Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
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We wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
IntechOpen is proud to announce that 191 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
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Throughout the years, the list has named a total of 261 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\n
We wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
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\n
1. Introduction
\n
Date palm cultivation in the Gulf Cooperation Council (Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, Qatar, Bahrain, Sultanate of Oman, United Arab Emirates, and Kingdom of Bahrain) has a long history, yet the efforts exerted by the individual countries on its research and development, although significant, are still insufficient and fall below expectations. In general, the product quality is still low, the field and post-harvest losses are high, and the date products and by-products utilization needs improvement. Therefore, the status of date palm cultivation in the GCC countries and the enhancement of quality of produce cannot be overemphasized. To address the above mentioned constrains, the GCC countries ranked date palm as one of the high research priority as reflected in priority setting for agricultural research in the Central and West Asia and North Africa (CWANA) region [1].
\n
In this regards, the project “Development of sustainable date palm production systems in the GCC countries of the Arabian Peninsula”, funded by the GCC Secretariat, was implemented, in partnership, by various ministries of agriculture, agricultural authorities, and agricultural research institutions and universities in the six GCC countries of the Arabian Peninsula (Kingdom of Bahrain, United Arab Emirates, State of Kuwait, State of Qatar, Sultanate of Oman, and Kingdom of Saudi Arabia - KSA) and the International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas (ICARDA). The major objectives of the project are to improve date palm productivity per unit of water and rationalize the use of the available resources in order to make production sustainable.
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\n
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2. Objectives of the study
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This chapter provides a description of the actual situation for the date palm value chain in the GCC countries, while providing strategic short term perspectives for a more effective and inclusive date palm market sector, constraints and challenges that have to be taken into account as well as proposed strategies to enhance systemic changes in the sector necessary to progress towards more solid and sustainable date palm value chain in the GCC. A specific attention is given to the challenges and constraints in the date palm sector in the GCC countries.
\n
Through the mapping of the chain, the overall objective of this study is to identify the processes where values are created and how they are distributed among stakeholders along the date palm value chain. A special focus is devoted to policy instruments used by the Government to solve specific problems characterizing the chain and consequently enhance the development of the sector and see in particular to what extent those instruments are value creating.
\n
With this view in mind, the present study has been designed with the following specific objectives:
To overview the date palm sector in GCC countries.
To analyze the existing value chain of date palm marketing with special attention to the international date palm markets and opportunities for GCC countries.
To provide strategies and interventions for the GCC date value chain with potential for significant development of value-added.
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3. Overview of the date palm sector in the GCC
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3.1 Date palm production
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Date palm production is a strategic sector in most of the Arab countries including the GCC ones. The sector is one of the oldest economic activity in the Arabian Peninsula and continue to play a key role in the welfare, culture, history, environment, and nutrition of its population. At present (in 2016), the Arab Region is the world leader of date cultivation with almost 75% of global area under date palm, around 77% of world production and approximately 69% of world total export of dates. In addition to the importance of dates for domestic consumption, this sector is also a source of employment, income generation, and trade in many of these countries. In some very arid areas, date fruit remains as an important source of subsistence and resilience for local population, given its adaptability to harsh environment and tolerance to high temperature, salinity, drought and other severe arid conditions.
\n
According to the FAO statistical database [2], the GCC countries such as KSA, Oman, and United Arab Emirates (UAE) have the highest harvested areas in 2016 with respectively 145,516 ha; 24,120 ha and 93,561 ha in the three countries. While this area was increased in KSA during the last two decades (from 142,450 ha in 2000 to 145,516 ha in 2016), it has rather been decreasing in both Oman (from 35,508 ha in 2000 to 24,120 ha in 2016) and UAE (from 185,330 ha in 2000 to 93,561 ha in 2016). This decrease was the highest in Oman with around 49.50% between 2000 and 2016. This This decline is mainly attributed to a combination of various factors including increased soil salinity in major date palm-growing regions, desertification in areas adjacent to the desert in central Oman, heavy insect pest infestation such as dubas bug and red palm weevil, and urbanization of rural areas.
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With respect to pace and trends in planted area, production and productivity varied considerably between the GCC countries although perhaps it was a result of the special attention paid and considerable government support during the last few decades. The harvested areas in Bahrain, Kuwait and Qatar are still very limited with respective values of 3986 ha; 3021 ha; and 2407 ha during 2016. In these three countries, the planted area has been quickly progressing during the last two decades with an average annual increase of about 20, 40, and 1.38% in respectively, Bahrain, Kuwait, and Qatar. The highest average yields (calculated over the period 2000–2016) are recorded in Kuwait, Qatar, and Oman with respectively 22.03; 11.13; and 10.34 tons/ha.
\n
The assessment of the date palm yields reveals that the average yield at the global level is around 6 tons/ha. In the GCC countries, the lowest average yields are in UAE, KSA, and Bahrain, with respectively 5.89, 6.38, and 7.56 tons/ha in the three countries. These yield values combined to the statistics on harvested areas makes Saudi Arabia the top producer of dates in the GCC region, with an average annual production1 of 885,542.8 tons/year, followed by UAE producing and average of 667,569.8 tons/year. It is clear that the productivity of the date palm tree varies within individual countries, and mainly depends on the agro-ecological systems, variety and farming system adopted.
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3.2 Marketing systems
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3.2.1 Domestic consumption
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In terms of consumption, GCC countries vary widely in their per capita date consumption. According to Frija et al. [3], date consumption per capita is highest in Oman with a value of 68 kg/capita/year, followed by Saudi Arabia with a value of 34 kg/capita/year. Sultanate of Oman greatly outpaces all GCC countries in per capita date consumption, which is more than double that of the KSA, the second highest ranking in date consumption among Arab and GCC Countries. The per capita date consumption for the other countries is comparatively low. The trends of date consumption per capita in the study countries reveals, in addition to being low, that it is also decreasing in most of the GCC countries over the period 2000–2013.
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3.2.2 Livestock feeding use
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In addition to human consumption, date pits and dates falling down from palms before maturity are used as animal feed. There is some use for feed of final product in some countries. This practice is not only observed in GCC countries but is also frequent in other North African countries, such as Tunisia. Some portion of date production is date wasted. Recent statistics from FAO (several years) indicates that up to 38% of the date production was fed to animals in UAE during 2013. For Oman, this figure is around 4%. The volume of wasted dates is also important in the study countries. The lowest wasted percentage (of production) is recorded in KSA (1%), while a highest rate of 13% is recorded in Kuwait.
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3.2.3 Domestic market and structure
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In the majority of GCC countries, date products’ marketing is dominated by local marketing process since export marketing, with the exception of UAE and KSA, is still a small percentage of local production. Domestic marketing of dates is free of direct government involvement and is sole responsibility of the private sector and to a lesser extent of the producers. It takes many forms. At the domestic market, date marketing is passing through two avenues:
Direct traditional marketing to consumers: Where the producers sell their dates after harvesting directly to the local markets localized in the production areas and the neighboring markets without any further processing. The dates are commercialized without proceeding to any process, such as sorting, grading, steaming, and washing. The dates are marketed under two stages according to the maturity of the fruit: The stage of secret and wet (fresh) and the final matured fruit.
Marketing to the date palm factories: In general, the dates delivered to the factories are of the best quality as the date palm producers deliver their products to the local existing factories under pre-fixed norms and standards fixed by the factory. The price is fixed on the basis of quality of the fruits and the supplied quantities.
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3.3 Marketing channels of dates
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Food marketing, according to Kohls and Uhl [4], is “the performance of all business activities involved in the flow of food products and services from the point of production until they are in the hands of consumers.” For dates, these activities include harvesting, processing, packaging, and transportation/shipment to local or export markets. A marketing channel describes the movement of a product or commodity from the site of production to the place of consumption. It may include transportation, handling and storage, ownership transfers, processing, and distribution. The marketing channel for dates includes initial processing at farm level after harvest, transport to the local market directly (especially for the highly perishable fruits) or to the packing plant, processing and packaging at factory level and transport to the final consumers. There are no universal set of marketing channels because each country is unique, and institutions involved operate differently under different sets of regulations. Therefore, in the GCC countries, the differences in the marketing channels are minima’s, and include on-farm selling, retailers, local markets, date factories, and consumers markets.
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3.3.1 Example of Kingdom of Saudi Arabia marketing channel for dates
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The KSA is an important stage in both the traditional and modern methods of marketing. There is packing for long-distance transportation (local and export) and packing for the final consumers at supermarkets. Dates can be sold at the farm gate and from there dates are marketed either directly to the final consumer at the local market or to the local wholesale market. In practice, four existing/dominant channels for the commercialization of dates are dominant is KSA and are presented as follows:
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3.3.2 Example of Oman marketing channel for dates
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In Oman, the marketing channels for dates include on-farm selling, retailers, local markets, date factories, and export. There are therefore mainly three channels through which date flow from the farm to local and foreign consumers/export market:
Dates can be sold at the farm gate and from there dates are marketed either directly to the final consumer at the local market or to the local wholesale market.
Dates can be marketed directly to wholesalers and from there to retailers either before reaching the local market or directly to the local market.
Dates can be marketed directly to wholesalers and from there to the processing factories for processing and packaging before being shipped to the retailers’ trader and then to the final consumer (local or export).
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3.4 Exports market channels
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The trade matrix of dates for the GCC countries is represented through a list of exported quantities from each of these countries to different destinations in the world. However, due to the high number of destinations, Table 1 summarized only the number of countries to which each of the respective GCC countries are exporting to. Results outlined in Table 1 reveals that KSA and UAE are the most active in terms of market diversification expressed by the number of countries to which they are exporting dates. In 2016, UAE was exporting to 110 countries, while Saudi Arabia was exporting to 64 countries.
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Countries
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2012
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2016
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\n
Number of countries
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Exported quantities (tons)
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Value of export (1000 US$)
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Number of countries
\n
Exported quantities (tons)
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Value of export (1000 US$)
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Oman
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23
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5814.9
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7745.6
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44
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15,699.836
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12,650.393
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Bahrain
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2
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43.8
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33.1
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3
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16.716
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2868
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Kuwait
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19
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363.9
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337.7
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14
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405.777
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542.958
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Qatar
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na
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na
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na
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na
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na
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na
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KSA
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60
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64,299.0
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74,859.5
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64
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117,017.911
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141,564.174
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UAE
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98
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304,090.5
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129,177.2
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110
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275,862.901
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160,215.460
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Table 1.
Number of dates exporting markets for each of the GCC countries.
Source: UN COMTRADE data base; (na: not available). Number of countries shows the number of countries to which each of the respective GCC countries is exporting dates; Exported quantities are expressed in tons; value of export is expressed in 1000 US$.
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The analysis of the intensity of date imports-exports, particularly among the GCC countries (Figure 1) based on the availability of recent data, shows again that KSA and UAE are the most active in terms of date exports to the different GCC countries. On the GCC market, UAE is mostly exporting to Oman, followed by KSA and Qatar. KSA is mostly exporting to UAE followed by Kuwait and Qatar. Most of the Omani dates is also exported in the destination of UAE, which is showing that UAE is the biggest exporter and importer partner of Oman.
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Figure 1.
Export trade of dates among the GCC countries (UAE: United Arab Emirates, SAU: Saudi Arabia; OMN: Oman; and KWT: Kuwait). Source: Own elaboration from COMATRADE UN database [5].
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In the export channel, dates are sold directly to the processing factories for processing and packaging before being shipped to export markets. It is indicated that this channel is taking a considerable share in some countries, such as KSA and UAE, in comparison to the rest of GCC countries. The dates are produced, harvested, sorted, graded, processed, packaged, and transported in an efficient, safe, and with high quality management. This process determines the final market value of the dates, as shown in Figure 2.
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Figure 2.
Omani date marketing channels with date export supply chain indicated by circle. Source: Mbaga [6].
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4. International date palm markets and opportunities for GCC countries
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The GCC is considered as an important component of the regional and international date trading; the trend of the international marketing of dates shows clearly the weight of the quantity of date exported by GCC countries in the international market [3]. The fluctuation of the trend of the dates trading in the GCC countries is mainly due to the instability of volumes exported by the UAE and KSA. The analysis of date trade reveals that in 2016, GCC and North African countries are capturing more than 70% of the international market of dates from the Arab countries. Figure 3 shows how this market is shared among the GCC countries and their direct competitors from North Africa, such as Tunisia, Algeria, and Egypt. In addition to Israel, who constantly holds more than 10% of the international market of dates, Tunisia is dominating in terms of market share, with an average value of around 20% over the last decade. Algeria and Egypt are simultaneously holding around 3.6 and 3.8% of the market.
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Figure 3.
Market share of selected dates exporting countries, including GCC countries and their competitors during the period 2005–2016. Source: Own elaboration from FAOSTAT (2018).
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As shown in Figure 4, the international market share of GCC countries in 2016 was about 28.26%. In terms of growth, it was clear that all GCC countries, including the least present on the international market are progressing quite positively with increasing shares from 1 year to another Such result confirm that these countries together have strong potential for dominating the international dates market if additional efforts (concentrating on their dates international markets) are made mainly in the important as well as growing date importing countries.
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Figure 4.
Trend of the aggregated GCC market share (sum of Bahrain, Kuwait, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, and United Arab Emirates) during the period 2005–2016. Source: Own elaboration from FAOSTAT (2018).
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In addition to the above, this share of the GCC countries has been increasing over the period from 2005 to 2016, from a value of 22.98% in 2005 to 28.26% in 2016. This change especially refers to the rapid increase of the shares of KSA, UAE, and Oman, as shown inFigure 5.
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Figure 5.
Market share of GCC countries on the international date market: (a) Bahrain, Kuwait and Qatar; (b) Oman, Saudi Arabia, and Emirates. Source: Own elaboration from FAOSTAT (2018).
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In terms of progress, all GCC countries, including the smallest share countries present on the international market are progressing quite positively with increasing shares over the period 2005–2016. This is especially true for Kuwait and UAE. Oman and KSA, also have the same trend with market shares increasing respectively from 0.34 and 8.64% in 2005 to 1.13 and 12.70% in 2016.
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During this period (2005–2016), the gap between GCC and its competitors on the international market is progressively narrowing, mainly with North African countries (Tunisia and Algeria), Iran, Pakistan and Israel. This might be due to the important increase in the demand for dates at the international level through expanding to new markets (Asia and Africa).
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Although date trading share of GCC is increasing in the global market, they are still facing an important competition from the countries outlined above (Tunisia, Algeria, Iran, Pakistan, and Israel). To deal with this increasing competition, regional cooperation and partnerships among these countries should be reinforced, given that their challenges, constraints and problems on facing the global date market are similar, and interventions to address and resolve these complex and interrelated challenges and problems are difficult for a single country to solve on its own. Thus, coordination between the different trade strategies of the GCC countries, through specialization, division of tasks, and strengthened coordination can generate important opportunities for gaining and sustaining their share on the world market of dates.
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5. Date value chain strategy in the GCC countries
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5.1 Data sources and data collection
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The data for this study have been collected through semi-structured questionnaires targeting the main actors in the date palm sector. Data were gathered for three countries: Saudi Arabia, Oman and Kuwait. Table 2 illustrate the number of surveys conducted in each country mentioned above.
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Nature of the survey
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KSA (number of interviewed stakeholders)
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Oman (number of interviewed stakeholders)
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Kuwait (number of interviewed stakeholders)
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Date palm growers
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40
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38
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62
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Date palm consumers
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09
\n
—
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11
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Date palm retailers
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08
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04
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10
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Date palm wholesale traders
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08
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Date palm processors
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08
\n
—
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—
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Date palm transporters
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08
\n
14
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—
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Date palm importers (production inputs)
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09
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18
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—
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Decision makers
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07
\n
—
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—
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Researchers and extension staff
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10
\n
47
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—
\n
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Date palm input providers
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20
\n
—
\n
—
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Total interviewed stakeholders
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127
\n
121
\n
83
\n
\n\n
Table 2.
Nature and number of surveys conducted in each country.
Source: Own elaboration form surveys implemented in the GCC countries (2017).
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5.2 Methodological framework
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The method used in this analysis is an assessment of the data gathered from two different sources.
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First, an exhaustive literature review from various types of documents, both published and unpublished, related to date palm value chain in the GCC countries. Documents includes scientific reports, books, journal articles, working papers, research reports, web-based publications (including national and international databases), workshop proceedings, national policy documents, programme frameworks, etc.
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Second, a participatory and consultative approach comprising multi-stakeholder consultations and surveys implemented in three potential GCC countries: Saudi Arabia, Oman, and Kuwait. The surveys targeted the following date palm stakeholders: growers, consumers, retailers, wholesale traders, processors, transporters, importers, decision makers, research and extension staff, and input providers. The method was based on a synthesis summarizing the key messages issuing from each one of the indicated actors. The framework consisted of the following two processes. The first ones focused on data collection from surveys through involving the main value chain stakeholders. The second one focused on the validation of the identified results with special attention to the key development strategies and interventions.
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This process, which was developed and implemented by a large number of actors actively involved in the three selected countries date sector (Table 3), led to three development strategies: (i) Date palm supply chain development and management; (ii) market and marketing development, and (iii) agribusiness development.
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Items
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Assessment indicators
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\n\n\n
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Fresh dates for local consumption
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High in all GCC countries
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Fresh dates for exports
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Almost high in KSA and UAE
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Industrial dates for exports
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Low in Oman, Kuwait, and Bahrain
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Industrial dates for domestic consumption
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Low in Oman, Kuwait, and Bahrain
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Animal feeding dates
\n
Important in Oman, Kuwait and UAE
\n
\n
\n
Utilization of by-products
\n
Low in all countries
\n
\n
\n
Farm management
\n
Low in all countries
\n
\n\n
Table 3.
Date palm supply value chain synthesis.
Source: Own evaluation from survey database (2017).
\n
\n
\n
5.3 Challenges and constraints in the date palm value chain in the GCC countries
\n
The analysis of the data collected reveal several problems and constraints that might affect the future of the GCC date palm sector. Such problems include:
Low quality varieties, low product quality and consequently low returns.
Poor farm Management (Inefficient use of date products and by-products).
Pests and diseases and inadequate Integrated Pest Management (IPM) control.
Harvesting, processing and marketing (high post-harvest losses)
Lagging processing sector.
Low quantity of exports.
Shortage in national qualified and trained staff & labors.
Insufficient research and development activities.
\n
The assessment of the date palm supply value chain, on the basis of the data collected from the different actors, allowed us to identify the following indicators related to each GCC country (Table 3).
\n
According to Table 3, the date palm supply value chain assessment indicates a high level in local consumption of fresh dates although per capita consumption is declining in most of the GCC countries because of the new habits dominating the new youth generation. The industrial dates for domestic consumption remain low mainly in Oman, Bahrain and Kuwait given the consumers preferences for the GCC countries in general and these countries in particular is more towards fresh dates. With respect to trade, KAS and UAE are the leading date exporting countries both for industrial and fresh dates. Oman, Kuwait, and Bahrain are the lowest exporting countries compared to their production (i.e., Oman).
\n
Findings reveal also that part of date production is used as feed, mainly in Oman, Kuwait and UAE. Up to 30% of production was served as feed to animals in UAE during 2013 [3]. In addition, most of the date by-products are produced in traditional manner and mainly limited to the production of date paste, Jam, and date syrup. The introduction of new potential uses of dates and date products is modest, and consequently the utilization of by-products is low in all GCC countries.
\n
Finally, the results of date palm supply chain assessment indicate a lack of an improved and advanced management and lack of knowledge of good agricultural practices applied to palm date farming systems in almost all GCC countries.
\n
\n
\n
5.4 Date value chain development strategy in the GCC countries
\n
\n
5.4.1 Farming practices: farmer education and farming management practices
\n
Improved production and the whole production farming system is an essential part of any successful agribusiness program for the date palm sector in the GCC countries. The main challenges facing the production of date palm mainly relate to the weakness of the productive capacity of small farmers due to the lack of good pollen and low productivity of cultivated varieties compared to other varieties.
\n
The lack and the reduction of the skilled labor for date palm practices affect tremendously the production and the quality of the dates. Therefore, a holistic extension system is more than needed, mainly for the non-commercial farms, to provide training, advices, monitoring, and know-how for the date farming system. Staff should be trained in processing techniques to improve efficiency and quality and to produce on a larger scale. In addition, staff needs to be capacitated in post-processing quality assurance and control, better marketing and accessibility to market and improving quality standards and quality extension certification. In addition, capacity building of extension institutions, including the staff of local extension departments is more than needed. Capacities of such staff need to be built to better (more effectively, larger coverage, more permanent support) support producers and promote good agricultural management, pest and disease management using participatory training approaches (learning by doing and action field schools). This program should provide affordable and simple small-scale tools for the key tasks in this farming system (pollination, irrigation, fertilization, harvest, and post-harvest techniques). Such program could start at small scale level and later extended at large scale.
\n
\n
\n
5.4.2 Variety selection
\n
In the GCC countries, farmers grow more than 600 varieties of dates. Some varieties, given their own special set of characteristics, such as size, shape, color, and skin texture, are well appreciated by the consumers (at the national and international markets). Even if it is considered as an advantage for the date palm growers, in general, this variability creates obstacles in the sector, particularly during the harvest and post-harvest activities. This leads to many problems in processing and marketing (grading, sorting, quality, etc.) given the non-uniformity of such products. GCC producers are mainly recommended to focus on producing the high added values varieties to meet national and international market demands. In addition, date palm producers are advised to improve the date palm productivity through the cultivation of new higher yielding varieties.
\n
GCC countries should produce the most important and commercial varieties. These as an example include: Mejdoul in KSA, Fard and Khalas in Oman, Barhi, Sukkari, in Kuwait. Nowadays, international markets are very demanding both for the industrial sectors and for the final users (consumers) such standards and norms. Mejdoul is at the top of the list, followed by Khalas, Fard. Since GCC countries have abundant production of these varieties, an effective effort should be made by all the actors to propagate them within the Gulf region. This effort should mainly focus on the producers as they are the ones who influence the future plantation. The decisions makers are also requested to play a major role in this strategy by providing support and enhancing the propagation of plantation of these varieties. Finally, these varieties, and other potential ones, can be also produced to satisfy the local market needs from these products. This could be enhanced through the facilitation of the establishment, in each country and even at the most regional level, of a national palm plant nursery, a pollen collection center, and a tissue culture laboratory in coordination with the Ministry of Agriculture and research institutions to develop better, shorter and productive varieties. In addition, this laboratory can also be building solid relationships with input/service providers to supply red palm weevil detection devices, to introduce automated pollination mechanisms, and industrial maturation equipment.
\n
\n
\n
5.4.3 Post-harvest handling improvements
\n
The biggest challenge for the date palm sector in the GCC countries is the large volume of dates that arrive at the same time on the market (which is around harvest time), resulting in low prices. Indeed, to have a good and decent market price, the date value chain should be strong. This is possible when the post-harvest handling capabilities: post-harvest handling of fruit is efficient. According to the assessment we made, in the majority of the GCC countries, the post-harvest handling is considered as the weakest node of the date palm value chain where greatest loss occurs.
\n
Post-harvest handling of dates currently in some GCC countries (Oman) is generally very poor. The majority of small scale date farmers are absent and foreigner laborers are managing the farming system. These “new managers” are with minimal education, who must be taught proper post-harvest techniques from beginning to the end. Thus, farmer education to these laborers should be a long-term program requiring constant training, oversight, and compliance. Efforts on monitoring control by the owners, and funding for improving farming methods and equipment and building a processing plant to produce product meeting international standards will prove a major disappointment if owner’s farmer’s monitoring, control and investment in best practices is not seriously and continuously addressed.
\n
This is will influence, some posteriori, the date industry that will not move up the value chain if the fruit is not properly handled from harvest to final processing, and consequently there is little that can be done in terms of processing if fruit arrives at the processing plant infested with insects and full of dirt and sand. Such fruit cannot be processed into an added value or commercial product to meet the minimum marketing requirements.
\n
\n
\n
5.4.4 Processing and value added for date products
\n
There is no doubt that value added products for date palm sector is the future of this industry in the GCC. Low quality dates are mostly absorbed by the local market at very low price for the consumers. There is also the use of the very low quality as feed for the livestock sector. The local markets already absorb all of the low-quality dates at a low price. Therefore, for the high date palm quality, a high quantity of waste is generated at various stages of date fruit value—chain/marketing. This date solid waste could be valorized from different perspectives and for several uses (pharmaceutical industries, confectionaries, handcrafts and furniture, etc.).
\n
These suggested value-added products (date palm by-products such as leaves and wood for furniture and handicrafts, sweet sap, date sugar, date palm-based confectionaries products, etc.) should be produced in modern, efficient processing facilities capable of making a wide variety of industrial grade and retail products demanded by the local and the international markets. This is possible if the facilities are installed close to the production areas, regrouping farmers around agricultural cooperatives, which offer opportunities that date palm small holders could not achieve individually, such as providing good quality of (as fruits and, consequently a strong bargaining power and resource share that leads to win-win situation.
\n
A systemic change that encompass the independence of external inputs, that promote better palm tree management and harvesting, improve storage, processing and packaging and work on creating higher value products for the local and international markets, is encouraged. This systemic change should be started by facilitating the linkages between decision makers (ministries) and research institutions, with producers and other key date palm chain actors, through promoting the use of applied scientific research methods to improve processing quality and develop new processing and storage techniques. There is also a need to build a trustable relationship with input/service providers to introduce new processing and packaging technologies and techniques.
\n
\n
\n
5.4.5 Markets and marketing improvement
\n
\n
5.4.5.1 National markets
\n
Several constraints and challenges are facing the local marketing channels of the date palm fruits. Such challenges are decreasing demand for date fruits, weak post-harvesting transactions, lack of appropriate and attracting boxes, no appropriate existing storage system till the marketing of fruits, lack of by-products markets, use of unimproved technologies for fruit packaging, no linkage between all key processing date palm actors, lack of expertise and technical staff for date palm manufacturing industries, rural-urban migration, urbanization, no feasibility studies regarding the profitability of the manufacturing industries of date palm products, and reluctance of investors to invest in the date palm sector. To overcome these constraints and to improve the marketing at the local level, it is crucial to provide the pertinent, complete and in time marketing information to date palm producers; activate the role of the marketing cooperatives; and development of coordination committees, associations, cooperatives, public and private companies for producers, manufacturers, and exporters of dates to prevent duplication and waste resources. Another strategy could be by including date fruits by the Ministry of Health, Education in the hospital, schools, etc. Furthermore, initiating local consumer’s campaign, which will be set up to promote a “buy-local” products, would enhance consumer trust and pertinence in/to local produce. Government institutions, private sector organizations, and the Chamber of Commerce and other stakeholders might be encouraged to launch targeted marketing campaigns linked to new potential consumers/customers [3].
\n
\n
\n
5.4.5.2 International markets
\n
As it was stated above, the international markets are becoming very demanding in terms of standards and norms, mainly for the perishable products such as dates (as fruits) This will be a challenge for local producers to be competitive in the international markets. In 2015, since about 30% was the share of the GCC countries in the international date market, there is a strong potential for dominating the international date market. This is feasible if there is a strong coordination on trade strategies between the GCC countries in terms of providing safe and secure products; adopting standard specifications and norms in the producing countries to reach the world market with distinct varieties reflecting the position of these countries in the production of date fruits; conducting studies to understand the international markets (volume, size, main competitors, marketing strategies, etc.), their needs, laws, regulations, and providing the information on the national key actors (producers, manufacturers, exporters, etc.), supporting and encouraging the participation of producing companies in the international trade fairs and with supporting exports policies, and finally conducting campaign on advertising and promotion of dates and its nutritional and healthy benefits through international meetings, conferences, festivals, and Attaché offices.
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
6. Concluding remarks, policy implications, and recommendations
\n
This study analyzed the value chain of date palm fruit in the GCC Countries. The value chain development, sustainability and competitiveness are very crucial issues facing the agribusiness sector of the GCC economy, particularly for the small holder’s growers. The GCC agribusiness is been noted for the sale of raw agricultural products palm fruits is one of the major cash crops in the majority of these countries. Dates could provide a greater contribution to the GCC economy if producers paid more attention to its production and marketing. Date palm production is no longer a way of life but nowadays is considered as an investment option and source of revenues for many stakeholders.
\n
The assessment of the supply date palm value chain in the GCC countries suggests the following:
Reduction in the consumption of dates.
Decreasing trends on the exports of fresh dates.
A low consumption level for the industrial dates.
An important level on dates used for animal feeding.
A low level of utilization of date by-products.
\n
Moreover, several constraints and challenges affecting the date palm value chain in the GCC including are revealed and are summarized as follows:
Poor farming management (Inefficient use of date products and by-products).
Pests and diseases and inadequate integrated pest management (IPM) control.
Harvesting, processing and marketing.
High post-harvest losses.
Lack of efficient processing system (storage, transportation, etc.).
Inefficient use of dates products and by-products.
Low exported quantity and low competitiveness of processed date palm products on the international markets.
Shortage in national qualified and trained staff & labors.
Insufficient research and development activities in the date palm sector.
\n
Therefore, to enhance the growth of the date palm value chain in the GCC countries, three development strategies are to be considered towards a dynamic and systemic change:
Supply chain development and management
Improving date palm farming practices and initiation of better post-harvest handling procedures;
Processing and production of value-added products by focusing on added value varieties;
Export premium date products with consistency in supply of high-quality varieties.
Market and marketing development
Establishing a basic data on the local and export date marketing sector;
Improve the efficiency of the marketing process to guarantee good prices to the farmers and to decrease the final market prices by limiting the number of intermediate operators;
Producing in-demand products at competitive prices;
A Pre-harvest Best Management Practices (BMPs) will certainly ensure that the quality standards for export are met.
Agri-business development
Introducing of new potential uses of dates and date products in the pharmaceutical industries, confectionaries, agro-food industries, handcrafts and furniture,
Support the investment for the Small Business Enterprises (SBE’s);
Promoting the use of applied scientific research methods to improve processing quality and develop new processing and storage techniques.
\n
\n
Acknowledgments
\n
We would like to express our sincere gratitude and appreciation to the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) Secretariat for funding this research conducted in the framework of the “Development of sustainable date palm production systems in the GCC countries of the Arabian Peninsula” project.
\n
We are very grateful to the Ministries of Agriculture, Agricultural Authorities, and Agricultural Research Institutions and Universities in the GCC countries of the Arabian Peninsula for their continuous support and great collaboration in the implementation of the project activities.
\n
Special thanks go to the all stakeholders (date palm growers, consumers, wholesale retailers, decision makers, date palm processors, date palm transporters, date palm importers for production inputs, researchers and extension staff) in KSA, Oman, and Kuwait for their great collaboration during the data collection process.
\n
\n',keywords:"value chain, date palm, marketing strategy, GCC countries",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/64696.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/64696.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/64696",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/64696",totalDownloads:3595,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:8,totalAltmetricsMentions:1,introChapter:null,impactScore:2,impactScorePercentile:83,impactScoreQuartile:4,hasAltmetrics:1,dateSubmitted:"July 18th 2018",dateReviewed:"November 8th 2018",datePrePublished:"December 19th 2018",datePublished:"October 30th 2019",dateFinished:"December 7th 2018",readingETA:"0",abstract:"In order to develop a sustainable date palm production system in the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) countries of the Arabian Peninsula, an analysis of the date value chain in these countries was undertaken. Through the mapping of the chain, the overall objective was to identify the processes where values are created and how they are distributed among stakeholders along the entire date palm value chain. The method used in this analysis was based on an assessment of the data gathered from the multi-stakeholder surveys implemented in the three case studies of the GCC countries: Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (KSA), Oman, and Kuwait. The empirical findings reveal several problems and constraints that might affect the future of the GCC date palm sector. Therefore, development of a competitive supply date palm chain (both market and agribusiness development) could provide a greater contribution to the GCC economy if producers paid more attention to marketing of this very important food commodity. Hence, date palm production is no longer a way of life but nowadays is considered as an investment option and source of revenues for many stakeholders if the GCC region.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/64696",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/64696",book:{id:"8308",slug:"agricultural-economics-current-issues"},signatures:"Boubaker Dhehibi, Mohamed Ben Salah and Aymen Frija",authors:[{id:"197434",title:"Dr.",name:"Boubaker",middleName:null,surname:"Dhehibi",fullName:"Boubaker Dhehibi",slug:"boubaker-dhehibi",email:"b.dhehibi@cgiar.org",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"CGIAR",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"268347",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohamed",middleName:null,surname:"Ben Salah",fullName:"Mohamed Ben Salah",slug:"mohamed-ben-salah",email:"M.Ben-Salah@cgiar.org",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"CGIAR",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"268348",title:"Dr.",name:"Aymen",middleName:null,surname:"Frija",fullName:"Aymen Frija",slug:"aymen-frija",email:"a.frija@cgiar.org",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"CGIAR",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"France"}}}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Objectives of the study",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Overview of the date palm sector in the GCC",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"3.1 Date palm production",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"3.2 Marketing systems",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4_3",title:"3.2.1 Domestic consumption",level:"3"},{id:"sec_5_3",title:"3.2.2 Livestock feeding use",level:"3"},{id:"sec_6_3",title:"3.2.3 Domestic market and structure",level:"3"},{id:"sec_8_2",title:"3.3 Marketing channels of dates",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8_3",title:"3.3.1 Example of Kingdom of Saudi Arabia marketing channel for dates",level:"3"},{id:"sec_9_3",title:"3.3.2 Example of Oman marketing channel for dates",level:"3"},{id:"sec_11_2",title:"3.4 Exports market channels",level:"2"},{id:"sec_13",title:"4. International date palm markets and opportunities for GCC countries",level:"1"},{id:"sec_14",title:"5. Date value chain strategy in the GCC countries",level:"1"},{id:"sec_14_2",title:"5.1 Data sources and data collection",level:"2"},{id:"sec_15_2",title:"5.2 Methodological framework",level:"2"},{id:"sec_16_2",title:"5.3 Challenges and constraints in the date palm value chain in the GCC countries",level:"2"},{id:"sec_17_2",title:"5.4 Date value chain development strategy in the GCC countries",level:"2"},{id:"sec_17_3",title:"5.4.1 Farming practices: farmer education and farming management practices",level:"3"},{id:"sec_18_3",title:"5.4.2 Variety selection",level:"3"},{id:"sec_19_3",title:"5.4.3 Post-harvest handling improvements",level:"3"},{id:"sec_20_3",title:"5.4.4 Processing and value added for date products",level:"3"},{id:"sec_21_3",title:"5.4.5 Markets and marketing improvement",level:"3"},{id:"sec_21_4",title:"5.4.5.1 National markets",level:"4"},{id:"sec_22_4",title:"5.4.5.2 International markets",level:"4"},{id:"sec_26",title:"6. Concluding remarks, policy implications, and recommendations",level:"1"},{id:"sec_27",title:"Acknowledgments",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'ICADRA. Steering Committee of ICARDA’s Led Date Palm Project in Gulf Countries Meets in Doha. 2017. Available from: https://www.icarda.org/update/steering-committee-icardas-led-date-palm-project-gulf-countries-meets-doha\n\n'},{id:"B2",body:'FAO. Food and Agriculture Organization Online Dataset. 2018. Available from: http://www.fao.org/ faostat/en/ [Accessed: April 2018]\n'},{id:"B3",body:'Frija A, Dhehibi B, Ben Salah M, Aw-Hasan A. Competitive advantage of GCC date palm sector in the international market: Market shares, revealed comparative advantages, and trade balance indexes. International Journal of Marketing Studies. 2017;9(6):1-13. Available from: http://www.ccsenet.org/journal/index.php/ijms\n\n'},{id:"B4",body:'Kohls RL, Uhl JN. Marketing of Agricultural Products. Upper Saddle River NJ: Prentice Hall; 1998. 560 p\n'},{id:"B5",body:'UN COMTRADE. United Nations Comtrade Database-International Trade Statistics-Import/Export Data. Online Dataset. 2018. Available from: https://comtrade.un.org/data/ [Accessed: April 2018]\n'},{id:"B6",body:'Mbaga MD. Date marketing. In: Manickavasagan A, Essa M, Sukumar E, editors. Dates: Production, Processing, Food, and Medicinal Values. Boca Raton, Florida, USA: CRC Press; 2012. pp. 155-172\n'}],footnotes:[{id:"fn1",explanation:"Calculated over the period 2000–2016."}],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Boubaker Dhehibi",address:"b.dhehibi@cgiar.org",affiliation:'
Resilient Agricultural Livelihood Systems Research Program—RALSP, International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas—ICARDA, Jordan
'},{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Mohamed Ben Salah",address:null,affiliation:'
International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas—ICARDA, Directorate General of Agriculture and Livestock Research, Oman
Resilient Agricultural Livelihood Systems Research Program—RALSP, International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas—ICARDA, Jordan
Resilient Agricultural Livelihood Systems Research Program—RALSP, International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas—ICARD, Institut National de la Recherche Agronomique de Tunis—INRAT, Tunisia
'}],corrections:null},book:{id:"8308",type:"book",title:"Agricultural Economics",subtitle:"Current Issues",fullTitle:"Agricultural Economics - Current Issues",slug:"agricultural-economics-current-issues",publishedDate:"October 30th 2019",bookSignature:"Surendra N. Kulshreshtha",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8308.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",isbn:"978-1-78984-050-6",printIsbn:"978-1-78984-049-0",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83962-637-1",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",numberOfWosCitations:8,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"37057",title:"Dr.",name:"Surendra N.",middleName:null,surname:"Kulshreshtha",slug:"surendra-n.-kulshreshtha",fullName:"Surendra N. 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1. Introduction
Photography has a vast history as it is used to preserve our lives’ most important memories. As such, it tries to conserve a scene as realistically as possible. During the years, it evolved from the camera obscura [1, 2] where scenes were captured only for a brief moment, to black and white photography, requiring to stay still in front of the camera for long hours, to nowadays imaging devices, where the picture is captured instantaneously, digitalized, and the colors are close to what our eyes perceive [3].
Though it preserves the content of the scene, the immersion is lost, as well as the depth information, since the camera projects the scene from 3D to 2D.
To increase the immersion, the next step is to recreate the parallax of the scene, giving the opportunity to the viewer to move freely and see different perspectives, exactly as if the subject was miniaturized in front of our eyes, or the environment virtually rendered around us. Despite this desire, no device capable of acquiring the scene in its entirety directly in 3D has been designed so far.
Creating the parallax effect assumes capturing the scene from all the possible viewpoints and selecting the viewpoint to display on demand for the user’s viewing position. This is physically impossible; instead, we may synthesize any viewpoint from only a couple of captured viewpoints generating all missing information following some basic assumptions [4, 5].
There exist many approaches to generate novel viewpoints from input views. Early methods were based on 3D reconstruction [6, 7] to render the obtained 3D model. More recently, neural radiance fields (NeRF) [8] used machine learning methods to recreate a volumetric representation of the scene. Other methods avoid the explicit 3D information reconstruction, such as depth image-based rendering (DIBR) [9] that will be described in this chapter, or multiplane images [10, 11]. Finally, novel viewpoints can be synthesized by an intelligent interpolation using physical invariants (the epipolar plane image), rather than interpolating directly the image’s colors. Representatives of this last category are the shearlet transform [12] and techniques using deep learning [13].
This chapter provides comprehensive elements to bring photographs of a natural scene to the third dimension, for example, making the captured scene immersive, through holography or virtual reality (VR). The presented 3D rendering technique differs from traditional computer graphics by its input—instead of modeling 3D objects with their geometry and materials that interact with light sources, we use photographs that are warped to follow the viewer gaze direction using the reference view synthesis (RVS) [14, 15, 16] software that follows the view synthesis process of Figure 1.
Figure 1.
DIBR brings photographs to 3D by using depth information to create new viewpoints. It preserves photorealism and allows the user to experience motion parallax.
RVS has been developed during the exploration and standardization activities of MPEG-I – where “I” refers to Immersive – focusing on developing new compression and file formats for immersive video.
The chapter is structured as follows—the first part explains the principles of depth image-based rendering, gives an overview of the possible artifacts that can be encountered when creating a DIBR implementation, and finally, implementation details of RVS are described. The second part provides practical advice for using RVS on some example datasets.
2. Principles of depth image-based rendering
To recreate the parallax effect, we use the depth image-based rendering [9] method. It warps or distorts the input color image as a function of its associated depth map, which itself stores, for every pixel, the distance between the camera and the projected point along the camera optical axis. This method is based on the observation that a stereoscopic pair of images, for example, taken with a few centimeters shift between each other, carry the depth information of the photographed subject. As shown in Figure 2, the relative shift d, aka. the disparity, of foreground objects is larger than for background objects.
Figure 2.
Disparity d=d2−d1 between two pixels representing the same projected point.
2.1 Projection equation and disparity
Let us consider two pinhole cameras facing an object at distance D (see Figure 2). The projection of this object on each image will have a disparity d. Using the similar triangles ratios of fD and d1+d2B, we obtain:
d=B×fDE1
where B is the baseline, i.e., the distance between the two camera centers, and f their focal length.
This implies that, given two images and their depth maps, we can create a virtual view in the middle, between the inputs, by shifting the pixels over half their disparity.
Eq. 1 can be generalized to any camera settings using the pose (translation and rotation – extrinsic parameters, Eq. 2) and internal camera parameters (focal length fx and fy expressed in pixels in the x and y directions, and principal point ppxppy – intrinsic parameters, Eq. (3).
We call an input image and its camera parameters an input viewpoint. We aim to recreate a new virtual view with given new parameters, called target viewpoint. For this, we deproject (i.e., from 2D to 3D) the pixels of the input image to 3D, and reproject (i.e., from 3D to 2D) them to the target image using the projection equation.
Let P=Rt be the inverse (i.e., world to camera) 3×4 pose matrix of a camera with R the rotation matrix and t the translation:
P=Rt=r11r12r13txr21r22r23tyr31r32r33tz,E2
and K its 3×3 intrinsic matrix:
K=fx0ppx0fyppy001.E3
In homogeneous coordinates, a point X=xyz1t at depth D from the input camera pin=uv1t is projected to a pixel pin=uv1t following the projection Equation [6]:
Dpin=KinPinXE4
Hence, given the input image and the depth value of the pixel, we can deproject X:
X=DRin−Rin−1tinTKin−1pinE5
Eventually, this allows to reproject X in the new camera, using Eq. 4 with Pout and Kout:
pout∝DKoutPoutRin−Rin−1tinTKin−1pinE6
To obtain the pixel value, we divide the obtained vector by the third coordinate (i.e., the depth of the point in the new camera).
Applying this operation to every pixel of the input image creates a novel view.
The core principle of DIBR is to apply this deprojection and reprojection to all the pixels of the input images, using a depth map (i.e., a single-channel image encoding the depth value of each pixel). RVS uses this basic principle, but of course, there are many pitfalls one should handle correctly. This is further explained in the following sections.
2.2 Frequent artifacts
We now know the basic principles of DIBR. Unfortunately, simply shifting the pixels of an input image in the function of their depth does not create a photo-realistic result.
The first problem is occlusion handling. When an object is visible in the input image but hidden by an object lying more in the foreground in the target, it is occluded and its pixels should not appear in the rendered image. This can be solved by choosing, among all the pixels from various objects ending up in the same pixel on the screen, the pixel with the minimal depth. A more critical problem is the one of disocclusions, for example, when an object should be visible in the target image but does not appear in the input image because it is hidden (Figure 3a). In that case, a hole is created in the rendered image. One solution is to add more input images in the hope to obtain this missing information [15, 17]. Another approach is to inpaint the empty pixels [18, 19]. In RVS, it is possible to choose any number of viewpoints and a basic inpainting fills the remaining disocclusions.
Figure 3.
(a) Disocclusion artifact (classroom dataset), (b) crack artifacts (Toystable dataset), (c) Artifacts due to inconsistency in color among the input images. (dataset fencing, courtesy of Poznan University of Technology), (d) ghosting artifacts (dataset Toystable).
Cracks and dilation are other frequent DIBR artifacts. We can observe them in Figure 3b. They are created as the user moves forward (step-in), increases the resolution (zoom), or observes slanted objects. Those cracks correspond to pixels in the target that do not have a preimage in the input view (i.e., no input pixel is mapped to them). However, as their neighboring pixels have a preimage, their color can be interpolated. In other words, the input pixels should be mapped to more than one pixel to compensate for this effect. This can be done using superpixels [20], adapting the pixels size to the camera movement [21], or linking neighboring pixels for rasterization [15, 16] (chosen solution in RVS: adjacent pixels are grouped into triangles that are colorized).
Even if increasing the number of input images can reduce the number of disocclusions, it brings new challenges, as those views need to be consistent in color, in estimated geometry, and in estimated pose. Notably, the depth estimation and the blending of multiple views together rely on consistent colors between the images. As not all camera sensors are equal, small differences in color rapidly generate incoherent depth estimations or nonhomogeneous color patches during view blending (Figure 3c). Color correction is usually needed prior to the view synthesis [22, 23] or during the blending step [24, 25].
Moreover, as DIBR relies on the depth information, errors in the depth estimation, a misalignment between the color image and the depth map, or errors in the camera pose estimation lead to ghosting artifacts. When several views are blended together, these artifacts make the objects or their borders appear doubled (Figure 3d). A depth map refinement [26, 27] is one way to solve this problem. Another is to choose weighted blending coefficients based on the reliability of each input image [11, 16] (chosen solution in RVS).
Finally, DIBR is structurally limited to the rendering of diffuse objects. Indeed shifting the pixels in the function of their depth assumes that they do not present view-dependent aspects, such as transparency or specularity. When such objects, so-called non-Lambertian, are present in the scene, the linear hypothesis in pixel displacement in the function of the camera displacement is not valid anymore. Adapting the DIBR principles to non-Lambertian objects is nevertheless possible by exploiting additional information, such as structure, normal, and indexes of refraction [28], or a more accurate approximation of the pixel displacement [29–31] (chosen solution in RVS).
2.3 RVS in practice
The DIBR software RVS is designed to render novel viewpoints from any number of input images and depth maps and their camera parameters, without suffering from the above limitations. In order to create a novel view, the input images are warped sequentially. The obtained result is then blended into an image accumulating the outputs of each reprojected input image. This pipeline is shown in Figure 4. The warping and blending operations are performed alternatively for each input image using OpenGL [32] or on the CPU [15].
Figure 4.
Overview of the processing pipeline. (1) view selection (optional), (2) warping, (3) blending, (4) Inpainting (optional).
To obtain high-quality results, it is recommended to select candidate input views properly. Therefore, the first step in RVS is an optional view selection. The n views the closest to the target image are selected in order to reduce the computation time. Otherwise, all the input images are used to create a new viewpoint.
The second step in RVS is the warping phase. Each input image is divided into a grid of triangles whose vertices are adjacent pixels (Figure 5a). Each of these vertices is reprojected to fit to the new camera pose and parameters (Figure 5b) and rasterized to avoid the cracks artifacts of Figure 3b. Then, each new triangle is given a score that will be used in the blending phase. This score describes the quality of a warped triangle—if the pixels lie on a disocclusion area, their triangle will be stretched and should hence be discarded from the final result (black areas in Figure 4-warping and Figure 5c). The remaining triangles are then rasterized according to their vertex color in the input image (Figure 5c). A depth test prioritizes the pixels with the lowest depth.
Figure 5.
Adjacent pixels of an input image (a) are grouped into triangles independently of their depth before being reprojected to their new image location (b). Triangles detected as lying on a disocclusion are discarded, resulting in a new warped image (c).
When the input images are warped to the target viewpoint, the results need to be blended into one single image. For a given pixel, the final output color c is the weighted mean of the color ci of each warped input:
c=1∑iwi∑iwiciE7
where wi is a weight representing the quality of a triangle [16], prioritizing foreground objects and highest quality triangles.
Finally, as shown in the inpainting of Figure 4, when multiple views are blended together, several occluded regions remain; if the occlusions are small enough, a basic inpainting process can be applied to remove them. Of course, the quality of the inpainting can compromise the overall image quality, hence, inpainting is not recommended. In RVS, the inpainting is not automatic but can be activated. In that case, the empty pixels take the color of the nearest non-empty pixel.
2.3.1 Non-Lambertian case
In the general case, DIBR uses depth maps to predict pixel displacement. However, a point on a non-Lambertian surface does not have a proper color (its color can rapidly change with a change in viewing direction); its appearance is a function of the surrounding scene, the normal at that point, and the index of refraction for refractive surfaces (see Figure 6). This not only makes depth estimation through stereo matching impossible but also implies that even with a correct depth map, the object cannot be rendered by a simple pixel shifting.
Figure 6.
The aspect of non-Lambertian objects is view dependent—Their surface does not appear the same color in each viewing direction.
Alternatively, to model the non-Lambertian surface in itself, it is possible to track its feature movements on the surface [29, 33, 34]. DIBR can be generalized to non-Lambertian objects by replacing the usual depth maps with the coefficients of a polynomial approximating the non-Lambertian features displacement [30, 31]. To clearly understand what this means, let us start with what happens for diffuse objects, where for a lateral camera movement xy, the new position uv of a pixel u0v0 is given by:
uv=u0v0+fDxy.E8
We extend this equation for non-Lambertian objects using polynomials:
uv=u0v0+PuxyPvxy,E9
with Puxy=∑i∑jaijxiyj and Pvxy=∑i∑jbijxiyj. Clearly, the diffuse case corresponds to a1,0=b0,1=fD and all other coefficients aij,bij set to zero.
Consequently, Eq. 9 approximates by a polynomial the nonlinear displacement of a refracted or reflected feature moving on non-Lambertian objects.
However, the polynomial expression rapidly diverges in extrapolation (e.g., when synthesizing a target view that is outside of the input images’ hull). The computed feature displacement becomes greater than the inverse of the non-Lambertian object’s depth, making the feature to be rendered outside of the non-Lambertian surface. This approximation is hence designed for interpolation and small extrapolation only.
Furthermore, these polynomials are not directly related to the physical reality of the non-Lambertian object. Hence, contrary to the simple relation linking the depth to the disparity of a diffuse object cf. Figure 2 and Eq. (1), the polynomials of Eq. (9) do not give the object geometry or the index of refraction.
The polynomial is rather designed to “track” non-Lambertian features that move nonlinearly across the input images. It nevertheless encounters the following limitations. For content with semi-transparent objects, the maps should be divided into several layers before applying the polynomial or depth image-based rendering. Scenes with glints and glossiness make it difficult to track features on their surfaces, often leading to a failure case of the proposed method.
3. Reference view synthesis (RVS) software
This section provides practical recommendations for the use of the reference view synthesizer (RVS) [14, 15, 16, 32, 35] (https://gitlab.com/mpeg-i-visual/rvs) developed as a DIBR-based view synthesizer for the MPEG immersive video (MIV) standard (https://mpeg-miv.org). Without further details on the compression and storage of immersive content [36], we give a comprehensive method to practically use the software on some test sequences (also provided to the MPEG community while developing RVS).
The following paragraphs give documentation on the image format, the axis system, and the data structure to synthesize new viewpoints from available ready-to-use datasets and/or new content users may provide.
3.1 Input images
RVS can accept any number of input images with depth maps, the only limitation being the computer memory. Each input color image must be provided along with its corresponding depth map.
3.1.1 Color images
The color images can be encoded on three RGB color channels, with 8-bit integers each, in any image format readable by OpenCV, for example, PNG or JPEG format.
Additionally, raw images in YUV can be used, with a bit depth of 8, 10, or 16 bits. In this case, multi-frame raw video can be used, applying the view synthesis on all specified frames.
3.1.2 Depth maps
The depth maps represent the depth coordinate of every point in the image following the forward axis of the camera. Similar to color images, they can be provided in different formats. They have to match the resolution of the input images, but they use only one channel.
The first option is to use the OpenEXR format. In that case, the software reads the depth value in float and uses it directly for reprojection.
In the case of integer coded formats, such as YUV or PNG, the precision can be set to 8, 10, or 16 bit per depth value—the bit depth. YUV files can be encoded in YUV420 or YUV400 format, only the Y channel being used. However, the quantization does not allow to directly use the integer as a depth value. Indeed, it would be impossible to use a depth map in meter units for objects in the range of a few meters or centimeters from the cameras.
To overcome this problem, the depth value is encoded into MPEG’s disparity format, mapping the closest object to 2bitdepth−1, and the farthest to 1. To obtain the actual depth value, first we divide the encoded depth map value by 2bitdepth−1 to obtain a value d in the range of 01, then remap the value in the range nf using:
d′=f×nn+d×f−n.E10
With n and f the near and far values of the scene and d′ the depth value lying in nf.
For very far objects, this equation is simplified (f ≥1000) to
d′=ndE11
The value 0 in the encoded depth maps is considered as invalid depth. It corresponds, for example, to disocclusions in a depth-sensing device-acquired map. Figure 7 shows an encoded depth map with invalid pixels and objects at different depths. Clearly, the foreground has high values, which corresponds to being a disparity value, that is, the inverse of a depth, cf. Eq. (11).
Figure 7.
Encoded depth map on integer values. Due to the shift between the color sensor and the depth sensor, the depth map reprojected to the color image misses some information, leaving invalid pixels, encoded on 0. The foreground objects are encoded on high disparities, while the background objects are encoded on low disparities.
In the case of polynomial maps for non-Lambertian objects, it is possible to encode up to degree 3 polynomials, hence 18 coefficients, and pass an additional depth map and mask for the non-Lambertian objects. Those coefficients are encoded similarly to the depth maps, using EXR (directly the float value) or YUV (normalized) format. The polynomial maps are numbered from 0 to 19 as follows.
with ai corresponding to the map i and bi to the map 10+i. The remaining map 9 is used to encode the depth map for Lambertian objects and the map 19 is used as a mask representing non-Lambertian objects (0 for Lambertian, 1 for non-Lambertian). The coefficients not used are left to 0. If the coefficients are encoded in YUV format, the depth (map n∘9) is normalized using Eq. 10, the mask (map n∘19) has 0 and 1 values and the other coefficients are linearly normalized between minimal m and maximal M values: ai′=M−mai+m.
3.2 Camera parameters
Additionally to the input images, the camera parameters must be known to create a novel view with DIBR and RVS. The extrinsic parameters describe the position and the rotation of the camera (Eq. 2), while the intrinsic parameters describe the projection matrix (Eq. 3). Perspective and equirectangular projections are also supported, requiring a slightly different description, as explained hereafter.
3.2.1 Extrinsic parameters
Common graphics processing software and APIs, such as Blender [37], COLMAP [38], OpenGL [39], Vulkan [40], specify their own coordinate system, often admitting different axes and directions, and different image coordinates. Transferring data from one application to the other requires then several coordinate transformation steps, which will be summarized here. We use the Omnidirectional Media Format (OMAF) [41] coordinate system of MPEG-I, combined with yaw-pitch-roll angles.
OMAF is the first industry standard for VR. It specifies the coordinate system used in VR applications, the projection and rectangular region-wise packing methods, the metadata storage, encapsulation, signaling, and streaming of omnidirectional data, and finally the media profiles and presentation profiles. For these reasons, it has been adopted in the camera configuration files of RVS.
The OMAF coordinate system is described in Figure 8. The axes are defined as follows:
X: Back-to-front, forward
Y: Lateral, left
Z: Vertical, up
Figure 8.
The omnidirectional media format coordinate system.
The rotations in degrees are defined with the Yaw-pitch-roll:
Yaw: Around the vertical axis
Pitch: Around the lateral axis
Roll: Around the back-to-front axis
A camera facing forward has all its rotation angles set to 0. The rotation matrix of the camera (world to camera) in our axis coordinate system is then given by:
R=RzyawRypitchRxrollE13
In order to transform a coordinate system from an application to OMAF, one needs to define the coordinate change matrix that matches the three axes, for example:
P=00−11000−10E14
This matrix sets x′y′z′(OMAF) = −zx−y(application), that is, it represents a coordinate system with the axes (left, down, backward). To transfer from this system to OMAF, we apply it to the rotation and position as follow:
R′=P.R.PTp′=P.pE15
where R′ and p′ are the rotation and position of the OMAF system, while R and p the rotation and position in the old coordinates.
The unit of the coordinate system does not have any prerequisite but must correspond to one of the depth maps.
RVS handles any number of input and target cameras, each of them can have its own parameters and projection types. In the case of a stereoscopic head-mounted display for VR, two target views – one for each eye – need to be synthesized with a relative position (interpupillary distance) corresponding to the eye distance, usually given by the headset’s framework along with the intrinsic parameters.
3.2.2 Intrinsic parameters
The intrinsic parameters can be defined for perspective or equirectangular projections. In both cases, the resolution needs to be specified.
For perspective projection, the input images need to be undistorted. In that way, only the focal length and the principal point need to be specified. Those values are in pixel units, the sensor size corresponding to the image resolution. The focals are given by fxfy, corresponding to the horizontal and vertical axis. The principal point ppxppy is defined from the top-left corner of the image as described in Figure 9(a). A principal point at the center of the image has a value of half the resolution. In the case of equirectangular projection (Figure 9b), the horizontal and vertical viewing range must be specified in degrees. For a full 360∘ panoramic image, the horizontal range is −180,180 and the vertical range is −9090. For a 180∘ image, the horizontal and vertical ranges are −9090.
Figure 9.
Intrinsic parameters of the camera for (a) a pinhole projection, (b) an equirectangular projection.
3.2.3 Camera file
The image specifications and camera parameters are specified in a json file with informative headers. An example with a perspective and an equirectangular camera is given here.
An optional parameter, DisplacementMethod, can be set to Polynomial instead of default parameter Depth to specify that, instead of a depth map (Eq. 10), RVS reads a displacement map (Eq. 12). In that case, similarly to the Depth_range, a Multi_depth_range can be specified for the polynomial coefficients in YUV format.
3.3 View synthesis file
In order to perform the view synthesis, an experiment setup file is created. It gives camera views specifications (which views to synthesize given the input viewpoints) in an easy to use json format. The file contains:
Input and target camera parameters file paths—path to the camera file described in the previous subsection. The same file can be used twice if all the input and target cameras are in the same file;
Input and target camera names matched with the camera names contained in the camera files. Any number of inputs and outputs can be specified;
Input images, output images, and depth maps file paths. In the case of polynomial maps, numbered from 0 to 19, the number is replaced by a *;
Number of output frames. Useful for uncompressed YUV video files. The synthesized number of frames can exceed the number of frames in the input videos by specifying an optional NumberOfOutputFrames. In that case, the video will be played back and forth until the desired number of frames is reached;
Precision: super-resolution factor to reach sub-pixel accuracy;
Colorspace: internal working color space, can be YUV or RGB. Following the color space used, the result may present small color variations;
Blending specifications: the method can be Simple (for CPU and GPU usage) or Multispectral (for CPU). Multispectral blending detects the borders in the images, to blend them with a hard threshold and therefore avoids ghosting. The factor represents the power on the weights of Eq. 7.
To test the view synthesis, we provide references to datasets that are provided with their cameras configuration json files. Publicly available datasets are available at the following addresses, while others have been provided as test scenes for MPEG-I immersive video exploration and standardization activities.
Toystable [42, 43]: a natural dataset with perspective cameras (Figure 10a) https://zenodo.org/record/5055542
Magritte [44, 45, 46, 47, 48]: a synthetic dataset with polynomial non-Lambertian maps (Figure 10b) https://zenodo.org/record/4488242, https://zenodo.org/record/5047238, https://zenodo.org/record/5047676, https://zenodo.org/record/5047769
Rabbit [49, 50]: the subaperture views of a multi-plenoptic camera dataset (Figure 10c) https://zenodo.org/record/5053770
Bear [51]: a natural dataset with perspective cameras with estimated and Lidar-sensed depth maps (Figure 10d): https://zenodo.org/record/5047463
MPEG test sequences (including [52, 53, 54, 55]): http://mpegx.int-evry.fr/mpegcontent/
Figure 10.
Overview of the open-source datasets. (a) Toystable consists of two camera arrays at 25 cm (5×5 cameras) and 55 cm (3×5 cameras) from the scene. (b) Magritte is a 21×21 camera array. (c) Rabbit is a 3×7 array of 5×5 subaperture images of a plenoptic camera. (d) Bear (4×8 cameras) is a dataset captured by a Lidar camera with estimated and sensed depth maps.
4. Displays
We provide in Figure 11 results obtained with the RVS software on various display types—autostereoscopic or light field screen (Courtesy ETRO-VUB, Belgium), holographic stereograms [56], and head-mounted displays. Additional videos can be found at the following links: https://youtu.be/ikJb9JaaE54 (holographic stereogram) and https://youtu.be/vavw-TcbHf4 (head-mounted-display).
Figure 11.
Instead of acquiring the 100 of views needed for the different kinds of display, RVS recreates them using four input images. (a) Autostereoscopic screen, (b) holographic stereogram, (c) head-mounted display.
Displaying a dynamic scene in VR requires real-time view synthesis, preferably at 90 frames per second and at a minimum of 30 frames per second for each eye. However, the processing time depends on the number of input images and their resolution – since their pixels form the mesh – resulting in different frame rates [16] (see Table 1). Using a NVIDIA GTX 1080TI GPU, around four input images at a full HD resolution can be processed to obtain a high visual quality while reaching real-time navigation.
The frame rate for view synthesis in VR depends on the number of input images and their resolution. The output images all have the resolution of oculus rift (i.e., 1080×1200 pixels). Those results have been obtained on a windows PC with Intel Xeon E5–2680@2.7GHz CPU and NVIDIA GTX 1080TI GPU.
In the case of the currently developed light field head-mounted display [57], the constraint is double—in addition to the real-time requirement, all the light rays reaching the user’s pupils need to be displayed to make the eye accommodation possible on the close objects, that is, not only one image per eye but all the micro-parallax views around the eye position are rendered.
4.1 Additional tools
In this section, we provide references for additional tools, which are not directly involved in the view synthesis but are nevertheless useful to prepare a dataset.
4.1.1 Camera calibration
The first step prior to DIBR is finding the camera parameters. Accurate intrinsic parameters, including distortion parameters, can be found using a calibration checkerboard-pattern, if the scene has a large enough baseline, or directly during the scene reconstruction (structure-from-motion (SfM) with the retrieval of intrinsic parameters). Using a pattern gives more accurate results but requires a supplementary preprocessing step. There exists open-source software such as Kalibr [58] and OpenCV [59] for camera calibration.
Extrinsic parameters of a set of cameras are retrieved using SfM, with or without the intrinsic parameters known as prior [60]. There exist many open-source software such as COLMAP [38] or AliceVision [61]. Those softwares calibrate the camera and automatically undistort the images.
4.1.2 Depth estimation
Besides parameters estimation, DIBR requires corresponding depth maps for each input view. If they are not acquired with a depth-sensing device, they can be computed using stereo-matching algorithms. Among many algorithms, Depth Estimation Reference Software (DERS) [62] and Immersive Video Depth Estimation (IVDE) [63, 64] are recognized by the MPEG-I community.
5. Conclusions
In this chapter, an overview of the main steps and frequent problems of view synthesis are described. By starting from sparse input pictures, we showed a DIBR method that renders the parallax effect on a multitude of displays, allowing a user to experience new aspects of multimedia immersion. In the second part, a description of how one can start experimenting with the state-of-the-art RVS software is thoroughly explained to avoid common pitfalls.
As research progresses, novel methods to create view synthesis emerge, such as NeRF, however, recent research results demonstrate that DIBR methods will still reach high-quality performances [16], in real time, that will be highly applicable in immersive applications, for example, in the context of MPEG immersive video.
Acknowledgments
This work was supported in part by the Fonds de la Recherche Scientifique – FNRS, Belgium, under Grant n·33679514, ColibriH; and in part by the HoviTron project that received funding from the European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and innovation program under grant agreement N·951989 (https://www.hovitron.eu/).
Conflict of interest
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Abbreviations
CPU
Central Processing Unit
DERS
Depth Estimation Reference Software
DIBR
Depth image-based rendering
GPU
Graphics Processing Unit
IVDE
Immersive Video Depth Estimation
MIV
MPEG Immersive Video
MPEG-I
Moving Picture Experts Group-Immersive
NeRF
Neural Radiance Field
OMAF
Omnidirectional Media Format
RGB
Red-Green-Blue format
RVS
Reference View Synthesizer
SfM
Structure-from-Motion
VR
Virtual Reality
YUV
Luminance-Chrominance format
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An overview of the DIBR approach and frequently encountered challenges (disocclusion and ghosting artifacts, multi-view blending, handling of non-Lambertian objects) are described. Such technology finds applications in VR immersive displays and holography. Finally, a comprehensive manual of the Reference View Synthesis software (RVS), an open-source tool tested on open datasets and recognized by the MPEG-I standardization activities (where “I” refers to “immersive”) is described for hands-on practicing.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/80515",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/80515",signatures:"Sarah Fachada, Daniele Bonatto, Mehrdad Teratani and Gauthier Lafruit",book:{id:"11192",type:"book",title:"Computer Game Development",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Computer Game Development",slug:null,publishedDate:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Branislav Sobota",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11192.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:null,isbn:"978-1-80355-565-2",printIsbn:"978-1-80355-564-5",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80355-566-9",isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"109378",title:"Dr.",name:"Branislav",middleName:null,surname:"Sobota",slug:"branislav-sobota",fullName:"Branislav Sobota"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:null,sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Principles of depth image-based rendering",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"2.1 Projection equation and disparity",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"2.2 Frequent artifacts",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"2.3 RVS in practice",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4_3",title:"2.3.1 Non-Lambertian case",level:"3"},{id:"sec_7",title:"3. Reference view synthesis (RVS) software",level:"1"},{id:"sec_7_2",title:"3.1 Input images",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7_3",title:"3.1.1 Color images",level:"3"},{id:"sec_8_3",title:"3.1.2 Depth maps",level:"3"},{id:"sec_10_2",title:"3.2 Camera parameters",level:"2"},{id:"sec_10_3",title:"3.2.1 Extrinsic parameters",level:"3"},{id:"sec_11_3",title:"3.2.2 Intrinsic parameters",level:"3"},{id:"sec_12_3",title:"3.2.3 Camera file",level:"3"},{id:"sec_14_2",title:"3.3 View synthesis file",level:"2"},{id:"sec_15_2",title:"3.4 Datasets",level:"2"},{id:"sec_17",title:"4. 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High-quality holographic stereogram generation using four RGBD images. Applied Optics. 2021;60(4):A250–A259. Publisher: Optical Society of America'},{id:"B57",body:'Bonatto D, Hirt G, Kvasov A, Fachada S, Lafruit G. MPEG Immersive Video tools for Light-Field Head Mounted Displays. Munich, Germany: IEEE International Conference on Visual Communications and Image Processing; 2021. p. 2'},{id:"B58",body:'Furgale P, Rehder J, Siegwart R. Unified temporal and spatial calibration for multi-sensor systems. In: 2013 IEEE/RSJ International Conference on Intelligent Robots and Systems. Tokyo: IEEE; 2013. pp. 1280-1286'},{id:"B59",body:'Bradski G. The open CV library. Dr Dobb’s Journal: Software Tools for the Professional Programmer. 2000;25(11):120–123;Publisher: Miller Freeman Inc'},{id:"B60",body:'Quan L, Lan Z. Linear N-point camera pose determination. IEEE Transactions on Pattern Analysis and Machine Intelligence. 1999;21(8):774-780'},{id:"B61",body:'Griwodz C, Gasparini S, Calvet L, Gurdjos P, Castan F, Maujean B, et al. AliceVision Meshroom: An open-source 3D reconstruction pipeline. Proceedings of the 12th ACM Multimedia Systems Conference - MMSys ‘21. ACM Press; 2021'},{id:"B62",body:'Rogge S, Bonatto D, Sancho J, Salvador R, Juarez E, Munteanu A, et al. MPEG-I Depth Estimation Reference Software. In: 2019 International Conference on 3D Immersion (IC3D). Brussels, Belgium: IEEE; 2019. pp. 1-6'},{id:"B63",body:'Mieloch D, Stankiewicz O, Domański M. Depth Map Estimation for Free-Viewpoint Television and Virtual Navigation. IEEE Access, Conference Name: IEEE Access. 2020;8:5760-5776'},{id:"B64",body:'Mieloch D, Dziembowski A. Proposal of IVDE 3.0 [m55751]. ISO/IEC JTC1/SC29/WG11; 2020'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Sarah Fachada",address:null,affiliation:'
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Keith",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/145271/images/5380_n.jpg",biography:"Edward O. Keith received his bachelor’s degree in Wildlife Biology \nand his master’s degree in Physiology and Biophysics from Colorado State University in 1975 and 1978, respectively, and his doctoral degree in Biology in 1984 from the University of California at Santa Cruz. He held faculty positions at the University of Miami and Southeastern University of the Health Sciences (later Nova Southeastern University). He was an associate professor at the Oceanographic Center of that institution by the time of his death. He taught numerous courses not only on marine mammalogy but also on biochemistry, physiology, and related subjects. His research centered on pinnipeds and he was an active member of the Society for Marine Mammalogy. 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IntechOpen’s Academic Editors and Authors have received funding for their work through many well-known funders, including: the European Commission, Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation, Wellcome Trust, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Natural Science Foundation of China (NSFC), CGIAR Consortium of International Agricultural Research Centers, National Institute of Health (NIH), National Science Foundation (NSF), National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST), German Research Foundation (DFG), Research Councils United Kingdom (RCUK), Oswaldo Cruz Foundation, Austrian Science Fund (FWF), Foundation for Science and Technology (FCT), Australian Research Council (ARC).
Open Access publication costs can often be designated directly in the grants or in specific budgets allocated for that purpose. Many of the most important funding organisations encourage, and even request, that the projects they fund are made available at no cost to the wider public. IntechOpen strives to maintain excellent relationships with these funders and ensures compliance with mandates.
\\n\\n
In order to help Authors identify appropriate funding agencies and institutions, we have created a list, based on extensive research on various OA resources (including ROARMAP and SHERPA/JULIET) of organizations that have funds available. Before consulting our list we encourage you to petition your own institution or organization for Open Access funds or check the specifications of your grant with your funder to ascertain if publication costs are included. Where you are in receipt of a grant you should clarify:
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\\n\\t
Does your institution already have a budget for covering Open Access publication costs?
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Does your grant list Open Access publication fees as legitimate direct/indirect costs?
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\\n\\n
If you are associated with any of the institutions in our list below, you can apply to receive OA publication funds by following the instructions provided in the links. Please consult the Open Access policies or grant Terms and Conditions of any institution with which you are linked to explore ways to cover your publication costs (also accessible by clicking on the link in their title).
\\n\\n
Please note that this list is not a definitive one and is updated regularly. To suggest possible modifications or the inclusion of your institution/funder, please contact us at funders@intechopen.com
\\n\\n
Please be aware that you must be a member, or grantee, of the institutions/funders listed in order to apply for their Open Access publication funds.
Open Access publication costs can often be designated directly in the grants or in specific budgets allocated for that purpose. Many of the most important funding organisations encourage, and even request, that the projects they fund are made available at no cost to the wider public. IntechOpen strives to maintain excellent relationships with these funders and ensures compliance with mandates.
\n\n
In order to help Authors identify appropriate funding agencies and institutions, we have created a list, based on extensive research on various OA resources (including ROARMAP and SHERPA/JULIET) of organizations that have funds available. Before consulting our list we encourage you to petition your own institution or organization for Open Access funds or check the specifications of your grant with your funder to ascertain if publication costs are included. Where you are in receipt of a grant you should clarify:
\n\n
\n\t
Does your institution already have a budget for covering Open Access publication costs?
\n\t
Does your grant list Open Access publication fees as legitimate direct/indirect costs?
\n
\n\n
If you are associated with any of the institutions in our list below, you can apply to receive OA publication funds by following the instructions provided in the links. Please consult the Open Access policies or grant Terms and Conditions of any institution with which you are linked to explore ways to cover your publication costs (also accessible by clicking on the link in their title).
\n\n
Please note that this list is not a definitive one and is updated regularly. To suggest possible modifications or the inclusion of your institution/funder, please contact us at funders@intechopen.com
\n\n
Please be aware that you must be a member, or grantee, of the institutions/funders listed in order to apply for their Open Access publication funds.
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It is present in different machines we use every day; in fact, technical systems in our homes and all the industries are hard to imagine today without these concepts. Moreover, the same theories can be used for modelling life processes as a collection of inputs, outputs, plants and control loops. Feedback is one of the main concepts behind control; in particular, several examples of physiological control mechanisms for regulating life aspects can be found in the human anatomy, for example, blood pressure, cholesterol levels, body movements, the equilibrium, etc. Those processes can be damaged by the aging effects, diseases, accidents or when the mechanism has been broken and cannot be recovered naturally; consequently, it will be required external assistance. A relative new field in control theory is related with developing technology for helping with physiological and medicals problems. However, in comparison with machines, those physiological processes are highly nonlinear, with delays and slow responses. Another problem is when human becomes the operators using their capacities of decision making to close the control loop, as they are prone to errors and mistakes. For those reasons, the biomedical system needs to be carefully designed and several aspects have to be considered. This chapter gives a small review of some internal and external control processes within the human body and discusses how to interact with them for designing biomedical devices. Under this design scheme, a practical application of a smart electric wheelchair for assisting persons with strong disabilities is presented. These assistive robotic systems are in close contact with the user, and thus, it is determinant to have a user-friendly relation between the human and the interface. Therefore, intuitive interfaces were included in the design and an intelligent navigation assistant to guarantee a collision-free path.",book:{id:"5238",slug:"automation-and-control-trends",title:"Automation and Control Trends",fullTitle:"Automation and Control Trends"},signatures:"David Balderas and Mario Rojas",authors:[{id:"183076",title:"M.Sc.",name:"David",middleName:null,surname:"Balderas Silva",slug:"david-balderas-silva",fullName:"David Balderas Silva"},{id:"184877",title:"MSc.",name:"Mario",middleName:null,surname:"Rojas",slug:"mario-rojas",fullName:"Mario Rojas"}]},{id:"51070",title:"Fuzzy PD Controller in NAO System's Platform",slug:"fuzzy-pd-controller-in-nao-system-s-platform",totalDownloads:1607,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"Humanoid robotic platforms rarely achieve the desire trajectory because of the deviation generated during the robot walking. This problem is due to different circumstances such as robot manufacturing, wear and tear of mechanic parts, or variations of floor flatness. Currently, one of the humanoid robots on the market is the robotic platform developed by Aldebaran Robotics called NAO robot, and it is used for different purposes where the robot needs to navigate into controlled spaces. NAO presents the issue of deviation during walking; therefore, a Fuzzy PD Controller is developed and implemented for this platform to reduce the orientation error and to ensure reliability during navigation. Inertial sensors are used to get the orientation reference and for feedback of the closed-loop control. Consequently, a robust control was implemented and tested in different conditions of floor and velocity during the robot’s navigation such as robot races and maze resolution. Experimental results show that fuzzy controller achieves significant improvements in the trajectories of NAO.",book:{id:"5238",slug:"automation-and-control-trends",title:"Automation and Control Trends",fullTitle:"Automation and Control Trends"},signatures:"Edgar Omar López‐Caudana and César Daniel González Gutiérrez",authors:[{id:"26464",title:"Dr.",name:"Edgar",middleName:"Omar",surname:"Lopez-Caudana",slug:"edgar-lopez-caudana",fullName:"Edgar Lopez-Caudana"},{id:"185936",title:"Mr.",name:"César Daniel",middleName:null,surname:"González Gutiérrez",slug:"cesar-daniel-gonzalez-gutierrez",fullName:"César Daniel González Gutiérrez"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"257",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:90,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:107,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:33,numberOfPublishedChapters:330,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:14,numberOfPublishedChapters:145,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:140,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:123,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:112,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:22,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:11,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-6580",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. 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He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. 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His later study in cooperation with experts in nephrology and immunology resulted in the designation of the new diagnostic method of UTI, patented in 2017. He is currently working at the Department of Microbiology, Medical University of Gdańsk (GUMed), Poland. Since many years, he is a member of steering committee of Gdańsk branch of Polish Society of Microbiologists, a member of ESCMID. 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Her research interest is in antibiotic resistance, host-pathogen interaction, and therapeutics development for staphylococcal pathogens, mainly Staphylococcus aureus, which causes hospital-acquired infections. Currently, her research is mostly focused on the study of oral pathogens, particularly Staphylococcus spp.",institutionString:"Medical University of Gdańsk, Poland",institution:null},editorThree:null},{id:"4",title:"Fungal Infectious Diseases",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/4.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"174134",title:"Dr.",name:"Yuping",middleName:null,surname:"Ran",slug:"yuping-ran",fullName:"Yuping Ran",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bS9d6QAC/Profile_Picture_1630330675373",biography:"Dr. Yuping Ran, Professor, Department of Dermatology, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China. Completed the Course Medical Mycology, the Centraalbureau voor Schimmelcultures (CBS), Fungal Biodiversity Centre, Netherlands (2006). International Union of Microbiological Societies (IUMS) Fellow, and International Emerging Infectious Diseases (IEID) Fellow, Centers for Diseases Control and Prevention (CDC), Atlanta, USA. Diploma of Dermatological Scientist, Japanese Society for Investigative Dermatology. Ph.D. of Juntendo University, Japan. Bachelor’s and Master’s degree, Medicine, West China University of Medical Sciences. Chair of Sichuan Medical Association Dermatology Committee. General Secretary of The 19th Annual Meeting of Chinese Society of Dermatology and the Asia Pacific Society for Medical Mycology (2013). In charge of the Annual Medical Mycology Course over 20-years authorized by National Continue Medical Education Committee of China. Member of the board of directors of the Asia-Pacific Society for Medical Mycology (APSMM). Associate editor of Mycopathologia. 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He is currently a rated researcher by the National Research Foundation of South Africa at category C2. He has published widely in the field of infectious diseases and has overseen several MSc’s and PhDs. His research activities mostly cover topics on infectious diseases from epidemiology to control. His particular interest lies in the study of intestinal protozoan parasites and opportunistic infections among HIV patients as well as the potential impact of childhood diarrhoea on growth and child development. He also conducts research on water-borne diseases and water quality and is involved in the evaluation of point-of-use water treatment technologies using silver and copper nanoparticles in collaboration with the University of Virginia, USA. 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His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. 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He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. 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Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"7123",title:"Current Topics in Neglected Tropical Diseases",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7123.jpg",slug:"current-topics-in-neglected-tropical-diseases",publishedDate:"December 4th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Alfonso J. 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He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. 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He obtained a Master’s degree in Public Health and PhD in Public Health and Epidemiology. He has a background in Clinical Medicine and has taken courses at higher diploma levels in public health from University of Transkei, Republic of South Africa, and African Medical and Research Foundation (AMREF) in Nairobi, Kenya. Dr. Kasenga worked in different places in and outside Malawi, and has held various positions, such as Licensed Medical Officer, HIV/AIDS Programme Officer, HIV/AIDS resource person in the International Department of Diakonhjemet College, Oslo, Norway. He also managed an Integrated HIV/AIDS Prevention programme for over 5 years. He is currently working as a Director for the Health Ministries Department of Malawi Union of the Seventh Day Adventist Church. Dr. Kasenga has published over 5 articles on HIV/AIDS issues focusing on Prevention of Mother to Child Transmission of HIV (PMTCT), including a book chapter on HIV testing counseling (currently in press). 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He also obtained an MSc in Molecular and Genetic Medicine, and a Ph.D. in Clinical Immunology and Human Genetics from the University of Sheffield, UK. He also completed a short-term fellowship in Pediatric Clinical Immunology and Bone Marrow Transplantation at Newcastle General Hospital, England. Dr. Rezaei is a Full Professor of Immunology and Vice Dean of International Affairs and Research, at the School of Medicine, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, and the co-founder and head of the Research Center for Immunodeficiencies. He is also the founding president of the Universal Scientific Education and Research Network (USERN). Dr. Rezaei has directed more than 100 research projects and has designed and participated in several international collaborative projects. He is an editor, editorial assistant, or editorial board member of more than forty international journals. He has edited more than 50 international books, presented more than 500 lectures/posters in congresses/meetings, and published more than 1,100 scientific papers in international journals.",institutionString:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",institution:{name:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"180733",title:"Dr.",name:"Jean",middleName:null,surname:"Engohang-Ndong",slug:"jean-engohang-ndong",fullName:"Jean Engohang-Ndong",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180733/images/system/180733.png",biography:"Dr. Jean Engohang-Ndong was born and raised in Gabon. After obtaining his Associate Degree of Science at the University of Science and Technology of Masuku, Gabon, he continued his education in France where he obtained his BS, MS, and Ph.D. in Medical Microbiology. He worked as a post-doctoral fellow at the Public Health Research Institute (PHRI), Newark, NJ for four years before accepting a three-year faculty position at Brigham Young University-Hawaii. Dr. Engohang-Ndong is a tenured faculty member with the academic rank of Full Professor at Kent State University, Ohio, where he teaches a wide range of biological science courses and pursues his research in medical and environmental microbiology. Recently, he expanded his research interest to epidemiology and biostatistics of chronic diseases in Gabon.",institutionString:"Kent State University",institution:{name:"Kent State University",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"188773",title:"Prof.",name:"Emmanuel",middleName:null,surname:"Drouet",slug:"emmanuel-drouet",fullName:"Emmanuel Drouet",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/188773/images/system/188773.png",biography:"Emmanuel Drouet, PharmD, is a Professor of Virology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, the University Grenoble-Alpes, France. As a head scientist at the Institute of Structural Biology in Grenoble, Dr. Drouet’s research investigates persisting viruses in humans (RNA and DNA viruses) and the balance with our host immune system. He focuses on these viruses’ effects on humans (both their impact on pathology and their symbiotic relationships in humans). He has an excellent track record in the herpesvirus field, and his group is engaged in clinical research in the field of Epstein-Barr virus diseases. He is the editor of the online Encyclopedia of Environment and he coordinates the Universal Health Coverage education program for the BioHealth Computing Schools of the European Institute of Science.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Grenoble Alpes University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",biography:"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (especially arboviral diseases). He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},{id:"332819",title:"Dr.",name:"Chukwudi Michael",middleName:"Michael",surname:"Egbuche",slug:"chukwudi-michael-egbuche",fullName:"Chukwudi Michael Egbuche",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/332819/images/14624_n.jpg",biography:"I an Dr. Chukwudi Michael Egbuche. I am a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Parasitology and Entomology, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nnamdi Azikiwe University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"284232",title:"Mr.",name:"Nikunj",middleName:"U",surname:"Tandel",slug:"nikunj-tandel",fullName:"Nikunj Tandel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/284232/images/8275_n.jpg",biography:'Mr. Nikunj Tandel has completed his Master\'s degree in Biotechnology from VIT University, India in the year of 2012. He is having 8 years of research experience especially in the field of malaria epidemiology, immunology, and nanoparticle-based drug delivery system against the infectious diseases, autoimmune disorders and cancer. He has worked for the NIH funded-International Center of Excellence in Malaria Research project "Center for the study of complex malaria in India (CSCMi)" in collaboration with New York University. The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. Received the CSIR-SRF (Senior Research Fellow) award-2018, FIMSA (Federation of Immunological Societies of Asia-Oceania) Travel Bursary award to attend the IUIS-IIS-FIMSA Immunology course-2019',institutionString:"Nirma University",institution:{name:"Nirma University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334383",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Simone",middleName:"Ulrich",surname:"Ulrich Picoli",slug:"simone-ulrich-picoli",fullName:"Simone Ulrich Picoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334383/images/15919_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from Universidade Luterana do Brasil (1999), Master in Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology from Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (2002), Specialization in Clinical Microbiology from Universidade de São Paulo, USP (2007) and PhD in Sciences in Gastroenterology and Hepatology (2012). She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"333753",title:"Dr.",name:"Rais",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"rais-ahmed",fullName:"Rais Ahmed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333753/images/20168_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). He was also awarded 'Outstanding Clinician in General Medicine” by Venus International Foundation for his extensive research expertise and services, perform over and above the standard expected in the advancement of healthcare, patient safety and quality of care.",institutionString:"Interfaith Medical Center",institution:{name:"Interfaith Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"93517",title:"Dr.",name:"Clement",middleName:"Adebajo",surname:"Meseko",slug:"clement-meseko",fullName:"Clement Meseko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/93517/images/system/93517.jpg",biography:"Dr. Clement Meseko obtained DVM and PhD degree in Veterinary Medicine and Virology respectively. He has worked for over 20 years in both private and public sectors including the academia, contributing to knowledge and control of infectious disease. Through the application of epidemiological skill, classical and molecular virological skills, he investigates viruses of economic and public health importance for the mitigation of the negative impact on people, animal and the environment in the context of Onehealth. \r\nDr. Meseko’s field experience on animal and zoonotic diseases and pathogen dynamics at the human-animal interface over the years shaped his carrier in research and scientific inquiries. He has been part of the investigation of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza incursions in sub Saharan Africa and monitors swine Influenza (Pandemic influenza Virus) agro-ecology and potential for interspecies transmission. 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