Catchment area characteristics of the “Innere-” and “Äußere Lehnertalbach”.
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\\n\\nLaunching 2021
\\n\\nArtificial Intelligence, ISSN 2633-1403
\\n\\nVeterinary Medicine and Science, ISSN 2632-0517
\\n\\nBiochemistry, ISSN 2632-0983
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\\n\\nDentistry (Coming Soon)
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\\n\\nNote: Edited in October 2021
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\n\nDesigned to cover fast-moving research fields in rapidly expanding areas, our Book Series feature a Topic structure allowing us to present the most relevant sub-disciplines. Book Series are headed by Series Editors, and a team of Topic Editors supported by international Editorial Board members. Topics are always open for submissions, with an Annual Volume published each calendar year.
\n\nAfter a robust peer-review process, accepted works are published quickly, thanks to Online First, ensuring research is made available to the scientific community without delay.
\n\nOur innovative Book Series format brings you:
\n\nIntechOpen Book Series will also publish a program of research-driven Thematic Edited Volumes that focus on specific areas and allow for a more in-depth overview of a particular subject.
\n\nIntechOpen Book Series will be launching regularly to offer our authors and editors exciting opportunities to publish their research Open Access. We will begin by relaunching some of our existing Book Series in this innovative book format, and will expand in 2022 into rapidly growing research fields that are driving and advancing society.
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\n\nBiochemistry, ISSN 2632-0983
\n\nBiomedical Engineering, ISSN 2631-5343
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\n\nDentistry (Coming Soon)
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\n\nNote: Edited in October 2021
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Sports involved physical strength coupled with digital analysis. A mathematical model can be developed and evaluated using mathematical modeling. This book aims to address important issues such as aerodynamic forces and moments that play a significant role in evaluating performance. The atmospheric conditions can also be used to analyze the aerodynamics of sports. Local temperature, humidity, air velocity, and pressure are input to the numerical analysis. Aerodynamics is related to flight dynamics in sports and can be coupled with computational fluid dynamics (CFD). The spinning of the ball creates a significant effect on its movement. Flow separation also has a significant effect on fluid dynamics. The wind tunnel can also be used to analyze real-time data.
\r\n\t
Cerium oxide is the most thoroughly investigated material for the application in solid oxide fuel cells (SOFCs) working in the intermediate-temperature range (500–700°C) [1, 2]. This is because of its pronounced catalytic properties, substantial oxygen-ion conductivity (on doping with lower valent metal oxides) and good phase and thermal stability in the given temperature range. The high catalytic activity in ceria is associated with the presence of Ce4+/Ce3+ redox couple which is a key to improve the electrochemical properties of the electrodes. Although this is one area where most of the papers related to ceria have been produced, in this chapter, we restrict our discussion to its usefulness as an electrolyte in SOFCs [3].
Ceria exhibits a cubic fluorite crystal structure that possesses a relatively large interionic open space facilitating fast oxygen-ion diffusion inside the lattice (shown in Figure 1). This open structure is stable from room temperature to its melting point (~2400°C) and allows to accommodate high levels of point defect disorder [4]. Several properties such as ionic conduction, thermoelectric effect, mixed ionic-electronic conductivity, etc., can be altered and tailored by controlling the concentration of these zero-dimensional defects [5]. As a result, the defect engineering in ceria plays a vital role in improving its properties for the electrolyte application.
Schematic of a cubic fluorite structure of CeO2. Ce4+ and O2− are shown by blue and red spheres, respectively.
Oxygen-ion conduction in ceria is mediated through a vacancy diffusion mechanism. In oxidizing atmospheres, the cubic fluorite structure of pure CeO2 does not have any oxygen vacancy defects. As a result, pure CeO2 itself is a poor oxygen-ion conductor. The oxygen vacancy defects are introduced into the CeO2 structure by partially substituting Ce4+ with acceptor cations inside the lattice. This can be expressed through the following defect reaction in Kröger-Vink notation.
Thus, the impurity center
Schematic showing the jump of an oxygen vacancy from one tetrahedral to another through a migration edge. Ce4+, A3+ and O2− are shown by blue, green, and red spheres, respectively, while oxygen vacancy is shown by red cube.
For a pure oxygen-ion conductor, oxygen-ion conductivity (
where
These electrons are typically localized in the periphery of Ce3+, leading to the formation of small polarons (
Oxygen-ion diffusion in doped ceria is a thermally activated process. The temperature dependent behavior of the oxygen-ion conductivity can be expressed through Arrhenius relationship given by,
where
where
It is noteworthy to mention that even though the total conductivity of polycrystalline samples is influenced by the conductivity inside the grains and grain boundaries, in this chapter, we only refer to the grain (bulk) conductivity which occurs by oxygen-ion jump through the regular lattice and is not affected by the microstructural characteristics of the sample. Thus, the bulk ionic conduction is the inherent property of the doped material [8]. On the other hand, the conduction in grain boundaries is dependent on several factors such as impurity segregation, space-charge region, etc. [9]. Both the bulk and grain boundary conductivity can be estimated by acquiring an impedance spectrum over a frequency range (typically 10 MHz to 0.01 Hz) on the polycrystalline sample [10]. As grain boundaries show higher capacitance value (in the range from 10−8 to 10−11 F) compared to the bulk region (~ 10−12 F), two distinct arcs are typically observed associated with these phenomena [10]. On fitting the impedance data using an analog equivalent electric circuit, the resistance offered by bulk and grain boundary regions is estimated which can be then be used in determining the corresponding conductivities.
The bulk conductivity has a significant dependence on the concentration of oxygen vacancy which is controlled by the doping amount according to
Bulk ionic conductivity is plotted against the dopant concentration (
Besides the doping amount, the physical properties of dopant cations also influence the bulk conductivity of ceria. Numerous investigations have been performed to understand these correlations in doped ceria systems [1, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19]. Figure 4 depicts the dependence of ionic conductivity in A0.10Ce0.90O1.95 on the ionic size of the trivalent dopant cation (A3+) at 600°C. While the work performed by Omar et al. [15] showed a continuous increase in the bulk conductivity with the increase in ionic size, others [17, 20, 21, 22] reported a conductivity maximum around Gd3+ and Sm3+. It is interesting to note that the maximum in conductivity observed around these cations is independent of dopant concentration [6]. In the literature, several empirical, semi-empirical and atomistic models have been reported to clarify this and elucidate the effect of doping amount and the dopant-type on the conductivity. This chapter reviews some of these models to provide insights into the mechanisms underlying the oxygen-ion conduction process in doped ceria.
Bulk ionic conductivity of A
Whenever charged point defects (
Figure 5 depicts a case where
Oxygen vacancy defect trapped inside the tetrahedral void to form local defect complex. Ce4+, A3+ and O2− are shown by blue, green, and red spheres, respectively, while oxygen vacancy is shown by red cube.
The binding energy associated with the local defect structures is mainly dependent on the electrostatic attraction of the defects caused by the effective charges in the lattice. Further, it also includes terms due to the relaxation of the lattice around the defect which depends on the polarizability and the size of dopant cation. Several groups have found a difference in the magnitudes of
In the literature, several methods have been used to determine the association enthalpy. Omar et al. [42] have taken a difference in the magnitudes of
Association enthalpy (Δ
The amount of local defect structures increases with the incorporation of oxygen vacancies inside the lattice. For achieving high oxygen-ion conductivity, the association of defects needs to be minimized. Kilner and Brook [45] stated that the oxygen-ion conductivity in doped CeO2 could be enhanced if the elastic strain present in the lattice is lowered. Kim [46] partially replaced acceptor cations in fluorite-structured MO2 (where M is a tetravalent cation) and studied the change in lattice parameter of the host oxides. By performing multiple regression analysis, an empirical model was developed that can predict the elastic strain in doped ceria systems for any given dopant cation. This model takes into consideration the size mismatch and difference in charge valence between the dopant and host cations and the dopant concentration. Further, Kim [46] proposed the concept of critical ionic radius (
In a similar study, Hong and Virkar [47] calculated the
To examine the validity of minimum strain’s hypothesis, Omar et al. [23] have carried out the experimental studies using a novel co-doping strategy in ceria. A co-dopant pair of Lu3+ and Nd3+ were chosen and added in a ratio such that the weighted average dopant ionic radius of co-dopants matches the magnitude of
Elastic strain is plotted against the dopant concentration [
On plotting the activation energy for oxygen-ion diffusion in trivalent cation-doped CeO2, it has been found that the minimum value for activation energy occurs for Sm3+ which possesses a much larger ionic radius than the
Lattice parameter mismatch between A0.10Ce0.90O2-
In the past, multiple atomistic computer simulation techniques have been used to study the interaction energetic involved between the cations and oxygen vacancies in acceptor cation-doped CeO2. Butler et al. [48] reported that the ionic radius of dopant has a major influence on the stability of defect complexes. Minervini et al. [49] studied the binding energy of an oxygen vacancy with dopant cation using the energy minimization techniques. It was found that the oxygen vacancies prefer to reside in the first neighboring sites of small dopant cations and in the second neighboring sites of large dopant cations. For Gd3+ dopant cation, the oxygen vacancy shows similar preference to reside in first and second neighboring sites. Moreover, the binding energy was also estimated to be lowest in Gd3+-doped CeO2. Although these theoretical studies show a close match with the experimental results, they are based on empirical atomistic models.
Andersson et al. [16] performed the quantum mechanical calculations within the density functional theory (DFT) formalism in trivalent cation-doped CeO2. Both electrostatic and elastic interaction energies between the dopant cation and oxygen vacancy located in nearest neighbor (NN) site and in the next to nearest neighbor (NNN) site (of dopant cation) were predicted using the
Total interaction energy between dopant cation and oxygen vacancy sitting in nearest neighbor (NN) and next to nearest neighbor (NNN) site (of dopant cations) for rare- earth dopant cations. The negative numbers imply attractive interactions. The
Unfortunately, Pm is a radioactive element and cannot be used as a dopant in ceria. The best dopant should be having an effective atomic number around Pm3+ (61) with an ionic radius of 1.093 Å. According to Andersson et al. [16], a co-doping approach, with Sm3+ and Nd3+ as co-dopants, provides an experimental scenario for examining the validity of this hypothesis. Omar et al. [8, 42] have studied the influence of co-doping Sm3+ and Nd3+ on the oxygen-ion conductivity of CeO2. Sm3+ and Nd3+ were added in an equal ratio to obtain the effective atomic number of Pm3+, that is, 61. By doing so, similar total interactions between the dopant cations and oxygen vacancies sitting in NN and NNN sites (of dopant cations) are expected, which may lead to enhancement in the oxygen-ion conductivity. It was reported that for compositions containing 10 mol.% of dopant, Sm3+ and Nd3+-doped ceria exhibits 14% higher grain ionic conductivity than that of Gd0.10Ce0.90O2.95 at 550°C, in air (shown in Figure 3). The obtained high conductivity of co-doped samples validates the density functional theory prediction about Pm3+ to be the best dopant cation for achieving high oxygen-ion conductivity in CeO2.
Although several investigations have shown the formation of local defect structures in doped ceria systems, only a few models exist which describe the doping fraction at which they start appearing and directly influencing the conductivity. Also, in several experimental investigations, the observed trend in macroscopic migration enthalpy is attributed to the microscopic level association between dopant cation and oxygen vacancies without a thorough understanding of underlying atomistic level mechanisms. In earlier studies, the local defect structures are considered as one of the chemical species whose concentration is described using the equilibrium thermodynamics [1, 39]. However, this approach does not take into account the interactions between the local defect structures, especially at higher doping concentrations (>10 mol.% A2O3).
Multiple atomistic simulations studies have been performed to comprehend the relationships between the macroscopic conductivity and the migration in various local environments. In one of the earlier theoretical studies, Murray et al. [50] used Kinetic Monte Carlo (KMC) simulations to consider the migration enthalpy in the local environment to estimate the oxygen-ion conductivity as a function of doping level. It was reported that at higher doping concentration, oxygen vacancies tend to reside next to dopants, and thus do not contribute toward ionic conduction.
In a similar investigation, Nakayama et al. [51] used
In recent work by Koettgen et al. [6], the oxygen-ion conductivity was calculated as a function of the doping amount by combining
Figure 10 shows the schematic of trapping and blocking effects. The energy of the system as a function of a reaction coordinate for the corresponding configuration is also shown. It was demonstrated that both these effects have an impact on the observed ionic conductivity. While blocking effect determines the doping fraction at which the maximum in conductivity is observed, it is the trapping effect which limits the maximum ionic conductivity value. Thus, this study clarifies that the optimal doping concentration to achieve the maximum ionic conductivity cannot be predicted only by trapping effect (association between dopant cation and oxygen vacancies) which is commonly assumed in the literature.
The energy of the system as a function of the reaction coordinate for the configuration change that is shown below in rare-earth-doped ceria. In trapping effect, migration enthalpy increases if the oxygen-ion jump weakens the association between the oxygen vacancies and the dopants. In case of blocking effect, the migration energy increases for an increasing number of large dopants at the migration edge: cerium ions (green), rare-earth ions (blue), oxygen ions (red spheres), and oxygen vacancies (red boxes) [
This chapter reviews some of the highlights of investigations performed on lower-valent cation-doped ceria materials which have been considered strong candidates for the electrolyte application in SOFCs operating at the intermediate-temperature range. Some of the basic characteristics of doped ceria relating to its high oxygen-ion conductivity are discussed. The maximum in conductivity observed by adding a large amount of lower-valent dopant cation is explained on the basis of formation of local defect structures. The extent of formation of these local defect structures cannot be lowered by just minimizing the elastic lattice distortion. It has been emphasized that the concept of critical ionic radius alone cannot explain the maximum oxygen-ion conductivity observed in Pm3+-doped CeO2 as found by the first-principles density functional theory calculations. Particular attention has been given to a more recent atomistic simulations study on rare-earth-doped ceria which calculates the migration energies for all the possible jump configurations that may present in rare-earth-doped CeO2. This study explains the importance of the shape of migration energy barrier and its impact on the ionic conductivity.
Author would like to acknowledge IIT Kanpur for supporting in writing this chapter.
Quantitative risk assessment of natural hazards serves nowadays as the basis for a targeted risk management, respectively allows a risk-based classification and communication of the considered hazardous event in society [1, 2] (see also chapter [3] of this book). One of the most important and pervasive problems in this context concerns the investigation of time-scale properties and complex relationships between process activity, social development (exposure, protective measures, land use, etc.) and climate change. The correct understanding of the correlation structures governing observational time series might provide useful information on the dynamical features of natural hazard processes and on the dynamical mechanisms involved [4].
Steep headwater catchments typically provide the setting for such natural hazardous events because they are, besides being a drainage area for precipitation (see chapter [5] of this book), also sediment source zones of river systems, delivering significant volumes of sediment to the valley floor in highly dissected and coupled landscapes. As stated by [6], headwater catchments differ from down-stream reaches by their close coupling to hillslope processes, more temporal and spatial variation, and their need for different means of protection from land use. Especially processes, which are capable to relocate a considerable quantity of sediments, like bedload transport processes, debris floods or debris flows, often have tragic consequences on human settlements and infrastructures. Thus, for such hydrogeomorphic hazards the probability of occurrence and magnitude is beside the occurrence of critical rainfall events essentially a function of runoff and erosion which is, however, directly coupled to the protective effects of forested landscapes. In connection with frequently occurring natural hazard processes, protective forests, even if they currently only fulfill indirect protective effects, represent an essential factor in the risk reduction of natural hazard processes over long periods of time – on large potential natural hazard disposition areas. Today, about 30% of the forest area in Austria is assigned a protective function to avoid serious natural hazards, and according to the interim evaluation of the Austrian Forest Inventory, this share is increasing [7]. However, the same inventory data show that only half of such classified protective forests have a stable structure. The reasons for this are a significant aging of the Austrian protective forest stands due to a lack of natural regeneration and a lack of resistance to natural disturbances. This concerns climate-related forest disturbances such as forest fires, wind, and insect outbreaks, which will likely increase in the coming decades. Here, climate change can alter the frequency, intensity, duration and timing of such natural disturbances [8, 9]. Based on data of more than 10,000 torrent catchment areas in Austria [10], showed that natural disturbances increased the probability of torrential events in the last 32 years. With the expected increase of the global average surface temperature of 3–5°C by 2100, compared to the first decade of the 20th century, the spatial and temporal impact of climate change on forests represents an additional threat to the desired protective forest structures and thus to natural hazard management.
The aim of this research was to investigate the effects of climate-induced natural disturbance regimes (bark beetle or storm damage) on hydrogeological processes in forested alpine torrent catchments. Combining methods from forestry, hydrology and geotechnical engineering, an integral approach was chosen to analyze possible effects of natural disturbances on hydrogeomorphic hazards in the perspective of future protective forest developments. This work was carried out in the course of the project “PROTECTED” funded by the Austrian Climate Research Program. The chapter presents hydrological findings as well as a brief summary of geotechnical findings as described in [11].
To analyze the impact of future change, an ensemble of forest landscape simulations has been conducted in two steep headwater catchments located in the Stubai valley, Tyrol, Austria. With the “Innerer Lehnertalbach” (IL) and the “Äußere Lehnertalbach” (AL) two typical torrential catchments with high relief energy (Melton ratio for IL = 1.3; Melton ratio for AL = 1.2, cf. [12]) have been chosen. Both catchments are situated in ecoregion 1.2 (Subkontinentale Innenalpen-West), dominated by metamorphic lithologies (mainly Gneiss). They are a typical example of mountain forest ecosystems of the central Alps, dominated by Norway spruce (
Parameters | “Innerer Lehnertalbach” | “Äußerer Lehnertalbach” |
---|---|---|
Area [km2] | 4.8 | 1.3 |
Min. elevation [m a.s.l] | 1,043 | 1,037 |
Max. elevation [m a.s.l] | 2,094 | 2,480 |
Mean slope gradient [°] | 34 | 36 |
Forest cover [%] | 83 | 36 |
Catchment area characteristics of the “Innere-” and “Äußere Lehnertalbach”.
Duration [min] | Precipitation intensities [mm/h] | |
---|---|---|
“Innerer Lehnertalbach” | “Äußerer Lehnertalbach” | |
60 | 88.85 | 94.65 |
240 | 130.10 | 138.39 |
720 | 178.56 | 180.26 |
eHYD design precipitation values based on a 100-year recurrence interval for the selected catchments.
In order to cover the widest possible range of future climate scenarios, four different climate forecasts have been selected, based on three global models from the Irish Center for High-End Computing (ichec), the Pierre Simon Laplace Institute (ipsl) and the MetOffice Hadley Center (mohc). All three global models (ichec, ipsl, mohc) have been operated with the RCP 8.5 scenario – assuming a very high gain of energy (8.5 W/m2) caused by future climate change. The global model ichec, however, was additionally operated with a moderate, RCP 4.5, climate perspective (4.5 W/m2). The temperature and precipitation differences of the Eur-11 dataset for the period 2071–2100 compared to 1981–2010 are shown in Figure 1. All mean air temperatures increase in comparison to 1981–2010. Of the climate predictions used, only mohc8.5 shows negative precipitation trends. In addition to the climate forecast scenarios, forest landscape simulations are further driven by assuming no climate change and a future climate development aligned with historic climate data. This climate scenario is denoted as historic and results for the period from 1961 to 2015 from combined 1x1 km INCA and SPARTACUS, grid data of the Central Institute for Meteorology and Geodynamics (ZAMG) and observation series of ZAMG weather stations, as well as locally installed monitoring stations.
Used climate forecasts based on the EUR-11 dataset as average temperature and precipitation difference of the period 2071–2100 compared to 1981–2010 (summer).
For each of the climate forecast scenarios, forest landscape development was simulated for 200 years with the individual-based forest landscape and disturbance model (iLand) [13]. Disturbance events have been stochastically considered based on 20 replicates, while we considered the non-disturbance landscape to be based on one replicate. Further, all iLand simulations were additionally conducted with and without considering forest management activities. Thus, in total 210 landscape simulations have been performed.
Three precipitation events of varying duration (60 min, 240 min and 720 min) with a recurrence interval of 100 years have been defined, covering a wide range of information about the hydrological response of disturbances in forests. The design precipitation events result from the area-averaged, maximized precipitation (MaxModN, eHYD) of grid points close to the selected torrential catchments. Design precipitation probabilities of MaxMod are based on a simulation model calibrated with measured data and accounting for the topography. MaxModN gives precipitation values that are usually higher than those observed (Table 2).
The runoff simulations in the study area were performed with two, conceptually different, hydrological modeling approaches.
For the selected torrential catchments, like for nearly 96% of all torrential catchments in Austria, no information about past rainfall-runoff events exists. This is mainly because of the lack of continuous discharge measurements devices (water gauges). For this reason, runoff simulations have been performed with the precipitation/runoff (P/R) model ZEMOKOST [14] – an easy to apply event-based concept-model, specially developed for the application in small to medium-sized (< 100 km2) ungauged torrential catchments. The semi distributed model is based on a two-layer concept with a surface and a subsurface runoff module. ZEMOKOST needs the portions of surface runoff classes (RCconst) and surface roughness (
Runoff simulations have additionally been carried out with the physically based, grid-distributed hydrological program GEOtop 2.1. Such models account beside surface flow also for subsurface (or inter) flow and groundwater related effects, important phenomena when simulating soil erosion activity. In GEOtop, land use is made up of vegetation classes consisting of a non-arable and differently forested groups. The individual groups do not represent any particular tree species, but result from units of similar vegetation height, leaf area, canopy coverage and root depth, directly determined by iLand simulations. Surface runoff in the channel and along the hillslopes are determined by Manning’s empirical hydraulic approach. Since the runoff regime in forests is determined primarily by forest soil conditions, the interaction with the lithosphere is of high importance, described by soil physical parameters. In addition to the topographical data, pedological data add differences in depth, so-called horizons. Each type of soil consists of different soil horizons. Each soil horizon is characterized by its physical properties (soil texture data). The storage and conductivity of the individual horizons is given by the water content at wilting point, field capacity and saturation, as well as the conductivity at saturation and determined by means of pedotransfer functions proposed by [16] on their sand and clay content. The conductivity in the unsaturated soil matrix is calculated by van Genuchten values (α, n). Those values can be determined according to [17] by classifying the soil texture according to United States Department of Agriculture (USDA).
Finally, GEOtop runoff results have been validated with the runoff results proposed by ZEMOKOST, where it has been found that the drainage roughness has a significant impact. Figure 2 shows a calibration example of the “Äußere Lehnertalbach” for GEOtop simulations based on a sensitivity analyses of varying hydraulic roughness parameters (40 simulations), compared to ZEMOKOST simulations for a 100-year precipitation event of the duration levels 60, 240 and 720 min. The solid line corresponds to the calibrated GEOtop simulation.
Validation of GEOtop based on ZEMOKOST simulations for a 100-year precipitation event of the duration levels 60, 240 and 720 min at the “Äußere Lehnertalbach”. While the shaded area contains all simulated hydrographs, the solid line represents the hydrograph of the calibrated model.
For future runoff predictions of peak discharges, simulated with both hydrological models, varying land use conditions were provided by the pre-conducted number of iLand simulations of the selected catchments – resulting in multiple runoff simulation scenarios.
For future ZEMOKOST simulations the parameters RCconst and
GEOtop simulations have been based on the biosphere mapped via land use parameters. The land use is formed by vegetation classes, consisting of non-vegetated and differently forested groups. The individual groups do not represent a specific tree species, but result from units of similar vegetation height, soil roughness, leaf area, canopy cover and root depth, which were determined via iLand.
Simulations of the effect of forest disturbances on hillslope erosion processes are based on the results from the distributed runoff simulations of GEOtop in combination with an extended version of the Mohr-Coulomb soil stability model. The stability of each soil column – 1 m in depth with an area of 100 m2 – i.e. each cell in the study area, was subsequently estimated for each layer
where
where
where
The cohesion component of the resisting forces was estimated according to Eq. (4).
where
A detailed description of the geotechnical parameterization as well as the parametrization of root cohesion and vegetation weight can be found in [11].
The variability of the peak discharge, resulting from the presence of natural disturbances within the forested area, is given by the relative peak discharge change
From the 20 relative peak discharge change observations per climate scenarios, precipitation duration and time slices, the median
Figure 3 shows the relative peak discharge change for 50, 100, 150 and 200 years after simulation begin – stratified by the selected torrential catchments, historical based –, wettest (ipsl85) –, and driest (mohc85) climate scenarios as well as management and no management.
In each figure, the upper panel shows the change in peak discharge relative to the peak discharge without disturbances stratified by management and no management for 50, 100, 150 and 200 years after simulation begin. All discharge values are based on the pooled model results (ZEMOKOST and GEOtop). The symbol is located at the median, while the lower and upper end of the bar represent the 25. And 75. Percentile estimated from 20 repetitions. The lower panel shows the disturbed area relative to the total area occupied by forest for each year.
The results (Figure 3) do not permit any significant influence of natural disturbances on the runoff behavior in torrent catchment areas. Neither could a significant change in soil water content be observed for any of the future climate scenarios and disturbance induced simulated landscapes (c.f. Figure 4). However, positive trends describing an increase in runoff due to an increase in the disturbed forest area cannot be completely ruled out visually, i.e.: times with a high number of disturbances (supposing a critical size of disturbed area) apparently also cause an increase in runoff behavior during heavy precipitation events.
The influence on climate change scenarios on modeled slope stability criteria and the corresponding mobilized volume. Canopy disturbances influence the development of tree species and thus the existing apparent cohesion through the root system.
The results given refer to the mobilized volume, which is calculated for each cell and all climate scenarios individually as the cell-area times the unstable soil depth. The latter is defined as the height from the surface, of the considered cell, to the first soil layer whose factor of safety (
The lower landslide disposition for the warm and dry climate scenario (mohc8.5) may initially be contra-intuitive but can be explained by a closer look at the structural change of the forest stands. Regardless of the climate scenario or the time period, the share of heart and taproot systems is higher for forest stands with natural disturbances. While for the climate scenarios ihec4.5, ihec8.5 and ispl8.5 the share of trees with sinker root system increases over time, the share of trees with sinker root system decreases in the mohc8.5 scenario. This leads to an increase in slope stability due to a higher rooting depth and increased root cohesion. The results suggest that on steep slopes, stability due to disturbances can occur through a more rapid change in natural succession – especially when a change in climate leads to a change in tree species with a higher root cohesion capacity.
Forest disturbances which have a possible influence on natural hazard processes are understood to refer primarily to large-scale disturbances, i.e. disturbances which cause large-scale deforestation. After such large-scale disturbances, technical protection structures are very often installed as immediate measures to compensate for the loss of forest’s protective effects. Frequently recurring disturbances are often much smaller in relation to “catastrophic” large-scale disturbances and thus less in the awareness of natural hazard experts, but very much in the attention of forest experts. The canopy disturbance intensities modeled in this study affected less than 20% of the forested area of the considered catchments – somehow a critical size of disturbances regarding change in runoff regimes [18, 19, 20]. Although the runoff simulations do not permit clear quantifiable statements, it must be noted that such critical size of the natural disturbance is more likely to be reached in steep and small torrent basins especially in causing a change in runoff behavior. However, future research questions will most certainly address quantifying the size of a critical disturbance area, i.e., determining the area above which a significant impact on the hydrologic regime in steep torrent catchments would be evident. The influence of critical disturbances on slope stability showed, in a first moment, contra intuitive results, especially for the smallest and most densely forested investigation area. Here we have noticed an increase in slope stability with an increase in the disturbed area, significantly for the climate scenario with high temperatures in combination with lower precipitation (mohc 8.5). As trees exert a kind of cohesion on the soil layer due to their roots, the formation of the root system plays an important role regarding slope stability. However, the shape of the root system depends mainly on the tree species and the age. Both are subject to significant changes due to the influence of climate and the occurrence of natural disturbances and thus influence stability on steep forested slopes. In the Alpine region, the treatment of protective forests faces more than ever the challenges of sustainable and proactive management. While it is still too early to define general management strategies to maintain or improve the protective effect of forests in relation to runoff formation in the context of disturbances, it can be stated that scenarios of future climate projections suggest the targeted promotion of tree species with deep-root or heart-root systems as necessary, especially on landslide-prone sites.
The study was funded by the Austrian Climate Research Program PROTECTED (KR16AC0K13167). R.S. and W.R. further acknowledge support through the Austrian Science Fund (FWF) through START grant Y895-B25. We thank K. Albrich for help with data preparation for the simulations with iLand.
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
IntechOpen aims to guarantee that original material is published while at the same time giving significant freedom to our Authors. We uphold a flexible Copyright Policy, guaranteeing that there is no transfer of copyright to the publisher and Authors retain exclusive copyright to their Work.
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\\n\\nSubject to the following Article, the Author grants to IntechOpen, during the full term of copyright, and any extensions or renewals of that term, the following:
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\\n\\nThird Party Rights: A person who is not a party to this Publication Agreement may not enforce any of its provisions under the Contracts (Rights of Third Parties) Act 1999.
\\n\\nEntire Agreement: This Publication Agreement constitutes the entire agreement between the parties in relation to its subject matter. It replaces all prior agreements, draft agreements, arrangements, collateral warranties, collateral contracts, statements, assurances, representations and undertakings of any nature made by, or on behalf of, the parties, whether oral or written, in relation to that subject matter. Each party acknowledges that in entering into this Publication Agreement it has not relied upon any oral or written statements, collateral or other warranties, assurances, representations or undertakings which were made by or on behalf of the other party in relation to the subject matter of this Publication Agreement at any time before its signature (known as the "Pre-Contractual Statements"), other than those which are set out in this Publication Agreement. Each party hereby waives all rights and remedies which might otherwise be available to it in relation to such Pre-Contractual Statements. Nothing in this clause shall exclude or restrict the liability of either party arising out of any fraudulent pre-contract misrepresentation or concealment.
\\n\\nWaiver: No failure or delay by a party to exercise any right or remedy provided under this Publication Agreement or by law shall constitute a waiver of that or any other right or remedy, nor shall it preclude or restrict the further exercise of that or any other right or remedy. No single or partial exercise of such right or remedy shall preclude or restrict the further exercise of that or any other right or remedy.
\\n\\nVariation: No variation of this Publication Agreement shall have effect unless it is in writing and signed by the parties, or their duly authorized representatives.
\\n\\nSeverance: If any provision, or part-provision, of this Publication Agreement is, or becomes invalid, illegal or unenforceable, it shall be deemed modified to the minimum extent necessary to make it valid, legal and enforceable. If such modification is not possible, the relevant provision or part-provision shall be deemed deleted. Any modification to, or deletion of, a provision or part-provision under this clause shall not affect the validity and enforceability of the rest of this Publication Agreement.
\\n\\nNo partnership: Nothing in this Publication Agreement is intended to, or shall be deemed to, establish or create any partnership or joint venture or the relationship of principal and agent or employer and employee between IntechOpen and the Author or any Co-Author, nor authorize any party to make or enter into any commitments for, or on behalf of, any other party.
\\n\\nGoverning law: This Publication Agreement and any dispute or claim, including non-contractual disputes or claims arising out of, or in connection with it, or its subject matter or formation, shall be governed by and construed in accordance with the law of England and Wales. The parties submit to the exclusive jurisdiction of the English courts to settle any dispute or claim arising out of, or in connection with, this Publication Agreement, including any non-contractual disputes or claims.
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\n\nCORRESPONDING AUTHOR'S GRANT OF RIGHTS
\n\nSubject to the following Article, the Author grants to IntechOpen, during the full term of copyright, and any extensions or renewals of that term, the following:
\n\nThe foregoing licenses shall survive the expiry or termination of this Publication Agreement for any reason.
\n\nThe Author, on his or her own behalf and on behalf of any of the Co-Authors, reserves the following rights in the Work but agrees not to exercise them in such a way as to adversely affect IntechOpen's ability to utilize the full benefit of this Publication Agreement: (i) reprographic rights worldwide, other than those which subsist in the typographical arrangement of the Work as published by IntechOpen; and (ii) public lending rights arising under the Public Lending Right Act 1979, as amended from time to time, and any similar rights arising in any part of the world.
\n\nThe Author, and any Co-Author, confirms that they are, and will remain, a member of any applicable licensing and collecting society and any successor to that body responsible for administering royalties for the reprographic reproduction of copyright works.
\n\nSubject to the license granted above, copyright in the Work and all versions of it created during IntechOpen's editing process, including all published versions, is retained by the Author and any Co-Authors.
\n\nSubject to the license granted above, the Author and Co-Authors retain patent, trademark and other intellectual property rights to the Work.
\n\nAll rights granted to IntechOpen in this Article are assignable, sublicensable or otherwise transferrable to third parties without the specific approval of the Author or Co-Authors.
\n\nThe Author, on his/her own behalf and on behalf of the Co-Authors, will not assert any rights under the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 to object to derogatory treatment of the Work as a consequence of IntechOpen's changes to the Work arising from the translation of it, corrections and edits for house style, removal of problematic material and other reasonable edits as determined by IntechOpen.
\n\nAUTHOR'S DUTIES
\n\nWhen distributing or re-publishing the Work, the Author agrees to credit the Monograph/Compacts as the source of first publication, as well as IntechOpen. The Author guarantees that Co-Authors will also credit the Monograph/Compacts as the source of first publication, as well as IntechOpen, when they are distributing or re-publishing the Work.
\n\nThe Author agrees to:
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\n\nAll payments shall be due 30 days from the date of issue of the invoice. The Author or whoever is paying on behalf of the Author and Co-Authors will bear all banking and similar charges incurred.
\n\nThe Author shall obtain in writing all consents necessary for the reproduction of any material in which a third-party right exists, including quotations, photographs and illustrations, in all editions of the Work worldwide for the full term of the above licenses, and shall provide to IntechOpen, at its request, the original copies of such consents for inspection or the photocopies of such consents.
\n\nThe Author shall obtain written informed consent for publication from those who might recognize themselves or be identified by others, for example from case reports or photographs.
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\n\nThe Author and Co-Authors confirm that: (i) the Work is their original work and is not copied wholly or substantially from any other work or material or any other source; (ii) the Work has not been formally published in any other peer-reviewed journal or in a book or edited collection, and is not under consideration for any such publication; (iii) Authors and any applicable Co-Authors are qualifying persons under section 154 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988; (iv) Authors and any applicable Co-Authors have not assigned, and will not during the term of this Publication Agreement purport to assign, any of the rights granted to IntechOpen under this Publication Agreement; and (v) the rights granted by this Publication Agreement are free from any security interest, option, mortgage, charge or lien.
\n\nThe Author and Co-Authors also confirm and warrant that: (i) he/she has the power to enter into this Publication Agreement on his or her own behalf and on behalf of each Co-Author; and (ii) has the necessary rights and/or title in and to the Work to grant IntechOpen, on behalf of themselves and any Co-Author, the rights and licences in this Publication Agreement. If the Work was prepared jointly by the Author and Co-Authors, the Author confirms that: (i) all Co-Authors agree to the submission, license and publication of the Work on the terms of this Publication Agreement; and (ii) the Author has the authority to enter into this biding Publication Agreement on behalf of each Co-Author. The Author shall: (i) ensure each Co-Author complies with all relevant provisions of this Publication Agreement, including those relating to confidentiality, performance and standards, as if a party to this Publication Agreement; and (ii) remain primarily liable for all acts and/or omissions of each Co-Author.
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\n\nIntechOpen is granted the authority to enforce the rights from this Publication Agreement on behalf of the Author and Co-Authors against third parties, for example in cases of plagiarism or copyright infringements. In respect of any such infringement or suspected infringement of the copyright in the Work, IntechOpen shall have absolute discretion in addressing any such infringement that is likely to affect IntechOpen's rights under this Publication Agreement, including issuing and conducting proceedings against the suspected infringer.
\n\nIntechOpen has the right to include/use the Author and Co-Authors names and likeness in connection with scientific dissemination, retrieval, archiving, web hosting and promotion and marketing of the Work and has the right to contact the Author and Co-Authors until the Work is publicly available on any platform owned and/or operated by IntechOpen.
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\n\nFurther Assurance: The Author shall ensure that any relevant third party, including any Co-Author, shall execute and deliver whatever further documents or deeds and perform such acts as IntechOpen reasonably requires from time to time for the purpose of giving IntechOpen the full benefit of the provisions of this Publication Agreement.
\n\nThird Party Rights: A person who is not a party to this Publication Agreement may not enforce any of its provisions under the Contracts (Rights of Third Parties) Act 1999.
\n\nEntire Agreement: This Publication Agreement constitutes the entire agreement between the parties in relation to its subject matter. It replaces all prior agreements, draft agreements, arrangements, collateral warranties, collateral contracts, statements, assurances, representations and undertakings of any nature made by, or on behalf of, the parties, whether oral or written, in relation to that subject matter. Each party acknowledges that in entering into this Publication Agreement it has not relied upon any oral or written statements, collateral or other warranties, assurances, representations or undertakings which were made by or on behalf of the other party in relation to the subject matter of this Publication Agreement at any time before its signature (known as the "Pre-Contractual Statements"), other than those which are set out in this Publication Agreement. Each party hereby waives all rights and remedies which might otherwise be available to it in relation to such Pre-Contractual Statements. Nothing in this clause shall exclude or restrict the liability of either party arising out of any fraudulent pre-contract misrepresentation or concealment.
\n\nWaiver: No failure or delay by a party to exercise any right or remedy provided under this Publication Agreement or by law shall constitute a waiver of that or any other right or remedy, nor shall it preclude or restrict the further exercise of that or any other right or remedy. No single or partial exercise of such right or remedy shall preclude or restrict the further exercise of that or any other right or remedy.
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\n\nSeverance: If any provision, or part-provision, of this Publication Agreement is, or becomes invalid, illegal or unenforceable, it shall be deemed modified to the minimum extent necessary to make it valid, legal and enforceable. If such modification is not possible, the relevant provision or part-provision shall be deemed deleted. Any modification to, or deletion of, a provision or part-provision under this clause shall not affect the validity and enforceability of the rest of this Publication Agreement.
\n\nNo partnership: Nothing in this Publication Agreement is intended to, or shall be deemed to, establish or create any partnership or joint venture or the relationship of principal and agent or employer and employee between IntechOpen and the Author or any Co-Author, nor authorize any party to make or enter into any commitments for, or on behalf of, any other party.
\n\nGoverning law: This Publication Agreement and any dispute or claim, including non-contractual disputes or claims arising out of, or in connection with it, or its subject matter or formation, shall be governed by and construed in accordance with the law of England and Wales. The parties submit to the exclusive jurisdiction of the English courts to settle any dispute or claim arising out of, or in connection with, this Publication Agreement, including any non-contractual disputes or claims.
\n\nPolicy last updated: 2018-09-11
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On September, 29th 2006 he has won a post PhD fellowship from the university of Bologna (from October 2006 to October 2008), at the competitive examination he was ranked first in the industrial engineering area. He extensively served as referee for several international journals. He is author/coauthor of more than 100 research papers. He has been involved in some projects supported by MURST and European Community. His research interests include pattern recognition, bioinformatics, and biometric systems (fingerprint classification and recognition, signature verification, face recognition).",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"496",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Leon",slug:"carlos-leon",fullName:"Carlos Leon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Seville",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"512",title:"Dr.",name:"Dayang",middleName:null,surname:"Jawawi",slug:"dayang-jawawi",fullName:"Dayang Jawawi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Technology Malaysia",country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"528",title:"Dr.",name:"Kresimir",middleName:null,surname:"Delac",slug:"kresimir-delac",fullName:"Kresimir Delac",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/528/images/system/528.jpg",biography:"K. 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Contraception should be vigorously promoted in SSA not only for its demographic dividends but also on socio-economic and health grounds and the attainment of sustainable development goals (SDGs).",book:{id:"6142",slug:"family-planning",title:"Family Planning",fullTitle:"Family Planning"},signatures:"Alhaji A Aliyu",authors:[{id:"217688",title:"Prof.",name:"Alhaji A",middleName:null,surname:"Aliyu",slug:"alhaji-a-aliyu",fullName:"Alhaji A Aliyu"}]},{id:"61630",title:"Introductory Chapter: Family Planning",slug:"introductory-chapter-family-planning",totalDownloads:1041,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:null,book:{id:"6142",slug:"family-planning",title:"Family Planning",fullTitle:"Family Planning"},signatures:"Zouhair Amarin",authors:[{id:"101551",title:"Prof.",name:"Zouhair",middleName:null,surname:"Amarin",slug:"zouhair-amarin",fullName:"Zouhair Amarin"}]},{id:"52171",title:"β-Thalassemia: Genotypes and Phenotypes",slug:"-thalassemia-genotypes-and-phenotypes",totalDownloads:2443,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"β-Thalassemias are extremely heterogeneous at the molecular level. More than 200 disease-causing mutations have been identified. The majority of mutations are single nucleotide substitutions. Rarely, β-thalassemia results from gross gene deletion. The degree of globin chain imbalance is determined by the nature of the mutation of the β-gene. β0 refers to the complete absence of production of β-globin on the affected allele. β+ refers to alleles with some residual production of β-globin (around 10%). In β++, the reduction in β-globin production is very mild. The broad spectrum of β-thalassemia alleles can produce a wide spectrum of different β-thalassemia phenotypes. In this chapter, we review the molecular basis of the marked heterogeneity of the thalassemia syndromes or in other words the genotype-phenotype relationship in β-thalassemia.",book:{id:"5287",slug:"epidemiology-of-communicable-and-non-communicable-diseases-attributes-of-lifestyle-and-nature-on-humankind",title:"Epidemiology of Communicable and Non-Communicable Diseases",fullTitle:"Epidemiology of Communicable and Non-Communicable Diseases - Attributes of Lifestyle and Nature on Humankind"},signatures:"Tamer Hassan, Mohamed Badr, Usama El Safy, Mervat Hesham,\nLaila Sherief and Marwa Zakaria",authors:[{id:"106463",title:"Prof.",name:"Tamer",middleName:null,surname:"Hassan",slug:"tamer-hassan",fullName:"Tamer Hassan"},{id:"110940",title:"Prof.",name:"Laila",middleName:null,surname:"Sherief",slug:"laila-sherief",fullName:"Laila Sherief"},{id:"174733",title:"Dr.",name:"Usama",middleName:null,surname:"El Safy",slug:"usama-el-safy",fullName:"Usama El Safy"},{id:"187306",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohamed",middleName:null,surname:"Badr",slug:"mohamed-badr",fullName:"Mohamed Badr"},{id:"187544",title:"Prof.",name:"Mervat",middleName:null,surname:"Hesham",slug:"mervat-hesham",fullName:"Mervat Hesham"},{id:"187545",title:"Prof.",name:"Marwa",middleName:null,surname:"Zakaria",slug:"marwa-zakaria",fullName:"Marwa Zakaria"}]},{id:"51773",title:"The Epidemiological, Morphological, and Clinical Aspects of the Aberrant Right Subclavian Artery (Arteria Lusoria)",slug:"the-epidemiological-morphological-and-clinical-aspects-of-the-aberrant-right-subclavian-artery-arter",totalDownloads:1877,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:5,abstract:"The most common embryologic abnormality of the aortic arch is aberrant right subclavian artery (ARSA), known clinically as arteria lusoria (AL). This vessel travels to the right arm, crossing the middle line of the body and usually passing behind the esophagus. If the artery compresses the esophagus, it may produce a condition called dysphagia lusoria. Another commonly reported symptoms related to compression of adjacent structures by arteria lusoria were dyspnea, retrosternal pain, cough, and weight loss greater than 10 kg over a 6-month period. The chapter includes information describing demographic, clinical, and morphological characteristics of presence of arteria lusoria such as gender distribution, frequency in population, frequency of the most commonly reported symptoms related to compression of adjacent structures, coexistence with the most common vascular anomalies and diagnostic procedures. The presence of arteria lusoria together with the right nonrecurrent inferior laryngeal nerve (NRILN) is especially clinically important; during thyroid surgery, the right laryngeal nerve cannot be found at the lower pole of the thyroid, and it may be injured by the surgeon if it is not identified in the aberrant area or found lateral to the thyroid.",book:{id:"5287",slug:"epidemiology-of-communicable-and-non-communicable-diseases-attributes-of-lifestyle-and-nature-on-humankind",title:"Epidemiology of Communicable and Non-Communicable Diseases",fullTitle:"Epidemiology of Communicable and Non-Communicable Diseases - Attributes of Lifestyle and Nature on Humankind"},signatures:"Michał Polguj, Ludomir Stefańczyk and Mirosław Topol",authors:[{id:"182164",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Michał",middleName:null,surname:"Polguj",slug:"michal-polguj",fullName:"Michał Polguj"},{id:"183200",title:"Prof.",name:"Ludomir",middleName:null,surname:"Stefańczyk",slug:"ludomir-stefanczyk",fullName:"Ludomir Stefańczyk"},{id:"183201",title:"Prof.",name:"Mirosław",middleName:null,surname:"Topol",slug:"miroslaw-topol",fullName:"Mirosław Topol"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"1134",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:89,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:104,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:31,numberOfPublishedChapters:314,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:11,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:141,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:113,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:105,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:18,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:5,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:14,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}},{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",issn:null,scope:"\r\n\tThe environment is subject to severe anthropic effects. 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