Statewise quinquennial average of area and production of wheat.
\\n\\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\\n\\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:null},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'IntechOpen is proud to announce that 191 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nThroughout the years, the list has named a total of 261 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\nReleased this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-partners-with-ehs-for-digital-advertising-representation-20210416",title:"IntechOpen Partners with EHS for Digital Advertising Representation"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-new-contract-with-cepiec-china-for-distribution-of-open-access-books-20210319",title:"IntechOpen Signs New Contract with CEPIEC, China for Distribution of Open Access Books"},{slug:"150-million-downloads-and-counting-20210316",title:"150 Million Downloads and Counting"},{slug:"intechopen-secures-indefinite-content-preservation-with-clockss-20210309",title:"IntechOpen Secures Indefinite Content Preservation with CLOCKSS"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-to-all-global-amazon-channels-with-full-catalog-of-books-20210308",title:"IntechOpen Expands to All Global Amazon Channels with Full Catalog of Books"},{slug:"stanford-university-identifies-top-2-scientists-over-1-000-are-intechopen-authors-and-editors-20210122",title:"Stanford University Identifies Top 2% Scientists, Over 1,000 are IntechOpen Authors and Editors"},{slug:"intechopen-authors-included-in-the-highly-cited-researchers-list-for-2020-20210121",title:"IntechOpen Authors Included in the Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020"},{slug:"intechopen-maintains-position-as-the-world-s-largest-oa-book-publisher-20201218",title:"IntechOpen Maintains Position as the World’s Largest OA Book Publisher"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"1511",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Deforestation Around the World",title:"Deforestation Around the World",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Deforestation and forest degradation represent a significant fraction of the annual worldwide human-induced emission of greenhouse gases to the atmosphere, the main source of biodiversity losses and the destruction of millions of people's homes. 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The definitive diagnosis of Ménière’s disease can be made with specific tests such as audiometry and electrocochleography in the exacerbated states of the disease. Recently, a study by Bernaerts [2] showed diagnostic evidences with the use of magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scans, which showed an enlargement of the perilymphatic spaces in Ménière’s disease.
The endolymphatic sac physiologically maintains the hydrostatic pressure and endolymph homeostasis in the inner ear, and its dysfunction may contribute to the pathophysiology of Ménière’s disease. The classic tetrad of symptoms in endolymphatic hydrops includes recurrent attacks of vertigo lasting for hours, fluctuating hearing loss, auricular fullness, and tinnitus. Ménière’s disease is idiopathic, as its aetiology remains unknown. Over the years, different surgical procedures for intractable vertigo secondary to Ménière’s disease have been carried out, and although many authors consider these procedures effective, some argue that they only have a placebo effect. Usually, surgical procedures are indicated in about 20% of the patients when the possibilities of treatment with drugs for vestibular rehabilitation have already been exhausted [3, 4, 5, 6].
The surgical technique for the treatment of vertigo depends on the diagnostic hypothesis, clinical condition, age, and hearing level of the patient.
This chapter describes the different surgical procedures performed for Ménière’s disease. They can be divided into two types: non-destructive surgery, aimed at altering the disease expression and at reducing the frequency and intensity of vestibular drop attacks; and destructive surgery, aimed at controlling vertigo by stopping the vestibular function.
The most common procedures are the endolymphatic sac decompression with or without the endolymphatic duct opening and shunt in the endolymphatic sac, endolymphatic duct blockage, and intratympanic corticosteroid injection.
Decompression of the endolymphatic sac involves reducing pressure in this space. It is considered a conservative procedure because of the low rate of hearing loss and the high success rate (around 80% or more) of vertigo control [7, 8].
The first surgical procedure for the treatment of Ménière’s disease was described in 1927 by Portmann [9, 10], who first opened the endolymphatic sac to decrease the endolymphatic pressure. In 1938, Hallpike and Cairns [11] showed the pathological findings of endolymphatic hydrops in post-mortem temporal bones of patients who were also diagnosed with Ménière’s disease. These bones showed signs of ischemia in the sensory terminal endings at the lateral walls of the membranous labyrinth, which could have been caused by the presence of hydrops.
In 1962, William House [12] showed that draining endolymphatic hydrops using a subarachnoid shunt had good outcomes. In 1967, Kimura [13] obliterated the endolymph duct and attenuated the endolymphatic hydrops in guinea pigs, following which surgeons innovated new techniques of mastoid shunts. In 1976, Paparella [14] described a technique that emphasised the need to make a wide incision in the dura mater of the posterior fossa to completely decompress the endolymphatic sac and duct, increasing its drainage through a valve created in this duct with the placement of a T-tube.
Paparella described that this surgical technique was a modification of the surgical technique of the endolymphatic sac described by Portmann and showed a 94% control rate for vertigo [15].
In a 2014 meta-analysis conducted by Sood et al. [16], the various endolymphatic surgical techniques were analysed, along with their efficacy in vertigo control and hearing maintenance. The study demonstrated that the decompression procedures of the endolymphatic sac both alone and associated with shunt placement in the mastoid were effective, without any statistical difference in the 75% control of vertigo symptoms in a short period of 12–24 months.
Bento et al. [17] conducted a retrospective study of endolymphatic sac decompression using the retrolabyrinthine approach in 95 patients with Ménière’s disease who did not undergo long-term clinical treatment. In the group with unilateral disease, vertigo was controlled in 94.3%, cochlear function significantly improved in 14%, and hearing was preserved or improved in 88% of patients. In the group with bilateral disease, vertigo was controlled in 85.7%, cochlear function improved in 28%, and auditory function was preserved in 71% of patients. Considerable improvement in hearing was an improvement of more than 20 dB in the bone conduction threshold or improvement by more than 20% in the discrimination score (Figures 1 and 2).
The sac is opened (arrowhead).
A silastic sheet (arrow) is placed to keep the sac opened.
The surgical method of endolymphatic sac decompression and drainage of the endolymphatic duct, as previously described by Paparella et al. [18, 19, 20], involves a broad exposure of the mastoid cortex, wall-up mastoidectomy, and extensive removal of the pre-sigmoidal and retrolabyrinthine cells.
A very thin skeletal bone should cover the sigmoid sinus, and a small bone island should be left over it to avoid damage from pressure and bleeding. With the Trautmann’s triangle fully exposed, the overlying bone is removed with a curette or microdissector, and the sac is then identified as a dense white thickening in the dura mater pointing toward the lower portion of the posterior semicircular canal. Mostly, the sac is clearly differentiated from the adjacent dura mater by its greater thickness in the region and lack of blood vessels. After identifying the endolymphatic sac, a small aperture is created in it with a paracentesis blade or a scalpel, often below the bone border, by retracting the dura mater with a suction tip to expose the lumen. To keep the opening intact, a T-shaped silastic sheet is cut to about 0.127 mm thickness and positioned in the opening, or a T-tube is used. After the procedure, an absorbable gelatine haemostatic sponge is placed in the mastoid cavity, and the wound is closed.
In this technique, the sac is not incised. The surgeon dissects the bone around the endolymphatic duct to expose it and blocks it with two small titanium clips. The endolymphatic sac gets isolated, so the production and absorption of endolymph in the inner ear balance. Saliba et al. [21] conducted a randomised controlled, non-blinded study comparing this technique with the endolymphatic sac decompression and showed that 96.5% of the patients in the endolymphatic block group achieved vertigo control compared to 37.5% of the patients in the endolymphatic sac decompression group, with no statistical differences between the groups in pre- and post-operative auditory thresholds.
In summary, endolymphatic duct blockade has potential as a surgical technique that results in good control of vertigo.
In 1986, Brookes [22] showed the presence of high levels of circulating immunocomplexes in up to 54% of patients with Ménière’s disease. Later, Alleman et al. [23] extracted the circulating immunocomplexes from patients with Ménière’s disease and exposed them to endolymphatic sac tissue from other patients with the disease, showing that in only 10% of cases, there was a reaction between the immune complexes and tissues. Hence, it is suggested that although the levels of circulating immunocomplexes in these patients is high, they can represent an induction (viral, allergic, or traumatic) that is greater than an autoimmune phenomenon. Another pathophysiological analysis of Ménière’s disease showed that the immune-mediated responses in the inner ear, endolymphatic sac, and vascular striae could be the main causative factors. In 1997, Shea et al. [24] showed that combined administration of systemic and intratympanic dexamethasone completely suppressed vertigo in 63.4% and significantly improved hearing in 35.4% of patients within 2 years after treatment. Later in 2001, Sennaroglu et al. [25] reported that intratympanic perfusion of dexamethasone completely suppressed vertigo in 42.0% and significantly improved hearing in 16% of patients within 2 years after treatment.
These labyrinthine surgeries cure the patient of vertigo by destroying the final vestibular organ. The brain compensates for the loss of vestibular function on one side using the contralateral labyrinth, as long as it is functioning properly. Destructive labyrinthine procedures have a high risk of destroying the cochlea and should be avoided in patients with adequate hearing. Vestibulocochlear nerve neurectomy, chemical labyrinthectomy, surgical labyrinthectomy, and sacculotomy are common destructive surgeries.
The neurectomy of the vestibulocochlear nerve for the treatment of Ménière’s disease was described in 1933 by Dandy [26]. It is a surgical technique involving a selective section of the vestibular nerve at its entrance to the brain to reduce vertigo but inevitably causing total hearing loss in the operated ear.
Several authors modified the original technique. In 1989, Silverstein [27] proposed the retrosigmoid approach for neurectomy and observed a substantial improvement in dizziness in 92% with a significant hearing loss in only 4% of patients.
House [28] introduced the middle fossa approach. Regardless of the access, the decompression technique had a success rate of up to 90% in the control of vertigo [29, 30, 31, 32, 33]. Colletti et al. [4] conducted a comparative study on 209 patients who underwent neurectomy, comparing a group of 24 patients who received intratympanic gentamicin (ITG), chemical labyrinthectomy neural ablation therapy. To perform a homogenous comparison of results in the present paper, it considered all the 24 ITG patients and the last 24 patients who underwent VN from 2000 to 2002 via the retrosigmoid approach.
Vertigo was controlled in 95.8% of neurectomy patients and in 75% of gentamicin patients. Speech discrimination in the neurectomy group was reduced from 85 to 82% and in the gentamicin group from 87% to 65%.
This technique was first used in 1978 by Beck [34, 35] and aims to perform a chemical ablation of the labyrinth to decrease the frequency and intensity of vertigo episodes but can result in hearing loss, as gentamicin is ototoxic and reduces labyrinthine activity. It can be injected directly into the tympanic cavity using a thin needle or applied daily through a Politzer ventilation tube first placed at the tympanic membrane for penetrating the round and oval windows. A study [36] showed 90% efficacy in the cessation of vertigo among 92 patients.
In the 2000 literature review by Blakley et al. [37], 18 articles were found on the techniques of intratympanic injection of gentamicin in the treatment of Ménière’s disease. The articles reported high success rates in vertigo treatment, but the technique, dose, duration, and treatment philosophy varied considerably among them. Hearing loss was typically reported in about 30% of patients, and no technique had any significant medical advantage over the other. Until new controlled studies indicate otherwise, this therapy is an alternative treatment for patients with major comorbidities.
This technique can decrease vertigo by the total destruction of the labyrinth but leads to total hearing loss in the operated ear.
Lake first described this procedure in 1904 [38], and in the mid-twentieth century, labyrinthectomy was established as a less-invasive alternative to neurectomy of the vestibular nerve [39, 40]. The surgical technique involves opening the semicircular canals up to the endolymphatic ducts in the opening of the vestibule with the complete destruction of neuroepithelium and Scarpa’s ganglion [41, 42]. No technique was observed to be superior in vertigo control among labyrinthectomy, neurectomy, and a combination of both [43, 44].
Labyrinthectomy, in particular, is an alternative [45] (demonstrating approximately 100% success rate in vertigo treatment) for old patients, and in this case, the transmastoid technique presented a lower permanent imbalance rate after the procedure than the transcanal technique. Labyrinthectomy is the treatment of choice for patients over 60 years of age [46]. Surgical labyrinthectomy of the affected labyrinth always ends in total deafness. Therefore, it should be reserved for patients with non-functional hearing and should be one of the last therapeutic options (Figure 3).
Schematic drawing of Labyrinthectomy.
In 1964, Fick [47, 48] described a procedure in which a fenestra is made in the stapes footplate or round window membrane, and therefore, a permanent shunt for draining of the saccule is created with the destruction of the cochlear function [49].
Giddings et al. [50] reported hearing loss after cochleo-sacculotomy in 80% of the patients and recurrent vertigo episodes in a mean follow-up of 17 months in 4 of 11 patients so that a destructive intervention had to be carried out again. Kinney et al. [51] and Wielinga et al. [52] recommended cochleo-sacculotomy as a minimally invasive surgical method, especially for old patients, as an alternative to neurectomy because good results were obtained with regard to vertigo control, although with significant hearing loss in almost all patients.
In 2015, in a comparative study [53] between cochlear sacculotomy techniques and endolymphatic sac decompression, the control of vertigo was significantly better in patients after cochleo-sacculotomy but also with significant deterioration of hearing. The cochleo-sacculotomy procedure performed simultaneously with cochlear implant surgery in patients with deafness and persistent vertigo in Ménière’s disease is an alternative already proposed by some authors [54, 55, 56], and they have reported good results.
The surgical procedures described in this chapter demonstrated satisfactory results in the control of incapacitating vertigo in patients diagnosed with endolymphatic hydrops refractory to clinical drug treatment, adequate diet, and vestibular rehabilitation. The choice of method would depend on the quality of residual hearing, contralateral hearing, and on the ability to develop compensatory mechanisms if surgical techniques destroyed vestibular function.
The authors have no conflict of interest.
Cereals play a pivotal role to satisfy the global food demand of growing population, particularly in developing nations where cereal-based production system is the only predominant source of nutrition and calorie intake [1, 2]. The nutri-rich cereal is grown in diversified environments; globally wheat occupies around 217 million hectares holding the position of highest acreage among all crops with an annual production hovering around 731 million tonnes [3]. Wheat (
India, being blessed and enriched with a diverse agroecological condition, ensuring food and nutrition security to a majority of the Indian population through production and steady supply particularly in the recent past, is the second largest producer of wheat worldwide [4, 5, 6]. The crop has been under cultivation in about 30 million hectares (14% of global area) to produce the all-time highest output of 99.70 million tonnes of wheat (13.64% of world production) with a record average productivity of 3371 kg/ha [7]. Having a significant share in consumption of food basket with a 36% share in the total food grains produced from India and ensuring not only food security but also nutrition security, wheat is extensively procured by the government and distributed to a majority of the population; it ensures not only food security but also nutrition security. The cereal is one of the cheapest sources of energy, provides a major share of protein (20%) and calorie intake (19%) from consumption. Wheat is accessible across the country and consumed as various processed forms from prehistoric times [4].
After independence, India was net deficit in food production and had to import wheat for domestic consumption. During 1966–1967, India adopted new strategy which led the ‘Green Revolution’, especially in the production of wheat and rice. Coordinated research and several developmental and food security-based programmes in various phases have made the nation to progress closer towards ‘food and nutrition for all’ by achieving record and surplus production of wheat. After the Green Revolution, the nation has maintained strategic distance from famine even during unfavorable weather conditions. The impact of the All India Coordinated Research Project (AICRP) on wheat improvement is explicit and contributed significantly to the nation’s food security [8].
The All India Coordinated Wheat Improvement Project (AICWIP) was started in 1965 at the Indian Agricultural Research Institute (IARI), New Delhi, the nodal centre of the coordinated research. The AICWIP is one of the largest crop improvement network projects which set the dawn for the ‘Green Revolution’ in India. Under this project, several high-yielding wheat varieties have been developed which became extensively popular and adopted by the farming community. For instance, C 306, HD 2009, WL 711, UP 262, HUW 234, HD 2189, WH 147, Lok 1, HI 617 (Sujata), HD 2285, HD 2329, PBW 343, Raj 3765, PBW 502, HD 2733, HD 2967, HD 3086, DBW 17, PBW 550, GW 273, GW 322 and GW 496 in bread wheat and Raj 1555, PBW 34, HI 8498 and PDW 233 in durum wheat were developed and became the popular deliverables of the project. Apart from the aforementioned varieties, viz., NP 4, Kalyansona, Sonalika, Sharbati Sonora, WL 711, HD 1220, HD 1931 ‘SIB’, HD 2009, HD 2172, UP 262, etc., developed through the AICWIP were also cultivated beyond national borders. Several changes happened post inception of the AICWIP, and during 2017, the project has been renamed as the All India Coordinated Research Project (AICRP) on Wheat and Barley with ICAR-Indian Institute of Wheat and Barley Research as its headquarter based at Karnal (Haryana). It is a premier organization under the aegis of ICAR coordinating the multidisciplinary and multilocation testing of varieties in different AICRP centres across the different ecosystems for enhancing and sustaining the wheat production [8]. At present, there are 29 funded centres located in different agroclimatic regions across the country supporting the multidisciplinary research. The project, hitherto, has contributed in the release of around 448 high-yielding improved wheat varieties comprising bread, durum and dicoccum wheat. Over the years, prominent improvements have been made in the development arena post inception of the coordinated project (Figure 1).
Major developments in the country post inception of the AICRP.
Since the establishment of the AICRP, the productivity of wheat has increased by 2.5-folds (308%: +2.54 tonnes/ha) as furnished in Figure 2. A decadal analysis of productivity growth across major food commodities indicates that wheat production growth has outperformed rice and pulses for the past 5 decades since 1950. Overall scenario indicated that wheat production has grown at 4.72 percent per annum since 1950, the highest among other food grains [9].
Productivity trend in Indian wheat pre- and post-AICRP.
In India wheat crop is cultivated in
State/UT | Area (million ha) | Change (%) | Production (million tonnes) | Change (%) | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
2008–2009 to 2012–2013 | 2013–2014 to 2017–2018 | 2008–2009 to 2012–2013 | 2013–2014 to 2017–2018 | |||
Assam | 0.05 | 0.02 | −52.35 | 0.06 | 0.03 | −43.40 |
Bihar | 2.16 | 2.08 | −3.57 | 4.63 | 4.86 | 4.98 |
Chhattisgarh | 0.10 | 0.10 | 0.59 | 0.12 | 0.14 | 13.22 |
Gujarat | 1.12 | 1.09 | −2.85 | 3.20 | 3.22 | 0.60 |
Haryana | 2.50 | 2.55 | 2.21 | 11.35 | 11.24 | −0.93 |
Himachal Pradesh | 0.36 | 0.34 | −4.26 | 0.53 | 0.66 | 24.79 |
Jammu and Kashmir | 0.29 | 0.29 | 1.83 | 0.44 | 0.48 | 10.52 |
Jharkhand | 0.12 | 0.19 | 50.99 | 0.22 | 0.38 | 70.04 |
Karnataka | 0.25 | 0.19 | −25.30 | 0.23 | 0.20 | −13.23 |
Madhya Pradesh | 4.52 | 5.73 | 26.76 | 9.45 | 16.32 | 72.72 |
Maharashtra | 1.01 | 1.05 | 4.79 | 1.61 | 1.48 | −8.27 |
Punjab | 3.52 | 3.51 | −0.40 | 16.25 | 16.61 | 2.21 |
Rajasthan | 2.63 | 2.98 | 12.99 | 8.12 | 9.31 | 14.62 |
Uttar Pradesh | 9.66 | 9.75 | 0.94 | 29.33 | 27.93 | −4.77 |
Uttarakhand | 0.38 | 0.34 | −9.89 | 0.85 | 0.81 | −4.64 |
West Bengal | 0.32 | 0.29 | −8.33 | 0.85 | 0.80 | −5.94 |
Others | 0.04 | 0.04 | −20.64 | 0.12 | 0.12 | −3.54 |
All India | 29.04 | 30.54 | 5.16 | 87.39 | 94.57 | 8.22 |
Statewise quinquennial average of area and production of wheat.
State/UT | 2008–2009 to 2012–2013 | 2013–2014 to 2017–2018 | Change (%) |
---|---|---|---|
India | 3009 | 3100 | 3.03 |
Punjab | 4617 | 4738 | 2.61 |
Haryana | 4544 | 4407 | −3.01 |
Others | 3083 | 3331 | 8.05 |
Rajasthan | 3038 | 3133 | 3.12 |
Gujarat | 2845 | 2922 | 2.69 |
Uttar Pradesh | 2724 | 2867 | 5.23 |
Madhya Pradesh | 2698 | 2843 | 5.38 |
West Bengal | 2241 | 2754 | 22.90 |
Uttarakhand | 2144 | 2375 | 10.76 |
Bihar | 2091 | 2339 | 11.87 |
Jharkhand | 1790 | 2005 | 12.01 |
Himachal Pradesh | 1602 | 1911 | 19.28 |
Jammu and Kashmir | 1511 | 1656 | 9.58 |
Maharashtra | 1466 | 1400 | −4.53 |
Assam | 1180 | 1373 | 16.39 |
Chhattisgarh | 1149 | 1328 | 15.59 |
Karnataka | 914 | 1057 | 15.64 |
Statewise quinquennial average of wheat yield (kg/ha).
The production of wheat has also showed an increasing trend, from 87.39 to 94.57 million tonnes from 2012–2013 to 2017–2018 with a magnitude of 7.18 million tonnes (8.22%). The major source of this increase in production is mainly attributed to expansion in area followed by marginal increase in productivity. Uttar Pradesh still holds the position of largest producer in the country accounting for about 28 million tonnes which is roughly 30% of the total production. Around 85 million tonnes (90%) of wheat has been produced from traditional wheat-growing regions such as Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, Haryana, Madhya Pradesh, Bihar and Rajasthan [10]. The maximum quantum jump has been noticed in Madhya Pradesh and Jharkhand which almost doubled their production from 9.45–16.32 million tonnes to 0.22–0.38 million tonnes. However, 1.4 million tonnes reduction was noticed in Uttar Pradesh during the same period which is a matter of serious concern.
The national productivity trend for wheat showed a marginal improvement, which has increased from 3009 kg/ha to 3100 kg/ha from 2012–2013 to 2017–2018 (Table 2). This rise in productivity is due to adoption of high-yielding varieties coupled with other inputs. The traditional wheat-growing states Punjab and Haryana have highest productivity than the national productivity [10]. The maximum increase in productivity has been observed in nontraditional wheat-growing states like West Bengal (23%), Himachal Pradesh (19.28%) and Assam (16.39%). However, the productivity of Haryana has declined which pose a serious matter of concern.
Quinquennial data on wheat area, production and yield for India indicates that there is a variation in crop acreage that declined to 29.58 million hectare (Figure 3). However, the production of wheat has increased significantly from 95.85 to 99.70 million tonnes. Increase in production was largely attributed to rise in productivity levels registered across the wheat-growing regions.
Quinquennial scenario in area, production and yield of wheat.
Wheat is one of the predominant staple foods and a main cereal crop of many diets around the world. Table 3 furnishes the current scenario of area, production and yield of wheat in the world. Globally wheat is cultivated in an area about 220 million hectares with a record production of 763.06 million tonnes of grain. Maximum area under wheat is in India (14%), followed by Russia (12.43%), China (11.14%) and the USA (6.90%) which altogether accounts for about 45% of global area. However, China is the major producer of wheat with a record production of 136 million tonnes, followed by India (98.51mt), Russia (85mt) and the USA (47.35mt). Around 449 million tonnes (58%) of wheat has been produced from traditional wheat-growing countries like China, India, Russia, the USA, Canada, Ukraine and Pakistan. The average yield per hectare is maximum in New Zealand (10 tonnes/ha), followed by Zambia (7 tonnes/ha) and Mexico (6 tonnes/ha). However, the average wheat yield in major wheat-growing countries is significantly low, and only China has maximum yield (5.48 tonnes/ha) followed by Ukraine, India and the USA. Despite India’s productivity being on par with the world average, the per day productivity is relatively high (20 kg/day) in comparison to other countries, viz. the USA, Uzbekistan, Hungary, Poland, Italy, Bulgaria and Romania, which predominantly cultivates winter wheat with crop cycle hovering around 275 days. However, in India, in comparison to its competing country, China, the per day productivity is almost the same. It should be noted that the winter wheat-cultivating countries do not deal with any other crop in a year, while in India, in which spring wheat cultivation occurs around 150 days duration, farmers has the choice to grow at the maximum two sole crops apart from wheat [8].
Countries | Area (million ha) | Production (million tonnes) | Yield (tonnes/ha) |
---|---|---|---|
China | 24.51 (11.14) | 134.33 (17.60) | 5.48 |
India | 29.58 (14.00) | 99.70 (12.91) | 3.37 |
Russia | 27.34 (12.43) | 84.99 (11.14) | 3.11 |
USA | 15.19 (6.90) | 47.35 (6.21) | 3.12 |
Canada | 8.98 (4.08) | 29.98 (3.93) | 3.34 |
Ukraine | 6.64 (3.02) | 26.98 (3.54) | 4.06 |
Pakistan | 8.97 (4.08) | 26.67 (3.50) | 2.97 |
Australia | 12.25 (5.57) | 21.30 (2.79) | 1.74 |
Turkey | 7.8 (3.55) | 21.00 (2.75) | 2.69 |
Kazakhstan | 11.91 (5.41) | 14.80 (1.93) | 1.24 |
World | 220 | 763.06 | 3.47 |
Area, production and yield of major wheat-producing countries (2017–2018).
Note: Figure within parenthesis indicates the percent to world.
The global wheat production has increased around 7 million tonnes (0.9%) in the year 2017–2018 in comparison to its past. The major source for the increase in production is mainly attributed to increase in productivity followed by marginal increase in area in major wheat-growing countries (Figure 4).
Annual growth in area, production and yield (2017–2018 over 2016–2017).
At the national level, there is a shift in area, production and yield under wheat during 2008–2009 to 2012–2013 vis-à-vis 2013–2014 to 2017–2018. Currently, wheat acreage is around 30 million hectares. Comparing the past two periods, the change was more prominent in wheat production, followed by area and yield (Tables 1 and 2). The average change in production was around 9%. The country on an average produced 7.3 million tonnes more than the past period. The major wheat-growing states like Punjab, Madhya Pradesh and Rajasthan have witnessed positive change in area and yield and production [6]. Surprisingly, Jharkhand registered positive change in area, yield and production, while Haryana and Uttar Pradesh, the major traditional wheat-growing states, witnessed a negative change in production due to negative change in yield. Regional disparities in area and yield had a significant impact on the wheat production. Average production in Madhya Pradesh showed an increase by 6.87 million tonnes, followed by Rajasthan (1.2 million tonnes). However, the production has declined in Uttar Pradesh (1.41 million tonnes) and Haryana (0.11 million tonnes).
Statewise comparison of area and production for 2017–2018 shows that Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, Madhya Pradesh and Haryana were the major contributors to the national production (Figure 5). However, Punjab, Haryana and Uttar Pradesh retained the status of higher productivity for many years. The scope for additional production of these states has been limited due to stagnation of wheat acreage and yield. This indicates that these states almost reached their saturation in wheat cultivation and production. Potential exists for states like Rajasthan and Madhya Pradesh to explore for additional wheat production in the coming years. Area under these states has to increase in yield at farmers’ field so as to attain higher production. The current production from these states is around 29 million tonnes which has to be doubled by 2050 with an overall production target of 140 million tonnes [11, 12, 13].
Statewise comparison of wheat area and production (2017–2018).
Production constraints are manifold and vary from crop to crop and between regions. Burgeoning population vis-à-vis increasing demand for food; growing competition for cultivable land, irrigation water and energy; intensive cropping especially in the Indo-Gangetic Plains resulting in irrational use of resources; pest-environment interaction; reduction of natural resource base; declining total factor productivity; and yield plateau (Figure 6) are the prominent challenges put forth against crop production [11, 12, 13, 14]. Wheat production not only faces the above routine challenges, but the intensity gets magnified in the context of climate change owing to its vulnerability [15, 16, 17, 18].
Production challenges in Indian setting.
In India a significant part of wheat area is under heat stress, and Gangetic plains and central and peninsular India are the most heat-stressed regions, whereas it is moderate in northwestern parts of Indo-Gangetic Plains [19]. Variability in climate is also one of the biggest environmental threats to Indian agriculture, potentially impacting the wheat production and security. In India, it has been predicted that with every rise in 1°C temperature, the wheat production will be decreased by 4–6 million tonnes. Rainfed wheat will experience a reduction in yield with 9–25% profit loss for every 2–3.5°C rise in temperature [20].
After the Green Revolution, the productivity of wheat has been significantly increased with the increase in input usage, plant protection chemicals and irrigated areas. The excessive use of fertilizer, chemicals and irrigation has degraded the fertility of the soil and also caused a reduction in groundwater table. The monocropping system led to deterioration in soil quality. If the current trend continues, the country will face a serious problem in utilization of scarce natural resources.
In India about 4.5 million hectares salt affected area is under wheat cultivation posing a major problem for canal irrigated areas [21]. Even though soil amendments and proper drainage are the more constructive solution, pace of reclamation is not substantial. This will significantly reduce the wheat yield.
As year passes, the pests of wheat have developed some resistance even though controlled under contingent situation. If not, a new range of pests and diseases have been emerging putting a serious constraint on the wheat productivity.
Adoption system and germplasm dissemination in India have been made in formal (organized) and informal (unorganized) ways [22]. Even though new improved varieties are developed and made available to farmers by NARS around, 80% of all seeds are saved by the farmers [19]. Further, a majority of farmers in India have lack of awareness of improved wheat varieties due to weak linkages [19]. The development and diffusion of improved varieties are crucial for achieving target production of wheat.
Volatility in prices of agricultural commodities has received considerable attention in the recent past among producers, consumers and policy makers. Price fluctuations create an uncertain farming situation threatening wheat production and have a negative impact on the welfare of wheat growers. Further, volatility in prices of wheat in international market hinders the smooth flow of trade across nations.
Over the years, a visible declining trend in farm holding size has been observed and is another major concern for the nation as a whole. This is caused by fragmentation of farmland owing to nuclear family system and decline in cultivable area due to urbanization. Estimate from the agricultural census (2010–2011) reports that the average operational holding in India was 1.16 ha. Among major wheat-growing states, average operational holding was highest in the case of Punjab (3.77 ha) and lowest in Bihar (0.39 ha). Declining farm size and conversion of farmland to residential area are the major setbacks with respect to food production in general and wheat production in particular.
A major concern among policy makers is the declining total factor productivity over the years owing to stagnating yield levels with increased use of inputs and resource services. It is a major concern in the intensive cropping areas wherein rice-wheat is widely under cultivation. This can be countered by adoption of improved technologies coupled with the use of optimal resources.
The constraints in wheat production are region-specific (Table 4), and it requires setting research priorities to address them. Rust, infestation of weeds such as
Zone | Major production constraints |
---|---|
Northern hills zone | Lack of accessibility of seed of newly released variety, |
Northwestern plains zone | High cost of inputs, low price of wheat, erratic power supply, |
Northeastern plains zone | Small land holdings, inadequacy of seeds of newly released variety, lack of information among the farmers about recently developed new technologies, late sowing, temperature fluctuations during growth, high-priced inputs, poor quality of seeds, non-availability of labour, low organic matter in the soil, non-availability of farm machinery |
Central zone | Non-availability of labour, imbalanced use of fertilizer, high temperature at maturity, limited accessibility to seed of newly released variety, temperature fluctuation during crop growth, high cost of inputs, lack of irrigation facilities, small land holding, decline in water table, untimely rain |
Peninsular zone | Low price of wheat, irregular power supply, high cost of inputs, non-availability of labour, non-availability of electricity, higher rate of custom hiring, untimely rain, lack of facilities of canal irrigation, poor accessibility to seeds of newly released variety, temperature fluctuation during crop growth |
Zone-wise production constraints in wheat.
With a limited scope for increasing the crop acreage besides the production threats and challenges at the forefront [12, 13], the production target has been fixed at 140 mt by 2050 (Figure 7) [11]. Under stable wheat acreage and given the optimistic production target, the existing average yield has to be increased from 33 to 47 Qtls/ha by 2050. Concerted research should focus to break the yield barriers in gradual manner and develop genotypes tailored for specific wheat-growing regions.
Existing production and target for 2050.
The following are the strategies set for increasing the crop productivity to achieve the set target of 140 million tonnes [9, 23, 24]:
Improvement of wheat under conventional methods
Exploitation of heterosis for developing the hybrids
Pre-breeding programme by broadening the varieties’ genetic base
Capitalizing exotic germplasm and extensive utilization
Precision phenotyping of germplasm
Mining novel alleles for genes of known function
Production of segregating populations for lines of interest identified in primary germplasm screens
Use of existing landrace x elite segregating populations to identify QTL controlling traits of interest
Production of NILs for QTL and allelic variants
Assessing agronomic performance of NILs
Development of informative genetic markers and their use in commercial wheat breeding programmes
Development of new plant types
Desired canopy structure
Rapid leaf area development
Rapid nutrient uptake
Increasing lodging resistance (robust stem)
Biotechnological interventions
Marker-assisted breeding
Wheat genome sequence and associated genomic tools
Allele mining on the basis of probing germplasm sets for specific gene sequences
Innumerable new molecular markers in genomic regions of choice to facilitate large-scale cloning of new genes
A plethora of approaches for understanding the function of each and every gene
Understanding temporal and tissue-specific gene expression in response to developmental and environmental cues
Uncovering molecular basis of complex adaptation syndromes including tolerance to various abiotic stresses
Designing of a genome-wide perfect marker system based on SNPs in entire gene space of the species
Potential of wheat transgenics and possibilities of greater public acceptance
Functional characterization of genome
Tackling disease resistance
Tackling abiotic stress-climate change
Resource management
Quality improvement
Policy reorientation [6]
Price policy
Seed policy
Credit policy
Institutional innovations like e-National Agriculture Market
Extension: transfer of technology
Economic assessment of various improved technologies for upscaling and outscaling
Promotion of resource conservation technologies [25]
Awareness among farmers of new improved varieties and production technologies for yield as well as income enhancement [26, 27]
Wheat atlas: creation and updating regional-level database on parameters like area, production, yield, yield gaps and input usage.
Analysis of benefit-cost ratio (BCR) in wheat production and development
Access to critical inputs for timely sowing like improved seeds particularly in eastern UP, Bihar, Jharkhand and Chhattisgarh; access to fertilizers, irrigation water and farm machinery [28]
Infrastructure development (roads, storage structures, market)
Agriculture transformation is of utmost importance for regional development. Cutting-edge research involving multidiscipline is the need of the hour and is expected to develop superior genotypes breaking the yield barrier. Despite being cost-intensive, development is mandatory which warrants for higher public and private investment in R&D. In addition, productivity has to be increased through massive efforts from extension personnel who serve as change agents among the farming community. A reorientation in price policy (fair price system benefiting both producers and consumers, deficient payment system to producers for difference between the market and procurement price and cash transfers to producers under colossal loss), seed policy (quality seed production and ensuring its availability for all) and credit policy (timely distribution with minimum administrative work) is highly required to support the existing production system and to carry forward. Increased access to input and output markets, revamped distributions systems, investment in rural infrastructures and skilling of the rural labour force will help immensely to increase the crop productivity. On the whole, a synergy between research-extension-policy-institutions will play an impending role to achieve the desired level of production as well as to ensure food security for future generation. The realization of the expected increase in production in agriculture will only be possible with high efficiency, high quality, resistance to biotic and abiotic stresses and by offering them to the service of the farmer by improving the stable varieties in breeding programmes.
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