The selected CVD metal-organic precursors used in the deposition of silver-based nanomaterials (the presented data are based on Ref. [35, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49]).
\r\n\t
",isbn:"978-1-80356-357-2",printIsbn:"978-1-80356-356-5",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80356-358-9",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"3aba1eb3600a8c9ff880c628f70b3298",bookSignature:"Ph.D. Delfín Ortega-Sánchez",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11481.jpg",keywords:"Integrated Curriculum, Transdisciplinarity, Integrated Active Learning, Educational Programs, Contemporary Social Problems, Critical Thinking, Creative Thinking, Social Thinking, Agenda 2030, Sustainable Development Goals, Educational Paradigm, Social Reality",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"February 18th 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"March 18th 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"May 17th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"August 5th 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"October 4th 2022",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"2 months",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:4,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Internationally recognized researcher in the field of historical and social science education. Author of more than 100 publications, awarded three Doctorate degrees and the National End of Degree Award, granted by the Ministry of Education to the best academic records of Bachelor's degrees in Spain. Dr. Ortega-Sánchez has been Vice-Rector for Social Responsibility, Culture, and Sports at the University of Burgos since 2021.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"302925",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Delfín",middleName:null,surname:"Ortega-Sánchez",slug:"delfin-ortega-sanchez",fullName:"Delfín Ortega-Sánchez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/302925/images/system/302925.jpg",biography:"I hold a PhD in Didactics of Social Sciences from the Autonomous University of Barcelona, a PhD in Educational Sciences from the University of Burgos, and a PhD in History from the University of Extremadura. My research interests focus on the construction of identities in the History and Geography teaching, gender mainstreaming in initial education and training for teachers, the didactic treatment of relevant social problems and controversial issues in the teaching of the social and human sciences, and the application of educational technology in the specific field of social sciences. I am currently a Social Sciences teacher and researcher at University of Burgos (Spain).",institutionString:"University of Burgos",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"University of Burgos",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"23",title:"Social Sciences",slug:"social-sciences"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"429339",firstName:"Jelena",lastName:"Vrdoljak",middleName:null,title:"Ms.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/429339/images/20012_n.jpg",email:"jelena.v@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager, my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. Whether that be identifying an exceptional author and proposing an editorship collaboration, or contacting researchers who would like the opportunity to work with IntechOpen, I establish and help manage author and editor acquisition and contact."}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"6926",title:"Biological Anthropology",subtitle:"Applications and Case Studies",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5bbb192dffd37a257febf4acfde73bb8",slug:"biological-anthropology-applications-and-case-studies",bookSignature:"Alessio Vovlas",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6926.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"313084",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Alessio",surname:"Vovlas",slug:"alessio-vovlas",fullName:"Alessio Vovlas"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6942",title:"Global Social Work",subtitle:"Cutting Edge Issues and Critical Reflections",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"222c8a66edfc7a4a6537af7565bcb3de",slug:"global-social-work-cutting-edge-issues-and-critical-reflections",bookSignature:"Bala Raju Nikku",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6942.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"263576",title:"Dr.",name:"Bala",surname:"Nikku",slug:"bala-nikku",fullName:"Bala Nikku"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophile",surname:"Theophanides",slug:"theophile-theophanides",fullName:"Theophile Theophanides"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"371",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",subtitle:"Mechanisms and Adaptations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"588466f487e307619849d72389178a74",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-mechanisms-and-adaptations",bookSignature:"Arun Shanker and B. Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"314",title:"Regenerative Medicine and Tissue Engineering",subtitle:"Cells and Biomaterials",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"bb67e80e480c86bb8315458012d65686",slug:"regenerative-medicine-and-tissue-engineering-cells-and-biomaterials",bookSignature:"Daniel Eberli",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/314.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"6495",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniel",surname:"Eberli",slug:"daniel-eberli",fullName:"Daniel Eberli"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"57",title:"Physics and Applications of Graphene",subtitle:"Experiments",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0e6622a71cf4f02f45bfdd5691e1189a",slug:"physics-and-applications-of-graphene-experiments",bookSignature:"Sergey Mikhailov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/57.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"16042",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergey",surname:"Mikhailov",slug:"sergey-mikhailov",fullName:"Sergey Mikhailov"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1373",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Applications and Perspectives",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5e9ae5ae9167cde4b344e499a792c41c",slug:"ionic-liquids-applications-and-perspectives",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1373.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"57724",title:"Silver Nanoparticles Fabricated Using Chemical Vapor Deposition and Atomic Layer Deposition Techniques: Properties, Applications and Perspectives: Review",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71571",slug:"silver-nanoparticles-fabricated-using-chemical-vapor-deposition-and-atomic-layer-deposition-techniqu",body:'The rapid development of nanotechnologies is a result of the numerous applications of nanomaterials in various fields of our life. The metallic nanograins or metallic nanolayers, of either simple or composite nature, are important materials in the improvement of such traditional areas as electronics, optics, and catalysis. However, in last few years we have observed a great interest in the application of these nanomaterials in biological, biomedical, pharmaceutical, cosmetic, food, and textile technologies [1, 2, 3, 4, 5]. The use of different methods offers the possibility of the fabrication of nano-sized materials (materials in which at least one dimension is less than 100 nm) of different structure, surface morphology, physicochemical properties, and bioactivity [6, 7, 8, 9]. From the medical point of view, it is interesting that silver as an antimicrobial agent has accompanied human civilization since ancient times. The use of silver vessels or putting a silver coin/spoon into tanks in order to preserve drinking water from spoilage by bacteria and algae, was practiced by ancient Egyptians and Greeks, as well as by sailors in times of great geographic discoveries [10]. In modern times, silver (usually used as colloidal silver) is applied to treatment water and its disinfection. The system working on the board of International Space Station is a good example [9, 11]. Moreover, the fabrication of this metal coating on the surface of medical devices or pieces of furniture, and also incorporation of Ag nanoparticles to the building and textile materials, influences the reduction of the hospital-related infections [12, 13, 14]. Silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) are also component of many health and cosmetic products due to their antimicrobial activity and deodorizing properties [15, 16]. Based on previous results, it is noted that the above-mentioned nanoparticles exhibit antimicrobial activity against 650 strains of pathogenic microorganisms such as bacteria, fungi, viruses, molds, and yeasts [17, 18]. A number of mechanisms have been proposed to explain the antimicrobial activity of AgNPs: (1) blocking the active respiratory chains of organisms; (2) disrupting the cellular membrane leading to leakage of cellular contents; (3) binding to the functional groups of microbial proteins that lead to protein denaturation and DNA malfunctions; and (4) blocking of nutrient transportation enzymes across the cell membrane [18]. The above-mentioned biological properties of the Ag nanoparticles and nanolayers depend strongly on their structure, shape, size, surface morphology, and the substrate used in the synthesis.
Silver may form continuous nanolayers and/or dispersed nanoparticles on the substrate surface or it can be incorporated within the matrix (ceramic, glass, and polymer). Generally, two strategies based on wet chemistry and vapor phase deposition are used for the preparation of Ag-containing nanomaterials. Analysis of the literature reports showed that the reduction processes of AgNO3 are the main methods, which are used in the fabrication of AgNPs both on the substrate surface as well as in the form of the dispersed particles in colloidal systems, glasses, or polymers [12, 15]. According to these reports, the wet chemical techniques are mainly used for the fabrication of silver nanoparticles [9]. In these methods, the colloidal silver is obtained by the use of three components: (a) silver precursor, predominantly AgNO3; (b) reducing agent – for example, NaBH4, citric acid or its sodium salt, gallic acid, ascorbic acid [9, 19, 20, 21, 22]; and (c) stabilizing agents—for example, polyvinyl alcohol, polyvinyl pyrrolidone, polyethylene glycol, ethylene diamine tetra-acetic acid [23, 24]. The nucleation of nanoparticles and their growth in defined conditions (temperature, pH, reduction agents, and stabilizing agents) leads to the formation of similar size and shape particles [9, 23]. Dried Ag nanopowders, which can be added to, for example, polymeric, glass, or ceramic matrix, were obtained by freeze-drying of the colloidal solution [20]. Biosynthesis of AgNPs is a promising technique which has been intensively studied recently [25, 26, 27]. It involves the reduction of silver salt (e.g. silver nitrate) by such reducing agents as plants, bacteria, and fungi [27, 28]. The great interest of the above-mentioned method is due to its potential use in medicine (especially in cancer therapy and diagnostic) as the procedure allowing for obtaining nontoxic antimicrobial agent [26, 28]. The need to the fabrication of silver coatings, both continuous as well as composed of dispersed metallic grains on the surface of metallic, ceramic, or polymeric substrates, requires the use of other methods. Often used photochemical synthesis of AgNPs on the surface of titania nanotube (TNT) coatings is a good example [29, 30, 31]. In this method, TNT substrate is soaked in AgNO3 solutions of different concentration, and after cleaning with deionized water and drying, is irradiated using UV light at room temperature. Silver particles with diameters 10–70 nm were deposited on the top edges and walls of ca. 50–180 nm TiO2 tubes [30, 31]. AgNPs on the surface of different titania substrates may be also prepared using electrodeposition and electrochemical methods [32, 33, 34]. Above-mentioned techniques enabled the deposition of dispersed Ag particles of diameters ca. 2–12 nm on the surface of titania particles or nanotubes.
Chemical vapor deposition (CVD) and atomic layer deposition (ALD) belong to the strategy based on the fabrication of materials from vapor phase. Analysis of literature reports revealed that both methods are not widely used in the production of biomaterials, although both methods allow exact control of the nucleation and growth of metallic single grains or layers. It may be associated with necessity for the use of vacuum and high temperatures as in the case of CVD processes, which in turn translates into high price of the final product. However, the rapid development of both above-mentioned methods, related to the introduction of new precursors, improvement of the equipment, and optimization of the deposition conditions, has led to increased interest of their application in the production of materials, with strictly defined structure, morphology, physicochemical and biological properties, and also characterized by high purity. Therefore, in this chapter we have focused on a more detailed discussion on the use of CVD and ALD methods for the production of silver-based materials, their properties and biological activity.
Chemical vapor deposition (CVD) is a technique which allows the synthesis of nano-metric layers of inorganic materials on the surface of 3D substrates. The deposition process occurs in three successive stages: (i) introduction of the volatile precursor by carrier gas to the reactor chamber; (ii) adsorption of precursor vapors on the substrate surface and the formation of intermediate products; and (iii) decomposition of these products on the heated substrate followed by nucleation and growth of the solid layer/grains, and the formation of volatile by-products and their removal from the chamber by the carrier gas [35]. Among the main factors that influence the deposition process and the quality of produced nanomaterials, the following ones can be highlighted: the precursor delivery method, total pressure in the reactor chamber (
Precursor | Deposition temperature TD (K) | Reactor pressure (hPa) | Carrier gas |
---|---|---|---|
[Ag(acac)] | 473–523 | — | H2 |
[Ag(fod)(PMe3)] | 503–573 | 0.13 | H2 |
[Ag(fod)(PEt3)] | 503–533 | 0.13 | H2 |
[Ag(hfac)(PMe3)] | 523–723 | 0.07 | — |
[Ag(hfac)(PEt3)] | 523–623 | 0.07 | — |
[Ag(hfac)(VTES)] | 433–553 | 0.13 | — |
[Ag(hfac)(BTMSA)] | 423–523 | 0.13–13.0 | — |
[Ag(hfac)(BTMSE)] | 373–473 | 13.0 | — |
[Ag(tfpz)]3 | 523–623 | 0.67 | Ar, H2 |
[Ag(OOCCF3)] | 873 | No data | — |
[Ag(OOCC2F5)] | 543–563 | 4 | Ar |
[Ag(OOCC2F5)(PMe3)] | 483–563 | 4 | Ar |
[Ag(OOCC2F5)(PEt3)] | 463–513 | 4 | Ar |
[Ag(OOCCF3)(PnBu3)2] | 573–623 | 1–50 | N2 |
[Ag(OOCC2F5)(PnBu3)] | 573–623 | 1–50 | N2 |
[Ag(OOCtBu)(PMe3)] | 583 | 2–3 | N2 |
[Ag(OOCtBu)(PEt3)] | 453–493 | 1.5–3 | Ar, N2 |
[Ag(OOCCH2tBu)(PEt3)2] | 453–553 | 2 | Ar, N2 |
[Ag(OOCCMe2Et)(PEt3)2] | 473–553 | 2 | Ar, N2 |
The selected CVD metal-organic precursors used in the deposition of silver-based nanomaterials (the presented data are based on Ref. [35, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49]).
acac: acetylacetonato; fod: 2,2-dimethyl-6,67,78,8,8-heptafluoro-3,5-octanedionato; hfac: 1,1,1,5,5,5-hexafluoroacetylacetonato; tfpz: trifluoroacetylacetonate; VTES: vinyltriethylsilane; BTMSA: bis(trimethylsilyl)acetylene; BTMSE: bis(trimethylsilyl)ethyne.
Considering results of these investigations, it is noted that silver(I) penta-fluoro-propionate (Ag(OOCC2F5)) exhibits particularly good properties as Ag CVD precursor [44, 45] since layers consisting of dispersed AgNPs of diameters
Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) images of titania nanotube coatings enriches with silver particles deposited by CVD method ((a) reference sample, (b)
Influence of the carboxyl are groups on the morphology of silver layers, the deposition rate, and the value of activation energies (CVD technique, precursor [Ag(OOCR’)(PEt3)]; R’ = −tBu (a), ─CH2tBu (b), and ─C(Me2)et (c)).
Summarizing this section, it can be stated that the CVD methods offer wide range of possibilities for the fabrication of silver-based materials with different morphology and structure. Moreover, the CVD method allows the formation of nanocomposite materials, in which the organic or inorganic matrix is enriched with silver nanoparticles. In this regard, the flame assistant technique, that is, FACVD, is especially useful [50]. However, TiO2/Ag nanocomposities may also be fabricated in a one-step process, that is, direct-liquid injection metal-organic CVD (DLI-MOCVD) [51]. TiO2/Ag materials may be also synthesized in the two-step classical CVD technique in which the titania nanocrystalline matrix is enriched with silver nanograins [52]. The above-mentioned methods allow the control of structure as well as the morphology of the TiO2 matrix and the size of the synthesized silver particles.
Generally, the atomic layer deposition (ALD) may be defined as a technique for the deposition of uniform conformal nanolayers by alternating exposures of a substrate surface to vapors of two precursors interacting in self-limiting reactions [53, 54]. Such reactions allow the same amount of material to be deposited on the whole surface. It provides excellent film uniformity even on large substrates. ALD technique enables controlling the film thickness at the atomic level and the layer-by-layer film deposition.
The interest in the use of ALD methods to obtain metallic silver materials (e.g. monolayers) is motivated in part by their use as catalysts in the oxidation of methanol to formaldehyde and in the epoxidation of ethylene [55]. The application of silver as an effective and relatively cheap antimicrobial agent in medical, cosmetic, and environmental technologies also led to the use of ALD techniques in these areas. According to previous reports, the following ALD techniques are used: (a) thermal ALD [56, 57], (b) plasma-enhanced ALD (PEALD [58, 59, 60]), and (c) direct-liquid injection ALD (DLI ALD [61, 62, 63]). As in the CVD method, precursors are also the most important factor possessing a direct impact on the type of the produced material and the choice of deposition method. Considering the specificity of the discussed method, it should be noted that beside the chemical compound, being the source of the produced material (silver in this case), reducing agent must also be used. Such nature of ALD processes requires that precursors used in ALD techniques must exhibit greater chemical reactivity and lower deposition rate in comparison to CVD precursors. The silver precursors which are commonly used in ALD techniques are listed in Table 2.
Precursor | ALD co-reactant | Deposition temperature TD (K) | Technique | Refs. |
---|---|---|---|---|
[Ag(fod)(PEt3)] | H2; N2-H2 | 373–393 | PEALD | [58, 59, 60] |
[Ag(fod)(PEt3)] | BH3(NHMe2) | 383 | ALD | [56] |
[Ag(hfac)(1,5-COD)] | Propan-1-ol | 383–423 | DLI ALD | [61, 62, 63] |
[Ag(OOCBut)(PEt3)] | H2 | 413 | ALD | [57] |
Metallic silver precursors, which are commonly used in ALD techniques.
fod: 2,2-dimethyl-6,67,78,8,8-heptafluoro-3,5-octanedionato; hfac: 1,1,1,5,5,5-hexafluoroacetylacetonato; 1,5-COD: 1,5-cyclooktadiene.
Survey of literature reports shows that most of noble metals tend towards nucleation and grow as islands (Volmer-Weber growth mode) and many ALD cycles are required to obtain a continuous coating [64, 65]. This likely occurs because of the stronger interactions between metal atoms as compared to metal-substrate interactions leading to the formation of islands of metal nanoparticles on the substrate surface [66]. The good example is the deposition of silver film on the surface of the titania nanotubes (TNT) coating of tube diameters ca.
Silver nanoparticles deposited on the surface of TNT coatings after 25, 50, 100, 150, and 200 ALD cycles (PEALD; [Ag(fod)(PEt3)], H2; TD = 393 K; substrate Ti6Al4V/TNT;
Effect of TNT surface morphology on the diameter of AgNPs after 100 ALD cycles on the surface of Ti6Al4V/TNT substrates.
Considering the results noted above, it can be stated that atomic layer deposition (ALD) is an excellent technique for the fabrication of both uniform silver nanolayers as well as dispersed silver nanoparticles on the surface of different substrates. The type of the precursor and the number of ALD cycles significantly affect the type of produced nanomaterial. The number of cycles allows controlling the nucleation and growth processes of nanoparticles on the substrate surface, which are important for the production of coatings composed of dispersed particles of the similar shape and size.
Silver is a widely used antimicrobial agent due to its effective biocide properties against a broad range of the bacteria, viruses, and fungus. This biocide activity of Ag-based materials depends on the release of silver ions (Ag+) which is usually strongly bonded to biological molecules containing the electron donor groups, such as sulfur, oxygen, and nitrogen. The release of silver ions from the metallic layers of AgNPs and nanocomposite materials is due to the oxidation of metallic particles through their interaction with water molecules or body fluids. The release of Ag ions in a concentration level (0.1 ppb) capable of antimicrobial efficiency [67] and also their concentration below toxic level to human cells (10 mg/L) [31] should be taken into account during the design and the fabrication of silver-based materials intended for biomedical use. In studies concerning the strength of the antimicrobial activity of Ag-based materials, the amounts of the released Ag+ from the material samples are mainly monitored in the phosphate buffered saline (PBS) solution at human body temperature (310 K) [30, 31, 67, 68]. The PBS solutions containing released Ag ions were analyzed by inductively coupled plasma atomic emission spectrometry (ICP-AES [68]), inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS [46, 58, 69]), inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectrometry (ICP OES [70]), or atomic absorption spectrometry (AAS [30]). Another method involves dissolving silver nanoparticles in nitric acid (e.g. 0.1 M), and then measuring the Ag+ concentrations using atomic absorption spectrometry (AAS [71]) or anodic stripping voltammetry (ASV [72]).
Results of Zaho et al. [30] revealed that for the TNT/Ag system immersed in PBS solution, the concentration of silver ions after 5 h was close to 0.2 ppm and after 3 days increased up to 0.28 ppm and then remaining at this level for the next 4 days. Similar trends of the Ag+ release were observed by Mei et al. [73] and Radtke et al. [58]; however concentration levels were different (1.4 and 0.015 ppm, respectively, after 30 days). By studying the release of AgNPs from wound dressings, Spange et al. [70] noticed the clear influence of the substrate type on this effect (AgNPs were deposited on bacteria cellulose, lyocell, and polyester/viscose textiles using atmospheric pressure plasma CVD method). The main reasons for the differences in silver release in this case were uneven swelling properties of each textile and differences in their surface areas. Holbrook et al. [74] suggest that different mechanisms are responsible for release of Ag+ and AgNPs from wound dressings. The dissolution processes promote the release of silver ions, while AgNPs release can be caused by shear stress introduced by deformations of the solid-liquid-vapor triple line. This can be applied, for example, for better control of silver release from dressing and optimize its antimicrobial activity.
For TNT/Ag coatings, in which silver grains were localized inside of TiO2 tubes, we observed an interesting effect. For these materials after the first week, the concentration of the released Ag+ in PBS solutions was 0.005–0.008 ppm, independent of silver amount deposited on the surface of TNT layer [46]. This concentration level decreased below 0.005 ppm after 21 days, and rapidly increased up to 0.020–0.022 ppm after 28 days. This effect may be explained by the location of the majority of AgNPs being inside of titania tubes and the oxidation difficulty related to particles’ location. The concentration decrease of silver ions, which are released from the surface of TiO2/Ag nanocomposite, is not an exception. Studies of Zhang et al. [69] of TNT/Ag and TNT/Ag-S nanocomposites revealed that after first 3 days, the concentration of silver ion release decreased from 0.25–0.35 pm to 0.05–0.03 pm and remains at this level for another 11 days. This effect was also noticed for Ag-DOPA-Ti materials (DOPA-Ti, dopamine-functionalized titanium surface) immersed in the PBS solution. Ag+ concentration after 20 days of releasing was lower than 0.01 ppm [75]. Similarly for Ag ion-implanted titania nanolayers, the discussed effect was observed [33]. The studies of silver ion release from Ag-TiO2(a) (a = anatase) revealed that concentration of Ag+ increased in the first 8 days and after this time release rate decreased [72]. Explaining the mechanism of silver ion release, Akhavan et al. [72] assumed that the initial release process of Ag ions was generally controlled by water diffusion on the surface of the TiO2 matrix. The easy water diffusion to the surface of silver nanoparticles, which were deposited on the titania nanolayer surface, resulted in the rapid release of the Ag+ at initial stages. The later decrease in the release rate of silver ions can be explained by the ion release through the pores of the titania layer and the change of the release mechanism. This change in the behavior of the Ag ion released from the Ag-TiO2(a) nanocomposite thin films is completely different from that in the bulk silver-based materials exhibiting a sharp increase in the ion release process [72]. The effect of the initial decline and subsequent rapid growth of the silver ions release rate from the polyamide/silver (PA/Ag) composites was explained by Kumar et al. [67] as a result both the rate of water diffusion and the physical changes in PA/Ag system. According to this report, it can be stated that the initial high release rate of silver ions is related to the oxidation processes of the silver particles located on the surface of the layer. For the Ag particles oxidation and the Ag + ions release from the interior part of the layer, water has to cross the diffusion barrier, which likely contains many crystalline lamellae. The diffusion of water molecules to the inter-lamellar regions can change the structural state, and in the consequence oxidize silver particles and lead to the migration of Ag ions from the interior part of the layer.
In summary, analysis of literature data shows that antimicrobial properties of silver-based materials are significantly connected with the release process of silver ions. This is important both for antimicrobial activity of these materials for a longer time and also for a safe dose of silver for human [30, 76].
Bacterial infections associated with the introduction of implants or other medical devices into the human body are one of the important problems of medicine. These infections are the result of bacterial adhesion and contamination of implant/devices surfaces, which can cause serious complications in short and long term after the introduction/use. Antimicrobial activity of materials used in medicine is associated with the incorporation of components that locally can kill bacteria, fungus, and viruses or which can inhibit their growth without being toxic to the surrounding tissue at the same time. Silver is the component that is distinguished by the high activity against wide spectra of microorganisms in combination with low toxicity to human cells. Therefore, the modification of, for example, the surface of the implant by enrichment with AgNPs meets the above requirements. It is therefore understandable that extensive studies on applications of AgNPs in a number of areas are still ongoing although antimicrobial properties of silver have been known for a long time.
Experiments by Khalipour et al. [77] on animals revealed excellent
SEM images of silver nanoparticles deposited on the surface of the titanium screw, fixing the implant with the bone.
Bacterial strains | Bacterial count (CFU) after incubation on the surface of the silicon substrate (control sample) | Bacterial count (CFU) after incubation on the surface of the nanosilver coating (sample) | AE (%) percentage estimation of the antibacterial activity of nanosilver layers |
---|---|---|---|
4.20 × 103 | 0 | 100 | |
1.70 × 104 | 0 | 100 | |
1.24 × 103 | 1.46 × 102 | 88.2 | |
1.45 × 104 | 1.50 × 101 | 99.9 | |
3.15 × 103 | 2.80 × 103 | 11.1 | |
2.65 × 103 | 7.45 × 102 | 71.9 | |
7.30 × 101 | 0 | 100 | |
6.20 × 102 | 0 | 100 | |
8.30 × 102 | 1.25 × 102 | 84.9 | |
8.16 × 102 | 0 | 100 | |
2.52 × 103 | 2.19 × 103 | 13.1 | |
8.45 × 104 | 0 | 100 | |
4.20 × 103 | 0 | 100 | |
9.30 × 10 4 | 0 | 100 | |
1.20 × 101 | 1.10 × 101 | 8.3 | |
8.50 × 101 | 0 | 100 | |
6.53 × 102 | 4.01 × 102 | 38.6 | |
1.45 × 103 | 1.53 × 103 | 0 | |
5.30 × 103 | 0 | 100 | |
4.35 × 104 | 0 | 100 | |
1.50 × 101 | 0 | 100 | |
1.30 × 104 | 0 | 100 | |
1.80 × 102 | 1.20 × 102 | 33.3 | |
1.42 × 102 | 0 | 100 |
Influence of silver nanoparticles on the selected aerobic, anaerobic, and relatively anaerobic bacteria, which have been isolated from the oral cavity and sites after the teeth extraction (the presented data are based on Ref. [80]).
Silver nanoparticles (size 40–90 nm) contribute to the clear growth reduction of a major osteolytic pathogen by
According to Mungkalasiri et al. [51], titania/silver nanocomposite coatings exhibit good antibacterial activity in the dark (
Results of our works on TiO2/Ag systems (Figure 6) show that besides the amount of incorporated AgNPs (ca. 1–4 wt.%), the polymorphic structure of the titania matrix may also significantly influences their antimicrobial properties [52]. The best activity against the
SEM images and XPS depth profile of the TiO2/Ag composite coating deposited on the surface of titanium implant (CVD, titania matrix were obtained using [Ti6O6(H2O)2(OiBu)6(OOCtBu)6] as the precursor,
Also Li et al. [83] who investigated the biocide activity of titania nanotubes (TNT) and TNT/Ag, have taken into account the above mentioned dependency. The antibacterial efficiency of TNT coatings was observed to change in the order of anatase > rutile > amorphous. In all the studied cases, TNT/Ag system yielded the best antimicrobial activity. Studies on TNT and TNT/Ag materials both in the dark and under the UV light revealed that beside the incorporation of ca. 10 nm silver particles into titania tubes, the tube diameter is also an important factor which significantly influences the antibacterial properties of these systems [30]. Obtained results showed that antimicrobial activity of coatings composed of
In concluding this section, it is important to note that despite extensive research into the biocidal activity of silver, both as nanolayers and as nano-particles, the exact mechanism of this process is not yet completely understood. This is due to several factors (e.g. particle size and shape, stability, crystallinity, and reactivity) that can affect this activity at the same time. Among the mechanisms of these processes, which are proposed in literature [87, 88, 89], the most comprehensive is the one proposed by Marambio-Jones and Hoek [90]. The postulated mechanism assumes that silver antimicrobial activity can result from: (a) up-taking of free silver ions followed by distribution of ATP production and DNA replication; (b) generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) by Ag nanoparticle and Ag + ion; and (c) penetration of Ag nanoparticles through damaged cell membranes. A more detailed mechanism has been proposed by Naidu et al. [91] containing several steps: (a) the attachment of silver nanoparticles to the cell membrane and also penetration inside the bacteria; (b) the interaction of silver ions with bacterial membranes, which contain sulfur-containing proteins as well as with phosphorus-containing compounds like DNA; (c) attack on the respiratory chain in bacterial mitochondria leading to the cell death; and (d) the release of Ag ions inside the bacterial cells (in an environment with lower pH), leading to the formation of free radicals and inducing the oxidative stress.
Our analysis of literature data suggests that silver materials (nanoparticles, nanolayers, and nanocomposites) give good bactericidal activity even at very low concentrations. According to postulated mechanisms, this activity is due to the ability of bacterial cells to absorb and concentrate Ag ions. The antibacterial efficiency of silver particles depends both on the morphological differences that exist between the bacteria, as well as on the particles size, their location on the substrate surface and the reactivity.
Capabilities of CVD and ALD techniques enable the fabrication of materials containing silver nanoparticles of different size, shape, and reactivity, which can be designed to make them suitable for specific biomedical applications. Despite extensive studies, investigations of problems such as materials bio-integration, their anti-inflammatory properties, and toxicity are still being carried out. According to Dobrovolskaia and McNel [92], these studies can be separated into two following categories: (1) response of nanoparticles which are specifically modified to stimulate the immune system and (2) undesirable side-effects of other nanoparticles. Zhang et al. [93] observed the formation of fibroblasts on the surfaces of studied samples investigating cytotoxicity of Ti-MAO-Ag layers (MAO—microarc oxidation, the 3 T3 cell colony formation). The slight differences in fibroblasts morphology on the surface of layers with and without silver indicated the similar bio-compatibility of Ti-MAO-Ag and Ti-MAO systems. Moreover, no cytotoxicity of these materials has been found. Studies of bactericidal activity and biocompatibility (
The strong antimicrobial properties of materials based on silver nanoparticles or layers, which have been reported by many investigators, have led to interest in their applications in different medical fields, especially in implantology. Research on their toxicity is therefore essential. According to literature data, AgNPs are cytotoxic for several types of cells; for example, human peripheral blood mononuclear cells, human alveolar macrophage cell line, neuroendocrine cells, rat liver cell line, and mouse germline cells [86, 91]. The mechanism of toxicity has not been clearly explained. However considering the earlier reports it may be associated with the ionization of silver ions in the cells, which can lead to changes in the permeability of the cell membrane to both potassium and sodium, interaction with mitochondria, and induction of the apoptosis path via the production of ROS which leads to cell death [91]. Based on previous research, we can assume that the concentration and size of silver nanoparticles are the main factors affecting their cytotoxicity. Milić et al. demonstrated that in spite of a significant uptake into the cells, AgNPs had only insignificant toxicity at concentration lower than 25 mg/l, whereas Ag+ exhibited a significant decrease in cell viability at 1/5 of this concentration [96]. The results of Comet assay, according to Brennan et al. [86], the concentration of AgNPs higher than 10 μg/g revealed the cytotoxicity effect on primary human mesenchymal stem cells and osteoblasts. Low toxicity or lack of toxicity for silver nanoparticles of diameter c.a. 20 nm was noticed both for colloidal nanoparticles (negative zeta potential), Ag-montmorillonite nanocomposite, and also Ag-DOPA-Ti (DOPA-Ti = titanium substrate coated with poly(dopamine) [75, 97, 98]. However, AgNPs of diameters ca. 24 nm showed cytotoxic activity to macrophages, causing a pro-inflammatory response and apoptosis [86]. Based on previous reports, the lack of clear results concerning silver nanoparticles toxicity to human should be emphasized. It may be associated with the relatively short-time of experiments and also with the fact that most of them are based on
Despite relatively small amounts of literature reports concerning the use of chemical vapor deposition (CVD), and atomic layer deposition (ALD) techniques in the production of biomedical materials, both methods reveal large possibilities in this regards. The most important advantage of these methods is the possibility of controlling the production of different materials based on silver on substrates of different shape, surface morphology, and structure. According to the type of used precursor and the deposition conditions (deposition temperature, time, and deposition rate), it is possible to produce the uniform silver nanolayers, dispersed silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) or their aggregates, and nanocomposite coatings enriched with silver nanoparticles. Through the control of the nucleation and growth conditions of nanoparticles, it becomes possible to direct the size of deposited AgNPs, their structure, stability, purity, and their location on the substrate surface. Thus, it becomes possible to optimize physicochemical properties and bioactivity of the produced materials. From the biomedical point of view, the ability of silver nanoparticles to ions release is the important topic. It may happen that the material containing even the low amount of silver nanoparticles reveals high biocide activity because of large amount of released Ag+. The use of CVD and ALD techniques creates opportunities to the incorporation of AgNPs to substrates of a complex shape and also to the formation of ceramic or polymeric composites enriched with silver nanoparticles. The placement of AgNPs inside the matrix may lead to the process of releasing of silver ions over longer periods of time. Such procedure results in the material of optimal microbicidal activity (spread over the time) and simultaneously reduces the cytotoxicity of this material by decreasing of the amount of silver ions released. It is likely that silver-based materials obtained using above-mentioned techniques may be widely and safely used as a biocide agent not only in biomedical and cosmetic technologies but also in the food and textile industry.
Silver nanoparticles and silver-based materials are one of the most attractive materials for variety of applications. In this chapter, we have provided comprehensive review of synthesis methods, antimicrobial properties, and cytotoxity of Ag-based nanomaterials. Releasing of silver ions (mainly responsible for the toxicity of silver) from AgNPs and silver-based products has been especially emphasized. It was felt necessary to put together detailed data about both the positive as well as negative aspects of silver-based nanomaterials in order to outline their potential safe applications, especially in biomedical technologies and in advanced environmental treatments (air, water, and surface disinfection). AgNPs and AgNPs-based nanomaterials can be used as safe antimicrobial products only if their toxicity will be on the optimally low level. Using the techniques, which provide the strict control on the size, shape, concentration, and location of AgNPs on the surface (like CVD and ALD), it might be possible to produce wide group of innovative Ag-based nanomaterials with tremendous antibacterial properties without noticeable risk to humans or the environment.
Humic substances are a structurally specified fraction of soil organic matter that are thought to be an important component of the biosphere, as they are responsible for many physical and chemical processes in soil. Organic carbon accounts for approximately 62 percent of global soil carbon, with at least half of this carbon classified as the chemically resistant portion known as humic substances (HS) [1, 2, 3]. Plant and microbial biomass are the primary sources of organic matter production in soil, and their composition and properties are important major constraints for humification processes. When looking at the structural aspects of HS, we must understand the contributions of the different compound groups that make up those tissues. These compound types include intracellular (i.e. protein) and structural (for example, polysaccharides, lignin and aliphatic) compounds that shape membranes and cell walls, including membrane lipids and plant cuticles [4]. Due to their intimate relationships with soil mineral phases, they cannot be easily decomposed and are chemically complex to be used by microbes. One of the most notable properties of HS in soil is their ability to interact with metal ions, oxides, hydroxides, mineral and organic compounds [5], including toxic contaminants [3], to form water-soluble and water-insoluble complexes [4, 5].
Humic substances (HS) are important elements of natural organic matter (NOM) in soil, water, as well as geological organic substances including shales, brown coals, peat and lake sediments. They contribute to the brown or black color of surface soils and make up much of the characteristic brown color of rotting plant waste. They are major components of NOM in surface waters and can impart a dark color at higher concentrations, especially in brown fresh water ponds, lakes, and streams. The color of composts due to leaf-litter can range from yellowish-brown to black, depending on the degree of decay and concentration. It is well understood that HS are the most significant source of transient refractory organic carbon in the earth’s crust. Conventionally, the mixtures are processed into humic acids (HA), fulvic acids (FA), and humin (Hu). HA is recognized as the fraction precipitated from an aqueous solution at pH < 2 (under acidic conditions), FA residues in solution after HA precipitation, and the Hu fraction is insoluble in aqueous solvents [6] .
Humic substances are soil complexes produced during humification phase, are responsible for fossil coal, oil deposits, and other geological deposits. It is the Earth’s second most important organic phase, after photosynthesis. It is estimated that photosynthesis binds more than 5000 tons of atmospheric carbon per year, while the transformation of dead living organisms results in the creation of approximately 4000 tons of carbon [7], which is deposited annually on the Earth’s surface. Humic substances are naturally occurring organic material that are formed due to biochemical, chemical, and physical changes in dead plants, microbial residues, and fauna debris. Humic material formation is linked to the behavior of microorganisms, resulting in the accumulation of recalcitrant macromolecular compounds with unique properties [7]. Due to death of microbes a recalcitrant humic mass is created due to their assimilation. These progressive decay leads to biotic and abiotic transformation processes which ultimately produces diverse and heterogeneous mixtures of polydisperse materials, which are a major component of natural soil organic matter. Humic material can take hundreds or thousands of years for their formation, resulting in a wide range of humic substances. Humic substances are extremely heterogeneous in composition, structure, and are derived from a variety of organic matter sources. This sets them apart from naturally occurring biomolecules such as proteins, carbohydrates, lipids, and others.
Humic substances happens to be the most common of the various organic substances found in nature. They account for approximately 25% of total organic carbon on Earth and can also be found in a variety of ecosystems such as lakes, rivers, sea sediments, soil, and coal composites. Humic substances influence the chemistry, cycling, and bioavailability of chemical elements in terrestrial and aquatic environments, as well as the distribution and degradation of xenobiotic and organic chemicals of natural origin [7]. For decades, scientists have discussed the formation mechanisms of HS [8, 9]. The lack of repeated sequences, as well as the variety of chemical and biological reactions involved in their formation, render HS very complex and multifaceted molecules capable of important signaling and nutritional functions in the soil–plant system. The polymeric origin of HS has a high molecular mass (100–300 kDa) [10], derived from lignin decomposition and abiotic catalysts such as primary minerals and layer silicates. Humic compounds are classified into three categories: (1) Humin, (2) Humic Acids (HAs), and (3) Fulvic Acids (FAs) [11]. Figure 1 summarizes several of the major chemical characteristics of humic compounds.
Chemical characteristics of humic compounds (modified and adapted from [
Figure 2, illustrates the hypothetical model structure of fulvic acid (Buffle’s model) [13], which contains aromatic and aliphatic structures, both extensively substituted with oxygen containing functional groups [15, 16].
Model structure of fulvic acid [
Humus is generally brownish or black colored complex variable of carbon-containing compounds that does not show cellular organization in the form of animal bodies or plant under a light microscope. Humus is distinguished from non-humic substances such as carbohydrates (a primary component of carbon), fats, waxes, alkanes, peptides, amino acids, proteins, lipids, and organic acids by the fact that distinct chemical formulae for these non-humic substances can be published. The majority of small molecules of non-humic compounds are easily destroyed by soil microbes. Soil humus, on the other hand, decay slowly under natural soil conditions. When combined with soil minerals, soil humus can survive in the soil for centuries. Humus is the primary component of soil organic matter, accounting for 65 to 75 percent of the total. Humus plays an important role as a fertility factor in all soils, far outweighing its percentage contribution to total soil mass.
Humins are derived from humic compounds that are not soluble in alkali, not soluble in acids, and are insoluble at neutral pH ranges. However, the physical and chemical properties of humins are partly known. Humin complexes are also recognized as macro organic substances due to their large molecular weights (MW) ranging from
Humic acids (HA) are organic acids that are a combination of weak aliphatic (carbon chains) and aromatic (carbon rings) organic acids that are insoluble in acidic water but soluble in alkaline water [18]. Humic acids are composed of humic compounds that precipitate from aqueous medium when the pH drops below 2. Due to their variable chemical composition, humic acids (HA) are also known as polydisperse. These complicated carbon-containing compounds are assumed to be 3-dimensionally flexible linear polymers that reside in the form of random coils with cross-linked bonds. On average, 35 percent of humic acid (HA) molecules are aromatic (carbon rings), with the remaining components being aliphatic (carbon chains) [17]. Humic acids (HAs) have molecular sizes ranging from
The proportion of humic substances that are soluble in water at all pH levels. They are known as fulvic acids because they remain in solution after humic acid has been removed by acidification (FA). Fulvic acids range in color from light yellow to yellow-brown. The elemental composition of various FA and HA reveals that C, H, O, N, and S are the main elements in their composition. These major elements are always present, regardless of their birth, country of origin, or continent of origin. An examination of a broad range of HS reveals that the percentage composition of C, O, H, and N varies as follows: C (45–60), O (25–45), H (4–7), N (10–13) and inorganic elements (ash) 0.5–5 Table 1 [20]. summaries the composition of humic substances.
The general properties for HA, and FA relate to their basic constituents (carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen and sulfur) and their oxygen-containing functional groups (hydroxyl, carboxyl, carbone and phenolic) which give rise to their overall chemical properties, including their ability to react with ionic particles in solution. Because of their properties, HAs and FAs have been used in a variety of agricultural applications, including improving nutrient and water use, soil quality, and carbon sequestration [11]. Although a variety of mechanisms have been proposed and/or studied for the effects on humic substances on plant life, much can be learned from the imperfect understanding of these mechanisms. One such process is ion exchange, which allows the use of plant minerals by prevention of the development of insoluble mineral complexes in the soil and then enhances humic substances in exchange for hydrogen and carbonic acid, which can produce absorbable mineral ions for plant roots. In sequestration of radioactive metals in soil, the ion-exchange process also works [22]. As humic substances play a role in maintaining plant life and their ability to attach or sequester potentially harmful environmental toxicants, they can also easily be extrapolated such that they can improve human nutrition and provide some protection from unintended ingestion of dietary toxic elements.
Two active New Dietary Ingredient Notices (NDIN) for use in a dietary supplement containing additional minerals to improve the status of minerals and trace elements were subjected to a specific preparation of HA and FA derived from Hungarian peat [20]. The NDIN has recorded 9 unpublished and one published clinical evaluations in which mineral status in humans has been improved and/or absorption is inhibited and toxic element excreted [23]. However, it is not clear if these effects can generally be extrapolated to humic substances due to the possible variations between this and other humic preparations as well as the inclusion of exogenous minerals. The use of clinical or mechanical research on other humic preparations, important for humans, is restricted and there are no other studies of the above-mentioned results, although it was shown that the addition of a humic extract to the broiler feed was intended to improve the growth of chickens. Due to the heterogeneous existence of the humic substances, an extrapolation for the whole community has not been deemed sufficient toxicological evaluation of one particular unique material, while attempts have been made for the identification of an appropriate model. As a result, a number of toxicological studies have been reported on humic materials of diverse origin even though many of them have been performed to examine the mutagenic potential of byproducts produced during water disinfection because of the normal occurrence of low levels of humic material in surface waters. Chlorination of organic non-volatile substances found in HA and FA is known to lead to the development in bacterial mutation tests of compounds (such as mucochlorine acid and 2, three, three-trichloropropenal) under conditions of decreasing pH and sufficient chlorine and HA and chlorine.
Various authors have assumed that even though high molecular weight (HMW) and small molecular weight fractions (LMW) appear to be behaving differently, HS may be adsorbed by the root plant [24]. The mechanisms by which HS interacts with the root cells affecting the plant physiology and growth have not been significantly researched until today. Changes in size and growth were the first to be analyzed among the modifications caused by HS on treated plants. HS will promote plant growth with a view to increasing plant length and dry and fresh weight under specific conditions. These effects are apparently dependent on the dosage and source of the drug, the plant species and age and the conditions of the trial cultivation [25]. Many studies have recently confirmed the assumption that HS has direct effect on plant physiology, especially in regard to the development of root hair and side root [26, 27]. The impact of HS has been thoroughly evaluated on metabolic processes in plants. For example, several studies have shown that HS affects breathing, protein synthesis and the function of the enzyme in higher plants [28, 29]. With regard to the photosynthesis process, few reports are available which focus on the contents of chlorophyll and transport of electrons.
The productivity of crop plants will benefit significantly from regulation that mitigates the impact of abiotic stress on the growth and production of crops during ontogenesis. There are insufficient information currently available on control mechanisms and techniques. Optimizing plant growth conditions and providing regulators for water, nutrients and plant growth will help in avoiding abiotic pressure [30]. Bio-stimulants such as HS are also used in production systems with the aim to regulate physiological events in plants in order to improve productivity as well as these traditional strategies.
In the last two decades, scientists have increasingly utilized HS from natural materials [31]. In addition, HS provides new methods to alter physiological activity in plants to increase plant growth and abiotic stress tolerance. A number of examples show the ability of HS to improve plant abiotic stress tolerance. Treatment with hydrated leaves, anti-oxidants, radical growth and shooting under dry conditions, increased hydration of the leaves (
HS in the soil promotes root and spring growth through the improvement of mineral nutrition below the soil surface. In terms of plant production and active development, the function of these substances can be assessed [34], by their complementary and possibly diverse effects. HS regulates plant growth and mineral assimilation. In general, these effects are classified as direct and indirect. HS activities rely mainly on the structural features, functional groups and their inclination to associate with inorganic, organic and soil substratum molecules [35]. Furthermore, HS primarily affects the bioavailability of nutrients through its ability to form complexes containing metallic ions, thus enhancing micronutrient availability (zinc, manganese, copper and iron). On the other hand, HS targets plant cell membranes that can cause biochemical and molecular processes at post-transcriptional levels in the roots and shoot [32]. Targeted HS typically increase macronutrient and micronutrient consumption in plants.
Jackson [36], used 14C HS-listed substances, and found a small portion of them entering the root apoplastic pathway, especially those of low molecular weight. Therefore, the effect of HS to promote molecular systems and signal pathways of nutrient absorption present in cell membranes can be controlled. The full advantage of this direct influence is still unknown. Non-specific HS activity on the leaf and root can, however, be speculated on by controlling events at both the transcriptional and post-transcriptive stages, to modify molecular and biochemical processes.
Humic soil fractions comprise bio-molecular fragments that were explicitly omitted from conventional humic concepts. Many of these bio-molecular movements are closely linked to the humic fraction by seven covalently and cannot be effectively isolated [37]. Why should a whole group of constituent molecules be excluded? Simply because it can be classified as biomolecules if we consider humic material as a super-molecular association of constituent molecules. It is inappropriate and deceptive for these nuanced, heterogeneous mixes to purge humic fractions of closely related, identifiable bimolecular components [38]. A description that is applicable to experimental studies of the humic component should include all molecules which are closely linked within a humic fraction, i.e. those which cannot be eliminated without substantial changes in the chemical characteristics of the fraction. That will necessarily include biomolecules that are identifiable and play important structural roles. Will this wider concept of humic molecules be contrary to the recognized refractory nature?
Soil humic compounds are typically aged between hundreds and thousands of years on average and many biomolecules easily decomposed by energy-seeking microbes and nutrients. However, it can lead to biomolecules being protected against microbial degradation by binding them with humic fractions, creating identifiable but refractory biological molecules [39], is alternatively a “two-part” view of the stability of humic substances. Although the majority of humic material is permanent, some humic elements may be transient. The persistent material contributes to 14C, while the transitional components will contribute mainly to the C turnover rate. A significant portion of the transient, often refilled humic components may be made up of closely related, but easily degraded biomolecules. While most humic materials are permanent, some humic elements may be temporary. The continuous material contributes to 14C, while the intermediate components are primarily responsible for the C turnover rate [40]. A large part of the frequently refilled transient humic components can consist of closely related, but easily degraded biomolecules.
Humus is one of the largest reserves of carbon in the world. To date, industrial uses of humus and goods extracted from humus have been rare. In the second half of the 19th century and the first half of the 20th century the use of coal was more abundant and, in addition, it was a foundation of chemical production. The application Petroleum was also considered the key raw material of 20th-century chemical industry. HS applications can now be broken down into four major categories: agricultural, industrial, environmental and biomedical.
From an agronomic and agricultural point of view, HS plays a significant role as they have a huge impact on soil quality and productivity. HS also shows a high Base Exchange potential, which is essential to soil fertility, in addition to enhancing the soil’s physical properties and humidity. Many researchers and humates have observed the growth-promoting effect of humic substances in various preparations for plant growth improvement. Soil productivity in the presence of humic materials can be improved by various methods. However, in some case the consistency and fertility of the soil is greatly affected. In addition to the improvement of physical properties and moisture of the soil, HS shows a high Base Exchange potential, which is important for soil fertility. In various preparations for plant growth enhancement, several investigators have studied the growth-promoting effects of humic substances.
Natural organic colloids are important because they form water solutions with a large number of metals, including radionuclides. It is well known that the humic substances affects the absorption of natural solids into the surface and ground waters of radionuclides. Thus, these organics may be essential as a transport agents in the environment for radionuclides. In environmental chemistry, the key role of humic substances is to extract radioactive metals, organic chemical substances of anthropogenic nature and other contaminants from water [18]. Calcium humate ion exchange products were considered suitable for the extract from the water and removal of radioactive elements from water discharges from nuclear power plants for heavy metals such as iron, nickel, mercury and cadmium and copper [11]. They also use their selective bonds to destroy ammunition and chemical warfare agents [41]. For the last 30 years, interactions between humic and micro-organic materials has been widely studied and researched. Fermenting bacteria have been found capable of reducing humic materials. Many investigators have been studying the use of humics as energy source for various bacteria, fungi and higher microorganisms, but they have not exploited them. Many researchers including [42, 43], investigated the use of humic as an energy source for specific bacteria, mushrooms and higher micro-organisms but pointed out that humic materials cannot be exploited as a source of food.
Veterinary and human medicine uses humic substances manufactured on a commercial scale. Various studies have been published on the medicinal properties of humic materials. The proliferation of gastric damage caused by ethanol was greatly reduced by humic acids administered prophylactically to rats [44]. TPP given to rats with gastric and duodenal ulcers improved the healing process considerably [44]. The interest in the use of humic materials in medicine and biology has developed in the past few decades. There is an investigation into the possibility that soil humus extract could be an applicant for cosmetic and pharmaceutical products with amino acid complexes and vitamin B analogues [11]. Anti-virals, profibrinolytic, anti-inflammatory and estrogenic activities are the primary explanation for the increased attention given to humic acids [45].
In many mammalian cells, humic acid was, on the other hand, shown to be a toxic factor, although its precise cytotoxicity mechanism remains uncertain. Humic acid can be reduced from Fe (III) to Fe (II) under the wide range of pH values in aqueous conditions (4.0 to 9.0) and iron from ferritin reduction and release, but the process is partially inhibited by superoxide scavengers. It was shown that iron released from ferritin accelerates the lipid peroxidation caused by humic acid. Humic acids are also capable of reducing, releasing and supporting lipid peroxidation from ferritin storage. HAs coupled to freed iron can therefore disrupt the redox balance of the biological system and evoke oxidative stress. This may be one of the main pathways for cytotoxicity caused by HA [46]. Now is the time for new applications for humic substances, particularly in biomedicine, in less conventional areas.
HS has been widely studied in different fields of agriculture, such as ground chemistry, fertility and plant physiology as the major component of organic soil content. HS plays an important role in the regulation of pollutants’ activity and mobility in the atmosphere and makes a major contribution to improving the status of global soil fertility. Together with a strong demand for safe food and sustainable agriculture, these features have led to increasing the environmental importance of HS, recently recognized as a potential tool in facing global environmental problems. Many of its positive effects on soil structure and plant growth have been shown to depend on their chemical composition, but progress in HS research is known to be regulated by auxin. In addition, physiological and molecular evidence indicate that brassinosteroids may have a possible additional impact on the growth of plants. A critical review of literature shows that HS requires an auxin transduction pathway in order to determine its action in plant physiology but also show that the various signaling cascades in the global physiological response of plants to these substances (Figure 3). This could be used as a starting point for the clarification of mechanisms in the molecular response to HS in the plant. Further studies are required to evaluate the molecular goals and signaling trajectories involved in the intersection of the HS and the plant cells.
Schematic representation of impact of humic substances on plant biology.
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\\n\\n2. All advertisements and commercially sponsored publications are independent from editorial decisions.
\\n\\n3. IntechOpen does not endorse any product or service marked as an advertisement on IntechOpen website.
\\n\\n4. IntechOpen has blocked all the inappropriate types of advertising.
\\n\\n5. IntechOpen has blocked advertisement of harmful products or services.
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\\n\\n7. Editorial decisions will not be influenced by current or potential advertisers and will not be influenced by marketing decisions.
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\\n\\n9. Types of advertisments:
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\\n\\n- Advertisements in the Life Sciences and Health Sciences sections of the IntechOpen website are programmatic as well as contextual based on the content of the respective books and chapters. IntechOpen's third party partner eHealthcare Solutions (EHS) is a unique marketing platform that specializes in connecting niche audiences with healthcare brands.
\\n\\nYou may view their privacy policy here: https://ehealthcaresolutions.com/privacy-policy/
\\n\\n10. IntechOpen Advertising Sales department makes the decisions about the types of advertisements to include or exclude. Placement of advertising is at the discretion of IntechOpen. IntechOpen retains the right to reject and/or request modifications to the advertisement. An advertisement that is visible online, will be withdrawn from the site at any time if the Editor(s) or Author(s) request its removal.
\\n\\n11. Users can make decisions about accepting advertisements. Users can block all the advertisements by using ad blockers. Users can send all the complaints about advertising to: info@intechopen.com.
\\n\\nPolicy last updated: 2021-04-28
\\n"}]'},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'1. IntechOpen partners with third-party companies to serve ads and/or collect certain information when you visit our website. These companies may collect non-personally identifiable information (not including your name, address, email address or telephone number) during your visit to IntechOpen's website.
\n\n2. All advertisements and commercially sponsored publications are independent from editorial decisions.
\n\n3. IntechOpen does not endorse any product or service marked as an advertisement on IntechOpen website.
\n\n4. IntechOpen has blocked all the inappropriate types of advertising.
\n\n5. IntechOpen has blocked advertisement of harmful products or services.
\n\n6. Advertisements and editorial content are clearly distinguishable.
\n\n7. Editorial decisions will not be influenced by current or potential advertisers and will not be influenced by marketing decisions.
\n\n8. Advertisers have no control or influence over the results of searches a user may conduct on the website by keyword or topic search.
\n\n9. Types of advertisments:
\n\n- Advertisements in the Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, and Social Sciences and Humanities sections of the IntechOpen website are programmatic (based on user behaviour such as web pages visited, content viewed, etc.)
\n\n- Advertisements in the Life Sciences and Health Sciences sections of the IntechOpen website are programmatic as well as contextual based on the content of the respective books and chapters. IntechOpen's third party partner eHealthcare Solutions (EHS) is a unique marketing platform that specializes in connecting niche audiences with healthcare brands.
\n\nYou may view their privacy policy here: https://ehealthcaresolutions.com/privacy-policy/
\n\n10. IntechOpen Advertising Sales department makes the decisions about the types of advertisements to include or exclude. Placement of advertising is at the discretion of IntechOpen. IntechOpen retains the right to reject and/or request modifications to the advertisement. An advertisement that is visible online, will be withdrawn from the site at any time if the Editor(s) or Author(s) request its removal.
\n\n11. Users can make decisions about accepting advertisements. Users can block all the advertisements by using ad blockers. Users can send all the complaints about advertising to: info@intechopen.com.
\n\nPolicy last updated: 2021-04-28
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MRI is commonly used once treating brain, prostate cancers, ankle and foot. The Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) images are usually liable to suffer from noises such as Gaussian noise, salt and pepper noise and speckle noise. So getting of brain image with accuracy is very extremely task. An accurate brain image is very necessary for further diagnosis process. During this chapter, a median filter algorithm will be modified. Gaussian noise and Salt and pepper noise will be added to MRI image. A proposed Median filter (MF), Adaptive Median filter (AMF) and Adaptive Wiener filter (AWF) will be implemented. The filters will be used to remove the additive noises present in the MRI images. The noise density will be added gradually to MRI image to compare performance of the filters evaluation. The performance of these filters will be compared exploitation the applied mathematics parameter Peak Signal-to-Noise Ratio (PSNR).",book:{id:"6144",slug:"high-resolution-neuroimaging-basic-physical-principles-and-clinical-applications",title:"High-Resolution Neuroimaging",fullTitle:"High-Resolution Neuroimaging - Basic Physical Principles and Clinical Applications"},signatures:"Hanafy M. Ali",authors:[{id:"213318",title:"Dr.",name:"Hanafy",middleName:"M.",surname:"Ali",slug:"hanafy-ali",fullName:"Hanafy Ali"}]},{id:"41589",doi:"10.5772/50323",title:"The Role of the Amygdala in Anxiety Disorders",slug:"the-role-of-the-amygdala-in-anxiety-disorders",totalDownloads:9671,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:28,abstract:null,book:{id:"2599",slug:"the-amygdala-a-discrete-multitasking-manager",title:"The Amygdala",fullTitle:"The Amygdala - A Discrete Multitasking Manager"},signatures:"Gina L. Forster, Andrew M. Novick, Jamie L. Scholl and Michael J. 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Particularly in the case of motor imagery BCIs, users may need several training sessions before they learn how to generate desired brain activity and reach an acceptable performance. A typical training protocol for such BCIs includes execution of a motor imagery task by the user, followed by presentation of an extending bar or a moving object on a computer screen. In this chapter, we discuss the importance of a visual feedback that resembles human actions, the effect of human factors such as confidence and motivation, and the role of embodiment in the learning process of a motor imagery task. Our results from a series of experiments in which users BCI-operated a humanlike android robot confirm that realistic visual feedback can induce a sense of embodiment, which promotes a significant learning of the motor imagery task in a short amount of time. We review the impact of humanlike visual feedback in optimized modulation of brain activity by the BCI users.",book:{id:"6610",slug:"evolving-bci-therapy-engaging-brain-state-dynamics",title:"Evolving BCI Therapy",fullTitle:"Evolving BCI Therapy - Engaging Brain State Dynamics"},signatures:"Maryam Alimardani, Shuichi Nishio and Hiroshi Ishiguro",authors:[{id:"11981",title:"Prof.",name:"Hiroshi",middleName:null,surname:"Ishiguro",slug:"hiroshi-ishiguro",fullName:"Hiroshi Ishiguro"},{id:"231131",title:"Dr.",name:"Maryam",middleName:null,surname:"Alimardani",slug:"maryam-alimardani",fullName:"Maryam Alimardani"},{id:"231134",title:"Dr.",name:"Shuichi",middleName:null,surname:"Nishio",slug:"shuichi-nishio",fullName:"Shuichi Nishio"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"29764",title:"Underlying Causes of Paresthesia",slug:"underlying-causes-of-paresthesia",totalDownloads:192666,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:7,abstract:null,book:{id:"1069",slug:"paresthesia",title:"Paresthesia",fullTitle:"Paresthesia"},signatures:"Mahdi Sharif-Alhoseini, Vafa Rahimi-Movaghar and Alexander R. Vaccaro",authors:[{id:"91165",title:"Prof.",name:"Vafa",middleName:null,surname:"Rahimi-Movaghar",slug:"vafa-rahimi-movaghar",fullName:"Vafa Rahimi-Movaghar"}]},{id:"63258",title:"Anatomy and Function of the Hypothalamus",slug:"anatomy-and-function-of-the-hypothalamus",totalDownloads:4558,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:12,abstract:"The hypothalamus is a small but important area of the brain formed by various nucleus and nervous fibers. Through its neuronal connections, it is involved in many complex functions of the organism such as vegetative system control, homeostasis of the organism, thermoregulation, and also in adjusting the emotional behavior. The hypothalamus is involved in different daily activities like eating or drinking, in the control of the body’s temperature and energy maintenance, and in the process of memorizing. It also modulates the endocrine system through its connections with the pituitary gland. Precise anatomical description along with a correct characterization of the component structures is essential for understanding its functions.",book:{id:"6331",slug:"hypothalamus-in-health-and-diseases",title:"Hypothalamus in Health and Diseases",fullTitle:"Hypothalamus in Health and Diseases"},signatures:"Miana Gabriela Pop, Carmen Crivii and Iulian Opincariu",authors:null},{id:"57103",title:"GABA and Glutamate: Their Transmitter Role in the CNS and Pancreatic Islets",slug:"gaba-and-glutamate-their-transmitter-role-in-the-cns-and-pancreatic-islets",totalDownloads:3478,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:9,abstract:"Glutamate and gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) are the major neurotransmitters in the mammalian brain. Inhibitory GABA and excitatory glutamate work together to control many processes, including the brain’s overall level of excitation. The contributions of GABA and glutamate in extra-neuronal signaling are by far less widely recognized. In this chapter, we first discuss the role of both neurotransmitters during development, emphasizing the importance of the shift from excitatory to inhibitory GABAergic neurotransmission. The second part summarizes the biosynthesis and role of GABA and glutamate in neurotransmission in the mature brain, and major neurological disorders associated with glutamate and GABA receptors and GABA release mechanisms. The final part focuses on extra-neuronal glutamatergic and GABAergic signaling in pancreatic islets of Langerhans, and possible associations with type 1 diabetes mellitus.",book:{id:"6237",slug:"gaba-and-glutamate-new-developments-in-neurotransmission-research",title:"GABA And Glutamate",fullTitle:"GABA And Glutamate - New Developments In Neurotransmission Research"},signatures:"Christiane S. Hampe, Hiroshi Mitoma and Mario Manto",authors:[{id:"210220",title:"Prof.",name:"Christiane",middleName:null,surname:"Hampe",slug:"christiane-hampe",fullName:"Christiane Hampe"},{id:"210485",title:"Prof.",name:"Mario",middleName:null,surname:"Manto",slug:"mario-manto",fullName:"Mario Manto"},{id:"210486",title:"Prof.",name:"Hiroshi",middleName:null,surname:"Mitoma",slug:"hiroshi-mitoma",fullName:"Hiroshi Mitoma"}]},{id:"35802",title:"Cross-Cultural/Linguistic Differences in the Prevalence of Developmental Dyslexia and the Hypothesis of Granularity and Transparency",slug:"cross-cultural-linguistic-differences-in-the-prevalence-of-developmental-dyslexia-and-the-hypothesis",totalDownloads:3601,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:7,abstract:null,book:{id:"673",slug:"dyslexia-a-comprehensive-and-international-approach",title:"Dyslexia",fullTitle:"Dyslexia - A Comprehensive and International Approach"},signatures:"Taeko N. Wydell",authors:[{id:"87489",title:"Prof.",name:"Taeko",middleName:"N.",surname:"Wydell",slug:"taeko-wydell",fullName:"Taeko Wydell"}]},{id:"58597",title:"Testosterone and Erectile Function: A Review of Evidence from Basic Research",slug:"testosterone-and-erectile-function-a-review-of-evidence-from-basic-research",totalDownloads:1331,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"Androgens are essential for male physical activity and normal erectile function. Hence, age-related testosterone deficiency, known as late-onset hypogonadism (LOH), is considered a risk factor for erectile dysfunction (ED). This chapter summarizes relevant basic research reports examining the effects of testosterone on erectile function. Testosterone affects several organs and is especially active on the erectile tissue. The mechanism of testosterone deficiency effects on erectile function and the results of testosterone replacement therapy (TRT) have been well studied. Testosterone affects nitric oxide (NO) production and phosphodiesterase type 5 (PDE-5) expression in the corpus cavernosum through molecular pathways, preserves smooth muscle contractility by regulating both contraction and relaxation, and maintains the structure of the corpus cavernosum. Interestingly, testosterone deficiency has relationship to neurological diseases, which leads to ED. Testosterone replacement therapy is widely used to treat patients with testosterone deficiency; however, this treatment might also induce some problems. Basic research suggests that PDE-5 inhibitors, L-citrulline, and/or resveratrol therapy might be effective therapeutic options for testosterone deficiency-induced ED. Future research should confirm these findings through more specific experiments using molecular tools and may shed more light on endocrine-related ED and its possible treatments.",book:{id:"5994",slug:"sex-hormones-in-neurodegenerative-processes-and-diseases",title:"Sex Hormones in Neurodegenerative Processes and Diseases",fullTitle:"Sex Hormones in Neurodegenerative Processes and Diseases"},signatures:"Tomoya Kataoka and Kazunori Kimura",authors:[{id:"219042",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Tomoya",middleName:null,surname:"Kataoka",slug:"tomoya-kataoka",fullName:"Tomoya Kataoka"},{id:"229066",title:"Prof.",name:"Kazunori",middleName:null,surname:"Kimura",slug:"kazunori-kimura",fullName:"Kazunori Kimura"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"18",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"81646",title:"Cortical Plasticity under Ketamine: From Synapse to Map",slug:"cortical-plasticity-under-ketamine-from-synapse-to-map",totalDownloads:14,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104787",abstract:"Sensory systems need to process signals in a highly dynamic way to efficiently respond to variations in the animal’s environment. For instance, several studies showed that the visual system is subject to neuroplasticity since the neurons’ firing changes according to stimulus properties. This dynamic information processing might be supported by a network reorganization. Since antidepressants influence neurotransmission, they can be used to explore synaptic plasticity sustaining cortical map reorganization. To this goal, we investigated in the primary visual cortex (V1 of mouse and cat), the impact of ketamine on neuroplasticity through changes in neuronal orientation selectivity and the functional connectivity between V1 cells, using cross correlation analyses. We found that ketamine affects cortical orientation selectivity and alters the functional connectivity within an assembly. These data clearly highlight the role of the antidepressant drugs in inducing or modeling short-term plasticity in V1 which suggests that cortical processing is optimized and adapted to the properties of the stimulus.",book:{id:"11374",title:"Sensory Nervous System - Computational Neuroimaging Investigations of Topographical Organization in Human Sensory Cortex",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11374.jpg"},signatures:"Ouelhazi Afef, Rudy Lussiez and Molotchnikoff Stephane"},{id:"81582",title:"The Role of Cognitive Reserve in Executive Functioning and Its Relationship to Cognitive Decline and Dementia",slug:"the-role-of-cognitive-reserve-in-executive-functioning-and-its-relationship-to-cognitive-decline-and",totalDownloads:22,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104646",abstract:"In this chapter, we explore how cognitive reserve is implicated in coping with the negative consequences of brain pathology and age-related cognitive decline. Individual differences in cognitive performance are based on different brain mechanisms (neural reserve and neural compensation), and reflect, among others, the effect of education, occupational attainment, leisure activities, and social involvement. These cognitive reserve proxies have been extensively associated with efficient executive functioning. We discuss and focus particularly on the compensation mechanisms related to the frontal lobe and its protective role, in maintaining cognitive performance in old age or even mitigating the clinical expression of dementia.",book:{id:"11742",title:"Neurophysiology",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11742.jpg"},signatures:"Gabriela Álvares-Pereira, Carolina Maruta and Maria Vânia Silva-Nunes"},{id:"81488",title:"Aggression and Sexual Behavior: Overlapping or Distinct Roles of 5-HT1A and 5-HT1B Receptors",slug:"aggression-and-sexual-behavior-overlapping-or-distinct-roles-of-5-ht1a-and-5-ht1b-receptors",totalDownloads:19,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104872",abstract:"Distinct brain mechanisms for male aggressive and sexual behavior are present in mammalian species, including man. However, recent evidence suggests a strong connection and even overlap in the central nervous system (CNS) circuitry involved in aggressive and sexual behavior. The serotonergic system in the CNS is strongly involved in male aggressive and sexual behavior. In particular, 5-HT1A and 5-HT1B receptors seem to play a critical role in the modulation of these behaviors. The present chapter focuses on the effects of 5-HT1A- and 5-HT1B-receptor ligands in male rodent aggression and sexual behavior. Results indicate that 5-HT1B-heteroreceptors play a critical role in the modulation of male offensive behavior, although a definite role of 5-HT1A-auto- or heteroreceptors cannot be ruled out. 5-HT1A receptors are clearly involved in male sexual behavior, although it has to be yet unraveled whether 5-HT1A-auto- or heteroreceptors are important. Although several key nodes in the complex circuitry of aggression and sexual behavior are known, in particular in the medial hypothalamus, a clear link or connection to these critical structures and the serotonergic key receptors is yet to be determined. This information is urgently needed to detect and develop new selective anti-aggressive (serenic) and pro-sexual drugs for human applications.",book:{id:"10195",title:"Serotonin and the CNS - New Developments in Pharmacology and Therapeutics",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10195.jpg"},signatures:"Berend Olivier and Jocelien D.A. Olivier"},{id:"81093",title:"Prehospital and Emergency Room Airway Management in Traumatic Brain Injury",slug:"prehospital-and-emergency-room-airway-management-in-traumatic-brain-injury",totalDownloads:49,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104173",abstract:"Airway management in trauma is critical and may impact patient outcomes. Particularly in traumatic brain injury (TBI), depressed level of consciousness may be associated with compromised protective airway reflexes or apnea, which can increase the risk of aspiration or result in hypoxemia and worsen the secondary brain damage. Therefore, patients with TBI and Glasgow Coma Scale (GCS) ≤ 8 have been traditionally managed by prehospital or emergency room (ER) endotracheal intubation. However, recent evidence challenged this practice and even suggested that routine intubation may be harmful. This chapter will address the indications and optimal method of securing the airway, prehospital and in the ER, in patients with traumatic brain injury.",book:{id:"11367",title:"Traumatic Brain Injury",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11367.jpg"},signatures:"Dominik A. Jakob, Jean-Cyrille Pitteloud and Demetrios Demetriades"},{id:"81011",title:"Amino Acids as Neurotransmitters. The Balance between Excitation and Inhibition as a Background for Future Clinical Applications",slug:"amino-acids-as-neurotransmitters-the-balance-between-excitation-and-inhibition-as-a-background-for-f",totalDownloads:19,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103760",abstract:"For more than 30 years, amino acids have been well-known (and essential) participants in neurotransmission. They act as both neuromediators and metabolites in nervous tissue. Glycine and glutamic acid (glutamate) are prominent examples. These amino acids are agonists of inhibitory and excitatory membrane receptors, respectively. Moreover, they play essential roles in metabolic pathways and energy transformation in neurons and astrocytes. Despite their obvious effects on the brain, their potential role in therapeutic methods remains uncertain in clinical practice. In the current chapter, a comparison of the crosstalk between these two systems, which are responsible for excitation and inhibition in neurons, is presented. The interactions are discussed at the metabolic, receptor, and transport levels. Reaction-diffusion and a convectional flow into the interstitial fluid create a balanced distribution of glycine and glutamate. Indeed, the neurons’ final physiological state is a result of a balance between the excitatory and inhibitory influences. However, changes to the glycine and/or glutamate pools under pathological conditions can alter the state of nervous tissue. Thus, new therapies for various diseases may be developed on the basis of amino acid medication.",book:{id:"10890",title:"Recent Advances in Neurochemistry",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10890.jpg"},signatures:"Yaroslav R. Nartsissov"},{id:"80821",title:"Neuroimmunology and Neurological Manifestations of COVID-19",slug:"neuroimmunology-and-neurological-manifestations-of-covid-19",totalDownloads:41,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103026",abstract:"Infection with SARS-CoV-2 is causing coronavirus disease in 2019 (COVID-19). Besides respiratory symptoms due to an attack on the broncho-alveolar system, COVID-19, among others, can be accompanied by neurological symptoms because of the affection of the nervous system. These can be caused by intrusion by SARS-CoV-2 of the central nervous system (CNS) and peripheral nervous system (PNS) and direct infection of local cells. In addition, neurological deterioration mediated by molecular mimicry to virus antigens or bystander activation in the context of immunological anti-virus defense can lead to tissue damage in the CNS and PNS. In addition, cytokine storm caused by SARS-CoV-2 infection in COVID-19 can lead to nervous system related symptoms. Endotheliitis of CNS vessels can lead to vessel occlusion and stroke. COVID-19 can also result in cerebral hemorrhage and sinus thrombosis possibly related to changes in clotting behavior. Vaccination is most important to prevent COVID-19 in the nervous system. There are symptomatic or/and curative therapeutic approaches to combat COVID-19 related nervous system damage that are partly still under study.",book:{id:"10890",title:"Recent Advances in Neurochemistry",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10890.jpg"},signatures:"Robert Weissert"}],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:17},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:87,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:98,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:27,numberOfPublishedChapters:288,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:9,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:139,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:0,numberOfUpcomingTopics:2,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:107,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:10,numberOfPublishedChapters:103,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:0,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:11,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",issn:"2631-6188",scope:"This series will provide a comprehensive overview of recent research trends in various Infectious Diseases (as per the most recent Baltimore classification). Topics will include general overviews of infections, immunopathology, diagnosis, treatment, epidemiology, etiology, and current clinical recommendations for managing infectious diseases. Ongoing issues, recent advances, and future diagnostic approaches and therapeutic strategies will also be discussed. This book series will focus on various aspects and properties of infectious diseases whose deep understanding is essential for safeguarding the human race from losing resources and economies due to pathogens.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/6.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"May 19th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:13,editor:{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",biography:"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (especially arboviral diseases). He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:5,paginationItems:[{id:"19",title:"Animal Science",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/19.jpg",editor:{id:"259298",title:"Dr.",name:"Edward",middleName:null,surname:"Narayan",slug:"edward-narayan",fullName:"Edward Narayan",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Edward Narayan graduated with Ph.D. degree in Biology from the University of the South Pacific and pioneered non-invasive reproductive and stress endocrinology tools for amphibians - the novel development and validation of non-invasive enzyme immunoassays for the evaluation of reproductive hormonal cycle and stress hormone responses to environmental stressors. \nDr. Narayan leads the Stress Lab (Comparative Physiology and Endocrinology) at the University of Queensland. A dynamic career research platform which is based on the thematic areas of comparative vertebrate physiology, stress endocrinology, reproductive endocrinology, animal health and welfare, and conservation biology. \nEdward has supervised 40 research students and published over 60 peer reviewed research.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Queensland",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Australia"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"258334",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos Eduardo",middleName:null,surname:"Fonseca-Alves",slug:"carlos-eduardo-fonseca-alves",fullName:"Carlos Eduardo Fonseca-Alves",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/258334/images/system/258334.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Paulista",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"191123",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan José",middleName:null,surname:"Valdez-Alarcón",slug:"juan-jose-valdez-alarcon",fullName:"Juan José Valdez-Alarcón",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSBfcQAG/Profile_Picture_1631354558068",institutionString:"Universidad Michoacana de San Nicolás de Hidalgo",institution:{name:"Universidad Michoacana de San Nicolás de Hidalgo",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"161556",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria Dos Anjos",middleName:null,surname:"Pires",slug:"maria-dos-anjos-pires",fullName:"Maria Dos Anjos Pires",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bS8q2QAC/Profile_Picture_1633432838418",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"209839",title:"Dr.",name:"Marina",middleName:null,surname:"Spinu",slug:"marina-spinu",fullName:"Marina Spinu",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRLXpQAO/Profile_Picture_1630044895475",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine of Cluj-Napoca",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"92185",title:"Dr.",name:"Sara",middleName:null,surname:"Savic",slug:"sara-savic",fullName:"Sara Savic",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/92185/images/system/92185.jfif",institutionString:'Scientific Veterinary Institute "Novi Sad"',institution:{name:'Scientific Veterinary Institute "Novi Sad"',institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Serbia"}}}]},{id:"20",title:"Animal Nutrition",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/20.jpg",editor:{id:"175967",title:"Dr.",name:"Manuel",middleName:null,surname:"Gonzalez Ronquillo",slug:"manuel-gonzalez-ronquillo",fullName:"Manuel Gonzalez Ronquillo",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/175967/images/system/175967.png",biography:"Dr. Manuel González Ronquillo obtained his doctorate degree from the University of Zaragoza, Spain, in 2001. He is a research professor at the Faculty of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Husbandry, Autonomous University of the State of Mexico. He is also a level-2 researcher. He received a Fulbright-Garcia Robles fellowship for a postdoctoral stay at the US Dairy Forage Research Center, Madison, Wisconsin, USA in 2008–2009. He received grants from Alianza del Pacifico for a stay at the University of Magallanes, Chile, in 2014, and from Consejo Nacional de Ciencia y Tecnología (CONACyT) to work in the Food and Agriculture Organization’s Animal Production and Health Division (AGA), Rome, Italy, in 2014–2015. He has collaborated with researchers from different countries and published ninety-eight journal articles. 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He has published more than 50 papers in journals and 2 books.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universitas Internasional Batam",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"314576",title:"Dr.",name:"Ibai",middleName:null,surname:"Laña",slug:"ibai-lana",fullName:"Ibai Laña",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/314576/images/system/314576.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ibai Laña works at TECNALIA as a data analyst. He received his Ph.D. in Artificial Intelligence from the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU), Spain, in 2018. He is currently a senior researcher at TECNALIA. His research interests fall within the intersection of intelligent transportation systems, machine learning, traffic data analysis, and data science. He has dealt with urban traffic forecasting problems, applying machine learning models and evolutionary algorithms. He has experience in origin-destination matrix estimation or point of interest and trajectory detection. Working with large volumes of data has given him a good command of big data processing tools and NoSQL databases. He has also been a visiting scholar at the Knowledge Engineering and Discovery Research Institute, Auckland University of Technology.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"314575",title:"Dr.",name:"Jesus",middleName:null,surname:"L. Lobo",slug:"jesus-l.-lobo",fullName:"Jesus L. Lobo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/314575/images/system/314575.png",biography:"Dr. Jesús López is currently based in Bilbao (Spain) working at TECNALIA as Artificial Intelligence Research Scientist. In most cases, a project idea or a new research line needs to be investigated to see if it is good enough to take into production or to focus on it. That is exactly what he does, diving into Machine Learning algorithms and technologies to help TECNALIA to decide whether something is great in theory or will actually impact on the product or processes of its projects. So, he is expert at framing experiments, developing hypotheses, and proving whether they’re true or not, in order to investigate fundamental problems with a longer time horizon. He is also able to design and develop PoCs and system prototypes in simulation. He has participated in several national and internacional R&D projects.\n\nAs another relevant part of his everyday research work, he usually publishes his findings in reputed scientific refereed journals and international conferences, occasionally acting as reviewer and Programme Commitee member. Concretely, since 2018 he has published 9 JCR (8 Q1) journal papers, 9 conference papers (e.g. ECML PKDD 2021), and he has co-edited a book. He is also active in popular science writing data science stories for reputed blogs (KDNuggets, TowardsDataScience, Naukas). Besides, he has recently embarked on mentoring programmes as mentor, and has also worked as data science trainer.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"103779",title:"Prof.",name:"Yalcin",middleName:null,surname:"Isler",slug:"yalcin-isler",fullName:"Yalcin Isler",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRyQ8QAK/Profile_Picture_1628834958734",biography:"Yalcin Isler (1971 - Burdur / Turkey) received the B.Sc. degree in the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering from Anadolu University, Eskisehir, Turkey, in 1993, the M.Sc. degree from the Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, Suleyman Demirel University, Isparta, Turkey, in 1996, the Ph.D. degree from the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey, in 2009, and the Competence of Associate Professorship from the Turkish Interuniversity Council in 2019.\n\nHe was Lecturer at Burdur Vocational School in Suleyman Demirel University (1993-2000, Burdur / Turkey), Software Engineer (2000-2002, Izmir / Turkey), Research Assistant in Bulent Ecevit University (2002-2003, Zonguldak / Turkey), Research Assistant in Dokuz Eylul University (2003-2010, Izmir / Turkey), Assistant Professor at the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering in Bulent Ecevit University (2010-2012, Zonguldak / Turkey), Assistant Professor at the Department of Biomedical Engineering in Izmir Katip Celebi University (2012-2019, Izmir / Turkey). He is an Associate Professor at the Department of Biomedical Engineering at Izmir Katip Celebi University, Izmir / Turkey, since 2019. In addition to academics, he has also founded Islerya Medical and Information Technologies Company, Izmir / Turkey, since 2017.\n\nHis main research interests cover biomedical signal processing, pattern recognition, medical device design, programming, and embedded systems. He has many scientific papers and participated in several projects in these study fields. He was an IEEE Student Member (2009-2011) and IEEE Member (2011-2014) and has been IEEE Senior Member since 2014.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Izmir Kâtip Çelebi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"339677",title:"Dr.",name:"Mrinmoy",middleName:null,surname:"Roy",slug:"mrinmoy-roy",fullName:"Mrinmoy Roy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/339677/images/16768_n.jpg",biography:"An accomplished Sales & Marketing professional with 12 years of cross-functional experience in well-known organisations such as CIPLA, LUPIN, GLENMARK, ASTRAZENECA across different segment of Sales & Marketing, International Business, Institutional Business, Product Management, Strategic Marketing of HIV, Oncology, Derma, Respiratory, Anti-Diabetic, Nutraceutical & Stomatological Product Portfolio and Generic as well as Chronic Critical Care Portfolio. A First Class MBA in International Business & Strategic Marketing, B.Pharm, D.Pharm, Google Certified Digital Marketing Professional. Qualified PhD Candidate in Operations and Management with special focus on Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning adoption, analysis and use in Healthcare, Hospital & Pharma Domain. Seasoned with diverse therapy area of Pharmaceutical Sales & Marketing ranging from generating revenue through generating prescriptions, launching new products, and making them big brands with continuous strategy execution at the Physician and Patients level. Moved from Sales to Marketing and Business Development for 3.5 years in South East Asian Market operating from Manila, Philippines. Came back to India and handled and developed Brands such as Gluconorm, Lupisulin, Supracal, Absolut Woman, Hemozink, Fabiflu (For COVID 19), and many more. In my previous assignment I used to develop and execute strategies on Sales & Marketing, Commercialization & Business Development for Institution and Corporate Hospital Business portfolio of Oncology Therapy Area for AstraZeneca Pharma India Ltd. Being a Research Scholar and Student of ‘Operations Research & Management: Artificial Intelligence’ I published several pioneer research papers and book chapters on the same in Internationally reputed journals and Books indexed in Scopus, Springer and Ei Compendex, Google Scholar etc. Currently, I am launching PGDM Pharmaceutical Management Program in IIHMR Bangalore and spearheading the course curriculum and structure of the same. I am interested in Collaboration for Healthcare Innovation, Pharma AI Innovation, Future trend in Marketing and Management with incubation on Healthcare, Healthcare IT startups, AI-ML Modelling and Healthcare Algorithm based training module development. I am also an affiliated member of the Institute of Management Consultant of India, looking forward to Healthcare, Healthcare IT and Innovation, Pharma and Hospital Management Consulting works.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Lovely Professional University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"1063",title:"Prof.",name:"Constantin",middleName:null,surname:"Volosencu",slug:"constantin-volosencu",fullName:"Constantin Volosencu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/1063/images/system/1063.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Constantin Voloşencu graduated as an engineer from\nPolitehnica University of Timișoara, Romania, where he also\nobtained a doctorate degree. He is currently a full professor in\nthe Department of Automation and Applied Informatics at the\nsame university. Dr. Voloşencu is the author of ten books, seven\nbook chapters, and more than 160 papers published in journals\nand conference proceedings. He has also edited twelve books and\nhas twenty-seven patents to his name. He is a manager of research grants, editor in\nchief and member of international journal editorial boards, a former plenary speaker, a member of scientific committees, and chair at international conferences. His\nresearch is in the fields of control systems, control of electric drives, fuzzy control\nsystems, neural network applications, fault detection and diagnosis, sensor network\napplications, monitoring of distributed parameter systems, and power ultrasound\napplications. He has developed automation equipment for machine tools, spooling\nmachines, high-power ultrasound processes, and more.",institutionString:"Polytechnic University of Timişoara",institution:{name:"Polytechnic University of Timişoara",country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"221364",title:"Dr.",name:"Eneko",middleName:null,surname:"Osaba",slug:"eneko-osaba",fullName:"Eneko Osaba",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/221364/images/system/221364.jpg",biography:"Dr. Eneko Osaba works at TECNALIA as a senior researcher. He obtained his Ph.D. in Artificial Intelligence in 2015. He has participated in more than twenty-five local and European research projects, and in the publication of more than 130 papers. He has performed several stays at universities in the United Kingdom, Italy, and Malta. Dr. Osaba has served as a program committee member in more than forty international conferences and participated in organizing activities in more than ten international conferences. He is a member of the editorial board of the International Journal of Artificial Intelligence, Data in Brief, and Journal of Advanced Transportation. He is also a guest editor for the Journal of Computational Science, Neurocomputing, Swarm, and Evolutionary Computation and IEEE ITS Magazine.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"275829",title:"Dr.",name:"Esther",middleName:null,surname:"Villar-Rodriguez",slug:"esther-villar-rodriguez",fullName:"Esther Villar-Rodriguez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/275829/images/system/275829.jpg",biography:"Dr. Esther Villar obtained a Ph.D. in Information and Communication Technologies from the University of Alcalá, Spain, in 2015. She obtained a degree in Computer Science from the University of Deusto, Spain, in 2010, and an MSc in Computer Languages and Systems from the National University of Distance Education, Spain, in 2012. Her areas of interest and knowledge include natural language processing (NLP), detection of impersonation in social networks, semantic web, and machine learning. Dr. Esther Villar made several contributions at conferences and publishing in various journals in those fields. Currently, she is working within the OPTIMA (Optimization Modeling & Analytics) business of TECNALIA’s ICT Division as a data scientist in projects related to the prediction and optimization of management and industrial processes (resource planning, energy efficiency, etc).",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"49813",title:"Dr.",name:"Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Del Ser",slug:"javier-del-ser",fullName:"Javier Del Ser",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49813/images/system/49813.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Javier Del Ser received his first PhD in Telecommunication Engineering (Cum Laude) from the University of Navarra, Spain, in 2006, and a second PhD in Computational Intelligence (Summa Cum Laude) from the University of Alcala, Spain, in 2013. He is currently a principal researcher in data analytics and optimisation at TECNALIA (Spain), a visiting fellow at the Basque Center for Applied Mathematics (BCAM) and a part-time lecturer at the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU). His research interests gravitate on the use of descriptive, prescriptive and predictive algorithms for data mining and optimization in a diverse range of application fields such as Energy, Transport, Telecommunications, Health and Industry, among others. In these fields he has published more than 240 articles, co-supervised 8 Ph.D. theses, edited 6 books, coauthored 7 patents and participated/led more than 40 research projects. He is a Senior Member of the IEEE, and a recipient of the Biscay Talent prize for his academic career.",institutionString:"Tecnalia Research & Innovation",institution:null},{id:"278948",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos Pedro",middleName:null,surname:"Gonçalves",slug:"carlos-pedro-goncalves",fullName:"Carlos Pedro Gonçalves",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRcmyQAC/Profile_Picture_1564224512145",biography:'Carlos Pedro Gonçalves (PhD) is an Associate Professor at Lusophone University of Humanities and Technologies and a researcher on Complexity Sciences, Quantum Technologies, Artificial Intelligence, Strategic Studies, Studies in Intelligence and Security, FinTech and Financial Risk Modeling. He is also a progammer with programming experience in:\n\nA) Quantum Computing using Qiskit Python module and IBM Quantum Experience Platform, with software developed on the simulation of Quantum Artificial Neural Networks and Quantum Cybersecurity;\n\nB) Artificial Intelligence and Machine learning programming in Python;\n\nC) Artificial Intelligence, Multiagent Systems Modeling and System Dynamics Modeling in Netlogo, with models developed in the areas of Chaos Theory, Econophysics, Artificial Intelligence, Classical and Quantum Complex Systems Science, with the Econophysics models having been cited worldwide and incorporated in PhD programs by different Universities.\n\nReceived an Arctic Code Vault Contributor status by GitHub, due to having developed open source software preserved in the \\"Arctic Code Vault\\" for future generations (https://archiveprogram.github.com/arctic-vault/), with the Strategy Analyzer A.I. module for decision making support (based on his PhD thesis, used in his Classes on Decision Making and in Strategic Intelligence Consulting Activities) and QNeural Python Quantum Neural Network simulator also preserved in the \\"Arctic Code Vault\\", for access to these software modules see: https://github.com/cpgoncalves. He is also a peer reviewer with outsanding review status from Elsevier journals, including Physica A, Neurocomputing and Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence. Science CV available at: https://www.cienciavitae.pt//pt/8E1C-A8B3-78C5 and ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0298-3974',institutionString:"University of Lisbon",institution:{name:"Universidade Lusófona",country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"241400",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammed",middleName:null,surname:"Bsiss",slug:"mohammed-bsiss",fullName:"Mohammed Bsiss",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241400/images/8062_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"276128",title:"Dr.",name:"Hira",middleName:null,surname:"Fatima",slug:"hira-fatima",fullName:"Hira Fatima",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/276128/images/14420_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Hira Fatima\nAssistant Professor\nDepartment of Mathematics\nInstitute of Applied Science\nMangalayatan University, Aligarh\nMobile: no : 8532041179\nhirafatima2014@gmal.com\n\nDr. Hira Fatima has received his Ph.D. degree in pure Mathematics from Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh India. Currently working as an Assistant Professor in the Department of Mathematics, Institute of Applied Science, Mangalayatan University, Aligarh. She taught so many courses of Mathematics of UG and PG level. Her research Area of Expertise is Functional Analysis & Sequence Spaces. She has been working on Ideal Convergence of double sequence. She has published 17 research papers in National and International Journals including Cogent Mathematics, Filomat, Journal of Intelligent and Fuzzy Systems, Advances in Difference Equations, Journal of Mathematical Analysis, Journal of Mathematical & Computer Science etc. She has also reviewed few research papers for the and international journals. She is a member of Indian Mathematical Society.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"414880",title:"Dr.",name:"Maryam",middleName:null,surname:"Vatankhah",slug:"maryam-vatankhah",fullName:"Maryam Vatankhah",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Borough of Manhattan Community College",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"414879",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammad-Reza",middleName:null,surname:"Akbarzadeh-Totonchi",slug:"mohammad-reza-akbarzadeh-totonchi",fullName:"Mohammad-Reza Akbarzadeh-Totonchi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ferdowsi University of Mashhad",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"414878",title:"Prof.",name:"Reza",middleName:null,surname:"Fazel-Rezai",slug:"reza-fazel-rezai",fullName:"Reza Fazel-Rezai",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"American Public University System",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"302698",title:"Dr.",name:"Yao",middleName:null,surname:"Shan",slug:"yao-shan",fullName:"Yao Shan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Dalian University of Technology",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"125911",title:"Prof.",name:"Jia-Ching",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"jia-ching-wang",fullName:"Jia-Ching Wang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Central University",country:{name:"Taiwan"}}},{id:"357085",title:"Mr.",name:"P. Mohan",middleName:null,surname:"Anand",slug:"p.-mohan-anand",fullName:"P. Mohan Anand",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"356696",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"P.V.",middleName:null,surname:"Sai Charan",slug:"p.v.-sai-charan",fullName:"P.V. Sai Charan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"357086",title:"Prof.",name:"Sandeep K.",middleName:null,surname:"Shukla",slug:"sandeep-k.-shukla",fullName:"Sandeep K. Shukla",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"356823",title:"MSc.",name:"Seonghee",middleName:null,surname:"Min",slug:"seonghee-min",fullName:"Seonghee Min",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Daegu University",country:{name:"Korea, South"}}},{id:"353307",title:"Prof.",name:"Yoosoo",middleName:null,surname:"Oh",slug:"yoosoo-oh",fullName:"Yoosoo Oh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:"Yoosoo Oh received his Bachelor's degree in the Department of Electronics and Engineering from Kyungpook National University in 2002. He obtained his Master’s degree in the Department of Information and Communications from Gwangju Institute of Science and Technology (GIST) in 2003. In 2010, he received his Ph.D. degree in the School of Information and Mechatronics from GIST. In the meantime, he was an executed team leader at Culture Technology Institute, GIST, 2010-2012. In 2011, he worked at Lancaster University, the UK as a visiting scholar. In September 2012, he joined Daegu University, where he is currently an associate professor in the School of ICT Conver, Daegu University. Also, he served as the Board of Directors of KSIIS since 2019, and HCI Korea since 2016. From 2017~2019, he worked as a center director of the Mixed Reality Convergence Research Center at Daegu University. From 2015-2017, He worked as a director in the Enterprise Supporting Office of LINC Project Group, Daegu University. His research interests include Activity Fusion & Reasoning, Machine Learning, Context-aware Middleware, Human-Computer Interaction, etc.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Daegu Gyeongbuk Institute of Science and Technology",country:{name:"Korea, South"}}},{id:"262719",title:"Dr.",name:"Esma",middleName:null,surname:"Ergüner Özkoç",slug:"esma-erguner-ozkoc",fullName:"Esma Ergüner Özkoç",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Başkent University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"346530",title:"Dr.",name:"Ibrahim",middleName:null,surname:"Kaya",slug:"ibrahim-kaya",fullName:"Ibrahim Kaya",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Izmir Kâtip Çelebi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"419199",title:"Dr.",name:"Qun",middleName:null,surname:"Yang",slug:"qun-yang",fullName:"Qun Yang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Auckland",country:{name:"New Zealand"}}},{id:"351158",title:"Prof.",name:"David W.",middleName:null,surname:"Anderson",slug:"david-w.-anderson",fullName:"David W. Anderson",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Calgary",country:{name:"Canada"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"14",type:"subseries",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology",keywords:"Omics (Transcriptomics; Proteomics; Metabolomics), Molecular Biology, Cell Biology, Signal Transduction and Regulation, Cell Growth and Differentiation, Apoptosis, Necroptosis, Ferroptosis, Autophagy, Cell Cycle, Macromolecules and Complexes, Gene Expression",scope:"The Cell and Molecular Biology topic within the IntechOpen Biochemistry Series aims to rapidly publish contributions on all aspects of cell and molecular biology, including aspects related to biochemical and genetic research (not only in humans but all living beings). We encourage the submission of manuscripts that provide novel and mechanistic insights that report significant advances in the fields. Topics include, but are not limited to: Advanced techniques of cellular and molecular biology (Molecular methodologies, imaging techniques, and bioinformatics); Biological activities at the molecular level; Biological processes of cell functions, cell division, senescence, maintenance, and cell death; Biomolecules interactions; Cancer; Cell biology; Chemical biology; Computational biology; Cytochemistry; Developmental biology; Disease mechanisms and therapeutics; DNA, and RNA metabolism; Gene functions, genetics, and genomics; Genetics; Immunology; Medical microbiology; Molecular biology; Molecular genetics; Molecular processes of cell and organelle dynamics; Neuroscience; Protein biosynthesis, degradation, and functions; Regulation of molecular interactions in a cell; Signalling networks and system biology; Structural biology; Virology and microbiology.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/14.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!0,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11410,editor:{id:"165627",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosa María",middleName:null,surname:"Martínez-Espinosa",slug:"rosa-maria-martinez-espinosa",fullName:"Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/165627/images/system/165627.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa has been a Spanish Full Professor since 2020 (Biochemistry and Molecular Biology) and is currently Vice-President of International Relations and Cooperation development and leader of the research group 'Applied Biochemistry” (University of Alicante, Spain). Other positions she has held at the university include Vice-Dean of Master Programs, Vice-Dean of the Degree in Biology and Vice-Dean for Mobility and Enterprise and Engagement at the Faculty of Science (University of Alicante). She received her Bachelor in Biology in 1998 (University of Alicante) and her PhD in 2003 (Biochemistry, University of Alicante). She undertook post-doctoral research at the University of East Anglia (Norwich, U.K. 2004-2005; 2007-2008).\nHer multidisciplinary research focuses on investigating archaea and their potential applications in biotechnology. She has an H-index of 21. She has authored one patent and has published more than 70 indexed papers and around 60 book chapters.\nShe has contributed to more than 150 national and international meetings during the last 15 years. Her research interests include archaea metabolism, enzymes purification and characterization, gene regulation, carotenoids and bioplastics production, antioxidant\ncompounds, waste water treatments, and brines bioremediation.\nRosa María’s other roles include editorial board member for several journals related\nto biochemistry, reviewer for more than 60 journals (biochemistry, molecular biology, biotechnology, chemistry and microbiology) and president of several organizing committees in international meetings related to the N-cycle or respiratory processes.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,series:{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",issn:"2632-0983"},editorialBoard:[{id:"79367",title:"Dr.",name:"Ana Isabel",middleName:null,surname:"Flores",slug:"ana-isabel-flores",fullName:"Ana Isabel Flores",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRpIOQA0/Profile_Picture_1632418099564",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Hospital Universitario 12 De Octubre",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"328234",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Palavecino",slug:"christian-palavecino",fullName:"Christian Palavecino",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000030DhEhQAK/Profile_Picture_1628835318625",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Central University of Chile",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Chile"}}},{id:"186585",title:"Dr.",name:"Francisco Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Martin-Romero",slug:"francisco-javier-martin-romero",fullName:"Francisco Javier Martin-Romero",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSB3HQAW/Profile_Picture_1631258137641",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Extremadura",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}}]},onlineFirstChapters:{paginationCount:17,paginationItems:[{id:"81647",title:"Diabetes and Epigenetics",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104653",signatures:"Rasha A. 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