loved the quietness of the mountains and lake. He was very visual and had a keen appreciation of landscape and appreciated the effect of light on water and in particular loved "water". [5]. [5] describes a neighbour\'s comment on Eric that he was "nice, polite, preppy, and a dork". [5] noted that "his hand was always shooting up in a class and he always had the right answer". Page 9. He was highly intelligent and of course in the long term this increased his dangerousness. He was also described as being "painfully shy". [5]. He had surgery for "pectus excabatum, an abnormally sunken sternum". [5]. This was a narcissistic wound for him as a child. Eric was "gifted analytically, excellent at maths, a technology expert and into "gadgets, computers, video games". [5]. Here again we see some overlap between General Psychopathy and Criminal Autistic Psychopathy. Cullen notes that a Little League Team mate described Eric as the "shyest out of everybody" and was restricted in what he said. His coach [5] noted that "he didn’t want to miss (a ball). He didn’t want to fail" and therefore he was very slow to swing a bat. This again shows his narcissistic vulnerability and his fear of missing which he found humiliating. In a way according to [5] Eric "scripted Columbine, as a made for TV murder". [5]. This is further evidence of his narcissism and in fantasy he re-enacted the pleasure of the massacre endlessly in the long period leading up to it. In his own mind he was the superior one, the man who was awesome and frightened the world.
[5] noted that "Eric wanted to be remembered". He certainly left his mark on the sands of time. He wanted to be feared and wanted to be in a position where nobody ever looked down on him again.
The FBI analyst who examined his motives suggested that Harris was a classical psychopath and had a "messianic level superiority complex and hoped to illustrate his massive superiority to the world". Immelmann (2009) described Eric as possessing a "malignant narcissism… a Pathological Narcissistic Personality Disorder with borderline and anti-social features, also with some paranoid traits and unconstrained aggression". Eric wrote according to [5] that "my belief is that if I say something, it goes. I am the law. If you don’t like it, you die". [5] summarised Fuseliers opinion that "Eric had a preposterously grand superiority complex, a revulsion for authority, an excruciating need for control". This was largely inherent in Eric with huge innate factors and again we see the overlap with Criminal Autistic Psychopathy. Eric also stated "I feel like God and I am higher than almost anyone in the fucking world in terms of universal intelligence". [5]. This was not psychosis but it is close to psychosis.
Eric also said that "Zeus and I also get angry easily and punish people in unusual ways". [5]. In a way Zeus was one of the superior Gods. After Eric was arrested for the breaking into the car he switched from being an "observer to enforcer". [5]. This was a critical life event and even though he was the perpetrator he understood it himself as that he was the victim and how dare they arrest him and put him in handcuffs. This speeded up his sense of injustice, his hatred of humanity and simply accelerated his wish to do the massacre. Of course he was on that path before he was arrested. Eric "fancied himself as a non-conformist, but he craved approval and fumed over the neighbour\'s disrespect". [5]. Eric was hypersensitive to any rejection or criticism and [5] noted that Eric had "a long list of betrayals, an actual "shit list" on his computer of despicable young girls". He talked a lot about people who "knifed… him in the back". Most of this was more imaginary than real. Nevertheless it was psychologically very real to him.
Eric stated on one occasion "I hate almost everyone" and ah yes "I wanna rip his head off and eat it" in a "flat voice". [5]. After a fishing trip he talked about going back to "shithead society populated by automatons too dense to comprehend what was out there". [5]. Eric also wrote "if you have a problem with my thoughts, come and tell me and I\'ll kill you" [5]. Another one of his rants was "I hate". [5]. According to [5] p.216 Eric\'s "only internal struggle concerned which stupid bastards was more deserving of his wrath". He saw himself as an avenging God. Before the massacre of course he was a petty criminal. [5]) noted that Eric "savoured the idea (of) heroic opportunities to obliterate alien hoards. His dreams were riddled with gunfire and explosions" and "he was always dazzled by fire". Eric made "death threats" to another student. [5] p.88. Eric wrote on his website that he wanted to "mow down" the people of his area and that "I don’t care if I live or die in the shootout..."all I want to do is kill and injure as many of you pricks as I can". [5] p.216. [5] p. 219 notes that Eric "described going to some random downtown area....and blowing up and shooting up everything he could. He assured us he would feel no remorse, no sorrow, no shame. He would make them pay". This shows an incredibly deep hatred of the human race and he did not have a traumatic childhood. Again we are dealing with a personality and with problems largely coming from inside him.
In 1998 he wrote in a notebook "I hate the fucking world" and that "I am not respected". [5]. This was a largely paranoid thought and not based on reality. Eric also stated that "human beings were pathetic fuckheads too dense to perceive their lifeless existence...automatons" and people were "assembly-line robots". In a way Eric wanted to destroy humanity in the world. In addition Eric "had a grander vision. All his writing alluded to a wider slaughter; killing everything, destroying the human race" and he also wrote "kill them all. Well if you have not figured it out yet, I\'d say "kill mankind". [5].
[5] states that girls found him "cute" and that "he\'d always hated his appearance". Eric also could be charming and told a great deal of lies. He did not suffer from guilt for his actions. [5] noted that his Principal in college Frank de Angelis noted that Harris was "the type of kid who, when he was in front of adults, he\'d tell you what you wanted to hear". Cullen also noted that a classmate had "the impression... (that Eric) wanted to be an outcast. He was also described as "moody and aggressive". P. 140. He suffered from depression. Eric was "egotistical, empathy-free". [5]. When Eric was asked to describe himself in filing out a questionnaire which focused on distrust etc., he described himself as agreeing with some of the following descriptions: jealous "anxiety, suspiciousness, temper, obsessive thoughts, mood swings, disorganised thoughts, homicidal thoughts" [5]. When mental health professionals assessed him he seethed "as he scrawled out his answers" and he considered "the nerve of these low lifes judging him" and how he "hated fools telling him what to do." [5]. In addition, Eric was "a dreamer" of "a world where the rest of us had been removed". [5]. [5] described Harris as a "cold-blooded, predatory psychopath". Fusilier [5] noted that Eric showed "cold rational calculation-(was) charming, callous, cunning, manipulative, comically grandiose, egocentric, with appalling failures of empathy". He had the capacity when he wanted to to fool people and deceive people and was a superb liar and he was also a sensation seeker and novelty seeker. Therapy for persons with psychopathy often makes them better at psychopathy and improves their destructive social skills. He was in therapy but only pretended to engage himself from it. He was "unemotional" and was extremely dominating and controlling. [5].
He was well able to manage adults and to tell adults what they wanted to know and what they wanted to hear. His parents described him earlier as "getting angry all the time.at almost anything he didn’t like" and he would "punch a wall" [5].
Eric wrote [5] that "guns! boy, I loved playing guns". He was also superb at violent video games. He used to sketch "medieval armour and sub-machine guns" and would draw "victims (who) were frequently on fire and freshly decapitated" as well as he showed a great interest in the Nazis and their activities. [5], p.81. Another great interest was in "explosives". [5]. He loved to make home made bombs. Other interests included "Nietzsche, Freud, Hitler" and he used to say "Sich Heil" or "Heil Hitler". He was obsessed with massacres and mayhem on television.
Eric was a boy who "smoked, drank, dated" (page 6 [5] and he would walk up to "hotties in the Mall". "He won them over with quick wit, dazzling dimples and a disarming smile". [5]. Nothing could be further from Asperger\'s Syndrome than this. This was his genuine evidence of an element of General Psychopathy.
[5] stated that when "somebody needed to take control. Eric was your man. He was like a robot under pressure". The local Pizza Store where he worked had a particularly good opinion of his capabilities and put him "in charge when he left". [5]. He had excellent management skills and found it very easy to manage his co-killer Dylan Klebold.
In writing there was often contradictions and Eric\'s writing wasn’t always logical. Eric had excellent social know how compared to Dylan. Dylan and Eric had major empathy deficits and were both hostile and somewhat paranoid people. Both suffered from depression. They became a most dangerous murderous couple. Eric was the active one the leader and Dylan was the follower the passive one. They played out their killing in fantasy many times before they carried it out. The warning signs were mainly in their writings and on their website. Nevertheless they both had contact with the police. Clearly if teachers read the kind of essays that they write and their pre-occupations from now on they should take these writings very seriously and take action on them.
Dylan was described by his parents as an "introverted and has grown up isolated" and is "often angry or sullen and his behaviours seemed disrespectful to and intolerant of others". [5]. Dylan [5] was "born brilliant" and went to school "a year early" and was sent to a gifted child programme because he was "a maths prodigy". Everybody said he was extremely shy. He was extremely sensitive to criticism and could have meltdowns that could take quite a while for him to recover from. He had very vulnerable self-esteem and criticism would easily lead to a meltdown.
[5] points out that Dylan Klebold was "meek, self-conscious and shy. He could barely speak in front of a stranger, especially a girl. He\'d follow quietly after Eric (co-mass killer) on the Mall conquests attempting to appear invisible". Eric flattered "girls" with compliments; "Dylan passed them chips, cookies to let them know he liked them. Dylan\'s friends said he had never been on a date; he may never have asked a girl out". Not surprising Dylan wrote in 1997 "I feel so lonely without a friend". [5]. Dylan was a loner, which caused him pain and "felt cut off from humanity". [5] Dylan described himself as someone who had "no girl (friends)/not even platonic, no other friends, nobody accepting him, doing badly in sports, looking ugly and acting shy, getting bad grades, having no friends in life". [5]. Dylan did at times regard other humans as "zombies" and wrote about himself "I am God compared to some of these un-existable brainless zombies". [5]. This was projection and shows that he had some grandiosity as well which is often hidden behind low self-esteem.
He was very naive and tended to be caught if he did anything wrong. This is typical of persons with Autism. He was caught when he broke into a car and stole stuff with his friend Eric Harris (co-mass killer). According to [5] "Dylan Klebold was not a man of action. He was conscripted by a boy who was". Persons with Asperger\'s Syndrome are very easily led. They are often led into serious crime by other people particularly persons with psychopathy like Eric Harris. He shared talents with Eric Harris including great mathematical ability, technological expertise and in particular Dylan was excellent at "analysing, inventing, deconstructing". [5]. Dylan would hammer at "ideas relentlessly". [5]. Dylan wanted to become a specialist in computing technology and there was no doubt he would have achieved that if he hadn’t met Eric Harris.
Dylan was very interested in "classical philosophers and renaissance literature". [5]. Dylan was into polarities and felt himself to be split in his mind. One of the polarities that fascinated him was "good and bad". This was a major focus for him [5]. [5] that "Dr Fuselier from the FBI stated that "both boys fantasised about murder, but Dylan focused on a single attack".
[5] points out that Dylan did believe in God but that he would "cry out, cursing God for making him a modern Job, demanding an explanation for the divine brutality of his faithful servant. It\'s hardly surprising he considered suicide as a way out. Dylan wrote that "God had chosen him" as someone "in search of answers, never finding them, yet in hopelessness understands things. He seeks knowledge of the unthinkable, of the undefinable, of the unknown. He explores everything/using his mind, the most powerful tool known to him". [5].
Dylan had fantasies about relationships with a girl which were very powerful. He suffered from depression which is very typical with Autism indeed he wrote "good God I hate my life, I want to die really bad right now". [5]. He also had preservation of sameness and was very much a routine driven boy.
When Dylan hacked into the school computer he was caught and reprimanded. [5] wrote that when Dylan was "caught scratching obscenities into a freshman\'s locker, he was called before the school Dean and went ballistic. He cussed the Dean and bounced off the walls" and acted bizzarely.
Dylan had acting potential which was really one area where he was superior to Eric Harris his leader. It is well known [11] that many great actors had Autism or Asperger\'s Syndrome. [5] noted that on film Dylan "unleashed his anger and he was that crazy man disintegrating in front of the camera. His eyes bulged out". It was also noticed that in life generally he was not very capable and was not given complex tasks to do.
Overall he had no ability to plan an operation on his own like the massacre and was simply led in a very naive way by a person with psychopathy Eric Harris.
Cho Seung-Hui the mass killer at Virginia Tech also had a diagnosis of Autism. He was a shy, withdrawn child who had problems with social know how and social cop on. He hated hugging as a child and was very violent. He was clingy to his mother. He showed poor communication and often gave one word answers to questions. He great aunt [2] stated that "when others called his name he just answered yes or no but never showed any feelings or emotions. We started to worry he was autistic". Later he was formally diagnosed with Autism. He was bullied within the educational system.
A Professor Lucinda Roy complained to the campus police about him and she also gave him "individual lessons" and said to him: "You seem so lonely"-"Do you have any friends?". "I am lonely". Cho replied. "I don’t have any friends". A student at Virginia Tech Karen Grewal [17] noted that "he was so quiet, it was almost as if he wasn’t there and was invisible. He must have been worried that he\'d would be found out".
[3] noted that there were "college girls who reported him to the police for stalking and got him carted off to a mental hospital after he sent them shy love messages full of meaning". Cho [3] also wrote "by a name, I know not how to tell who I am". This is typical of the identity diffusion of autism. He was unable to get a girlfriend and "he had to make up with a fantasy girlfriend". [3]. He was a loner as a child. [2] notes that a fellow student noted he was "obsessed with violence and with serious personal problems". He admired the Columbine killers. Professor Nikki Giovanni one of his teachers at Virginia Tech was concerned about his writing i.e. "your bra is torn and I am looking at your flesh". [3]. He\'d never speak but he frightened everyone. According to [17] "he insisted on wearing sunglasses and pulling his baseball cap low on his forehead" and that neighbours "described him as a surly youth who did not communicate and ignored them in the street". He was a major mathematical talent like many with Autism. [9]. Professor Louis Schlesginger a Professor of Forensic Psychology states that "mass killers tend to be aggrieved, hurt, clinically depressed, socially isolated and above all paranoid". (Begley 2007).
In the psychiatric hospital in 2007 a psychiatrist noted his "affect is flat and mood is depressed". (Begley 2007).
School shootings and mass killings are not uncommonly committed by persons with neurodevelopmental disorders i.e. Criminal Autistic Psychopathy/Asperger\'s Syndrome with often a good deal of warning based on writings on the internet and elsewhere.
The poultry industry has witnessed significant improvements over the past several decades achieving higher market weight with improved feed efficiency, thus reducing production cost. During the past 60 years, the amount of time and quantity of feed per pound of meat required to reach broiler market weight had been reduced by 50% [1]; furthermore, according to the National Chicken Council [2], modern broiler chickens can achieve market weight 16 days earlier with 35% higher weight compared to the 1960s broiler chicken. These improvements have resulted from a combination of genetic improvement and progress in nutrition and poultry management.
The U.S. is considered the world’s largest producer of poultry meat; the U.S. provides approximately 17% of the global poultry meat output, followed by Brazil and China, mainly dominated by broiler meat followed by turkey meat and a small fraction for other poultry meat. The production and consumption of poultry meat have increased rapidly worldwide and are expected to continue to grow [3] due to its relatively low price compared to other meats, the absence of cultural or religious obstacles, and its dietary and nutritional properties as it has lower fat, cholesterol, and sodium content [4] with an increased preference of white chicken meat [5, 6].
Additionally, consumers have shifted from the consumption of whole chicken toward portioned (especially breast fillets) and further processed products [7, 8]. These changes were driven by the need for convenience with meal preparation in a fast-paced industrialized era and meeting consumer preference of specific carcass parts. The poultry industry has responded to these changing demands by further enhancing genetic selection for increased breast yield, faster growth rate, and improved feed efficiency. Meanwhile, feed cost has increased, and ethanol production has forced producers to use alternative feed ingredients such as the distiller\'s dried grains with solubles (DDGS) produced as byproducts of ethanol production. However, since the selection of broiler chickens initially focused on increasing growth performance and improving body composition [9], this has led to indirect and often deleterious effects on meat quality traits, such as excessive deposition of abdominal fat, the formation of which represented the inefficient use of feed [10, 11]. Coincidently, several studies have shown an increased incidence of abnormalities, mainly in breast muscles [12, 13]. In the early 1980s, Wight and Siller [14] recognized an abnormal condition in the pectoralis minor, in which the muscle is basically “suffocated” leading to ischemic necrosis; this condition known as deep pectoral muscle myopathy is only the first in a list of fast-growth-related muscle abnormalities that eventually affect meat quality and its functional properties.
In poultry meat, appearance and texture have been considered the two most important attributes responsible for initial consumer meat evaluation and final product acceptance [15], so consumers are expected to reject meat with observed defects such as bruises and hemorrhages. Several appearance defects have been reported in the poultry industry, such as pinking of raw and cooked meat, bone darkening, red/bloody discoloration, white striping, wooden breast, spaghetti meat, and pale, soft, exudative appearance of breast meat. However, many of the underlying causes of appearance defects have not been fully explained. Understanding the structural organization of the muscle fibers and physiology can help in explaining some of these defects.
The basic structural unit of a muscle has been defined as the muscle fiber, which is constituted of several myofibrils (contractile units). Each muscle fiber is surrounded by a connective tissue called the endomysium; muscle fibers are then grouped into fascicles and surrounded by another layer of connective tissue called the perimysium. Then, the whole muscle is made up of a group of fascicles and surrounded by epimysium that connected the muscle to bones. Collagen is the major constituent of these connective tissues. These connective tissues influenced muscle development and subsequent meat quality.
Skeletal muscles growth was achieved by increasing the size of preexisting muscle fibers (hypertrophy). The number, size, and type of fibers vary with the function and anatomical location of the muscle. Meat quality is also affected by these factors. A muscle that contained high proportion of oxidative fibers tends to have red color due to a greater amount of myoglobin (e.g., thigh muscles) as compared to glycolytic fibers, which tended to appear white in color, which affected the appearance of muscle/meat (e.g., chicken breast muscle). Glycolytic fibers are larger and have lower rate of protein turnover. Therefore, the white muscles are larger and more efficient. In poultry, genetic selection for increased breast yield resulted in pale breast meat color in broilers [16], ducks [17], and turkeys [18], which could result in poor meat quality.
Collagen is the most abundant protein in the body and in connective tissues. The structure of collagen supports its function of providing strength to muscle and other tissues with more than 20 different types of collagen identified in vertebrates [19]. Glycine constitutes about one-third of all the amino acids found in collagen, while proline, which has been classified as an imino acid, and its analog hydroxyproline also constituted about one-third of all amino acids in collagen [20]. Lysine has been considered to be another constituent of collagen where both proline and lysine are covalently modified to hydroxyproline and hydroxylysine, respectively. A collagen molecule (tropocollagen) is composed of three left-handed polypeptide helices coiled around each other to form a right-handed supercoil where glycine is found at every third residue [19].
The strength of the collagen fibrils is due to the covalent bonds formed between and within tropocollagen triple helices, where collagen is cross-linked by lysine side chains that contribute to the strength of the collagen in meat, which has an essential role in the development of meat tenderness [21]. Furthermore, in a recent study, it has been shown that muscle with spaghetti meat abnormality had an altered immunoreactivity to specifically procollagen type III (precursor of collagen type III) suggesting a possible defect in the collagen turnover and synthesis process [22], while Sanden et al. [23] reported that spaghetti meat has poorly packed thin, loose, and immature collagen fiber bundles.
The process of converting muscle to meat in poultry starts immediately upon sacrificing the bird. Exsanguination results in blood/oxygen supply removal, during which the muscle tries to maintain its functions even after oxygen depletion through the anaerobic glycolysis of its glycogen reserves to produce adenosine triphosphate (ATP), but in the absence of blood supply to remove waste, the accumulated heat and lactic acid in the muscle decreases the pH. Owing to ATP depletion, the muscle remains contracted due to actin and myosin binding that leads to muscle stiffness (rigor mortis). This marks the onset of rigor mortis and the conversion of muscle to meat, where muscle proteins start to denature due to high temperature and low pH. Temperature and pH are the main postmortem factors influencing meat quality through affecting the onset and progression of rigor mortis and subsequent resolution [24, 25, 26, 27]. During resolution, the proteolysis of Z-disk proteins takes place, and myofibrillar proteins degrade into myofibrillar fragments by proteolytic enzymes that affect meat tenderness. In chickens, the process of converting muscle to meat has been found to start immediately after slaughter and be resolved within 2–4 h. The extent of meat tenderization postmortem could be altered by the conditions under which the meat is processed. Factors include temperature and chilling duration, deboning time, postchill aging/holding duration, and marination.
Meat quality is a collective term used to describe the indicators of a meat product wholesomeness and freshness, such as color, texture, flavor, pH, and juiciness. The two most important quality attributes for poultry meat are appearance and texture since they influence the initial consumer selection of a product as well as final satisfaction [15]. Appearance quality attributes include skin color, meat color, and appearance defects such as bruises and hemorrhages. Any deviation from a normal appearance would result in meat product rejection, subsequently leading to consumer complaints. Despite the importance of these quality attributes, the poultry grading system used is still based on aesthetic attributes, such as conformation, presence or absence of carcass defects, bruises, missing parts, and skin tears, without taking into consideration the functional properties of meat [28], which have been important for the further processing industry that was mainly interested in the functional properties of meat; the importance of incorporating functional properties and quality indicators is becoming increasingly important as the recent muscle myopathies not only affect consumer acceptance based on appearance but also the quality of further processed meat manufactured using meat with such defects.
Many factors influence poultry meat quality, including sex, strain, age, environmental factors, exercise, diet, and processing practices mainly focused on chilling, deboning time, marination, and electrical stunning [29, 30, 31, 32].
Another important quality attribute that influences customer perception is the tenderness of the meat. This attribute comes second after appearance; consumers usually correlate acceptable appearance with better quality and tenderness. Tenderness development is a function of myofibrillar protein denaturation, connective tissue content, and juiciness. Deboning time, age, and strain are some of the major factors that affect poultry meat tenderness [31, 33]. Lyon and Lyon [34] reported that as the time before deboning increased from 0 to 24 h postmortem, consumer acceptability of the meat texture increased, with fillets deboned at 0 and 2 h postmortem considered tough by a consumer panel, and samples deboned at 6 and 24 h postmortem considered slightly tender to moderately tender. Liu et al. [35] reported a decreased shear force of chicken breast as deboning time increased from 2 to 24 h postmortem. Similar results were also reported by Cavitt et al. [33].
Furthermore, Mehaffey et al. [8] reported that fillets deboned 2 or 4 h postmortem from broilers raised to 7 weeks were significantly tougher than those raised to 6 weeks, indicating that age affected tenderness when deboning was performed shortly after harvest. Northcutt et al. [31] reported that breast fillets harvested at less than 2 h postchill aging were tenderer when taken from broilers slaughtered at 42 or 44 days of age than those harvested from birds 49 or 51 days of age, irrespective of any sex effect. On the other hand, Young et al. [36] reported that females had greater fillet yields than males.
Connective tissue content has been reported to increase with age and is correlated with tenderness; as mentioned earlier, collagen is the most abundant protein in the body, making up the majority of the connective tissue proteins [37, 38]. In young broilers (6–8 weeks), it is expected that connective tissue would not affect tenderness since mature cross-links should have not yet formed between tropocollagen molecules, which are the structural units of the collagen fibril. On the other hand, the contraction of myofibrillar protein, which depends upon time and rate of rigor mortis development after the bird is sacrificed, is related to processing rather than intrinsic factors [15]. Furthermore, tenderness, indirectly associated with connective tissue, is one of the quality attributes that are negatively affected by the emerging muscle myopathies emphasizing the importance of further investigating and attempting to mitigate the negative impacts.
Another important meat quality attribute is meat juiciness, or water-holding capacity, which refers to the ability of raw meat to retain its inherent water during force application and/or processing [39]. Water in muscle has been divided into three general types: bound, immobilized, and free. Bound water is held tightly via myofibrillar protein charges and represents 4–5% of water in muscle [39, 40]; it is resistant to freezing and could only be removed by severe drying processes, not including conventional cooking [41]. Immobilized water is found within the muscle ultrastructure (within the space between actin and myosin), but it is not bound to myofibrillar proteins as in the case of bound water. Immobilized water accounts for the largest portion of muscle-bound water (88–95%). Finally, free water is held within muscle by weak capillary forces [42].
Poultry has been determined to be the only species known to have muscles/parts with apparent differences in color, as meat from poultry has been classified as either white or dark. In chicken, fresh raw breast meat is expected to have a pale pink color, while the raw thigh and leg meat are darker and redder. Meat color plays a significant role in consumer purchase decisions [43, 44, 45]. Consumers tend to associate color with flavor, tenderness, safety, storage time, nutritional value, and satisfaction level [46], and as an indicator of freshness and wholesomeness.
Meat color is what the human eye sees as light is reflected from the meat surface. Poultry meat absorbs most blue and green color spectra and reflects most of the yellow, orange, and red color spectra, which is what the human eye perceives.
The most commonly used colorimetric scale is the CIE Lab [47], even though other color scales have been used, such as the Hunter L, a, b, and YXZ space. However, the accuracy of these instruments has depended upon thickness, background color, and illuminant wavelengths [48, 49].
The CIE Lab system components measures include L* that refers to lightness and has a range from 0 to 100 (black to white), component a* had a range from –60 to +60 (green if negative to red if positive), and b* has the same range as a* (blue if negative to yellow if positive) [50, 51]. Another more recent system used for color measurement is the computer vision system, which has been shown to give reproducible results with the ability to measure the color of the entire sample instead of specific spots, as has been the case with widely used colorimeters [52]; in fact, Tomasevic et al. [53] recommended using computer vision program as a superior approach for poultry color determination.
Meat color is mainly related to the myoglobin pigment present in the muscle fibers. Myoglobin consists of a protein (globin) and a nonprotein heme ring, which has an iron molecule in its center. Iron can bind one of several ligands (e.g., oxygen, carbon monoxide, and nitric oxide) on its sixth coordination site. The forms of myoglobin (deoxymyoglobin, oxymyoglobin, carboxymyoglobin, and metmyoglobin) differ depending upon the ligand bound to iron and on the redox state of the iron. Thus, myoglobin and iron states are the two main ways through which meat color changes.
Myoglobin (or deoxymyoglobin) has a red-purple color in its nature when not bound to any ligands; the state of myoglobin changes to oxymyoglobin when oxygen is present and to carboxymyoglobin when carbon dioxide is present. In both the forms, the color is bright red (bloom), and iron is in the reduced ferrous form (Fe++). The oxidation of myoglobin changes the form to metmyoglobin and the iron to the oxidized ferric form (Fe+++), which has a brown color. These myoglobin color changes are reversible; however, if heat-treated, metmyoglobin becomes denatured and color changes irreversibly to grayish-brown. Curing with nitrites/nitrates causes an irreversible color change to red color that, upon heating, converts to pink. The replacement of iron with zinc results in a stable red color of myoglobin due to the formation of Zn-protoporphyrin IX (ZPP), which has been shown to give Parma ham its stable, bright red color [54, 55]. Within a chicken carcass, chicken breast muscles are mainly composed of white fibers (glycolytic) that have low myoglobin content. Thus, breast meat appears white, while thigh muscles are composed of red fiber (oxidative) and appears darker. Fleming et al. [56] reported a myoglobin concentration of 0.16 and 0.30 mg/g in broiler breast and thigh muscles, respectively. Furthermore, Miller [57] said a lower myoglobin content of 0.01 and 0.40 mg/g in white and dark meat of 8-week-old broilers, respectively.
Froning [58] classified the factors influencing meat color into three main categories (Table 1). Smith et al. [59] investigated the effect of age, diet (carbohydrate source), and feed withdrawal on broiler meat color by slaughtering birds each day from 42 to 45 and 49 to 52 days of age with a carbohydrate source that was either corn, milo, or wheat, with feed withdrawal times of either 0 or 8 h. Color was not affected by age. Still, feed withdrawal increased fillet lightness (L*) from an average of 46.1 to 48.9, decreased redness (a*) from 4.1 to 3.1, and increased yellowness (b*) from 2.8 to 3.7. Fillets from the birds fed the wheat diet were lighter than fillets from the corn or milo fed birds. The milo diet resulted in redder fillets than corn or wheat diets, while the corn diet produced more yellow fillets than milo or wheat diets.
Heme pigments |
|
Preslaughter factors |
|
Slaughter, chilling, and further processing |
|
Factors influencing poultry meat color [58].
In addition to meat color, skin color has been considered a critical quality attribute, mainly in a whole carcass and skin-on cuts sale. The color of poultry skin has varied from cream-colored to yellow. This variation is primarily the result of genetic variation and natural pigments in feed. Birds had differed in their ability to deposit the black melanin pigment in the epidermis and dermis layers of the skin and varied in their ability to deposit carotenoids from the feed as the combinations of different amounts of melanin and carotenoids produced different skin colors. However, in commercial strains, the ability to deposit melanin has been eliminated through genetic selection. Different skin colors as adopted from [60] are illustrated in Table 2.
Skin color | Dermis | Epidermis |
---|---|---|
White | None | None |
Black | Melanin | Melanin |
Yellow | None | Xanthophyll |
Green | Melanin | Xanthophyll |
Blue (Slate) | Melanin | None |
Combination of possible skin colors due to dietary xanthophyll deposition in epidermis or melanin production in either dermis or epidermis [60].
However, considerable variation in color and discoloration of poultry meat has occurred and remains of great concern for the industry. Discoloration may occur in the entire muscle or only in a portion of a muscle due to bruising or broken blood vessels [58]. Possible poultry color defects are presented in Table 3.
Defect | Description | Possible causes |
---|---|---|
Bruises and hemorrhages | Classic bruises, pin-point blood spots in meat, blood accumulation along bones and in joints | Physical trauma, nutrient deficiencies, mycotoxins, stunning |
Overscalding | Incomplete removal of epidermis, cooked discoloration on surface of meat | Too high scalding temperature, too long in scalder |
Surface drying | Mottled appearance of skin or meat due to surface dehydration | Incomplete removal of epidermis, exposed meat, poor packaging, freezer burn |
Heme reactions | Normal color ranges from raw pink meat, tan to brown raw meat, grey to brown cooked meat, pink cooked meat, cured meat color | Oxidative or redox state of the myoglobin, myoglobin complexing with nitrates/nitrites or other compounds such as carbon monoxide |
Dark meat | Darker than normal appearing meat, possible mottling | High muscle pH due to antemortem depletion of muscle glycogen |
Light meat | Pale breast meat | Low muscle pH (PSE-like condition) |
Dark bones | Dark brown to black bones | Freezing, blood accumulation around bone |
Summary of poultry color defects [60].
The pinking of cooked white meat has been an undesirable color defect found in poultry; its occurrence was noticed sporadically and has negatively influenced consumer purchasing decisions (Maga, I994). According to Maga [61], pink color might have resulted from the presence of high levels of myoglobin that were not completely denatured during heat processing, incidental nitrate/nitrite contamination either in feed or water or during processing. The presence of carbon monoxide and nitric oxide gases in oven gas while roasting has caused pink color on the surface of turkey meat, with carcasses from younger turkeys more susceptible than older ones [62]. The proposed mechanism for pink color development of fully cooked is related to the ligands to which the denatured myoglobin was bound, such as amino acids, denatured proteins, and nitrogen-containing compounds that form denatured hemochromes globin. Therefore, depending on the ligand to which the denatured heme will bind, different pink shades would result.
Binding of nitric oxide to myoglobin from preslaughter contamination (feed and water and gases from the truck exhaust) or during/after processing (processing water, ice, spice mix, and oven gas) has formed the pink nitric oxide myoglobin that, upon cooking, was converted to pink nitrosohemochrome. Furthermore, carbon monoxide binding to myoglobin has led to pink carboxymyoglobin developing upon cooking in oven gases or during irradiation.
Cooking meat harvested from birds before rigor mortis resolution could also cause pink color when meat is cooked when pH was higher than 6.0. At this high pH, myoglobin is not denatured, and cytochrome C (electron transport protein), which is heat stable, increases and contributes to the delayed denaturation of myoglobin since cytochrome C is still able to deliver electrons to myoglobin. Ahn and Maurer [63] showed that a pH above 6.4 leads to binding of myoglobin and hemoglobin with most naturally present ligands, such as histidine, cysteine, methionine, nicotinamide, and solubilized proteins, which leads to pink color of the meat. At high pH, amino acids and protein ligands can donate electrons to Fe, resulting in stable pink ferrohemochrome. High pH also reduces the susceptibility of meat pigments and lipids to oxidation resulting in a cooked pink color [64].
Bone darkening has been described as a dark reddish brown or black discoloration on the surface of bone and muscle adjacent to the bone after cooking. The darkening was due to bone marrow passing from inside the bone onto the bone surface and adjacent tissue, usually after freezing the meat [65, 66] and after cooking of the frozen meat [67]. Lyon and Lyon [30] described the variation in bone discoloration due to different preparation methods (precook, freeze, and reheat). They found that freezing before cooking increased the severity of discoloration more than cooking followed by freezing and reheating. Lyon et al. [65] demonstrated that meat and bone darkening of thigh pieces was related to pigment migration from the femur to muscle tissue. The commercial further processing industry has reported that redness was usually accompanied by blood in bone-in chicken carcasses and parts, which consumers could reject as the product appears undercooked and unsafe for consumption [59].
The migration of pigments from the femur to muscle tissues has created darkening that was more prevalent in younger birds since their bones were less calcified, were more porous, and had more red marrow than older birds. The epiphysis of long bones in older birds is more calcified than young birds, so the pigment is more difficult to escape from bones onto surrounding tissue. However, bone darkening only affects the appearance and not the organoleptic properties of the meat product [67].
Smith and Northcutt [59] studied discoloration prevalence in commercially fully cooked breasts, thighs, and drumsticks from various market sources. They speculated that about 11% of products could face consumer complaints or rejection since they were severely discolored. Furthermore, cooking chicken breast samples with bone marrow collected from femurs increased the darkness and redness of both raw and cooked broiler meat [68].
Red and/or bloody discoloration of poultry meat, raw or cooked, has been a chronic yet sporadic problem for the poultry industry. Raw breast meat with red discoloration is objectionable to many customers, and cooked white or dark meat with red defect is unacceptable to consumers due to the perception that it is undercooked. Red discoloration of white meat is closely related to bone darkening but with higher redness. Little research has been available concerning this red discoloration defect in poultry meat [59]. According to Smith and Northcutt [66], bone marrow is an effective inducer of red, bloody discoloration in breast meat samples. In a previous investigation conducted concerning the color of different parts of chicken, Lyon et al. [65] reported that the initial color of breast was lighter and less red than thighs because breasts had a lower proportion of total bone area to muscle mass, fewer large, calcified bones, a lower proportion of blood vessels per muscle mass (less hemoglobin), or lower myoglobin content than thighs or drums [66].
The bright red color development has been investigated in Parma ham, where this north Italian traditional dry-cured ham “Prosciutto di Parma (Parma ham)” has been made from only the legs of fattened pigs and was salted with sea salt, dried, and matured over 1 year [69]. It was initially postulated that sea salt used was contaminated with nitrate/nitrite. However, that was later investigated, and results showed that this pigment was also formed in a nitrate/nitrite-free environment and that endogenous enzymes as well as microorganisms were involved in this pigment formation [54, 55]. These results suggested that the bright red color in Parma ham is caused by Zn-protoporphyrin IX (ZPP), in which the iron in heme was substituted by zinc heme separated from the native heme protein. Investigations on this lipophylic myoglobin derivative showed that it was a stable red pigment that increased with aging [70]. This process has now been patented for producing red pigments for food use that were heat-stable [71]. The addition of salt accelerated the reaction and increased redness [72]. The process has also occurred in live animals, including humans, as lead poisoning and iron deficiency caused an increase of ZPP in blood as zinc replaced the iron in hemoglobin. The level of ZPP can be evaluated with a simple screening test using a hematofluorometer. The measurement of ZPP has been used with ducks to test for lead poisoning [73]. An increased ZPP/heme ratio indicates that Zn has replaced Fe in the heme, thus changing the color of hemoglobin and myoglobin. Based on findings in Parma ham, ZPP may be responsible for the red discoloration in poultry meat, which could be formed in myoglobin found in muscles or hemoglobin stored in bone marrow. Thus, ZPP leaking out of the bones could cause the increased stable redness observed in white meat.
Green discoloration of live muscles, raw meat, and cooked deli products can be produced by various mechanisms that lead to condemnation by the industry and consumers. In live muscles, green muscle disease (deep muscle myopathy) is caused by the lack of blood supply to the deep pectoral muscle that results in the death of the muscle fibers, thus giving the muscle a green appearance. The bruising of live birds has caused a rupture of blood capillaries and blood accumulation under the skin or in the meat. The color of the bruise subsequently developed over time and turned either yellow or green depending upon heme degradation. Using lactic acid as a decontamination approach resulted in the greening of chicken skin color [74]. The irradiation of fresh beef and pork meat has been thought to affect the stability of iron in the myoglobin and cause the breakdown of the porphyrin molecule and/or the formation of sulfmyoglobin that caused green pigments to appear [75].
In cooked meat, contamination with microorganisms such as Pseudomonas fluorescens has produced a shiny transparent greenish exudate on the meat surface due to microbial degradation of the heme pigment. In sausage-type products, the presence of green rings is an indicator of microbial contamination where the microorganisms oxidized the heme pigment before applying thermal treatment.
Iridescence, which is the appearance of a green-orange color on the surface of meat products such as deli meat, is mainly associated with the meat surface microstructure that could be interpreted as a color diffraction problem related to the ability of certain muscles to split the white light into its component. Thus, the reflection of the meat surface would appear in green-orange. If a sharp knife was used to cut the meat, the smooth surface resulting from the cut causes this color diffraction, but if a dull knife was used instead, this problem would be eliminated.
Deep pectoral muscle myopathy, also known as green muscle disease and Oregon disease, was first identified in turkeys [76] and later in broiler breeders [77] and 7-week-old broiler chickens [78]. This disease affected the wing elevating muscle (
The pectoralis minor muscle is confined in a tight space between the sternum and the pectoralis major muscle (large breast fillet). It is also encased in a rigid fibrous sheath that restricts any increase in muscle volume in response to any physiological changes caused by muscle exercise such as wing-flapping [79] which requires increased blood flow to supply the oxygen and nutrients needed by the muscles. The incidence of green muscle disease has also been reported to be higher in high yielding crosses, especially males.
On the other hand, the incidence of focal pectoral myopathy has increased, and it has been associated with increased growth rate and muscle size [12, 80]. Further investigation is required to determine the causes of this muscular defect since focal myopathy has an even more detrimental effect on the poultry industry. It has affected the pectoralis major muscle leading to consumer complaints and industry economic loss.
The incidence of pale, soft, and exudative (PSE) meat has been well-documented in swine, where meat has a very light gray color, soft texture, and cannot hold water [81, 82]. This condition has been associated with heavy muscling [83]. In poultry, similar PSE characteristics have been reported in turkey meat [84, 85], chickens [86, 87], and ostriches [88]. However, it is more difficult to distinguish and identify these characteristics in poultry meat compared to pork. This condition has been referred to as PSE since characteristics were similar to PSE in pork, which is misleading since both conditions were not exactly the same. Poultry researchers have preferred to refer to the condition in poultry as “PSE-like” or “Pale poultry muscle syndrome” [86, 89]. The PSE and PSE-like conditions are detrimental to the industry profitability since it affects important meat quality attributes involved in the production of value-added products and further processed meat. Affected muscles have been reported to lose their rheological properties and become unable to hold water. For example, mortadella prepared with PSE-like chicken meat has reduced water-holding capacity, altered texture, diminished emulsion stability, and required additives to restore the functional properties of normal meat [90]. In addition, poultry processors have been concerned with the appearance of PSE-like meat in fresh tray packs. The pale color affected color uniformity within the package and, thus, consumer acceptance. The occurrence of PSE-like in poultry meat has been believed to be the result of accelerated postmortem glycolysis (rapid pH decline), while the carcass was still warm [91]. In poultry, normal pH values at 15 min postmortem (pH15) are around 6.2–6.5 [92, 93], whereas normal ultimate pH (pHu) values are approximately 5.8 [60, 88, 94]. If the pH15 value is low (below 6.0) when the muscle is still warm, the proteins are subject to denaturation, which leads to a decreased water-holding capacity and a lighter color of the meat.
The reasons for PSE-like condition have remained unclear, but up to 30% of broiler breast meat and up to 40% of turkey breast meat have shown this defect in commercial processing plants [95, 96, 97]. Furthermore, it has been reported that the occurrence of PSE-like meat in birds may be affected by alteration to the intracellular calcium homeostasis caused by a mutation in the ryanodine receptor gene, which is different from the ryanodine receptor gene in swine, and also depends upon the several aspects of preslaughter and postslaughter management practices [98, 99]. It is thought that the application of “snow chilling” with carbon dioxide intensified meat quality abnormalities [100]. In addition, other factors have been thought to contribute to this problem, such as heat stress during the finisher period or the preslaughter period [86], and stress and struggling before slaughter [101].
Differentiating PSE-like meat from normal meat has been based on the instrumental or visual assessment of color lightness (L*). However, the cutoff value for classifying meat as PSE-like has differed among researchers. Petracci et al. [102] considered an L* value of 56 as the cutoff, while Barbut [28, 103, 104] suggested classifying turkey breast meat as PSE-like when L* values were greater than 52 at 24 h postmortem. Fraqueza et al. [105] classified breast meat as PSE-like when the L* was greater than 50 and pHu was less than 5.8, while Woelfel et al. [106] used L* values greater than 54 in broilers as their standards.
Using L*
White striping, woody breast, and spaghetti meat can be collectively referred to as the myopathies of modern broiler. These nomenclatures were simply based on the appearance of the defective muscles. White striping is a condition described in broiler chickens and characterized by white striations parallel to the direction of muscle fibers on both breast fillets and thighs of broilers. White striping is considered to be an emerging issue by the poultry meat industry that could be associated with enhanced growth rate and heavier body weight in birds [110, 111, 112], especially in the age of 6–8 weeks [110], and higher fat content in broiler breast fillets [111]. The incidence of white striping was evaluated under commercial conditions, and the overall incidence in broiler breast meat was 12.0%, of which 3.1% had severe striping [113]. It is possible that the intense selection for rapid growth rate in birds could have accidentally been accompanied by the selection for inadequate capillary/fascial growth or muscle fiber defects leading to myopathic changes referred to as growth-induced myopathy [13], under which these three different myopathies can be classified.
The precise etiology of white striping has not been defined yet [114]; however, several speculations have been reported. In turkeys, Wilson et al. [80] reported that rapid growth rate may have led to the limited ability of muscle support systems leading to a condition called focal myopathy, which affected the major pectoral muscle.
Ischemia could also result from a rapid growth rate and lead to muscular damage in turkeys [115]. It is also possible that reduced oxygen supply to breast muscle resulted from lower capillary density in fast-growing chickens [116]. A higher growth rate could also lead to defective cation regulation in muscles leading to an increased sodium, potassium, magnesium, and calcium in muscle tissue [117]. An increased level of calcium in muscle tissue could initiate several tissue changes, including the activation of intracellular proteases or lipases resulting in myopathic changes [13, 118, 119, 120]. Kuttappan et al. [114] reported that breast fillets showing severe white striping had reduced protein content and myopathic lesions, while Petracci et al. [113] observed poor cohesion beneath the striation area.
Poultry producers started noticing and complaining about woody breast in the late 1990s [12, 121]. The woody breast muscle is usually characterized by increased firmness in all or parts of the pectoralis major muscle that can start in the live birds and can be detected by palpating the breast muscle. Sihvo et al. [121] reported that woody breast might result from fibrosis, which leads to an accumulation of interstitial connective tissue. This myopathy affects consumer acceptability and meat quality; even when trying to mitigate by diverting to further processed poultry products, woody breast meat is still required to be mixed with normal meat to maintain the quality of the further processed product [122, 123].
Spaghetti meat, or previously known as mushy breast, is the most recent emerging myopathy of breast meat in poultry. As the name implies, the breast muscle loses its structure and firmness. One distinct feature the spaghetti meat has that would differentiate it from white striping and woody breast is the loss of endomysial and perimysial connective tissue that compromises the fiber bundles cohesion, coupled with a loose connective tissue deposition [124] leading to the separation of the fascicles into “spaghetti” strings.
Sanden et al. [23] investigated the collagen of muscles with either woody breast or spaghetti meat abnormalities. They showed that collagen in woody breast muscle was a mix of thin and thick fibers, whereas spaghetti meat had thinner, fewer, and shorter. However, both myopathies generally resulted in a higher content in connective tissue (mainly in perimysium) compared to normal muscle.
Several researchers have investigated these myopathies to understand their etiology and effect on meat products quality [114, 121, 124, 125]. It is believed that cellular stress and hypoxia (ischemia) caused by muscle hypertrophy are the main triggering factors behind white striping and woody breast, in addition to being strapped within a relatively rigid connective tissue that limits the hypertrophy capabilities. However, what is interesting is that spaghetti meat, where the opposite issue is faced concerning connective tissue, started appearing. It is possible that geneticist, while trying to reduce the rigidness of the connective tissue, led to the emergence of the most recent abnormality of spaghetti meat, which is worth investigating in the future with poultry strain companies.
Researchers have investigated multiple factors that may have either contributed or helped in eliminating the emerging myopathies starting at different incubation conditions [126] all the way to management during growing [127, 128] and nutritional manipulations [129, 130, 131, 132, 133].
Several white muscle defects and myopathy have been reported. According to the literature, these problems spiked in the 1970s and 2000s concurrent with increased feed prices. It was suggested that producers were driven to use less expensive feed and use alternative feed ingredients (e.g., DDGS) to control costs. One significant consequence of feeding less expensive feed was that the essential amino acids (e.g., lysine and methionine) became a primary concern when formulating these diets, while the nonessential amino acids (e.g., arginine, glycine, and proline) were neglected despite their essential role in connective tissue formation, which may have contributed to the emerging of muscle defects as genetics for enhanced growth and muscle accretion were improved even further.
The spectacular advancements in genetics witnessed by the broiler industry have resulted in broilers with a higher growth rate, while the role of nutrition has become even more critical in supporting the increased growth demands of what may have become a relatively fragile animal. Profit-driven decisions about formulating feed in a least-cost manner while neglecting the essentiality of nonessential amino acids in nutrition would eventually be evidenced by increased condemnation at the processing plant and increased consumer complaints.
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She is currently an associate professor at the University of Salamanca, Faculty of Education.\nThis training trajectory is combined with a wide and extensive experience, academic and professional, in the field of pedagogy: in planning agile methodologies and application of actions, based on the diagnosis of needs; in the organization and management of curricular and innovation projects, in improving the teaching and learning processes; in the design of personalized educational resources, educational technology, blended learning, etc.\nShe is the Academic Coordinator of the Training Program in the Entrepreneurship Chair at the University of Salamanca, a member of the Academic Committee for international postgraduate programs (masters) in Entrepreneurial Development and Innovation, and the National Secretary of the Network for Entrepreneurship Training, Research and Development.",institutionString:"University of Salamanca",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"University of Salamanca",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6950",title:"Education, Human Rights and Peace in Sustainable Development",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c506ccaf514e5544d61c96a601753ad9",slug:"education-human-rights-and-peace-in-sustainable-development",bookSignature:"Maigul Nugmanova, Heimo Mikkola, Alexander Rozanov and Valentina Komleva",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6950.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"290871",title:"Dr.",name:"Maigul",middleName:null,surname:"Nugmanova",slug:"maigul-nugmanova",fullName:"Maigul Nugmanova"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8478",title:"Regional Development in Africa",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"58c901c1d38758b1ed340b5badc9f3a0",slug:"regional-development-in-africa",bookSignature:"Norbert Edomah",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8478.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"222277",title:"Dr.",name:"Norbert",middleName:null,surname:"Edomah",slug:"norbert-edomah",fullName:"Norbert Edomah"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6823",title:"Sustainability Assessment and Reporting",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"4db72204a34eff9b5143955463b293cf",slug:"sustainability-assessment-and-reporting",bookSignature:"Soner Gokten and Pinar Okan Gokten",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6823.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"70354",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Soner",middleName:null,surname:"Gokten",slug:"soner-gokten",fullName:"Soner Gokten"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5704",title:"Skills Development for Sustainable Manufacturing",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5d9994c97da570ef318b4da424f8cce0",slug:"skills-development-for-sustainable-manufacturing",bookSignature:"Christianah Olakitan Ijagbemi and Harold Moody Campbell",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5704.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"192754",title:"Dr.",name:"Christianah",middleName:null,surname:"Ijagbemi",slug:"christianah-ijagbemi",fullName:"Christianah Ijagbemi"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"2205",title:"Globalization and Responsibility",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"46d98262d7d3b53c695cd7bc87f00040",slug:"globalization-and-responsibility",bookSignature:"Zlatan Delic",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2205.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"31746",title:"Dr.",name:"Zlatan",middleName:null,surname:"Delic",slug:"zlatan-delic",fullName:"Zlatan Delic"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"2015",title:"Sustainable Development",subtitle:"Education, Business and Management - Architecture and Building Construction - Agriculture and Food Security",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"7d2fbda1c194835efdcee1c4c58291b7",slug:"sustainable-development-education-business-and-management-architecture-and-building-construction-agriculture-and-food-security",bookSignature:"Chaouki Ghenai",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2015.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"14569",title:"Prof.",name:"Chaouki",middleName:null,surname:"Ghenai",slug:"chaouki-ghenai",fullName:"Chaouki Ghenai"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],booksByTopicTotal:7,seriesByTopicCollection:[],seriesByTopicTotal:0,mostCitedChapters:[{id:"29276",doi:"10.5772/26613",title:"Mapping is a Key for Sustainable Development of Coastal Waters: Examples of Seagrass Beds and Aquaculture Facilities in Japan with Use of ALOS Images",slug:"mapping-is-a-key-for-sustainable-development-of-coastal-waters",totalDownloads:2734,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:28,abstract:null,book:{id:"2015",slug:"sustainable-development-education-business-and-management-architecture-and-building-construction-agriculture-and-food-security",title:"Sustainable Development",fullTitle:"Sustainable Development - Education, Business and Management - Architecture and Building Construction - Agriculture and Food Security"},signatures:"Teruhisa Komatsu, Tatsuyuki Sagawa, Shuhei Sawayama, Hideaki Tanoue, Akihiko Mohri and Yoshihiko Sakanishi",authors:[{id:"67315",title:"Dr.",name:"Teruhisa",middleName:null,surname:"Komatsu",slug:"teruhisa-komatsu",fullName:"Teruhisa Komatsu"}]},{id:"68270",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.86974",title:"Solid Waste Management in Africa: Governance Failure or Development Opportunity?",slug:"solid-waste-management-in-africa-governance-failure-or-development-opportunity-",totalDownloads:1917,totalCrossrefCites:11,totalDimensionsCites:14,abstract:"Waste management is a social, economic, and environmental problem facing all African countries. If the 2030 Agenda for sustainable development is to be achieved, sustainable waste management approaches must be an environmental and public health imperative deserving political priority. Current reasons for the poor management of waste in Africa, include, amongst others, weak organizational structures; lack of appropriate skills; inadequate budgets; weak legislation; lack of enforcement; low public awareness; corruption, conflict; political instability; and lack of political will. At the heart of the problem, is a failure in governance. However, through these gaps, many social and technological innovations have emerged. Innovations that recognize the opportunity that waste provides as a secondary resource. Diverting waste away from dumpsites and landfills towards reuse, recycling and recovery can improve the livelihoods of thousands of informal waste reclaimers, while also creating new jobs and business opportunities for the continent. Reintroducing secondary resources such as polymer, fiber, metals and nutrients back into local value chains has the potential to strengthen manufacturing economies and reduce the economic burden on product imports. Bringing waste under control in Africa and unlocking the opportunities that “waste” provides as “resource” will require immediate intervention by government, business and civil society.",book:{id:"8478",slug:"regional-development-in-africa",title:"Regional Development in Africa",fullTitle:"Regional Development in Africa"},signatures:"Linda Godfrey, Mohamed Tawfic Ahmed, Kidane Giday Gebremedhin, Jamidu H.Y. Katima, Suzan Oelofse, Oladele Osibanjo, Ulf Henning Richter and Arsène H. Yonli",authors:[{id:"58376",title:"Prof.",name:"Oladele",middleName:null,surname:"Osibanjo",slug:"oladele-osibanjo",fullName:"Oladele Osibanjo"},{id:"293145",title:"Prof.",name:"Linda",middleName:null,surname:"Godfrey",slug:"linda-godfrey",fullName:"Linda Godfrey"},{id:"304936",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohamed",middleName:null,surname:"Tawfic Ahmed",slug:"mohamed-tawfic-ahmed",fullName:"Mohamed Tawfic Ahmed"},{id:"304937",title:"Prof.",name:"Kidane",middleName:null,surname:"Giday Gebremedhin",slug:"kidane-giday-gebremedhin",fullName:"Kidane Giday Gebremedhin"},{id:"304938",title:"Prof.",name:"Jamidu H.Y.",middleName:null,surname:"Katima",slug:"jamidu-h.y.-katima",fullName:"Jamidu H.Y. Katima"},{id:"304939",title:"Prof.",name:"Suzan",middleName:null,surname:"Oelofse",slug:"suzan-oelofse",fullName:"Suzan Oelofse"},{id:"304940",title:"Prof.",name:"Ulf Henning",middleName:null,surname:"Richter",slug:"ulf-henning-richter",fullName:"Ulf Henning Richter"},{id:"304941",title:"Prof.",name:"Arsène H.",middleName:null,surname:"Yonli",slug:"arsene-h.-yonli",fullName:"Arsène H. Yonli"}]},{id:"56724",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.70046",title:"Sustainable Solid Waste Recycling",slug:"sustainable-solid-waste-recycling",totalDownloads:2265,totalCrossrefCites:8,totalDimensionsCites:10,abstract:"Nowadays, overpopulation and rapid development of industries and lifestyle lead to an increase in the consumption of natural resources and reduction of their resource. On the other hand, humans have always produced waste and disposed it in some way, which influence the environment. Therefore, the increase in waste that was generated by the industrial factories and the human activities needs to be managed. For this reason, scientists have discovered new types of engineering that include sustainable engineering and green engineering to reduce energy and natural resource consumptions. The main goal of this chapter is to explain the main advantages of sustainable manufacturing process and their effects in minimizing or eliminating production and processing wastes through eco-efficient practices, and it encourages adopting new environmental technologies. Therefore, this chapter offers a short introduction about sustainability, sustainable manufacturing process, solid-state management, and two case studies that include experimental works for recycling plastic waste and nonferrous waste materials by using sustainable solid waste recycling process to reduce waste and eliminate its influence on the environment.",book:{id:"5704",slug:"skills-development-for-sustainable-manufacturing",title:"Skills Development for Sustainable Manufacturing",fullTitle:"Skills Development for Sustainable Manufacturing"},signatures:"Ahmad K. Jassim",authors:[{id:"195227",title:"Dr.",name:"Ahmad",middleName:"K",surname:"Jassim",slug:"ahmad-jassim",fullName:"Ahmad Jassim"}]},{id:"29275",doi:"10.5772/27624",title:"Sustainable Building in Malaysia: The Development of Sustainable Building Rating System",slug:"sustainable-building-in-malaysia-the-development-of-sustainable-building-rating-system",totalDownloads:9123,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:7,abstract:null,book:{id:"2015",slug:"sustainable-development-education-business-and-management-architecture-and-building-construction-agriculture-and-food-security",title:"Sustainable Development",fullTitle:"Sustainable Development - Education, Business and Management - Architecture and Building Construction - Agriculture and Food Security"},signatures:"Ar Zuhairuse MD Darus and Nor Atikah Hashim",authors:[{id:"70881",title:"Prof.",name:"Zuhairuse",middleName:null,surname:"Darus",slug:"zuhairuse-darus",fullName:"Zuhairuse Darus"},{id:"135807",title:"Ms.",name:"Nor Atikah",middleName:null,surname:"Hashim",slug:"nor-atikah-hashim",fullName:"Nor Atikah Hashim"}]},{id:"37642",doi:"10.5772/37573",title:"Globalization, Democracy, and Government Spending in Sub-Saharan Africa: Evidence from Panel Data",slug:"globalization-democracy-and-government-spending",totalDownloads:2248,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:6,abstract:null,book:{id:"2205",slug:"globalization-and-responsibility",title:"Globalization and Responsibility",fullTitle:"Globalization and Responsibility"},signatures:"Samuel Adams and Daniel Sakyi",authors:[{id:"12870",title:"Dr.",name:"Samuel",middleName:null,surname:"Adams",slug:"samuel-adams",fullName:"Samuel Adams"},{id:"138923",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniel",middleName:null,surname:"Sakyi",slug:"daniel-sakyi",fullName:"Daniel Sakyi"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"67950",title:"The Factors Influencing SMEs Growth in Africa: A Case of SMEs in Zimbabwe",slug:"the-factors-influencing-smes-growth-in-africa-a-case-of-smes-in-zimbabwe",totalDownloads:2794,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:"Today Africa reports high levels of unemployment among other social issues causing governments’ instability and low economic growth. Brain drain, low gross domestic product (GDP) per capita and growth reported across the continent requires an initiative on driving entrepreneurship development. The study seeks to investigate the determinants of small to medium enterprises (SMEs) growth in developing countries with a special focus on Zimbabwe. Informed by literature, the Zimbabwe Finscope Business Consumer Survey (2012) data was used to run a linear programming model regression analysis on the factors influencing SMEs profitability in that country. The study found that number of business units, education level, business type, family run businesses, expertise, licenced, advertising and bank account were significant in influencing SMEs profitability. The results will assist policymakers, development partners, entrepreneurs and other stakeholders. The insight can also be useful to venture capitalists, investment banks, investors and other financiers. There is need to support the millions of SMEs and future entrepreneurs in improving the regulatory and business environment, improving institutional support systems, promoting technology transfers, innovations and improving productivity.",book:{id:"8478",slug:"regional-development-in-africa",title:"Regional Development in Africa",fullTitle:"Regional Development in Africa"},signatures:"Kosmas Njanike",authors:[{id:"292874",title:"Mr.",name:"Kosmas",middleName:null,surname:"Njanike",slug:"kosmas-njanike",fullName:"Kosmas Njanike"}]},{id:"56724",title:"Sustainable Solid Waste Recycling",slug:"sustainable-solid-waste-recycling",totalDownloads:2270,totalCrossrefCites:8,totalDimensionsCites:10,abstract:"Nowadays, overpopulation and rapid development of industries and lifestyle lead to an increase in the consumption of natural resources and reduction of their resource. On the other hand, humans have always produced waste and disposed it in some way, which influence the environment. Therefore, the increase in waste that was generated by the industrial factories and the human activities needs to be managed. For this reason, scientists have discovered new types of engineering that include sustainable engineering and green engineering to reduce energy and natural resource consumptions. The main goal of this chapter is to explain the main advantages of sustainable manufacturing process and their effects in minimizing or eliminating production and processing wastes through eco-efficient practices, and it encourages adopting new environmental technologies. Therefore, this chapter offers a short introduction about sustainability, sustainable manufacturing process, solid-state management, and two case studies that include experimental works for recycling plastic waste and nonferrous waste materials by using sustainable solid waste recycling process to reduce waste and eliminate its influence on the environment.",book:{id:"5704",slug:"skills-development-for-sustainable-manufacturing",title:"Skills Development for Sustainable Manufacturing",fullTitle:"Skills Development for Sustainable Manufacturing"},signatures:"Ahmad K. Jassim",authors:[{id:"195227",title:"Dr.",name:"Ahmad",middleName:"K",surname:"Jassim",slug:"ahmad-jassim",fullName:"Ahmad Jassim"}]},{id:"68270",title:"Solid Waste Management in Africa: Governance Failure or Development Opportunity?",slug:"solid-waste-management-in-africa-governance-failure-or-development-opportunity-",totalDownloads:1928,totalCrossrefCites:11,totalDimensionsCites:14,abstract:"Waste management is a social, economic, and environmental problem facing all African countries. If the 2030 Agenda for sustainable development is to be achieved, sustainable waste management approaches must be an environmental and public health imperative deserving political priority. Current reasons for the poor management of waste in Africa, include, amongst others, weak organizational structures; lack of appropriate skills; inadequate budgets; weak legislation; lack of enforcement; low public awareness; corruption, conflict; political instability; and lack of political will. At the heart of the problem, is a failure in governance. However, through these gaps, many social and technological innovations have emerged. Innovations that recognize the opportunity that waste provides as a secondary resource. Diverting waste away from dumpsites and landfills towards reuse, recycling and recovery can improve the livelihoods of thousands of informal waste reclaimers, while also creating new jobs and business opportunities for the continent. Reintroducing secondary resources such as polymer, fiber, metals and nutrients back into local value chains has the potential to strengthen manufacturing economies and reduce the economic burden on product imports. Bringing waste under control in Africa and unlocking the opportunities that “waste” provides as “resource” will require immediate intervention by government, business and civil society.",book:{id:"8478",slug:"regional-development-in-africa",title:"Regional Development in Africa",fullTitle:"Regional Development in Africa"},signatures:"Linda Godfrey, Mohamed Tawfic Ahmed, Kidane Giday Gebremedhin, Jamidu H.Y. Katima, Suzan Oelofse, Oladele Osibanjo, Ulf Henning Richter and Arsène H. Yonli",authors:[{id:"58376",title:"Prof.",name:"Oladele",middleName:null,surname:"Osibanjo",slug:"oladele-osibanjo",fullName:"Oladele Osibanjo"},{id:"293145",title:"Prof.",name:"Linda",middleName:null,surname:"Godfrey",slug:"linda-godfrey",fullName:"Linda Godfrey"},{id:"304936",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohamed",middleName:null,surname:"Tawfic Ahmed",slug:"mohamed-tawfic-ahmed",fullName:"Mohamed Tawfic Ahmed"},{id:"304937",title:"Prof.",name:"Kidane",middleName:null,surname:"Giday Gebremedhin",slug:"kidane-giday-gebremedhin",fullName:"Kidane Giday Gebremedhin"},{id:"304938",title:"Prof.",name:"Jamidu H.Y.",middleName:null,surname:"Katima",slug:"jamidu-h.y.-katima",fullName:"Jamidu H.Y. 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This chapter evaluates organizations as developing and developed nation blocs by first providing insights on how organizations can contribute to the social and environmental sustainability, and second, by highlighting the challenges and approaches for sustainable development. The chapter further unravels the potential for both blocs to grow and achieve sustainability through technology and innovative strategies alongside the opportunities offered by having fast-growing populations and natural resources. To achieve sustainability, a twofold approach comprising the 360-organizational sustainability approaches and advanced sustainability system analysis approach is used. The key societal driving forces in both blocs for exploiting sustainable business practices are governance and institutions, technology and innovation, economy and society, population and behavior, and financing for development which can unlock sustainable business opportunities for sustainable development. To address the business climate challenges, it is inferred that organizations can achieve global sustainability by integrating sustainable production and consumption, biodiversity and ecosystem services, equity and resilience sectors to attain an environmentally and socially governed systems globally.",book:{id:"10421",slug:"sustainable-organizations-models-applications-and-new-perspectives",title:"Sustainable Organizations",fullTitle:"Sustainable Organizations - Models, Applications, and New Perspectives"},signatures:"Katundu Imasiku",authors:[{id:"322704",title:"Dr.Ing.",name:"Katundu",middleName:null,surname:"Imasiku",slug:"katundu-imasiku",fullName:"Katundu Imasiku"}]},{id:"69489",title:"Sustainably Growing Guinea’s Bauxite-Aluminum Industry",slug:"sustainably-growing-guinea-s-bauxite-aluminum-industry",totalDownloads:944,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"Guinea’s bauxite-aluminum industry is undergoing significant expansion of investment, concession agreements, and in-country mining and refining operations. In 2018, UNDP-Guinea and Columbia University developed a framework that would evaluate this development against metrics for social and environmental sustainability, such as energy access and diversification, water quality, land use, biodiversity restoration, waste management, and community engagement. Current environmental impacts measured in GHGs, a metric both economic and environmental, were compared to potential impacts anticipated as a consequence of expansion. These anticipated impacts include enormous increases in countrywide GHG emissions and significant regional shortfalls in access to electrical energy. Case studies from the international bauxite-aluminum industry were then used to illustrate best practices for climate mitigation and adaptation and to describe opportunities for regional collaboration on shared-use energy and infrastructure development (e.g., hydropower used across West Africa, rail transportation) while achieving measurable benefits to communities, NGOs, regulators, and mining companies.",book:{id:"8478",slug:"regional-development-in-africa",title:"Regional Development in Africa",fullTitle:"Regional Development in Africa"},signatures:"Lynnette Widder, Thomas D. 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He is a full professor of signal processing and pattern recognition and is head of the Signals and Communications Department at ULPGC, teaching from 2001 on subjects on signal processing and learning theory. His research lines are biometrics, biomedical signals and images, data mining, classification system, signal and image processing, machine learning, and environmental intelligence. He has researched in 52 international and Spanish research projects, some of them as head researcher. He is co-author of 4 books, co-editor of 27 proceedings books, guest editor for 8 JCR-ISI international journals, and up to 24 book chapters. He has over 450 papers published in international journals and conferences (81 of them indexed on JCR – ISI - Web of Science). He has published seven patents in the Spanish Patent and Trademark Office. He has been a supervisor on 8 Ph.D. theses (11 more are under supervision), and 130 master theses. He is the founder of The IEEE IWOBI conference series and the president of its Steering Committee, as well as the founder of both the InnoEducaTIC and APPIS conference series. He is an evaluator of project proposals for the European Union (H2020), Medical Research Council (MRC, UK), Spanish Government (ANECA, Spain), Research National Agency (ANR, France), DAAD (Germany), Argentinian Government, and the Colombian Institutions. He has been a reviewer in different indexed international journals (<70) and conferences (<250) since 2001. He has been a member of the IASTED Technical Committee on Image Processing from 2007 and a member of the IASTED Technical Committee on Artificial Intelligence and Expert Systems from 2011. \n\nHe has held the general chair position for the following: ACM-APPIS (2020, 2021), IEEE-IWOBI (2019, 2020 and 2020), A PPIS (2018, 2019), IEEE-IWOBI (2014, 2015, 2017, 2018), InnoEducaTIC (2014, 2017), IEEE-INES (2013), NoLISP (2011), JRBP (2012), and IEEE-ICCST (2005)\n\nHe is an associate editor of the Computational Intelligence and Neuroscience Journal (Hindawi – Q2 JCR-ISI). He was vice dean from 2004 to 2010 in the Higher Technical School of Telecommunication Engineers at ULPGC and the vice dean of Graduate and Postgraduate Studies from March 2013 to November 2017. He won the “Catedra Telefonica” Awards in Modality of Knowledge Transfer, 2017, 2018, and 2019 editions, and awards in Modality of COVID Research in 2020.\n\nPublic References:\nResearcher ID http://www.researcherid.com/rid/N-5967-2014\nORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4621-2768 \nScopus Author ID https://www.scopus.com/authid/detail.uri?authorId=6602376272\nScholar Google https://scholar.google.es/citations?user=G1ks9nIAAAAJ&hl=en \nResearchGate https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Carlos_Travieso",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"23",title:"Computational Neuroscience",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/23.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"14004",title:"Dr.",name:"Magnus",middleName:null,surname:"Johnsson",slug:"magnus-johnsson",fullName:"Magnus Johnsson",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/14004/images/system/14004.png",biography:"Dr Magnus Johnsson is a cross-disciplinary scientist, lecturer, scientific editor and AI/machine learning consultant from Sweden. \n\nHe is currently at Malmö University in Sweden, but also held positions at Lund University in Sweden and at Moscow Engineering Physics Institute. \nHe holds editorial positions at several international scientific journals and has served as a scientific editor for books and special journal issues. \nHis research interests are wide and include, but are not limited to, autonomous systems, computer modeling, artificial neural networks, artificial intelligence, cognitive neuroscience, cognitive robotics, cognitive architectures, cognitive aids and the philosophy of mind. \n\nDr. Johnsson has experience from working in the industry and he has a keen interest in the application of neural networks and artificial intelligence to fields like industry, finance, and medicine. \n\nWeb page: www.magnusjohnsson.se",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Malmö University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Sweden"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"24",title:"Computer Vision",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/24.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"294154",title:"Prof.",name:"George",middleName:null,surname:"Papakostas",slug:"george-papakostas",fullName:"George Papakostas",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002hYaGbQAK/Profile_Picture_1624519712088",biography:"George A. 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He has (co)authored more than 150 publications in indexed journals, international conferences and book chapters, 1 book (in Greek), 3 edited books, and 5 journal special issues. His publications have more than 2100 citations with h-index 27 (GoogleScholar). His research interests include computer/machine vision, machine learning, pattern recognition, computational intelligence. \nDr. Papakostas served as a reviewer in numerous journals, as a program\ncommittee member in international conferences and he is a member of the IAENG, MIR Labs, EUCogIII, INSTICC and the Technical Chamber of Greece (TEE).",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"International Hellenic University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"25",title:"Evolutionary Computation",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/25.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"136112",title:"Dr.",name:"Sebastian",middleName:null,surname:"Ventura Soto",slug:"sebastian-ventura-soto",fullName:"Sebastian Ventura Soto",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/136112/images/system/136112.png",biography:"Sebastian Ventura is a Spanish researcher, a full professor with the Department of Computer Science and Numerical Analysis, University of Córdoba. 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In the last five years, he has published more than 60 papers in international journals indexed in the JCR (around 70% of them belonging to first quartile journals) and he has edited some Springer books “Supervised Descriptive Pattern Mining” (2018), “Multiple Instance Learning - Foundations and Algorithms” (2016), and “Pattern Mining with Evolutionary Algorithms” (2016). He has also been involved in more than 20 research projects supported by the Spanish and Andalusian governments and the European Union. He currently belongs to the editorial board of PeerJ Computer Science, Information Fusion and Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence journals, being also associate editor of Applied Computational Intelligence and Soft Computing and IEEE Transactions on Cybernetics. Finally, he is editor-in-chief of Progress in Artificial Intelligence. 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He is currently a principal researcher in data analytics and optimisation at TECNALIA (Spain), a visiting fellow at the Basque Center for Applied Mathematics (BCAM) and a part-time lecturer at the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU). His research interests gravitate on the use of descriptive, prescriptive and predictive algorithms for data mining and optimization in a diverse range of application fields such as Energy, Transport, Telecommunications, Health and Industry, among others. In these fields he has published more than 240 articles, co-supervised 8 Ph.D. theses, edited 6 books, coauthored 7 patents and participated/led more than 40 research projects. 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He is currently a full professor in\nthe Department of Automation and Applied Informatics at the\nsame university. Dr. Voloşencu is the author of ten books, seven\nbook chapters, and more than 160 papers published in journals\nand conference proceedings. He has also edited twelve books and\nhas twenty-seven patents to his name. He is a manager of research grants, editor in\nchief and member of international journal editorial boards, a former plenary speaker, a member of scientific committees, and chair at international conferences. His\nresearch is in the fields of control systems, control of electric drives, fuzzy control\nsystems, neural network applications, fault detection and diagnosis, sensor network\napplications, monitoring of distributed parameter systems, and power ultrasound\napplications. 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The applications of this research cover many related fields, such as biotechnology and medicine, where, for example, Bioinformatics contributes to faster drug design, DNA analysis in forensics, and DNA sequence analysis in the field of personalized medicine. Personalized medicine is a type of medical care in which treatment is customized individually for each patient. Personalized medicine enables more effective therapy, reduces the costs of therapy and clinical trials, and also minimizes the risk of side effects. Nevertheless, advances in personalized medicine would not have been possible without bioinformatics, which can analyze the human genome and other vast amounts of biomedical data, especially in genetics. The rapid growth of information technology enabled the development of new tools to decode human genomes, large-scale studies of genetic variations and medical informatics. 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Main aspects of the topic are: Applying bioinformatics in drug discovery and development; Bioinformatics in clinical diagnostics (genetic variants that act as markers for a condition or a disease); Blockchain and Artificial Intelligence/Machine Learning in personalized medicine; Customize disease-prevention strategies in personalized medicine; Big data analysis in personalized medicine; Translating stratification algorithms into clinical practice of personalized medicine.",annualVolume:11403,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/7.jpg",editor:{id:"351533",title:"Dr.",name:"Slawomir",middleName:null,surname:"Wilczynski",fullName:"Slawomir Wilczynski",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000035U1loQAC/Profile_Picture_1630074514792",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Medical University of Silesia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"5886",title:"Dr.",name:"Alexandros",middleName:"T.",surname:"Tzallas",fullName:"Alexandros Tzallas",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/5886/images/system/5886.png",institutionString:"University of Ioannina, Greece & Imperial College London",institution:{name:"University of Ioannina",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},{id:"257388",title:"Distinguished Prof.",name:"Lulu",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",fullName:"Lulu Wang",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRX6kQAG/Profile_Picture_1630329584194",institutionString:"Shenzhen Technology University",institution:{name:"Shenzhen Technology University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"225387",title:"Prof.",name:"Reda R.",middleName:"R.",surname:"Gharieb",fullName:"Reda R. Gharieb",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/225387/images/system/225387.jpg",institutionString:"Assiut University",institution:{name:"Assiut University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}}]},{id:"8",title:"Bioinspired Technology and Biomechanics",keywords:"Bioinspired Systems, Biomechanics, Assistive Technology, Rehabilitation",scope:'Bioinspired technologies take advantage of understanding the actual biological system to provide solutions to problems in several areas. Recently, bioinspired systems have been successfully employing biomechanics to develop and improve assistive technology and rehabilitation devices. The research topic "Bioinspired Technology and Biomechanics" welcomes studies reporting recent advances in bioinspired technologies that contribute to individuals\' health, inclusion, and rehabilitation. Possible contributions can address (but are not limited to) the following research topics: Bioinspired design and control of exoskeletons, orthoses, and prostheses; Experimental evaluation of the effect of assistive devices (e.g., influence on gait, balance, and neuromuscular system); Bioinspired technologies for rehabilitation, including clinical studies reporting evaluations; Application of neuromuscular and biomechanical models to the development of bioinspired technology.',annualVolume:11404,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/8.jpg",editor:{id:"144937",title:"Prof.",name:"Adriano",middleName:"De Oliveira",surname:"Andrade",fullName:"Adriano Andrade",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRC8QQAW/Profile_Picture_1625219101815",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Federal University of Uberlândia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"49517",title:"Prof.",name:"Hitoshi",middleName:null,surname:"Tsunashima",fullName:"Hitoshi Tsunashima",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYTP4QAO/Profile_Picture_1625819726528",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nihon University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"425354",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcus",middleName:"Fraga",surname:"Vieira",fullName:"Marcus Vieira",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003BJSgIQAX/Profile_Picture_1627904687309",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Goiás",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"196746",title:"Dr.",name:"Ramana",middleName:null,surname:"Vinjamuri",fullName:"Ramana Vinjamuri",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/196746/images/system/196746.jpeg",institutionString:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institution:{name:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]},{id:"9",title:"Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering",keywords:"Biotechnology, Biosensors, Biomaterials, Tissue Engineering",scope:"The Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering topic within the Biomedical Engineering Series aims to rapidly publish contributions on all aspects of biotechnology, biosensors, biomaterial and tissue engineering. We encourage the submission of manuscripts that provide novel and mechanistic insights that report significant advances in the fields. Topics can include but are not limited to: Biotechnology such as biotechnological products and process engineering; Biotechnologically relevant enzymes and proteins; Bioenergy and biofuels; Applied genetics and molecular biotechnology; Genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics; Applied microbial and cell physiology; Environmental biotechnology; Methods and protocols. Moreover, topics in biosensor technology, like sensors that incorporate enzymes, antibodies, nucleic acids, whole cells, tissues and organelles, and other biological or biologically inspired components will be considered, and topics exploring transducers, including those based on electrochemical and optical piezoelectric, thermal, magnetic, and micromechanical elements. Chapters exploring biomaterial approaches such as polymer synthesis and characterization, drug and gene vector design, biocompatibility, immunology and toxicology, and self-assembly at the nanoscale, are welcome. Finally, the tissue engineering subcategory will support topics such as the fundamentals of stem cells and progenitor cells and their proliferation, differentiation, bioreactors for three-dimensional culture and studies of phenotypic changes, stem and progenitor cells, both short and long term, ex vivo and in vivo implantation both in preclinical models and also in clinical trials.",annualVolume:11405,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/9.jpg",editor:{id:"126286",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",middleName:"Jesús",surname:"Villarreal-Gómez",fullName:"Luis Villarreal-Gómez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/126286/images/system/126286.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Baja California",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"35539",title:"Dr.",name:"Cecilia",middleName:null,surname:"Cristea",fullName:"Cecilia Cristea",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYQ65QAG/Profile_Picture_1621007741527",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Iuliu Hațieganu University of Medicine and Pharmacy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"40735",title:"Dr.",name:"Gil",middleName:"Alberto Batista",surname:"Gonçalves",fullName:"Gil Gonçalves",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYRLGQA4/Profile_Picture_1628492612759",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Aveiro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"211725",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Johann F.",middleName:null,surname:"Osma",fullName:"Johann F. 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