Hydrogenations performed using Pt/C as catalysts (Catal. Sci. Technol., 2014, 2445, Ref. [39]).
\r\n\t
",isbn:"978-1-83962-547-3",printIsbn:"978-1-83962-546-6",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83962-548-0",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"e5ba02fedd7c87f0ab66414f3b07de0c",bookSignature:" John P. Tiefenbacher",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10765.jpg",keywords:"Managing Urbanization, Managing Development, Managing Resource Use, Drought Management, Flood Management, Water Quality Monitoring, Air Quality Monitoring, Ecological Monitoring, Modeling Extreme Natural Events, Ecological Restoration, Restoring Environmental Flows, Environmental Management Perspectives",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"January 12th 2021",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"February 9th 2021",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"April 10th 2021",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"June 29th 2021",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"August 28th 2021",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"20 days",secondStepPassed:!1,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:2,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"A geospatial scholar working at the interface of natural and human systems, collaborating internationally on innovative studies about hazards and environmental challenges. Dr. Tiefenbacher has published more than 200 papers on a diverse array of topics that examine perception and behaviors with regards to the application of pesticides, releases of toxic chemicals, environments of the U.S.-Mexico borderlands, wildlife hazards, and the geography of wine.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"73876",title:"Dr.",name:"John P.",middleName:null,surname:"Tiefenbacher",slug:"john-p.-tiefenbacher",fullName:"John P. Tiefenbacher",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/73876/images/system/73876.jfif",biography:"Dr. John P. Tiefenbacher (Ph.D., Rutgers, 1992) is a professor of Geography at Texas State University. His research has focused on various aspects of hazards and environmental management. Dr. Tiefenbacher has published on a diverse array of topics that examine perception and behaviors with regards to the application of pesticides, releases of toxic chemicals, environments of the U.S.-Mexico borderlands, wildlife hazards, and the geography of wine. More recently his work pertains to spatial adaptation to climate change, spatial responses in wine growing regions to climate change, the geographies of viticulture and wine, artificial intelligence and machine learning to predict patterns of natural processes and hazards, historical ethnic enclaves in American cities and regions, and environmental adaptations of 19th century European immigrants to North America's landscapes.",institutionString:"Texas State University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"6",institution:{name:"Texas State University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"12",title:"Environmental Sciences",slug:"environmental-sciences"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"194667",firstName:"Marijana",lastName:"Francetic",middleName:null,title:"Ms.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/194667/images/4752_n.jpg",email:"marijana@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review, to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. 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Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"878",title:"Phytochemicals",subtitle:"A Global Perspective of Their Role in Nutrition and Health",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ec77671f63975ef2d16192897deb6835",slug:"phytochemicals-a-global-perspective-of-their-role-in-nutrition-and-health",bookSignature:"Venketeshwer Rao",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/878.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"82663",title:"Dr.",name:"Venketeshwer",surname:"Rao",slug:"venketeshwer-rao",fullName:"Venketeshwer Rao"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"4816",title:"Face Recognition",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"146063b5359146b7718ea86bad47c8eb",slug:"face_recognition",bookSignature:"Kresimir Delac and Mislav Grgic",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/4816.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"528",title:"Dr.",name:"Kresimir",surname:"Delac",slug:"kresimir-delac",fullName:"Kresimir Delac"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3621",title:"Silver Nanoparticles",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:null,slug:"silver-nanoparticles",bookSignature:"David Pozo Perez",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3621.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"6667",title:"Dr.",name:"David",surname:"Pozo",slug:"david-pozo",fullName:"David Pozo"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"63738",title:"Cladding Pumped Thulium-Ytterbium Short Pulse Fiber Lasers",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.81060",slug:"cladding-pumped-thulium-ytterbium-short-pulse-fiber-lasers",body:'Fiber laser is a mature technology that has become an essential tool facilitating a wide range of scientific, medical, and industrial applications. Fiber lasers are advancing rapidly due to their ability to generate stable, efficient, and diffraction-limited beams with significant peak and average powers.
In fiber optics, optical signals travel in hair thin strands of glass or plastic fiber [10]. The light propagates in the core at the center of the fiber, surrounded by an optical material called cladding that confines the light in the core employing the phenomenon of total internal reflection. There are two basic types of fibers: single-mode and multi-mode fibers. Single-mode fiber has a core diameter of 8.3–10 microns and supports only one mode of transmission. Multi-mode fiber has a core diameter of either 50 or 62.5 microns. Multimode fibers support multiple modes as shown in Figure 1. Due to their smaller core size, these fibers cannot support high power pump sources and therefore cannot generate high output power.
Mode propagation in single- and multi-mode fibers [1].
To overcome the three limitations (small core radius, larger attenuation, and dispersion) of high speed transmission, a new type of optical fiber called double clad optical fiber is proposed [2]. It consists of three layers of optical material instead of the usual two as shown in Figure 2. The inner-most layer is called the core, surrounded by the inner cladding, while the inner cladding is surrounded by the outer cladding. All the three layers are made of materials with different refractive indices. The typical refractive index profiles are shown in Figure 3. Generally, the outer cladding is made of a polymer material rather than glass. Refractive index of inner cladding is higher than the outer cladding. This enables the inner cladding to guide light by total internal reflection, but for a different range of wavelengths than the core. Also, the inner cladding has larger area and higher numerical aperture so that it can support large number of modes. This allows multi-mode laser diodes to be used as the pump source, which possess high power but low brightness.
Structure of single and double clad fibers.
Typical refractive index profile of double clad optical fiber.
The pump light can be easily coupled into the large inner cladding and propagates through the inner cladding, while the signal propagates in the smaller core as shown in Figure 4. The doped core gradually absorbs light from the cladding as it propagates through the core and amplifies it [4]. This type of pumping scheme is referred as cladding pumping, an alternate scheme to the conventional core pumping, where the pump light is coupled into the small core. Cladding pumping has revolutionized the design of fiber amplifiers and fiber lasers [3]. Using this technique, contemporary fiber lasers can generate continuous power up to several kilowatts, besides allowing the signal light to maintain near diffraction limited beam quality [4].
Cladding pump scheme.
In a double clad fiber, cladding shape is of extreme importance, particularly in case of small core diameter compared to the cladding size. Circular symmetry is considered the worst in a double clad fiber, because many modes of light in the cladding missed the core, therefore cannot pump the core [5]. Normally, claddings are noncircular, which enhance the absorption of the pump light in the doped core [7]. Different shapes of inner cladding are shown in Figure 5 for rare earth doped fibers.
Cross-sectional images of a few inner cladding shapes used in double clad fiber lasers (a) octagon (b) double-D (c) decagon [6].
Hence, double clad cladding pumped fiber lasers are regarded as devices that can generate diffraction limited single-mode laser light using multi-mode laser diodes as the pump. Due to large size of inner cladding, high pump powers can be injected in a double clad fiber. However, the core size puts limits on the output power due to the danger of optical damage and thermal effects [7].
Different lasers operating in continuous wave or quasi-continuous wave mode have limited optical output power, linked with the maximum available pump power [10]. The peak output power of a laser can be enhanced by concentrating the available energy in a single, short optical pulse, or in a periodic sequence of optical pulses as in Q-switched and modelocked fiber lasers.
Q-switching, also known as giant pulse formation or Q-spoiling, [8] is a powerful technique by which a laser can be made to produce a pulsed output beam. This technique is capable of producing light pulses with extremely high (gigawatt) peak power, much higher than the continuous wave mode (constant output) operation of the laser. As compared to modelocking, another technique for pulse generation with lasers, Q-switching leads to much lower pulse repetition rates, much higher pulse energies, and much longer pulse durations than it. It was in 1958 when Q-switching was proposed by Gordon Gould [9]. Practically, it was achieved in 1961 or 1962 by Hellwarth and McClung using Kerr cell shutters in a ruby laser, and these require electricity for switching [10].
A variable attenuator is required inside the laser’s optical resonator to produce Q-switched laser light. When the attenuator is functioning, light which leaves the gain medium does not return or cannot travel back and forth, this restricts the lasing, putting the optical cavity in low Q factor or high loss condition. A high Q factor represents low resonator losses per round trip. The variable attenuator is commonly known as “Q-switch.”
First, the laser medium is pumped, while the Q-switch is set to prevent feedback of light into the gain medium (producing an optical resonator with low Q factor). This produces a population inversion by losing pump energy through absorption by electrons, thus pumping electrons to higher energy level; this accumulates energy in the gain medium. However, the laser operation cannot yet begin, because there is no feedback from the resonator [3]. As the rate of stimulated emission depends on the amount of light entering the medium, therefore, the amount of energy stored in the gain medium increases as the medium is pumped. Due to losses from spontaneous emission along with other processes, the stored energy takes some time to reach some maximum level; the medium is said to be gain saturated. At this point, Q-switch rapidly changes from low to high Q, allowing feedback and the process of optical amplification by stimulated emission to begin [3]. Since a large amount of energy is already stored in the gain medium, the intensity of light in the laser resonator builds up very quickly; this also causes the energy stored in the medium to be depleted almost as quickly. This develops a short pulse of light output from the laser, known as a giant pulse, which may have very high peak intensity. Generally, several round trips are needed to completely depopulate the upper energy level and several more round trips to empty the optical cavity, so the duration of the pulse is greater than one round trip. The peak power (the pulse energy divided by its duration) of these lasers can be in the megawatt range or even higher. There are two main techniques for Q-switching: active and passive.
In active Q-switching, the losses are modulated with an active control element so-called active Q-switcher, either by using an acousto-optic or electro-optic modulator, which requires an external electrical signal to operate. The pulse is formed shortly after an electrical trigger signal arrives. There is also mechanical type Q-switchers such as spinning mirrors, used as end mirrors of laser resonators. The pulse repetition rate can be controlled by the active modulator in an actively Q-switched laser. Higher repetition rates lead to lower pulse energies.
In passive Q-switching, the losses are modulated or controlled by optical cavity light, rather than some external electrical source. A saturable absorber device is normally used as a Q-switcher in this technique. The transmission of this device increases when the intensity of light exceeds some threshold. The material may be an ion-doped crystal like Cr:YAG (chromium-doped Yttrium-Aluminum garnet), which is used for Q-switching of Nd:YAG (neodymium-doped Yttrium-Aluminum garnet) lasers, a bleachable dye, graphene mechanical exfoliation and PVA thin film, semiconductor saturable absorber mirrors (SESAM), and carbon nanotubes embedded in PVA thin films. Initially, the loss of the absorber is high, once a large amount of energy is stored in the gain medium, the laser power increases, and it saturates the absorber, and light can pass through as there are no electrons in the ground state to absorb pumped energy. As soon as the energy is depleted in the resonator, the absorber recovers to its high loss state before the gain recovers, so that the next pulse is delayed until the energy in the gain medium is fully replenished. In this way, it works as an on-off optical switch to generate pulses. The pulse repetition rate can only be controlled indirectly by varying the laser’s pump power and the amount of saturable absorber in the cavity. For direct control of the repetition rate, a pulsed pump source is needed.
Passive Q switching is simpler and cost effective as compared to the active one. It eliminates the modulator and its electronics. Moreover, it is suitable for very high pulse repetition rates, but with lower pulse energies. External triggering of the pulses is not possible (except with an optical pulse from another source), and also pulse energy and duration are often more or less independent of the pump power, which only determines the pulse repetition rate [11, 12].
In laser technology, modelocking refers to a technique by which a laser can be made to generate pulses of extremely short duration, of the order of picoseconds (10−12 s) or femtoseconds (10−15 s). This is achieved by establishing a fixed-phase relationship between the longitudinal modes of the laser’s resonant cavity. The laser is then referred as phaselocked or modelocked. Interference between these modes causes the laser light to be produced as a train of pulses. In a simple laser, different modes oscillate independently, without a fixed relationship between each other, like a set of independent lasers all emitting light at slightly different frequencies. In lasers with few oscillating modes, interference between the modes produces beats in the laser output, leading to fluctuations in intensity; whereas in lasers with many thousands of modes, interference between modes tend to average to a near-constant output intensity. Figure 6 shows the electric fields of five modes with random phase and the power of the total signal distributed in a random fashion.
Plots of (a) electric field amplitudes of five individual modes of randomly distributed phases and (b) power of the total signal of a multi-longitudinal mode laser [13].
On the other hand, if each mode operates with a fixed phase relationship between it and the other modes, all modes of the laser will periodically constructively interfere with one another, generating an intense burst or pulse of light instead of random or constant output intensity as shown in Figure 7. Such a laser is termed as modelocked or phaselocked laser. These pulses are separated in time by τ = 2 L/c, where τ is the time taken for the light to make exactly one round trip of the laser cavity, L is the length of laser cavity, and c is the speed of light. The frequency is exactly equal to the mode spacing of the laser, Δν = 1/τ. The duration of each pulse is determined by the number of modes which are oscillating in phase. Suppose there are N modes locked with a frequency separation Δν, the overall modelocked bandwidth is NΔν, and the wider the bandwidth, the shorter the pulse duration of the laser [5].
Plots of (a) electrical field amplitudes of five in-phase individual modes and (b) the total power of a periodic pulse train [13].
The actual pulse duration is determined by the shape of each pulse, which is measured by the amplitude and phase relationship of each longitudinal mode. As an example, a laser producing pulses with a Gaussian temporal shape, the minimum possible pulse duration Δt is given by the equation
The value 0.441 is known as the “time-bandwidth product” of the pulse and varies depending on the pulse shape. Generally for ultra-short pulse lasers, a hyperbolic-secant-squared (sech2) pulse shape is considered, giving a time-bandwidth product of 0.315. Using this equation, the minimum pulse duration can be calculated consistent with the measured laser spectral width [13].
Modelocked fiber lasers are capable of producing pulses with widths from close to 30 fs to 1 ns at repetition rates, ranging from less than 1 MHz to 100 GHz. This broad range along with a compact size of optical fiber lasers is quite unique in laser technology, making them feasible for a large range of applications. As modelocked fiber laser technology was developed and these lasers became commercially available, they have been used in various fields, such as laser radar, all-optical scanning delay lines, THz generation, injection-seeding, two-photon microscopes, optical telecommunications, and nonlinear frequency conversion, just to mention the most widely publicized areas [12]. Surely, modelocked fiber lasers are a premier source of short optical pulses sharing an equal position with semiconductor and solid-state lasers [14].
Modelocked lasers can be produced by using either active or passive methods. In active modelocking, the optical modulator such as acousto-optic modulator is used with the help of an external electrical signal, as a modelocker. On the other hand, passive modelocking does not need an external signal to operate [15]. The modelocking is achieved by modulating an intra-cavity light using some intra-cavity elements, such as nonlinear polarization rotation and saturable absorber. Most of the passively modelocked lasers are achieved using a saturable absorber since it allows the generation of much shorter (femtosecond) pulses. This is attributed to the saturable absorber used, which can adjust the resonator losses much faster than an electronic modulator: the shorter the pulse becomes, the faster the loss modulation, if the absorber has a sufficiently short recovery time [14]. The pulse width can be even smaller than the recovery time of the absorber [6].
In addition, there are some passive modelocking schemes that do not require materials that directly display an intensity dependent absorption. These methods use nonlinear optical effects in intra-cavity components to provide a method of selectively amplify high intensity light in the cavity and attenuate low intensity light in the cavity. Among them, the most successful scheme is Kerr-lens modelocking (KLM), also sometimes referred to as “self-mode-locking.” This technique uses a nonlinear optical process, the optical Kerr effect, which results in high intensity light being focused differently from low intensity light. By careful arrangement of an aperture in the laser cavity, this effect can be made to produce the equivalent of an ultra-fast response time saturable absorber.
A fascinating manifestation of the fiber nonlinearity is the development of optical solitons, created due to the balance between dispersive and nonlinear effects [8]. Solitons are a unique type of wave packets, capable of propagating unaltered over long distances inside a fiber. Solitons have been discovered in many branches of physics. In the field of photonics, especially in fiber optics, solitons not only are of fundamental interest, but they have also found practical applications in the field of fiber-optic communications [16].
The pulse maintains the shape and width, along the entire length of the fiber, if the effects of SPM and GVD cancel out with each other. Such a pulse is called solitary wave pulse or soliton. The pulse that has the above property is the sech profile pulse, which is a solution of the nonlinear Schrodinger equation NLSE [13].
Figure 8 shows the spectrum of different types of modelocked fiber lasers. The conventional soliton and stretched pulse are obtained in anomalous dispersion fiber laser setup, where the pulse shaping is mainly due to the natural balance between the anomalous dispersion and the fiber nonlinearity. On the other hand, dissipative solitons (DSs) are obtained in the normal dispersion region as a result of the combined effects among the fiber nonlinearity, cavity dispersion, gain and loss, and spectral filtering [13]. Moreover, the soliton shaping is strongly dependent on the dissipative effects. Consequently, dissipative solitons have a wider pulse duration and lower peak power, compared to conventional solitons and stretched solitons [17].
Different types of solitons [17].
There are growing interests in compact Q-switched laser sources that operate in the mid-infrared spectral region around 2 microns. This is mainly driven by the applications in spectroscopy, communication, material processing, manufacturing, sensing, medicine, and nonlinear optical research [18, 19]. Nowadays, another type of nanotube called multi-walled carbon nanotubes (MWCNT) has been examined in the field of nonlinear optics because its production cost is 50–80% lower than SWNTs [9]. MWCNTs also have higher mechanical strength, higher photon absorption per nanotube, and higher mass density which leads to better stability [20].
We successfully demonstrated, a Thulium-Ytterbium co-doped fiber (TYDF) Q-switched laser using a laboratory made saturable absorber based on MWCNTs implanted in polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) composite for the first time [2]. A homemade double clad Thulium-Ytterbium co-doped fiber (TYDF) drawn from a preform which was manufactured based on the modified chemical vapor deposition (MCVD) and solution doping processes is used as a lasing medium. The fabricated MWCNT-PVA film (SA) is attached within the laser cavity by sandwiching it between two fiber connectors. Similarly, a modelocked TYDFL is also demonstrated using graphene PVA film as a saturable absorber.
The schematic of the proposed Q-switched TYDFL is shown in Figure 9. It is constructed using a simple ring cavity, in which a 15-m long laboratory made TYDF is used for the active medium. An indigenously developed MWCNT-PVA-based SA was used as a Q-switcher. The double clad TYDF was forward pumped by a 905-nm multi-mode laser diode via a MMC.
Setup of the proposed Q-switched TYDFL with MWCNT-PVA-based SA. Inset shows the image of the film attached onto a fiber ferule.
Initially, the continuous wave (CW) TYDFL was investigated without using the SA, and the laser threshold was found to be at 1.0 W pump power. When SA is inserted in the cavity, stable and self-starting Q-switching operation is obtained just by adjusting the pump power at a threshold value of 1.6 W, which is higher than that of the CW TYDFL because of the presence of SA in the cavity which increases the loss [2]. Figure 10 shows the output spectrum of the Q-switched TYDFL at the threshold (1.6 W) pump power. As seen in the figure, the laser operates at 1977.5 nm with an optical to signal noise ratio (OSNR) of around 30 dB.
Output spectrum of the Q-switched TYDFL at pump power 1.6 W.
Figure 11(a) and (b) shows the temporal analysis and the corresponding single pulse envelop of a typical Q-switched pulse train, respectively, at a pump power of 1.6 W [2]. The spacing between two pulses in Figure 11(a) is around 53 μs, which can be translated to a repetition rate of 18.8 kHz. The corresponding pulse width is around 8.6 μs as shown in Figure 11(b).
(a) A typical pulse trains and (b) a single pulse envelop of the proposed Q-switched TYFL at a pump power of 1.6 W. It shows a repetition rate of 18.8 kHz and a pulse width of 8.6 μs.
Figure 12 shows the pulse repetition rate and pulse width as a function of the pump power. As the pump power increases from 1.6 to 2.3 W, the repetition rate of the Q-switched pulses grows from 18.8 to 50.6 kHz. At the same time, the pulse duration significantly reduces from 8.6 to 1.0 μs as expected. The pulse duration could be further narrowed by optimizing the parameters, including shortening the cavity length, and improving the modulation depth of the MWCNT Q-switcher. An anomalous increase in the pulse width is observed at 1862 mW pumping, attributed to fiber nonlinearities [21].
Repetition rate and pulse width as a function of 905-nm pump power.
Modelocked Thulium-doped fiber lasers (TDFLs) have attracted intense interest in recent years for a number of potential applications, including atmospheric measurements, material processing, communication, laser radar, biomedical and medical applications, and longer-wavelength laser pumping [22, 23, 24]. The graphene PVA film was prepared by mixing the graphene solution in PVA solution. The graphene solution was obtained from the flakes produced using electrochemical exfoliation process. A free-standing graphene PVA film was obtained after drying in an oven and is used as SA.
Experimental setup for the Thulium-Ytterbium co-doped fiber laser (TYDFL) is shown in Figure 13 [1]. It uses a double clad Thulium-Ytterbium co-doped fiber (TYDF) as the lasing medium in ring cavity configuration. The TYDF has an octagonal inner cladding to enhance the pump light interaction with the doped core. The core has 5.96-nm diameter with an NA of 0.23. The selected fiber length of 10 m provides more than 90% pump absorption. The fiber type SA
The schematic setup of the modelocked TYDFL employing the fabricated graphene PVA film-based SA.
device was constructed by inserting graphene PVA film between two ferules. The length of total cavity is set at around 17 m, so that the net cavity dispersion is anomalous for facilitating self-starting mode locked laser.
Modelocking was self-started by increasing the pump power above the threshold of 1487 mW. The modelocked operation was maintained as the pump power is increased up to the maximum power of 1964 mW. Figure 14 shows the output spectrum of the modelocked pulse train when the pump power is fixed at 1610 mW.
Output spectrum of the modelocked TYDFL.
As shown in the figure, the spectrum was centered at 1942.95 nm with a 3-dB bandwidth of 0.08 nm. Without SA, the CW laser operates at 1943.50 nm. This shift of the operating wavelength toward the shorter wavelength is caused by the change in cavity loss by the insertion of SA [1]. Usually, lasers shift toward the shorter wavelength to acquire more gain to compensate for the insertion loss of SA. Moreover, the presence of weak sideband at 1942.5 nm confirms the existence of soliton as shown in Figure 14. The presence of conventional soliton confirms that the laser is operating in anomalous dispersion regime.
The typical pulse train of the passively mode-locked TYDFL at pump power of 1627 mW is shown in Figure 15 [1]. The observed repetition rate is 11.76 MHz with a pulse-to-pulse separation of 85 ns, which is in accordance with the cavity round trip time of a cavity length of 17 m. Thus, the well dispersed graphene in the PVA film exhibits sufficient saturable absorption for modelocking operation.
Typical pulse train for the modelocked TYDFL at a pump power of 1627 mW.
Figure 16 shows the repetition rate against the pump power. It is found that the repetition rate remained fixed at 11.76 MHz as the pump power increases from 1487 to 1964 mW [1]. The temporal analysis shows that the pulse width of the laser should be less than 9 ns. It is expected that the actual pulse width is much smaller than 9 ns, but due to the limitations of the oscilloscope resolution, it could not be accurately measured.
Repetition rate of the modelocked laser at various pump powers.
The total length of the laser cavity is about 17 m, and it consists of 10 m long TYDF and 7 m long single mode fiber (SMF) [1]. The estimated dispersions for TYDF and SMF are −0.083 and −0.034 ps2/m, respectively, at 1943 nm. Therefore, it is expected that this modelocked fiber laser operates in an anomalous dispersion regime. Moreover, the pulse width can be measured using an autocorrelator or can be calculated mathematically using time bandwidth product (TBP). Since an autocorrelator in the 2-μm range is not available, it is calculated mathematically by considering TBP of about 0.315 for sech2 pulse profile. Since the 3 dB bandwidth of the optical spectrum is about 0.075 nm (5.96 GHz), the minimum possible pulse width is estimated about 52.85 ps. In addition, the repetition rate of the pulsed laser is also calculated by using the formula c/1.5 L, which gives a value of 11.76 MHz. This is in agreement with the observed repetition rate of this laser as shown in Figure 16. Single pulse energy is also calculated at various pump powers by using the measured values of output power of the laser. A maximum output power of 14 mW is observed at 1750-mW pump power. A linear increase in pulse energy is observed up to a pump power of 1750 mW, and with further increase in pump power, it decreases because of energy converted to noise as shown in Figure 17. The calculated pulse energy is in the range of 756.048–1190.476 pJ.
The calculated pulse energy against the input pump power.
The RF spectrum of the modelocked pulses is also measured, and the result is shown in Figure 18. Its fundamental mode peak locates at a frequency of 11.76 MHz and has an SNR of 36.5 dB, which confirms the stability of the modelocking operation [25].
RF spectrum of the modelocked TYDFL.
This chapter describes some of the basic concepts regarding optical fibers and dynamics of Q-switched and modelocked fiber lasers with the help of the existing literature. It includes the description of double clad fiber structure and cladding pump technique. Later, it presents some details about Q-switching and its types. It also includes a detailed description of modelocked lasers, especially, passive modelocked lasers along with a brief introduction of solitons, which are an integral part of the most modelocked fiber lasers. Moreover, examples of Q-switched and modelocked fiber lasers are presented by using double clad Thulium-Ytterbium co-doped fiber. A cladding pump technique is employed with a 980-nm multi-mode laser diode. The Q-switched pulses are produced by using a saturable absorber fabricated with MWCNT-PVA film, while modelocked pulses are generated with the help of graphene-PVA film. The Q-switched laser is produced with a repetition rate in the range 18.8–50.6 kHz, whereas the modelocked laser generates pulses with a repetition rate of 11.76 MHz.
Industrialization and rapid population growth has resulted in energy shortages and environmental contamination which has raised concern of a potential global crisis. For sustainable human society development, technologies for environmental decontamination need urgent attention. Among numerous available technologies, catalysis has gained considerable attention because of the diverse potentials in energy and environmental applications. Generally, catalysts for environmental applications are based on less expensive materials that will not cause secondary environmental pollution [1]. The major advantage of environmental catalysis is the chemical conversion of pollutants into non-hazardous and less toxic products. Pollutants can be degraded and transformed efficiently through homogenous or heterogeneous oxidation and reduction processes under ambient conditions or conditions in which external energy such as light may be required [2]. Therefore, the present book chapter aims to provide analysis in the use of PGMs nanocatalysts in the recent development and appraise their potential applications in environmental decontamination.
\nNanotechnology refers to the research and development of materials at the atomic, molecular or macromolecular scale. Materials at nanoscale find applications in a myriad of areas, such as magnetic and optoelectronic, biomedical, pharmaceutical, cosmetic, energy, electronic, catalytic, and environmental domains. Because of the potential of nanotechnology, there has been a worldwide increase in investment in nanotechnology research and development [3]. The unique properties of materials and their stupendous performance at nanoscale are the main reason for the increased growth in this area. Controlled assembly of nanoparticles has been proposed as one of the most ways to achieve the target technologies [4]. Nanotechnology has immense potential in environmental decontamination through the use of materials such as adsorbents and nanocatalysts. Therefore, it is necessary to develop novel processes for the fabrication of nanomaterials that can be used as the basis for the development of highly efficient new technologies for solving environment challenges.
\nPlatinum group metals (PGMs) including iridium (Ir), osmium (Os), platinum (Pt), palladium (Pd), rhodium (Rh) and ruthenium (Ru) have high resistance to corrosion and oxidation in moist air, unlike most base metals [5]. Their precious nature derives from their rarity in Earth’s crust. It has been reported by Grabowska et al., that PGMs such as platinum and palladium allow the extension of light absorption of semiconductors such as TiO2 into the visible region [6].
\nRecently, Dozzi et al. has investigated the catalytic effect of PGMs metal for the degradation of formic acid using Pt, Au doped TiO2 [7]. On the other hand, Kisch et al. modified TiO2 with chloride complexes of Pt for the photocatalytic degradation of 4-chlorophenol [8]. The presence of PGMs nanocatalysts gave rise to an enhanced charge carrier separation hence improving the photocatalytic performances of the modified photocatalyst systems. According to Yoon et al., the surface of PGMs serves as visible light absorbing sensitizers and centers of charge separation [9]. The possibility of designing and applying nanosized PGM catalysts has been demonstrated in a number of studies [9, 10, 11, 12]. This has resulted in interest in considering their application in environmental remediation, water treatment, chemical transformation and microbial disinfection. A priority task of present day science is to solve the problem of environmental contamination of planetary resources which requires development of efficient technologies employing nanocatalysts. PGMs catalysts have already found applications in a number of industrially important R&D niche areas, including environmental cleanup. The effectiveness of the PGM nanocatalysts depends on a number of factors, including their size, morphology of the particles and their packaging into usable devices and systems. In most of these applications, the cost of PGMs cannot be ignored. Platinum has been reported to be a very good catalyst but a trade-off has to be established between efficacy and cost. In the nano-range the amount of the catalyst is usually kept very low while huge improvements in efficiency are realized. However, there is still need for more effort in design of viable systems for environmental decontamination using PGM based nanocatalysts. Potential up-scaling of these devices and systems is currently an area of increasing research interest.
\nDesigning a new class of highly selective and active catalytic systems with the use of recent developments in chemistry has become one of the main concerns faced in contemporary engineering. As compared to bulk material, nanoparticles have an increased surface area and high dispersity and, thus provide high reactivity and allow fabrication of efficient catalysts with lower noble metal loading. Controlling the growth, size, and monodispersity of metal nanoparticles is a subject of interest in designing of nanosized catalytic systems. Therefore, different methods have been used for the synthesis of nanocatalysts. For instance, in 2005, Wong et al., successfully synthesized a bimetallic catalyst using Pd-on-Au NPs through the Turkevich–Frens (citrate reduction) method and obtained particles with an average diameter of about 20 nm [10]. Paula and co-workers synthesized Pd/C-catalyst using one-pot method for synthesis of secondary amines by hydrogenation of nitrocompounds as single starting materials [11]. Additionally, Coleman et al. synthesized and Pt/TiO2 catalyst by the photodeposition method in the presence of a sacrificial organic hole scavenger [12]. Barakat et al., synthesized Pt doped TiO2 catalyst by immobilizing colloidal Pt nanoparticles onto titanium dioxide (rutile) [13]. Kuvarega et al., used a modified sol gel method for the synthesis of nitrogen, PGM co doped TiO2. In these studies spherical particles of average size between 2 and 5 nm were reported [14].
\nMany different physico-chemical techniques are used to characterize nanocatalysts among them scanning electron microscopy (SEM) used for the morphology of the materials. Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) is also used for particles size and morphology. Chun-Hua et al. used TEM to analyze 3% Pt nanoparticles supported on CNT particles is shown in Figure 1. In another study, Pt catalyst containing 3% metal supported on activated carbon (AC) was prepared and the particle size varied from 8 to 10 nm [15]. In addition, techniques such as X-Ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy (XPS) have been used to give information on the oxidation states of the PGM and the nature of bonding between the metals and the supports.
\nTEM image of 3% Pt/CNT particles (Copyright, J. Mol. Catal. A: Chem., Ref. [17]).
Raman spectroscopy (RS) and X-ray diffraction (XRD) are conducted to identify the crystalline phases and estimate particle sizes of nanocatalysts. For instance, Renfeng et al. used XRD to identify the Pt in Pt/RGO [16]. The Pt peak was conspicuous in the samples containing Pt (Figure 2).
\nXRD patterns of (a) GO, (b) Pt/RGO-HH, (c) Pt/RGO-EG, (d) Pt/AC-EG and (e) Pt/MWCNT-EG. (Copyright Carbon 50 (2012) 586-596, Ref [18]).
Xie and co-workers used Fourier Transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) to verify the bond vibrations related to functionalities on the surfaces of their synthesized materials (Figure 3) [17].
\nFT-IR spectra of (a) the Fe3O4 microspheres, (b) the Fe3O4@C composite, (c) the Fe3O4@C@Pt catalyst ( reproduced with permission from the Royal Society of Chemistry).
PGMs nanocatalysts have become a new class of environmental remediation materials that could provide affordable solutions to some of the environmental challenges. At nanoscale, PGMs particles have high surface areas and surface reactivity. As such, they provide more flexibility for in situ applications. PGMs nanocatalysts have proven to be an excellent choice for the transformation and decontamination of a wide variety of common environmental contaminants, such as organochlorine pesticides and chlorinated organic compounds. The major consumer of PGMs is the automobile industry. PGMs such as Pt, Rh and Pd are used as catalysts in the automobile industry in order to reduce the level of unburnt hydrocarbons, carbon monoxide (CO) and nitrogen oxide present in the exhaust gases. Generally, a typical automobile converter contains 0.04% Pd, 0.005–0.007% and 0.08% Pt and Rh supported on a base [18]. Iridium has become the new entrant in this application area. A typical example is the introduction of iridium-containing catalytic converters in their direct injection engines by Mitsubishi of Japan [19].
\nA typical example is the reduction of nitrogen oxides to nitrogen used in car exhaust systems for abatement of emissions from petrol/rich-burn engines. There is a huge number of reports on use of Rhodium as it is the most effective element in the conversion of nitrous oxides to nitrogen [20, 21].
\nJianbing et al., in their study, investigated the catalytic ozonation of dimethyl phthalate (DMP) in aqueous solution and DBP precursors in natural water using Ru/AC. These two kinds of organics are both recalcitrant to biodegradation and will cause severe hazards to human health.
\nRu/AC was an active nanocatalysts in the catalytic ozonation of dimethyl phthalate and had the ability to complete mineralize the DMP in a semi-batch experiment. On the other hand, the total organic carbon (TOC) removals were stable around 75% for a duration of 42 h and no trace of Ru was observed from the reactor in the continuous experiments of Ru/AC catalyzed ozonation of DMP. Consequently, Ru/AC catalyzed ozonation was found to be more efficient than ozonation alone for TOC removals in the natural water treatment [22].
\nOxyanions, such as BrO3− ClO3−, NO3− and ClO4− are toxic and they are pervasive in drinking water. These oxyanions originate from both anthropogenic and natural sources. Furthermore, they are also produced during water treatment processes such as ozonation, desalination, electrochemical treatment and chlorination [23, 24, 25, 26]. These ions have mutagenic, endocrine disrupting and carcinogenic effects [27, 28]. Ion exchange and reverse osmosis cannot completely degrade these oxyanions [28, 29]. Thus, it would be preferable to apply destructive treatment technologies based on nanocatalysts for sustainable drinking water treatment processes [30]. Pd-based heterogeneous catalysis has garnered momentous attention as a potential solution for reduction of these oxyanions and for other highly oxidized contaminants such as halogenated and nitro organics [31]. Chen et al., have used PGMs for the reduction of BrO3− [32]. Five activated carbon supported on metal namely (with a 5 wt % Pd, Pt, Rh, Ru and 1 wt% for Ir) with a M/C of 0.1 g L catalysts loading were used for the catalytic reduction of bromated (BrO3−) Figure 4. From Figure 4, it is noticeable that Rh/C was significantly more active than the other PGMs/C catalysts used for the reduction of BrO3−.
\nKinetics of 1 mM BrO3− by 0.1 g L−1 M/C catalyst at 1 atm H2, pH 7.2 and 22oC (with 5 wt% metal for Pd, Rh, Ru, and Pt; 1 wt% metal for Ir). (Copyright Chemical Engineering Journal, 313, 2017, 745-752, Ref. [28]).
When catalyst loading 0.1 g L−1 was used, a reduction of 1 mM BrO3− was achieved in approximately 5 minutes. Rh/C had a much higher activity than most supported metal catalyst reported in literature when compared with metal mass- normalized basis. While each metal catalyst dispersion differs, it was vital to compare the activity of metals hydrogenation using the initial turnover frequency values (TOFo) [33, 34, 35]. Additionally, Rh/C had the best performance compared to the other four catalysts at pH 7.2. On the other hand, Ir/C had a slightly lower apparent reactivity with BrO3− than that of Pd/C but was the second highest performance. Therefore, the incorporation of the two PGMs catalysts namely Rh and Ir led to the highest activity for the catalytic reduction of BrO3− under condition that are suitable for the water treatment systems.
\nMicrobial contamination and growth on the surfaces are risks to human health. The chemicals used to tackle microbials such as detergents, alcohols and chlorine are very aggressive and hence not environmentally friendly besides being ineffective for long-term disinfection. Therefore, a myriad of studies are being conducted in order to tackle these challenges. Arcan et al. doped SnO2 and TiO2 with Pd for microbial inactivation of E. coli, S. aureus and S. cerevisiae [36].
\nThe addition of Pd led to an enhancement in the photocatalytic efficiency observed for the degradation of microorganisms when 1% of Pd was used. In addition, the UV–Vis showed an extension of the absorption edge into the visible range without affection the phase of the catalysts (Figures 5 and 6).
\nUV–vis spectra of bare TiO2 and PdO/TiO2 samples. (Copyright, Chemistry 184 (2006) [34]).
UV–vis spectra of bare SnO2 and PdO/SnO2 samples. (Copyrights Chemistry 184 (2006) Ref. [34]).
PGM nanoparticles have proven to be efficient heterogeneous and homogeneous catalyst with advantages such as a high specific surface area due to their small size resulting in a high number of potential catalytic sites [37]. Owing to these phenomena, there has been in the past two decades an increase in the use of metal nanoparticles in catalysis [38, 39]. Rong et al., reported the synthesis of supported Pt NPs and their use as catalysts in the partial hydrogenation of nitroarenes to arylhydroxylamines [40]. The particles were prepared by reduction of H2PtCl6 with NaBH4 in the presence of the carbon support. The hydrogenation of several substituted nitroarenes was performed under soft conditions (10.15°C, 1 bar H2) to favor the formation of hydroxylamines, showing excellent activity and selectivity in this transformation. Pd supported on C has also been successfully used as catalysts for the conversion of nitrobenzenes to secondary amines (Figure 7).
\nPd/C-catalyzed one-pot synthesis of secondary amines by hydrogenation of nitrocompounds. (Copyright Chem. Commun., 2013, 49, 8160, Ref [10]).
The proposed mechanism for the hydrogenation of nitrobenzene was proposed as shown in Figure 8. During this process, there is generation of intermediates such as hydroxylamines, azo and azoxy derivatives.
\nProposed mechanism for the hydrogenation of nitroarenes. (Copyright ChemCatChem, 2009, 1, 210–221, Ref. [38]).
For example, in the case of m-dinitrobenzene, a catalyst containing 2 wt% Pt/C yielded 92.3% of the corresponding hydroxylamine after 190 min of reaction in THF (Table 1).
\nHydrogenations performed using Pt/C as catalysts (Catal. Sci. Technol., 2014, 2445, Ref. [39]).
In a study, Zeming et al. used carbon as Pt colloid support for the hydrogenation of arylhydroxylamines. The Pt colloid supported on carbon was an active and selective catalyst for the partial hydrogenation of nitroaromatics with electron-withdrawing substituents to the corresponding N-arylhydroxylamine, indicating an additive-free green catalytic approach for arylhydroxylamine synthesis. Very encouraging results were obtained with N-arylhydroxylamine bearing electron-withdrawing substituents. Since N-arylhydroxylamine can be further converted to highly valuable compounds through several reactions like Bamberger rearrangement, this result will generally contribute to a simpler and greener synthetic methodology of N-arylhydroxylamine derivatives.
\nProgress has been reported in the application of nano-PGMs for heterogeneous catalysis reactions. While most of the applications have centered on organic transformations, there is potential for extending the catalytic potential of these metals to other fields such as pollutant degradation and microbial inactivation in water treatment processes. On their own, PGM at the nanoscale tend to aggregate and thus limited application has been realized. However, the use of supports has greatly enhanced the activity of the PGM nanocatalysts in various fields. Mono and bimetallic systems have been reported on. In environmental decontamination processes there is still need to find the most suitable supports and application devices. While encouraging findings have started appearing in literature, more work still needs to be done to in environmental catalysis for water treatment.
\nSeveral efforts have been devoted to the preparation of PGM nanocatalysts for application in environment decontamination. The high number of literature reports highlights the interest in this family of catalysts for catalytic transformation, both in terms of reactivity and selectivity. There is potential for application of PGMs nanocatalysts for environmental decontamination, water treatment, antimicrobial and chemical transformation. Further studies are necessary to better understand parameters influencing the reactivity as well as enhancing the conversion rates and efficiencies.
\nAppreciation towards funding received from the University of South Africa (UNISA), the National Research Fund (NRF) and support from the Nanotechnology and Water Sustainability and Research Unit (NanoWS) is highly expressed.
\nThe authors declare that there is no conflict of interests concerning the publication of this book chapter.
Supporting women in scientific research and encouraging more women to pursue careers in STEM fields has been an issue on the global agenda for many years. But there is still much to be done. And IntechOpen wants to help.
",metaTitle:"IntechOpen Women in Science Program",metaDescription:"Supporting women in scientific research and encouraging more women to pursue careers in STEM fields has been an issue on the global agenda for many years. But there is still much to be done. And IntechOpen wants to help.",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:null,contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"At IntechOpen, we’re laying the foundations for the future by publishing the best research by women in STEM – Open Access and available to all. Our Women in Science program already includes six books in progress by award-winning women scientists on topics ranging from physics to robotics, medicine to environmental science. Our editors come from all over the globe and include L’Oreal–UNESCO For Women in Science award-winners and National Science Foundation and European Commission grant recipients.
\\n\\nWe aim to publish 100 books in our Women in Science program over the next three years. We are looking for books written, edited, or co-edited by women. Contributing chapters by men are welcome. As always, the quality of the research we publish is paramount.
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\\n\\nAdvantages of Publishing with IntechOpen
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\n\nWe aim to publish 100 books in our Women in Science program over the next three years. We are looking for books written, edited, or co-edited by women. Contributing chapters by men are welcome. As always, the quality of the research we publish is paramount.
\n\nAll project proposals go through a two-stage peer review process and are selected based on the following criteria:
\n\nPlus, we want this project to have an impact beyond scientific circles. We will publicize the research in the Women in Science program for a wider general audience through:
\n\nInterested? If you have an idea for an edited volume or a monograph, we’d love to hear from you! Contact Ana Pantar at book.idea@intechopen.com.
\n\n“My scientific path has given me the opportunity to work with colleagues all over Europe, including Germany, France, and Norway. Editing the book Graph Theory: Advanced Algorithms and Applications with IntechOpen emphasized for me the importance of providing valuable, Open Access literature to our scientific colleagues around the world. So I am highly enthusiastic about the Women in Science book collection, which will highlight the outstanding accomplishments of women scientists and encourage others to walk the challenging path to becoming a recognized scientist." Beril Sirmacek, TU Delft, The Netherlands
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USA, CRC Press Taylor & Francis, Asia Pacific, Trans Tech Publications Ltd., Switzerland, and Materials Science Forum, USA. 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Omar obtained\nhis Bachelor degree in electrical and\nelectronics engineering from Universiti\nSains Malaysia in 2002, Master of Science in electronics\nengineering from Open University\nMalaysia in 2008 and PhD in optical physics from Universiti\nSains Malaysia in 2012. His research mainly\nfocuses on the development of optical\nand electronics systems for spectroscopy\napplication in environmental monitoring,\nagriculture and dermatology. He has\nmore than 10 years of teaching\nexperience in subjects related to\nelectronics, mathematics and applied optics for\nuniversity students and industrial engineers.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universiti Sains Malaysia",country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"191072",title:"Prof.",name:"A. K. M. Aminul",middleName:null,surname:"Islam",slug:"a.-k.-m.-aminul-islam",fullName:"A. K. M. Aminul Islam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/191072/images/system/191072.jpg",biography:"Prof. Dr. A. K. M. 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